OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS An Introduction with Special Reference to Practical Applications (Formerly Titled: Practical Optics) BY B, K. JOHNSON Assistant PROFESSOR AT THE IMPERIAL ‘Couece oF ScteNcE AND TECHNOLOGY, ‘Sour KenstNoron, LoNpon Rucoontzsp Lecrurer or THE University or Loxpow DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC. NEW YORKCopynight © 1960 by Dover Publications, Inc AAI rights reserved under Pan American and In- ternational Copyright Conventions hed in Canada by General Publishing Com- 80 Lesmill Road, Don Mills, Toronto, hed in the United Kingdom by Constable pany, Lud, 10 Orange Street, Lonaon W. ‘This Dover edition, rst published in 1960, is an unabridged and unaltered republication of the se ‘ond edition, published by ‘The Hatton Pres, Lid, in 1947 under the ttle Practical Optic. Standard Book Number: 486-60642-2 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 60-3186 ‘Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Publications, Ine. 180 Varick Street, New York, N.Y. 10014 FOREWORD TO DOVER EDITION IHIS book is intended to convey information concerning the practical application of optical principles. In recent years optical instruments and optical components have been used increasingly in scientific and industrial work, and it has become evident that there are still many who may not be familiar with optical technique. It was felt, therefore, that if the latter was ex- plained in practical and concise form, this might prove helpful both to the student and to the industrial physicist. It is a wellknown truism that theory should be supported by experimental verification, and to this end experiments and optical working models are set out in some detail in these pages, 50 as to tenable the theorctice! principles to be grasped and also to enable fone to understand better the action of the lenses and prisms, etc, often hidden by the external tubes or casings of the finished instru- ‘ment. Whilst the book is of a practical nature, sufficient theory is given to enable the experimental illustrations to be carried out intelli gently. Since the book was first printed in 1947, two additional chapters have been introduced, one dealing with the human eye and one ‘concerned with optical projection apparatus. It is hoped that the section on optical glass and its working will prove of value and lead to a fuller appreciation of the art and skill required in producing high quality optical components. It was felt that the practical application of fundamental optical principles to almost every branch of science and industry is now so farreaching that the existence of the third edition of this book would be justified. For those who have to teach these principles, for the users of ‘optical instruments, and for those who do research work, it is hoped that these pages may contribute in some small way to their work. BKJ. Imperial College, London, 1960.CONTENTS PAGE (Cuarrer REFLECTION AND REFRACTION po coo soprinensusaing retin a inca, double and tle mlx, finciples of periscope, binoctlac prim, Toof edge relecton, psneagonal prbenn detatedse coscove cad Daves mirtoelaws of rtzatioo— Esta) ‘angle and intemal relecton--action of lensee—ray facing methods, graphical and Cuarrer II—Focat Lenors Measurements 9.06. 02s QL Optical bench focal lengths of “thin” positive and negative Teaser Sho Thin eases in contacevo thin lenset separated Newton's method foal Tengo tick Tenses magniGeation method--foco collimator Toda Sle method Cuarrer UI—Tue EYE ws ee ner! eseapuon with named, prs and pte, deepen ole tmimetropia and. ametropia-—corvection of myopia at sete pals cing power of ye swiadl seaty Bits “estaand theoretical explanations Cuarren IV—Tue Teescore . eves AB oe ne ee ea ta Moda sone, mem, wt Call, ope arama Se eee ES eta al yal te sella Hyer Teed a soe a ea Snes eg St ae a ee ly einen, geno en sep ah ren er tae acelin mem frre of pop aa te are aan ene ae Cuarrer V—Tue Microscors . se 8 Hand magnifers—compound microscope, Yveach models and sete meets ebeect salting cP of tie microscope numerical UScture“aperlometare—veolving powar, theory and practical tating eeessury migaiication fo employ—"photo-mlerograpay-—-opaaque objects — iiterwle cecopy at vaio wuveeaginmetecion miconepe— Electron microscopeContents PAGE, Cuarrer VI—Puorocrapsic Lenses 5 0 ‘ean eg cman gen “perc cei ot ton sheer Geeta grees eee Ilustating the advantage ot vations yper ot Serre ca. "ignei uae Ges acme yiftlving power, tory and pracical teats—depth of ocas Ronse sacs saat Sete Cuarrer VII—Opricat Projection Systems i) Measurement of [solid angle—intrinsic brightness, transmission factors, intensity of iMumination on projection screats—sources of Ight lor aroha Boa purposes—projection of transparencies loss of light is ‘prchecdony systems projestion of opaque objects—eearchlights, signaling lanhee hac lights projection in engineering practice —physial “experineat enc: ojection—lighthouse projection syiems, marine antes, rallvay eigcl mp (Cuarrer VIII—Orricar Gass: Ins Worxic AND Testixc .. 