A.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS (IMs for BASIC PRINCIPLES in MATERIALS

Teaching Language) DEVELOPMENT (Tomlinson, 1998)
 Instructional materials may be operationally  Materials should achieve impact.
defined as especially designed classroom  Materials should help learners to feel at
tools which contain instructions to learners ease.
and teachers, and which specify each  Materials should help learners to develop
increment of learning: the content to be confidence.
learned; the techniques of presentation;  What is being taught should be perceived
practice and use of that content; and the by learners as relevant and useful.
modes of teaching associated with those  Materials should require and facilitate
techniques (Johnson, RELC Journal) learner self-investment.
 Instructional materials generally serve as  Learners must be ready to acquire the
the basis for much of the language input points being taught.
learners receive and the language practice  Materials should expose the learners to
that occurs in the classroom (Richards) language in authentic use.
 IMs are an important element within the  The learners’ attention should be drawn to
curriculum and are often the most tangible linguistic features of the input.
and visible aspect of it (Nunan, 1991)  Materials should provide the learners with
 They can provide a detailed specification of opportunities to use the target language to
content, even in the absence of the syllabus achieve communicative competence.
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986).  Materials should take into account that the
 They can define the goals of the syllabus, positive effects of instruction are usually
and the roles of the teachers and the delayed.
learner within the instructional process  Materials should take into account that
(Wright, 1987) learners differ in learning styles.
 Materials should take into account that
Role of Instructional Materials
learners differ in affective attitudes.
Cunningsworth (1995) summarizes the role of
 Materials should permit a silent period at the
materials (particularly course books) in
beginning of instruction.
language teaching as a:
 Materials should maximize learning
 resource for presentation materials
potential by encouraging intellectual,
 source of activities for learner practice and
aesthetic and emotional involvement which
communicative interaction
stimulates both right and left brain activities.
 reference source for learners on grammar,
 Materials should not rely too much on
vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.
controlled practice.
 source of stimulation and ideas for  Materials should provide opportunities for
classroom activities outcome feedback.
 syllabus (where they reflect learning
objectives which have already been BENEFITS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
determined) Teachers
 support for less experienced teachers who  Provide materials for presentation of new
have yet to gain in confidence in the items for reinforcement, consolidation, and
language classroom. practice
 Provide materials for teaching particular
Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) suggest that
skills, particular areas of languages, and
for teachers of ESP courses, materials serve
other special difficulties
the following functions:
 As a source of language
 Guide the teacher on the methods and
techniques in introducing the lessons and
 As a learning support
the series of exercises for teaching the
 For motivation and stimulation concepts
 For reference

Preparation & Evaluation of IM 1

 Give them more opportunity to make the  Combines the features of the
best use of their time and skills to do more textbooks and workbooks
real teaching  Provides teaching points like those
in the textbook
Students  Reinforces the teaching points with
 Concretize the syllabus many drills and exercises just like
 Opportunity for individual work in or outside those that contain an A-Z or practical
the classroom suggestions for teaching
 Follow a course of study with little help from
teachers 5. Module and Self-Learning kit (SLK)
 More interactive than the other types
TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS of written IMs that appear in the
1. Textbook workbook
 Main reference for the entire course  Develops independent study through
 Usually chosen by the school self-paced instruction
 Reflects the minimum learning  Contains post-test, pre-test, lesson
competencies for specific levels inputs, exercises and drills –
 Arranged in units or chapters which provisions for self-paced learning
can be labeled according to themes, 6. Reference Book
topics, skills, grammar structures or  Provides general information on
functions depending on the syllabus various topics
type followed.  Includes encyclopedia, dictionary,
 Contains readings, teaching points, atlas, manuals, etc.
drills, activities, and tasks for every
day lessons 7. Multimedia Instructional materials
 Audio and Visual materials
2. Workbook / Skillbook accessible through various media
 Usually accompanies the textbook like radio, television and the
 Provides exercises and drills on computer
specific skills in listening, speaking,  Also includes interactive courseware
reading and writing on various topics
 Presents reinforcement and
remedial activities to support lessons FACTORS AFFECTING MATERIALS
in the textbooks PREPARATION
1. The curriculum, syllabus, and learning
3. Teacher’s Book/ Teacher’s Manual / competencies
Teacher’s Guide 2. Learners’ learning styles, aptitudes,
 Contains a detailed rationale for proficiency
textbook 3. Pedagogical principles held by the
 Explain the scope and the sequence teachers
for the lessons 4. Societal demands
 Includes introductory notes on how
to use the textbooks, specific
objectives for each lessons and
suggested strategies for teaching
the lessons
 Provides guidance in planning the
lessons from materials to suggested
activities