159 ‘Advantages of a vanity in optical glases—production of optical glass— Snseaingtialh omogenely opbeal costa are eal a TERPS le of ard od poling provers airasvr "sing radius of curvature mearurements, mechasical ad optical. tat eae fst and corved-—melhods of produclag it plats siete mera goniometer, ‘auto-collimator, ‘naked eyo tests -non-redecting Aine ay Appenpix Ho 2d Cleaning of glass surtaces—breath Sgures—balsaming—viscometer for Pitch, std "balam—sllvring photographie hear pion deep webomcollodion flme—waxer and Conenis soeroe ot tats OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTSPRACTICAL OPTICS CHAPTER I REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT Ray: projector, Zar ofthe more introductory principles of reflection and refraction ye cme aad nd vented by, lng Tight sit ty, a unite projegion Inter whieh can ‘fe re Seok whadag aoa” Goh a method. whersby rays." of light can be seen on the white paper being zeflected to eB Re tino or though eiacing siene, HBB ot the PEEL viva fashion; and e note Ging Nap ctons made in Ee the student's mind than by doing such experiments by other methods. ‘The ray-projector, as it will be called, consists of a 12-volt, 36-watt, motor-car lamp bulb (with line filament) situated at the focus of a cylindrical lens rectangular in form (about 3}°/1}"), with provision for interposing metal plates (having slots about yy" wide) in front of the lens, the whole being suitably housed in order to screen off stray light. The device is illustrated in Fig. 1, which will be found selfexplanatory. Fo. 1 Ray Projector for use of a Drawing Board | 1 |2 Practica Optics Fig. 2 shows some of the accessories which may be used with the ray-projector in order to carry out the experiments which follow. Laws of Reflection, In order to prove experimentally that the angles of incidence and Feflection are equal for rays meeting a reflecting surface, a method similar to that depicted in Fig. 3, may be employed. Draw a semi- circle of six inches radius and mark off intervals of ten-degree angles Accessories for carrying out "Ray “* Experiments Tound a semi-circle of the circumference, Place a piece of plain mirror (preferably surface silvered) cemented to a wooden block along the diameter of the semi-circle with its face perpendicular to the drawing paper. Place the ray-projector round the circumference of the circle so that a narrow beam is projected along the 80 degree Tine; observe the angle at which the beam is reflected from the mirror, which should of course agree with the angle of incidence, namely, 80 degrees. Repeat the experiment for a number of different angles of incidence. Angular Magnification by a Mirror. Re-position the ray-projector so that the beam makes an angle REFLECTION aD RerRaction oF Licht 3 of incidence and refection of 80 degrees as before. Now rotate the mirror through 20 degrees until its face coincides with the line marked 170 on the left of the diagram. Find the new direction of the reflected nay. ‘Observe that the reflected ray moves through twice the angle moved by the mirror. In « sense this may be termed a form of magnifica- tion, inasmuch as the method facilitates the determination of small angular movements by doubling the effect through the medium of an attached mirror to the moving part; for example, in measuring the rotation of a galvanometer suspension. mage in a Plane Mitror is same distance behind Mirror as Object is in Front. Replace the silvered mirror by a piece of plane glass (supported at is end) along the line 90,90. Insert a pin at some such point as A. Looking into the plane glass mirror place a second pin at A’ so that the latter appears to coincide with A. Join AA’. Measure AX and AIX. Note that these distances are equal and that AA is perpendi- cular to the line 90,60. Reflection by two Mirrors Inclined at a Finite Angle. A ray or beam of light reflected in two mirrors in succession will be deviated through an angle equal to twice the exterior angle between the mirrors,4 Paacricat Orrics Set up two mirrors perpendicular to the drawing paper, but with their edges adjacent to one another. (See Fig. 4.) Arrange them so that the angle between the mirrors is 195 degrees. Draw a line AB so that it makes an angle of incidence of 80 degrees with the normal to the first mirror. Direct the ray-projector so that a narrow beam travels along AB, and mark the direction CD on the paper as it emerges from the second mirror. Remove the mirrors, produce the line AB to P and produce CD until it intersects ABP in the point O. Measure the angle POD with a protractor and compare it with the exterior angle between the two mirrors, namely, 45 degrees, The angle POD should be twice the latter. Mirrors at 90 degrees. Arrange the mirrors to be at right angles to one another, and direct ‘a beam from the ray-projector so that it meets one of the mirrors at any angle of incidence. Note that the beam reflected from the second mirror is deviated through 180 degrees and returis parallel to the incidence beam. Observe that the reflected beam maintains a con- stant deviation, no matter at what angle the incident beam strikes the first mirror. Mirrors at 45 degrees. Arrange the two mirrors to be inclined at 48 degrees (i.e., exterior angle 195 degrees) and direct the ray-projector towards one of the mirrors. Note that the beam emerges from the second mitror after having been deviated through 270 degrees and therefore at right angles REFLECTION AND RerRaction oF Licur 5 to the incident beam. Move the ray-projector round a little so that the beam strikes the first mirror at a different angle of incidence and observe that the deviation always remains constant. This illustrates, the principle of the “optical square "’ as used in surveying, and the ‘pentagonal prism as used in range-inders. If