4. Work Text

Preparation & Evaluation of IM 2

FRAMEWORKS OF MATERIALS AND METHODS

LEARNERS

CONTEXT IMPLEMENTATION OF GOALS

EDUCATIONAL
SETTING
SYLLABUS CONSTRUCTION

McDonough and Shaw (2000) present the following

framework for materials and methods. The
framework reveals that materials and methods
cannot be seen in isolation but are embedded within
a broader professional context. MATERIALS, CLASSROOM
METHODS (lessons, tests…)

Contextual Factors
However, a syllabus can also be seen as a
1. Learner factors- age, interests, level of "summary of the content to which learners will be
proficiency in English, aptitude, mother exposed" (Yalden.1987: 87). It is seen as an
tongue, academic and educational level, approximation of what will be taught and that it
attitudes in learning, motivation, reasons for cannot accurately predict what will be learnt.
learning, preferred learning styles, and
personality Syllabus is the overall organizing principle for what
is to be taught and learned. It is the way in which
2. Setting- role of English in the country; role content is organized and broken down into a set of
of English in the school; management and teachable and learnable units, and will include
administration; resources available; support considerations on pacing, sequencing and grading
personnel; the number of pupils; time items’ methods of presentation and practice, etc.
available for the program; physical
environment; the socio-cultural Syllabus inventory is a list of the content to be
environment; types of tests to be used; and covered in the language program much like a
procedures for monitoring and evaluating. content outline.
Richards and Rodgers (1986) presents a useful
A syllabus is an expression of opinion on the framework for the comparison of the language
nature of language and learning; it acts as a guide teaching methods which illustrates the place of
for both teacher and learner by providing some syllabus in the program planning. The Model has
goals to be attained. Hutchinson and Waters three levels: approach, design and procedure.
(1987:80) define syllabus as ‘at its simplest level a  Approach refers to the views and beliefs or
syllabus can be described as a statement of what is theories of language and language learning
to be learnt. It reflects language and linguistic on which planning is based.
performance.’  Design converts the principles in the fist
level (approach) into more practical aspects
This is a rather traditional interpretation of syllabus of syllabus and instructional materials.
focusing as it does on outcomes rather than on  Procedure refers to the techniques and
process. management of the classroom itself.

Preparation & Evaluation of IM 3

Types of Syllabus (Reilley) main focus in a syllabus. "Language functions do
Although six different types of language teaching not usually occur in isolation" and there are also
syllabi are treated here as though each occurred difficulties in selecting and grading function and
“purely,” in practice, these types rarely occur form. Clearly, the task of deciding whether a given
independently of each other. Almost all actual function (i.e. persuading), is easier or more difficult
language-teaching syllabi are combination of two or than another (i.e. approving), makes the task
more of the types. The characteristics, differences, harder to approach.
strengths, and weaknesses of individual syllabi are
defined as follows: 3. Situational syllabus
 The content of the language teaching is a
1. Structural (formal) Syllabus collection of real or imaginary situations in
 The content of language teaching is a which language occurs or is used. A
collection of the forms and structures, situation usually involves several
usually grammatical, of the language being participants who are engaged in some
taught. activity in a specific meeting.
 Examples include nouns, verbs, adjectives,  The language occurring in the situation
statements, questions, subordinate clauses, involves a number of functions, combined
and so on. into a plausible segment of discourse.
Issue/Criticism: One problem facing the syllabus  The primary purpose of a situational
designer pursuing a grammatical order to language-teaching syllabus is to teach the
sequencing input is that the ties connecting the language that occurs in the specific
structural items maybe rather feeble. A more situations.
fundamental criticism is that the grammatical  Examples of the situations include seeing
syllabus focuses on only one aspect of language: the dentist, complaining to the landlord,
the grammar; however in truth there exist many buying a book, meeting a new student, and
more aspects to be considered in language. Recent so on.
corpus based research suggest there is a
divergence between the grammar of the spoken 4. A skill-based syllabus
and of the written language, raising implications for  The content of the language teaching is a
the grading of content in grammar - based collection of specific abilities that may play a
syllabuses. part using language.
 Skills are things that people must be able to
2. A notional/ functional syllabus do to be competent in a language, relatively
 The content of the language teaching is a independent of the situation or setting in
collection of the functions that are which the language use can occur. While
performed when language is used, or of the the situational syllabi group functions
notions that a language is used to express together into specific settings of the
 Examples of the functions includes: language use, skill-based syllabi group
informing, agreeing, apologizing, linguistic competencies (pronunciation,
requesting; examples of notions includes vocabulary, grammar, and discourse)
age, size, color, comparison, time, and so together into generalized types of behavior,
on. such as listening to spoken language for
main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs,
Issue/Criticism: In order to establish objectives, giving effective oral presentations, and so
the needs of the learners will have to be analyzed on.
by the various types of communication in which the  The primary purpose of the skill-based
learner has to confront. Consequently, needs instruction is to learn specific language
analysis has an association with notional-functional skills.
syllabuses. Although needs analysis implies a focus  A possible secondary purpose is to develop
on the learner, critics of this approach suggest that more general competence in the language,
a new list has replaced the old one. Where once learning only incidentally any information
structural/situational items were used, a new list that may be available while applying the
consisting of notions and functions has become the language skills.
Preparation & Evaluation of IM 4
5. A task-based syllabus learn, possibly with linguistic adjustment to
 The content of the teaching is a series of make science more comprehensible.
complex and purposeful tasks that the
student wants or need to perform with the Syllabus Designs
language they are learning.  Multi-syllabus
 The tasks are defined as activities with a  Lexical
purpose other than language learning, but,  Process
as in the content-based syllabus, the Many would have a primary and secondary
performance of the tasks is approached in organizing principle like:
a way intended to develop second At the bank: question forms
language ability. At a garage: imperatives
 Tasks integrate language (and other) skills At a hotel: present perfect
in specific settings of the language.
 Task-based teaching differs from situation- FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN WRITING IMs
based teaching in that while situational (ORNSTEIN)
teaching has the goal of teaching the 1. Understanding requires matching the
specific language content that occurs in the materials to the learners’ abilities and prior
situation (pre-defined products), task-based knowledge. If students do not understand
teaching has the goal of teaching students the materials, frustration sets in, making
to draw on resources to complete some learning more difficult. The teacher/writer
piece of work (a process). The students must know whether the materials are suited
draw on a variety of language forms, to the level of the students and whether they
functions, and skills often in an individual will understand those. Thus, the
and unpredictable way, in completing the teacher/writer must provide for background
tasks. lessons and check-up activities and
 Tasks can be used for language learning exercises to assess students’
are, generally, tasks that the learners understanding. This is especially important
actually have to perform in real life. for younger and slower students and when
Examples include: Applying for a job, introducing new concepts.
talking with a social worker, getting housing 2. Structuring /Clarifying involves organizing
information over the telephone, and so on. the material so that it is clear to the
students. It is especially important when
6. A content-based syllabus new subject matter is introduced, and when
 The primary purpose of the instruction is to it is being linked to the previous lessons.
teach some content or information using the  Directions, objectives, and main ideas
language that the students are also are stated clearly. Internal and final
learning. summaries cover the content.
 The students are simultaneously language  Transition between main ideas is
students and students of whatever content smooth and well integrated.
is being taught.  Writing is not vague.
 The subject matter is primary, and the  Sufficient examples are provided.
language learning occurs incidentally to the  New terms are defined
content learning. The content teaching is not  Adequate practice and review
organized around the language teaching, assignments reinforce new learning.
but vice-versa.
 Content-based language teaching is 3. Sequencing refers to the arrangement of
concerned with information, while task- the materials to provide for continuous and
based language teaching is concerned with cumulative learning where complex
communicative and cognitive processes. concepts are taken only after prerequisite
 An example of content-based language skills and concepts have been mastered.
teaching is a science class taught in the There are four basic ways of sequencing a
language the students need or want to material:
 Simple to complex
Preparation & Evaluation of IM 5
  Parts to whole to provide in the textbook opportunities for
 Whole to parts students to transform information to one
 Chronological arrangements form to another, and to apply new
information to new knowledge – by using
4. Balancing materials require establishing various techniques such as comparing and
vertical and horizontal balance or contrasting, drawing inferences,
relationships. Vertical relationships refer paraphrasing, summarizing and predicting.
to a building of content and experiences in A series of elaboration strategies help
the lesson, unit and course level. Fourth students learn new materials. The author
grade language concepts build on third must provide students with a broad list of
grade concepts; the second unit plan builds questions (of comparing and contrasting,
on the first, etc. Horizontal relationships drawing, analogies, etc.)
establish a multidisciplinary and unified view
of different subjects; for example the content 9. Transfer of Learning may be done in a
of the social studies course is related to number of ways. Transfer of learning maybe
English and science. concept-related, inquiry-related, learner or
utilization-related. The first two organizers
5. Explaining refers to the way headings, seem to work best with intrinsically
terms, illustrations, and summary exercises motivated students and the second two best
are integrated with the content. Does the with student who needs to be extrinsically
example illustrate major concepts? Are the motivated. Since most students need some
major ideas identified in the chapter extrinsic motivation, learner-related and
objectives and overview? Do the headings utilization-related materials will be more
outline a logical development of content? effective with majority of students.
Do the materials show relationships among  Concept-related, drawing heavily on
topics, events, facts to present an in-depth structure of knowledge, the concepts,
view of major concepts? The students principles, or the theories of the subject.
should be able to discover important  Inquiry-related, derived from critical
concepts and information and relate new thinking skills and procedures employed
knowledge on their own through the by learning theorists or scholars in the
materials. field.
 Learner-related, related to the needs,
6. Pacing refers to how much and how quickly interest or experiences of the students.
the lessons in the textbooks are presented.  Utilization-related -show how people can
The volume or length of the materials use or proceed with them in real life
should not overwhelm students, but there situations.
must be enough to have an effect. As
students get older, the amount of materials
can increase, the presentation can be
longer and more complex and the breadth
and depth can be expanded.