one of the latter prisms BN rotens 7 sian Foo. 6 is available (see Fig. 6 and Fig. 10) this should be placed in the incident beam and rotated. Reversals caused by Reflecting Systems. Place a three slit diaphragm in front of the condenser of the ray- projector instead of the single slit and then arrange two mirrors as indicated in Fig. 6. Mark on the paper the incident rays 1, 2 and 3, ‘ , z 2 =" 2 Fie. 6. Fw. 7 and observe that they emerge from the second mirror un-reversed. ‘The simple periscope and the sextant are examples of the instruments which utilize this principle.8 Pracricat Orrics inocular Prism. Place the second mirror so that it opposes the first. (See Fig. 7.) Note that in the plane of the paper the rays are reversed, Ifinstead of the three slit diaphragm a transparent letter R mounted ‘on an opaque background be placed in front of the condenser of the ay-projector and a four inch focus lens arranged so as to produce an image of the letter R on a ground glass screen mounted on the drawing paper, it will be found possible to observe reversals “' up and down "” as well as “ right and left.” In this connection, by mounting two other mirrors, as in Fig. 8, on wooden supports and placing them so that the line joining the centres of the two mirrors is perpendicular to the plane of the paper, and then using the ground glass screen as indicated, the double reversal will be clearly seen. This illustrates the way in which two right- angled prisms are employed in the prismatic binocular, known as the Porro prism system. It should be remembered that in telescope lens systems the object glass gives an image which is reversed ““ up and down and right and lel” and in many cases this has to be compensated for by some SKB form of reflecting syeter y Roof-Edge principle. Fig. 9 shows two plane mirrors mounted in 4 suitable wooden base so that they adjoin ‘one another along the so-called roof edge EE. If the beam from the illuminated letter R is allowed to fall on the two mirrors resting on the drawing board so that the roof edge EE is parallel to the drawing board, but at 45 degrees to the incident light and the ground glass screen arranged to receive the reflected image, it will be seen that the latter is both reversed and inverted. This Fre. 9. erection aNp Rerraction oF Licht 7 principle is of considerable importance, for it is adopted in making many forms of prisms which are employed in telescope systems required to give an erect image of the object being observed. Some types of roof prisms are illustrated in Fig. 10, Fr. 1. Tetrahedron, Erecting Prism These (Gre dion) Forme chman Prism. "Bentagonal Prior 7 Tehman Ps ‘Binocular Prim Root itor) Prom, Reflection by Roof Mirrors combined with one or more Plane Mirrors. Set up the illuminated letter R and the roof mirrors as in the foregoing experiment, and then reflect the beam on to the ground glass screen by means of one plane mirror. Observe that one reversal is now corrected, but if a second plane mirror is placed as indicated in Fig. 11, the reversal and inversion remains complete. This is the principle of the periscope erecting device utilized in telescopic systems, and ig due to Lehman. It is important to note that when a roof reflector is employed with plane reflectors, the number of the latter must always be even in order to give reversal and inversion.8 Practica Orrics One form of a Lehman prism is shown in Fig. 12 and in Fig, 10. Number of Images in two Inclined Plane Mirrors, This is denoted by (360/¢)—1, where @ is the angle between the mirrors. Set up two mirrors inclined at 90 degrees on a piece of Rie, 12, white paper. Place some object (e.g. a piece of red sealing wax Shout bi. wide) between (he mitor as shown fn Fge 13." Note that the number of images is three. Set the mirrors at some other angle, calculate and observe the number of images. When set at 60 degrees, the principle of the kaleidoscope will he ilnetate Corer Cube or Tetrahedron, Arrange three mirrors such that they are all at right angles to one another as in Fig. 14. If one then looks into the corner of the solid Fro 18. right angle, an image of the eye will be seen, and, no matter how the head is moved about, an image of the eye will always be seen right in the comer, thus showing that the incident and reflected rays Rertecrion anp RerRactioy or Licht 9 travel along identical paths. A piece of glass made with three silvered faces containing a solid right angle is sometimes made and is called fa tetrahedron prism, (See Fig. 10.) If a beam of light be directed towards such a prism in a darkened area, an observer will see the reflected beam only it his eye is in line with the projected beam. Therefore such devices are made use of by fixing them to the rear cof motor vehicles, for example, or to the stern of ships at sea, oF as road signs, so that a beam of light striking them makes them appear brightly illuminated to the driver of following vehicles. Concave and Convex Mirrors. By directing the ray-projector (with seven slits in front of the condenser) towards a cylindrical concave mirror of about 6in. radius, the rays will be seen coming to a focus (see Fig. 15). The latter = = ‘Coma Cid Fi. 16. Fro. 16 can be marked on the paper and a line should also be drawn round the inner edge of the mirror. Remove the mirror and find its radius of curvature by trial with a pair of compasses. Measure the distance ‘AF between the focus and the mirror and show that this is equal to half the radius. If the mirror is made from a curved metal strip and polished on both sides, it may be reversed and used as a convex mirror. AS before, send on to this a set of parallel rays and note that they now diverge after meeting the reflecting surface. (See Fig. 16.) Mark their directions on the drawing paper, also the circumference of the mirror. Remove the latter and produce back the reflected rays until they meet the axis at F. Then AF will be the focus of the mirror, which should again be equal to half the radivs._ 10 Practica Optics Laws of Refraction. ‘This experiment illustrates in simple form the relation N. N’. sin r where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction for are the angles of incidence and 4 ray of light passing from a medium of refractive index N to one of " a ---yY + | A semi-circular glas block (Fig, 17) is lad on the drawio w thatthe fat plished safer eaincdcs mth the pol ae At the centre point O, draw a line AO, making an angle of (say 45 degrees) with the normal OZ. Direct the may-projestor vo dg the narrow beam from a single slit passes along the dlvecion AO. (It may be advisable to screen off all but an eighth of an inch of the surface at O.) Where the refracted Tay emerges from the block, mack sme postion B in the iluminted ane eee a ee Block, join BO. Along AO measure off a distance OA equal in legin to OB and drop perpendiculars AZ and BZ’ from the points A and Bito the normal 22’. The length AZ divided by BZ’ Gil thee gia peers index of the glass block N’, — epeat the experiment for other values of the angle ¢ each ease thatthe relation N. sin fa’ ain na seats oe Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection. In the special case of the law of refraction when i becomes 90 Revzection axp ReeRacTiOn oF Licit u degrees, both its sine and the refractive index (N) of air being equal to unity, the equation then assumes the form sin r=jt. ‘This par- ticular value for the angle r is called the critical angle for the glass concemed with respect to air. To measure this experimentally, direct a single narrow beam from the ray-projector in the direction BO into the semi-circular glass block (Fig. 17.) Having marked the position O on the drawing paper, rotate the block about this point (making the angle BOZ’ gradually larger) until the emergent tay OA becomes parallel to the flat surface of the block (j.e., grazing emergence.) This will be found to be quite a sensitive setting. Measure the angle BOZ!, which will be the critical angle, and from this the refractive index of the glass may be obtained. If one continues to rotate the block, it will be noticed that the ray is internally reflected and emerges with the angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence. ‘The above experiment may be repeated with a block of higher refractive index material, such as a dense flnt glass or, alternatively, with @ semi-circular glass trough containing a liquid such as carbon disulphide, Refraction through a Prism. Direct a single ray along the drawing paper and mark this direction on the latter, Insert a small angled prism (e.g., between 10 and 16 degrees) in the beam and mark the direction of the refracted ray. Remove the prism, join the lines and produce them to intersect one another; measure the deviation (D) thus produced, also the angle of the prism (A) by means of a protractor. Observe that for small angled prisms D= (N—1) A where N is the refractive index of the prism which may be taken as 1'520. Secondly, insert a prism (preferably of dense flint glass) having a sixty degree angle—it may be necessary to place a green filter in front of the single slit of the ray-projector in order to eliminate the other spectrum colours. Rotate the prism about an axis parallel to the refracting edge and observe that the deviation reaches a minimum. and then increases again, even though a continued rotation is given to the prism. Determine the position of the prism, which gives ‘minimum deviation and make pencil lines along the edges of the prism12 Practica Orrics faces. Also, make two marks on the drawing paper in the paths of the incident and refracted rays, join these respective points and raw a line s0 that they meet the lines indicating the prism faces, At these intersections draw normals to the prism faces and measure the angles of incidence and emergence, also the angle of deviation, and note that when the latter has a minimom value, the angles of incidence and emergence are equal. With the numerical values thos measured, the approximate refractive index of the prism may be obtained from If the single slit is illuminated with white light and a screen placed jn the emergent beam at soime distance from the prism, a spectram ‘will be seen, Action of a Lens. Fit the ray-projector with a five-slit orseven-slit mask in front of the condenser so that a number of parallel rays are seen traversing ‘the drawing paper. In the path of these rays interpose a plano- convex slab Jens (the curved surface being atout 10 cm. radius) and arrange the central ray to pass along the avis of the lens undeviated, Observe the way in which the other rays are refracted and made to intersect on the axis at approximately the sume point, This point is called the focus of the lens and its distance from the latter is known as the focal length, namely, 20 cm, Similarly, a concave slab lens may be rested on the drawing