7. Reviewing refers to the extent to which the

material allows students to link new ideas to
old concepts in the form of a review. High-
achieving and older students can tolerate
more rapid pacing than low-achieving and
younger students, thus less proficient
learners would need more review or linking
than the more proficient ones.

8. Elaborating ensures that students learn

better through a variety of ways. The idea is
Preparation & Evaluation of IM 6
PRINCIPLES IN MATERIALS DESIGN (NUNAN,
1988)

Materials should be clearly linked to the curriculum

they serve. The curriculum cycle below illustrates
the three phases of the curriculum development

PHASE 1 PHASE 2
Curriculum Planning Curriculum Implementation
Identify learner needs Instruct learners
Set goals and objectives Monitor and adapt instruction
Write Materials Write supplementary materials
Write tests

PHASE 3
Curriculum Evaluation
Test learners
Evaluate curriculum
Plan changes in the curriculum

Authentic versus created materials

 Authentic materials refer to the use in  They relate more closely to learners’
teaching of texts, e.g. photographs, video needs and hence provide a link between
selections and other teaching resources, the classroom and students’ needs in the
that were not specially prepared for real world.
pedagogic purposes.  They support a more creative approach
 Created materials refer to textbooks and to teaching. Teachers can develop their full
other specially developed instructional potentials as teachers, developing activities
resources. and tasks that better match their teaching
Advantages claimed for authentic materials are styles and the learning styles of students.
(Phillips and Shettlesworth, 1978; Clarke,
1989; Peacock, 1997): However, critics of the use of authentic
materials point out that:
 They have a positive effect on learner
motivation because they are intrinsically  created materials can also be motivating
more interesting and motivating than for learners. Published materials are often
created materials. There is a huge source of designed to look like teenage magazines
authentic materials for language learning in and other kinds of real-world materials and
the media and on the web, and these relate may be just as interesting and motivating for
closely to the interests of many language learners.
learners.  authentic materials often contain difficult
 They provide authentic cultural language and unneeded vocabulary
information about the target culture. items. Since they have not been simplified
Materials can be selected to illustrate many or written based on any lexical or linguistic
aspects of target culture, including guidelines, they often contain language that
culturally-based practices and beliefs and may be beyond the learners’ abilities.
both linguistic and non-linguistic behaviour.  created materials may be superior to
 They provide exposure to real language authentic materials because they are
rather than the artificial texts found in generally built around a graded syllabus,
created materials, that have been specially and hence provide a systematic coverage of
written to illustrate particular grammatical teaching items.
rules or discourse types.

Preparation & Evaluation of IM 7

  using authentic materials is a burden for management associated with the
teachers. In order to develop learning learning of the content
resources around authentic materials,  Format of the materials including
teachers have to be prepared to spend a how learning units are divided
considerable amount of time locating  Technical details for the writing of
suitable sources for materials and the materials
developing activities and exercises to 3. Developmental Phase
accompany the materials. a) Writing the experimental
materials
DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND DISSEMINATION b) Internal evaluation of materials
OF MATERIALS c) Controlled tryout
1. Design Phase 4. Dissemination Phase
a. Accumulated experience – the a) Extensive use of the new IM
writer reviews or surveys existing b) Field evaluation of the IM
materials which can give useful
information about the demands and GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING MATERIALS
the needs in the field. The following guidelines were based on the final
b. Rationale for the design – report of the 5th sub-regional workshop on the
identifies the shortcomings of development of basic literacy learning materials for
existing materials to ensure that ‘un-reached’ population in South Asia (1998)
such short comings are not
repeated in the present material. 1. Needs Assessment – Surveys and
c. Conceptual Framework – identifies the concerns of the target learners
combines major and minor concepts because the objectives of the materials
regarding language learning, should be carefully drafted based on the
language teaching theories, and interests, problems, and need of the target
materials design principles upon learners
which the material is anchored.
2. Development of curriculum grid – Helps
Major concepts refer to the overall principles of materials developers and teachers to know
second/foreign language learning and teaching learners’ needs and to decide on the
will affect every aspect of the design of the content and the level of materials to be
instructional materials. produced.
a. Goals of national literacy program
Minor concepts refer to the following: b. Core content based on national
 Organization of languages concerns
skills to be taught: c. Locally relevant content based on
 Selection, gradation and the identified needs of the learners
arrangement of content: d. Prescribed levels in the three Rs
 Methodology associated with e. Levels of literacy skills of learners
the acquisition of these skills:
 Organization for the 3. Selection of themes
development and dissemination of the 4. Setting up objectives
materials. 5. Deciding on the format
a. Considerations
2. Detailed writing of the specification for the  Age group
new materials – the specification includes:  Location in which the IM is to
 Goals of the materials be used
 Subject matter, language content to  Literacy level of target
be covered, and the skills to be clientele
acquired through the content:  Cost of development and use
 Techniques and modes of of the material
presentation, practice, use and
Preparation & Evaluation of IM 8
  Ability of the teachers to 2. Internal Evaluation covers
utilize the material an in- depth investigation of the value of the
 Type of role that the material material in relation to its objectives, principles,
plays (i.e. motivational, lesson design, and assessment procedures.
instructional, awareness At this stage, the evaluator analyzes the
building, informative, etc.) extent to which claims in the introduction and
b. Various formats blurbs actually match up with the internal
1. Written (e.g. booklet, consistency and organization of the materials.
flashcards, flip chart, posters, In order to perform effective internal
comics, games, wall papers) evaluation of the material, at least two units of
2. Electronic media (e.g. audio a book or a set of materials need to be
tapes like songs, dramas, inspected. The following information may be
talks, speeches, analyzed:
announcements, broadcasts:  Presentation of the skills in the
video presentation: radio and material
television program, etc.)  Grading and sequencing of skills
3. Interactive formats (e.g.  Authentic or artificial recordings
CDcourseware, web-based  Authentic or artificial dialogues for
courses, on-line hyperlinks) speaking
 Relationships of tests and exercises
6. Selection and arrangement of content to learner needs and course content
7. Titles and captions  Provisions for different learning
8. Scriptwriting styles and self-study.
a. Script expressions, inclusive  Motivation for the learners
language
b. Short sentences 3. Overall Evaluation analyzes
c. Illustration the value of the material in relation to its
d. Local language flavor usability, generalizability, adaptability and
e. Reading flow flexibility.
f. Attractive layout
 Usability – How far could the
material be integrated into a
9. Illustrations (balanced and inclusive)
particular syllabus as ‘core’ or as
10. Editing
supplementary material?
 Generalizability – How much of the
MATERIALS EVALUATION
material could be used by the
1. External Evaluation aims to
individual or by a group of people?
examine the organization of the material as
stated explicitly by the author of the publisher.  Adaptability – Can parts be
This type of evaluation analyzes what the added/extracted/ used in another
“book tells about itself” by looking at the ad context or modified for local
blurb, the introduction, and table of contents. circumstances?
Through external evaluation, information on  Flexibility – How rigid are the
the following may be called: sequencing and grading? Can the
 Intended audience material be used in different ways?
Can they be entered in different
 Proficiency level
parts?
 Context in which the materials are to
be used
ADAPTING MATERIALS
 Organization into teachable units Reasons for Adapting Materials
 Date of publication Instructional materials should generally be
 Author’s view on language learning authentic and communicative, and even if they are
and teaching already nearly perfect, adaptation of materials
 Publisher