paper in the path of the parallel rays. It will be noted that the rays diverge after passing through the lens; if the direction of these are marked and produced back until they intersect on the axial ray (after the lens has been removed) the distance between this intersection point and the lens will give the focal length. Lens Aberratio If the semi-circular glass block be used as a lens and placed with the convex surface towards the incident parallel rays, the spherical aberration will be sufficiently great to enable the distance between the position at which the extreme marginal rays cross the axis and that at which the paraxial rays meet the axis to be seen clearly on the paper. ReFtection AND REFRACTION oF LicHT 13 If the central rays are stopped out and only the extreme marginal rays are allowed to pass through the lens, the chromatic aberration may be observed by first puting a red and then a blue filter in front of the ray-projector. By retraig tothe setup with seven Jacdent parallel ays, the semi-circular block (now acting as a lens) may be rotated on the paper, when it will be noticed that the rays from the marginal parts, of the lens no longer intersect on the axial rays, but are displaced, illustrating the aberration known as coma. Telescopes. ‘The path of rays through a telescope lens system may be clearly illustrated by means of the ray-projector. Using the 20 cm. focal- length slab lens in the path of the incident parallel rays, locate the focus and place a much shorter focus positive cylindrical slab lens (of about 4 cm. or 8 cm. focus) in some position beyond the focus of the first lens such that the rays emerge parallel after leaving the Bat Fic. 18 Repeat the experiment by substituting a short focus concave Jens as the eyepiece lens, but in this case it will be found necessary to place it between the first lens and its focus in order to render parallel the emerging rays. This experiment shows the principle of the Galilean or terrestrial telescope, whereas the former illustrates the astronomical or inverting type of telescope Now, alter the direction of the ray-projector so that the central ray passes through the centre of the first lens, but making an angle of, say, 5 degrees with the axis. (See Fig. 18.) The direction of the parallel rays leaving the eyepiece lens may then be marked and the angle they make with axis of the telescope measured. ‘This angle is that under which the final virtual image would be seen by the eye, whereas the angle under which the object would be seen directly (neglecting the length of the telescope) would be the initial 6 degrees. The former angle divided by the latter gives the ‘magnification of the telescope.last Bey, “4 Practicat. Optics Erecting Prism. The combined effect of refraction and reflection is utilized in one form of erecting prism depicted in Fig, 19 and Fig. 10. The reversing effect may be beautifully shown by directing a single ray parallel to the hypotenuse of a right angled prism, first near the point A and then gradually move the ray-projector (with its single slit) across the drawing paper, keeping the incident ray parallel to the hypotenuse. It will then be noticed that the ray incident near A emerges near C. and when the incident ray is near B it emerges near D (all rays suffer. ing refraction at faces AB and CD and total internal reflection at AD), thus producing a one-way reversal. If the incident ray is moved on beyond B, the refracted ray at the first surface is internally reflected ‘on meeting the face CD and therefore does not emerge beyond CD; hence the effective aperture of the prism may be obtained as indicated by the line BC. Fic. 19, {In al the foregoing experiments in refraction, should it be possible to have the glass blocks, lenses, prisms, etc., made in uraniom glass oF other material in which small particles are held in suspension, it i then possible to see the path of the rays én the glas and not merely there the rays enter and where they leave the material. Admittedly, this may seem an unnecessary luxury! But, nevertheless, the fact of seeing the rays throughout their journey conveys the effects more forcibly to the student. Ray-Tracing Methods. Tt may be necessary in certain optical problems to trace rays through such systems with greater accuracy than the ray-projector methods would allow, and, indeed, with lens systems: ray-tracing methods can be distinetly useful in providing information about the design of a lens in the initial stages. The methods given in this chapter deal with two graphical methods and one strictly exact method Rertection AND Rerraction or Licut 18 by trigonometical means. In order to itsrate the procedure. ia tach case, let us ake some such example as shown in Fig. 20, which may be looked upon as telephotographic lens, and Tees ray parallel to the axis through the lens system of the specification: — Lens (2) aoe (a fractive index (N) =1-750 Refctve inden (M}=1860 Rete inde (N) 60" One of the better and more convenient ofthe graphical methods is due to Dowell” and consists of the following contusion On the drawing paper near the diagram of the lens system (already set Fro. 21 iy and the respective seve cicdescoresponing in radia to unity “ ceacine Indes of te to as to some ale wales (Set Fig 21) (Unity being taken as 10cm. makes a conve + J. H. Dowell, Proc. Opt. Convention 979, 1926. yy16 Pracricat. Oprics in order to give reasonable accuracy.) From the point 0 draw a line a parallel to the incident ray OA. Ata, draw ab parallel to the radius AR,, cutting the N=1'580 circle in b. Join ob, this gives the direction of the refracted ray in the glass of the first lens, Draw AB parallel to ob. From b draw be parallel to BR,, cutting the unity circle in c, Join ‘oc and draw BC parallel to oc. This will be the direction of the ray as it leaves the lens. Then draw cd parallel to the third radius CR, cctting the N=1780 circle in d. Draw CD parallel to od. And finally draw de parallel to DR, cutting the unity circle at e. Join oe Fr. 22 Graphical Ray Plotter. and make DE parallel to this. The point Z will represent the focal plane of the lens system, and if ED be projected back so that it inter- sects the initial parallel ray, the dotted line PP will give the position ‘of one of the principal planes of the system and the length PE is known as the equivalent focal length. BK, Ray-plotter. The second graphical method for ray-tracing consists in using a ray-plotter?, an idea suggested by the waiter an illustrated in Fig. 22. This device has the advantage that no auxiliary constructional diagram on the paper is required, as in the foregoing method. The ray-plotter consists of a sixty degree set square made in some trans- parent material on which is arranged a special scale calibrated in terms of refractive indices ranging from 1-0 to 20 (ie., covering rmost transparent materials). Manufactured by Messe. Wray Ltd. (Optical Works), Bromlay, Kent. Rertection AND RerRaction oF Licht 7 On a line parallel to the hypotenuse edge, small holes are situated at A-and B. These holes are spaced at a distance equal to unity corresponding to some suitable scale. (In this case 10cm.) Further along are two adjustable slides with other holes C and D and corres- ponding index lines reading off the main scale. If the instrument ‘were to be used for tracing from air to glass or from glass to air, only fone adjustable slide would be necessary; but by having two variable slides itis possible to utilize the plotter for tracing from one glass to ‘another with no intervening air space, and, consequently, the device fs of universal use for all problems connected with graphical ray- tracing in optics. ‘The Instrument in Use. Procedure when tracing from air (refractive index 1:0) to glass (rofractive index 1.52). Fie. 23, Imagine a ray OP incident at the surface at P (Fig. 28 a and b) XY are normals to the surface at P. Place the ray-plotter such that the hole B coincides with P and A lies on the incident ray. Insert a pin through the hole at A (and with the adjustable scale set to read 1520), rotate the plotter about this point until the hole C is immediately over the normal to the surface. The direction AC is now the direction of the refracted ray and by placing a ruler along one of the edges of the set square the hypotenuse edge may be brought con to the point P and the refracted ray drawn from this point. When tracing from glass to air, the hole C is made to coincide with the point of incidence of the ray at the surface and A placed on the ray direction. As before, the plotter is rotated about the point ‘A but now it is B which must be brought over the normal to the surface. Thus the hypotenuse edge of the set-square again gives the direction of the refracted ray and only requires sliding to the18 Practicat. Oprics Point of incidence of the ray at the surface, when the refracted ray may be drawn, Procedure when tracing from one glass (e.g., refractive index: 1750) to another (e.g., refractive index=1'520) (see Fig. 24.) Set slide D so that it reads 1780 and slide C to 1520. Then place the ray-plotter so that the hole D coincides with P and the hale A lies on the incident ray in the medium with N=1760. Insert a pin at A and rotate the plotter until the hole C lies immediately over the normal (i.e, the radius) to the surface, As before, the hypotenuse Fro. 2 edge of the set-square will now give the direction of the refracted tay in the medium with N=1-520 and only requires sliding to the Point of incidence P at the surface to enable the refracted ray to be drawn, General Rule for Use of the Instrument. ‘From the foregoing examples it will become clear that the general procedure is as follows:— ‘When tracing rays from left to right (the usual practice) the plotter is placed with the hole (corresponding to the refractive index of the material to the left of the surface concerned) over the point of incidence P and the hole A on the incident ray. With the second hole already set on the refractive index scale corresponding to the material to the right of the surface, rotate the instrument about the point A until the second hole lies immediately over the normal to the surface, Thed slide the hypotenuse face of the set-square up to the point of incidence P at the surface and draw the refracted ray, This procedure may be continued surface by surface throughout the entire optical system under consideration. The method proves to be exceedingly simple and rapid when in operation. Resection AND Rerracrion oF Licht 19 ‘Trigonometrical Ray-tracing. ; When greater accuracy is required, one has to resort to trigono- rmetrical methods, and the lens system shown in Fig, 20 will be used as an example for tracing a ray trigonometrically through it in order to illustrate the methods of doing this. The five fundamental formule for this purpose can easily be deduced from Fig. 25 and