Preparation & Evaluation of IM 9

nevertheless happens. Here are some reasons for 1. Adaptation can be seen as a kind of
materials adaptation. matching process or ‘congruence’ where
 Not enough grammar coverage in general techniques are selected according to the
 Not enough practice of grammar points of aspect of the material that needs alteration.
particular difficulty to learners 2. Content can be adapted using a range of
 The communicative focus means that techniques; or conversely, a single content
grammar is presented unsystematically technique can be applied to different content
 Reading passages contain too much areas.
unknown vocabulary 3. Adaptation can have both quantitative and
 Comprehension questions are too easy, qualitative effects.
because they sound too much like written 4. Techniques can be used individually or in
material being read out combination with others.
 Not enough guidance on pronunciation ADAPTING TEXTBOOKS
Most teachers are not creators of teaching
 Subject matter inappropriate for learners for
materials but providers of good materials. Dudley-
a particular age and intellectual level
Evans and St. John (1988) suggest that a good
 Photographs and other illustrative materials
provider of materials will be able to:
not culturally acceptable
1. select appropriately from what is available
 Amount of materials too great or too little to 2. be creative with what is available
cover in the time allocated 3. modify activities to suit learners’ needs
 No guidance for teachers on handling group 4. supplement by providing extra activities
work and role play activities with a large (and extra input)
class
 Dialogues are too formal, and not really Commercial textbooks can seldom be used
representative of everyday speech without some form of adaptation to make them
 Audio material difficult to use because of more suitable for the particular context in which
problems with room size and technical they will be used. This adaptation may take a
equipment variety of forms.
 Too much or too little variety in the activities  Modifying content. Content may need to be
 Vocabulary list and a key to the exercise changed because it does not suit the target
would be helpful learners, perhaps because of factors related to
 Accompanying tests needed the learners’ age, gender, social class,
occupation, religion, or cultural background.
Principles and Procedures for Adapting Modifying (including re-writing and re-
Materials structuring) refers to the internal change in
 Personalizing materials refers to increasing the approach or focus of an exercise.
the relevance of content in relation to  Re-writing is done when some
learners’ interest and their academic, linguistic content needs modification.
educational or professional needs. It is currently the most frequently
done because there is a need for the
 Individualizing addresses the learning materials to be ‘more
styles of both the individuals and of the communicative’.
members of a class working together.  Re-structuring applies to classroom
management. For many teachers
 Localizing takes into account the who are required to strictly follow a
international geography of English language coursebook, changes in the
teaching and recognizes that what may structuring of the class are
work well in one region may work in sometimes the only kind of
another. adaptation that is realistically
possible.
Points to remember in adapting materials:
Modifying tasks. Exercises and activities may
need to be changed to give them additional focus. A
Preparation & Evaluation of IM 10
listening activity may focus only on listening for 3. Form and Function operate as part of a
information, so that students listen a second or third wider network of factors
time for a different purpose. An activity may be 4. Appropriacy of language use has to be
extended to provide opportunities for more considered alongside accuracy
personalized practice. 5. ‘Communicative’ is relevant to all four
 Adding or deleting content. The book may language skills
contain too much or too little for the program. 6. The concept of communication is beyond
Whole units may have to be dropped, or the level of the sentence
perhaps sections of units throughout the book 7. ‘Communicative’ can refer both to the
omitted because a course may focus primarily properties of language and to behavior
on listening and speaking skills, and hence
writing activities in the book will be omitted. Evaluation of Supplementary Materials for
 Reorganizing content. A teacher may decide English Language Teaching
to reorganize the syllabus of the book, and Topic: Inclusivity in Materials Preparation and
arrange the units in what she considers a more Evaluation
suitable order. Inclusivity – the concept of appropriating for
 Addressing omissions. The text may omit the ‘marginalized’ sector of the society
items that the teacher feels are important. For  Handicapped (with physical, emotional and
example a teacher may add vocabulary mental/learning disabilities0
activities or grammar activities to a unit.  Children (age
 Extending tasks. Exercises may contain  Women (gender)
insufficient practice, and additional practice  Indigenous people (ethnicity)
tasks may need to be added.  People of Color (race)
 Expanding brings about a quantitative change.  The poor, The third world (economics)
That is, expanding adds to the methodology by Inclusive Curriculum
moving outside it and developing it in new An inclusive curriculum
directions, for instance by putting in a different  develops an awareness of the issues of
language skill or a new component. marginalization
Deleting (subtracting and abridging)  voices the concerns of the marginalized
 Subtracting means reducing the sector
amount of the material  is sensitive to and responsive of the needs
 Abridging happens when the of the marginalized – the subaltern
materials is not only subtracted but  enhances critical thinking through issue-
is replaced with something else that based teaching and learning processes
does not alter the balance of the  generally employs
lesson or the material. o contact learning
Example: The material contains a o portfolio assessment
discussion section at the end of each unit. o multiple intelligences theory
However, the learners are not really
o cooperative learning strategies
proficient enough to tackle this adequately,
since they have learned the language o constructive principles
structures but not fluency in their use. The
syllabus and its subsequent examination do Why consider Inclusivity in Materials
not leave room for this kind of training. Preparation and Evaluation?
 Language determines thought and behavior
Implications of the Communicative Approach patterns of people
1. ‘Communicative’ implies ‘semantic’, a  Language reflects values of a society
concern with the meaning potential of  Instructional materials have lasting
language influences in propagating sexism through
2. There is a complex relationship between linguistic bias, stereotyping, invisibility,
language form and language function trivialisation and fragmentation (Sadker,

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 Sadker and Long in Banks and Banks,
1989) Characteristics of Inclusive Instructional
 Instructional materials have a way of Materials
perpetuating stereotypes  Devoid of Stereotypes
 Practices that propagate marginalization  The experiences of women, children, people
of color, the handicapped, the poor, etc. are
Absence/Omission – women and other o Represented not voiced
marginalized sectors are nowhere to be o Voiced not silenced
found in books, o Rendered important and not
commercials/advertisements, the mass trivialized nor fragmented
media and other instructional materials  Replete with alternative roles
 Use non-sexist language
Silencing – the marginalized are there  Provide insights on multiculturalism and
represented/drawn/mentioned but given diversity
passive roles (e.g. listener,
 Issue-based, content area related,
pained/abused/victimized, helper, no line at
contextualized, authentic
all)
 Extra textual components like cartoons and
other graphics are also inclusive
Trivialized – presented but rendered
unimportant; given stereotyped roles like  Muliticultural; free from
ailing mother, hopeless maidens, forlorn ethnocentric/regional/racial bias
princess, etc.
B: PREPARATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL
Fragmentation – viewing the contributions MATERIALS FOR TEACHING LITERATURE
of the marginalized as phenomenal (e.g. Why Teach Literature (in a Language
Woman doctor operates Siamese twins; Classroom?)
Woman Astronaut lands on the moon)  one of the main reasons why literature is an
important part of learning is that it offers a
 Studies prove that in various instructional bountiful and extremely varied body of
materials, the marginalized have been written material which is important in
o Stereotyped (damsels in distress, loving learning fundamental human issues.
wives, sacrificing mothers, poor girls, etc.)
o Omitted (in textbook pictures/graphics, in
 its relevance moves with the passing of
time.
cliparts)
 literature is “authentic” material.
o Silenced (present but not given a voice)
o Trivialised (present but given passive  literature enriches cultural awareness. In
roles) most cases, language learners get a better
o Fragmented (victories rendered as understating of the culture in the language
supernatural/phenomenal) they are trying to learn through literature. A
 Human rights code, the Philippine reader may discover the inner thoughts,
Constitution declare honouring the human feelings, customs of a certain group of
rights of children, women, the handicapped people, thus giving him/her a better
 Communication symbols evolve to meet understanding of the language.
human needs; equality issues influence  literature provides language enrichment.
communication symbols
 Sex-role restrictions – out of date and unfair  Literature helps personal enrichment.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy of women’s Engaging imaginatively with literature
“inferiority” and “failure” enables learners to shift the focus of their
 Loss of potential contribution of women to attention beyond the more mechanical
society aspects of language learning.
 Non-sexist communication can be natural,
graceful, grammatically correct What to Teach
Preparation & Evaluation of IM 12
The first step in teaching literature is to choose the The first imperative is usually to try and draw the
materials to teach, including the literary texts for learners quickly “into” the text, so that they find it
study. The preparation of instructional materials will interesting and want to continue reading it on their
depend on the literary texts chosen for study. own. Next, students need to be convinced that the
 Suitability of literary texts to students task ahead is not an impossible task.
always depend on the different groups of
students, their needs, interests, cultural
background and language level.

 Personal involvement, however, should Suggested activities and instructional materials for
always be a goal of a literature classroom. first encounters:
 Strong, personal, and positive reactions are a. Talking about the title and cover design
needed in the literature classroom.  The teacher sets the scene and
whet students’ curiosity by showing
How to teach literature them an intriguing cover design and
In teaching literature, the aim is to maintain interest asking them to speculate about the
and involvement by using a variety of student book and its story.
centered activities.
 In devising activities for integrating b. Using Questionnaires
language and literature teachers must  Students are given questionnaires to
remember that learning involve as many of fill in. Questions are focused on the
the students’ faculties as possible. text studied.
 Teachers should try to exploit as fully as
possible the emotional dimension that is a c. Making a Biographical montage
very integral part of literature.  The teacher collects some photos,
 Helping students explore their own objects, or anything which is relevant
response to literature could be achieved to the author’s life. These
through the different instructional materials materials/objects are mounted on to
prepared for classroom teaching. a larger piece of card. The students
 One of the principles which influences the then are invited to speculate the
classroom approach to literature is that of meaning of the items in the
using the target language with a range of montage.
activities chosen. d. Continuing the Story line
 To integrate the teaching of language and  Having read the first section of a
literature that aims to foster language text, students are asked to study a
learning the teacher should never forget that range of possible continuations of a
literature can stand on its own by giving it story line. Then they choose the one
proper time inside the classroom. they consider the author would have
used.
Stages of literature learning in the classroom
1. First Encounters e. Comparing beginnings
For students about to explore the unknown territory  The teacher takes three or four
of a new literary text, the first encounter may be opening paragraphs from novels or
crucial. First impressions can color their feelings short stories with fairly similar
about the whole enterprise they find themselves beginnings, and asks the students to
engaged in. They are likely to be approaching the respond to the contrasts.
experience with mixture of curiosity, excitement and
apprehension. The teacher’s role must be to play f. Writing Chapter 0
up the sense of adventure while providing a  Students are asked to write the
supportive atmosphere that will be reassuring to the paragraphs that come immediately
students. before the first section of the work
which they have just encountered.