are as follows:— (1) sin Tasin U, (L=1)/r (2) sin I'=sin 1. N/N! (3) UeusI-Y (4) Li-rasin V. r/sin UF (8) L=W-r) +r ‘The manner in which these formule may be utilized for the calelation is shown on page 20, where the procedure is set out in detail. There are a few minor points of explanation which are wecessary ion employed. Distances ne relating to the sign convention employe ‘measured to the Tight of the pole of the surface A are considered20 Pracricat, Optics is advisable to indicate this in some way; generally by putting a small letter n after the log. ist 20d 3rd aun Surface, Surface. Surface, ——=—Surlace, L oe 15:990 1-790 4080 =r +6000 +6000 - 6000 =n 21-990 7790-1920 log sin U 40 log (L=r) 13402 8915 028330 log(L—r)sin U* 01461 02688 03175 934600 log r 07782 077820 ——07782n 07782 log sin 7 93679 949061 95399n +logN/N' 98097 0-1903 9.7570 Tog sin 7” 91776 ‘968082 929630 + logr 0-782 077820 077820 logrsin” 99558 «0-459 00745 =logsin U! 89266 94260 9.0627 u 0-0 = 4°-508' 15°28" +1 19°-295/ = 18°-2" —20°- 15" wet Be 1s 4a! -" 8°39 + 28°—395' + 11°—25" 7 isa) «88 Lar 10690 10790 10280 +r 6000-6000 — 6-000 rf 16690 4790 4280 axial thickness 0-700 3000 020 new L 15990 1790 4080 Equivalent focal length =log ¥—final log U/=0-1461 —9:1854=0:9907 Antilog 0:9907=9:788" Back focal length =3-286" * For Parallel Light use log ¥. Focat, Lenori MEASUREMENTS a In the example given, only four figure logarithms and trigono- ‘metrical functions have been used, giving an angle accuracy of one minute of arc, This will be found ample for introductory work; but if setious work on optical design is contemplated, one second of are accuracy will be called for. But this is a much bigger problem and requires considerable study. A book to recommend in this connection is Applied Optics and Optical Design—A. E. Conrady. Tt would be desirable if the student sets himself another example as well as that worked out on page 20 in order to become familiar with the process and also carry out a graphical ray-trace. In this way an opinion may be formed as to the relative accuracy and useful ness of the two methods for any particular problem in question. CHAPTER 11 FOCAL LENGTH MEASUREMENTS Description of Optical Bench; Optical Bench Experiments. ‘An optical bench of the type here described is distinctly convenient in a laboratory; its combined simplicity and comparative accuracy make it valuable for both instructional and commercial work. Fig. 26 shows the general appearance of the bench and, as will be seen, it consists of a metze steel rule supported in a vertical plane along Orpsstipe Lens Biject los Greged-Giass Exgpace n Fis. 26 which all other necessary fittings slide, A group of these fittings is shown in Fig. 26A such as the cross-line object, ground glass screen, lens holders, mirror, etc. It will be noted that the base of all these fittings is cut away in such a manner that readings may be taken directly from the steel rule without any appreciable error being introduced, Where more accurate readings are necessary, a correction rod may be employed. The lens holders are designed to carry lensesFee 2 Pracricat. Optics from any ordinary spectacle trial case, so that for experimental work a large range of lenses may be available, The fittings that support the steel rule in a vertical position are also shown in Fig. 27. These are adaptable not only to the metre ‘ule but to shorter lengths such as a foot rule when experiments only Mier, Achromatic eas tiem RTE Fro, 24, involve small ranges,” Scale drawings of the lens holes are shown in Fig. 28, From these illustrations (Figs. 26 to 28) a general id of the optical bench may be obtained. ee ‘Measurement of the Radius of Curvature of a Concave Mirror or Concave Lens Surface, For this experiment, a concave mirror of about 20 em. radius Fro. 27 (consisting of a negative spectacle lens slvered on one of its surfaces) tay be utilised. It should be held in one of the mounts and arranged on the optical bench together with a cross-line as abject (see Fig. 29). By illuminating the latter, the mirror may be moved to and fo until 4 shatp image of the cross-line is seen back-reflected on the whitened. back surface of the cross-ine mount, when the reading of this and Foca Leno Masumesents the mirror mount may be taken, The correction rod (of known length) should then be placed between the crossine object and mirror, and both of them brought into position so that they make ‘Aconcve Bete Zottnread Stef fote ‘Sot i Sto Rae Fie. 28 contact with the spherical ends ofthe fod and the readings from the cpvical bench stale taken once again. The diference between these nets of ssadings wl give te correction tobe apie tothe diet i $6 eore readings of the mkwor mount and crouse mount inorder to ve the comect radius of curvature of the If a concave lens surface (i.