Preparation & Evaluation of IM 13

 fairly accurate, but one may contain
2. Maintaining Momentum incorrect inference or interpretation.

The tasks in maintaining momentum can be g. Jumbled events

used at any point in a literary work and can be  The students are given a list of jumbled
applied to the various genres. This part of events. They will simply re arrange the
literary learning allows the students to events.
understand, enjoy and appreciate the literary
work. It is in this situation that a mixture of class h. Choosing an interpretation
activities and home reading can be used.  The students are given a series of
different interpretations of events in the
Suggested Activities and instructional materials passage they are reading.
for maintaining momentum
a. Question worksheet leading to pair work in i. Snowball activities
class  These are activities which continue and
 Half of the class is given one set of are added to progressively, as students
questions relating to the passage set as read through a long work. These
home reading, the other half, another activities help maintain an overview of
set. an entire book, provide a valuable aid to
memory, and reduce a lengthy text to
b. Complete the sentences manageable proportions.
 This worksheet could be used as a take Examples:
home activity. This is a take off from the 1. Retelling a story
regular Q and A. 2. Wall charts and other visual
displays
c. True or False 3. Summaries
 This worksheet asks the students to 4. Montage
answer true or false on certain concepts. 5. Graphic representation
6. Continuing predictions
d. Summaries with gaps 7. Writing on going diaries
 The most straightforward type of
summary exercise is the gapped 3. Exploiting Highlights
summary. This helps readers by The activities for this part of the literary
providing them with an almost complete discussion in the classroom will help encourage
and simply phrased summary. The gaps the students to explore and express their own
are usually key words or expressions, response to the literary work.
which only a reading of the appropriate
passage can reveal. Suggested activities for maintaining highlights:
a. thought bubbles
e. Summaries with incomplete sentences  The task for this activity is very simple:
 A slightly more challenging variant students are asked to write the ‘inner’
consists of a summary with incomplete dialogue that parallels the original
sentences. dialogue.

f. Summary comparison b. poems

 The teacher writes two summaries of a  The aim is to crystalline a personal, felt
section to be read at home. Differences response to a literary situation.
between the summaries can be “fine-
tuned” according to the level of the c. using authentic formats
group. At the simplest level, one of the  These are non literary formats which
summaries omits certain key points; at a can be imported into the context of the
more difficult level, both summaries are

Preparation & Evaluation of IM 14

 literary work and used to spur writing 2. essays
about it. 3. newspaper articles
4. journal
d. newspaper articles
 A newspaper article or feature is to be
written about the highlight scene
chosen. Students are shown samples of
genuine newspaper articles, if possible
from more than one type of publication.
e. oral activities
 These are activities highlighting the
lines/ dialogues that are good for oral
reading.
Examples:
1. mini reading aloud
2. poetry reading
3. choral reading
4. oral summaries

4. Endings

This part of classroom literary learning keeps

each students’ own sense of the literary work alive.

Suggested activities for Endings:

a. role plays
 The context provided by works of
literature facilitates the creation of role-
play situations. This activity allows the
students to work among themselves.

b. cover designs
 Asking the students to prepare a
paperback cover of a book is to see how
they are eliciting and crystallizing their
over all response to the text they are
reading.

c. writing a blurb for the back cover

 As preparation for this activity, the
teacher reads out the cover blurb of
selected novels. This activity aims to
see if the students can come up with
distinct blurb for a particular literary
work.

d. short writing tasks

 These activities test the ability of the
students to use language in written
activities.
Examples:
1. letters

Preparation & Evaluation of IM 15