¢., unavered) isto be mensred, the tame procedure is tdapted with the exception that the surface not Ser tet should be covered wih some material which will prevent Tight being retested theretom. (Vaseline smeared on wil be found title for ths parpose and may be easly removed witout damaging the untsed, peihel surtace ofthe lens) Tt wl be found that the backerefeced image ofthe ersline from the ursivered surface wil ee — mas Fe. 29 Radius of Curvature of a Convex Mirror or a Convex Lens Surface. Arrange the apparatus on the metre optical bench as shown in Fig, 90, O is the cross-line object at the end of the steel rule. A isa Jens (held in one of the lens holder fittings) which forms an imageum Pracricat, Orrics of the cross-wires on the ground glass screen. Determine the reading ‘on the optical bench of the ground glass screen S when the image is - sharply in focus. Interpose the convex mirror to be tested M in the position indicated and adjust its position until the image back- reflected by the mirror M is coincident with the plane of the object. The reading of the mirror is.then taken, and the distance SM is the radius of curvature of the surface. For, in order that the rays Fro, a1. leaving © and A should retrace their paths after reflection from the mirror and form an image at O, they must strike the mirror normally; and this is only the case when the distance SM is equal to the radius of curvature of the surface. A number of independent readings should bbe taken for the position of M and the mean obtained For the determination of the rhdius of curvature of a convex lens surface, the same method is used, but with the back surface of the lens covered in some such material as mentioned in the previous °/ experiment. ‘The Solving of “Thin ” Lens and Spherical Mirror Problems. ‘Simple formule may be derived on the Gaussian principle giving the relation connecting the positions of object and image and the focal length of the lens or mirror, In the case of spherical mirrors, the relation is A/f=2/r=t fat tu and in the case of thin lenses, the relation is Aff=tfo—1fu where f is the focal length of the mirror of lens wis the object distance v is the image distance, Focal Lenorit MEASUREMENTS 25 In order to apply these formule correctly, itis necessary to employ a suitable sign convention, Many and varied forms of sign convention have been used in the past, and much confusion in the mind of students has arisen on account of this. In order to clear up this matter a selected committee appointed by the Physical Society has discussed this whole subject, and its recommendations are given in the Report on the Teaching of Geometrical Opties (1994) (published by the Physical Society). One of their conclusions, and possibly the most convenient one, i to treat the lens or mirror as being situated at the origin of the ordinary Cartesian co-ordinates (see Fig. 31) with the proviso that “the positive direction is the initial direction of progress of the light.” Distances are then measured from the lens or mirror, those against the ineident light being negative in sign and those with the incident light being positive. For distances measured off the axis (such as image heights, when measuring magnification) those below the axis may be reckoned negative and those above, positive. ‘A further recommendation by this committee is that ilustrative diagrams should as far as possible be drawn with a leftto-right progression of the light, since the sign convention of the diagram will then coincide with that of ordinary graphical work. On this system, the focal length of a converging lens is a positive quantity and that of a diverging lens negative, so that the signs of the focal lengths agree with the signs of the powers. ‘This is the most generally accepted terminology in commerce at the present day, but for student's problems connected with lens and mirror equations, the system suggested in the Appendix (page 220) may be found more satisfactory. Focal Length of a Convex Lens (Thin). (i) Place a4+SD spectacle lens in one of the lens holders on the metre optical bench. Direct the optical bench at some distant bright object, for instance, a lamp placed in a long corridor—the distance should not be less than 80 yards. Place also on the bench a ground glass sereen in its holder and receive an image of the distant object ‘produced by the lens on this. The difference between the readings of the lens holder and ground glass screen holder will give the focal length of the lens. Make a number of independent settings andPaacticat, Optics measure the distance in each case. See how nearly any one measure- ment is likely to be correct. (ii) After having used a distant object, use an object comparatively near to the lens. This method involves the use of the formula 1/f=1/o~1/u, where fis the focal length of the lens, u the distance ‘from the lens to the object, and w the distance from the lens to the image. Due respect mast be made to the use of signs when employ. ing this formula, and it should be remembered that: distances to the left of the lens are reckoned as negative, whist those to the right of the lens are positive. Set up the cross-line object © (Fig. 32) at one feud of the optical bench and illuminate it with a lamp. Place the SD lens L (in holder) at a distance of about 45 cm. from the object and receive an image of the crossline on the ground glass screen, Take a number of independent readings for the position of this screen, Measure the distance u (lens to object). In this case it will have a negative value. Also measure v (lens to image) and this will have positive sign. From these values calculate the result for f. Move the lens to another position and repeat the experiment, Fro. 98 (ii) Auto-Collimation Methods —It will be seen from Fig. 88 that if light diverging from the object O is rendered parallel by the lens L, reflected back by a mirror M, and again brotight to a focus | at O, the distance OL will be the focal length of the lens. Set up the object © at the end of the bench as before and illuminate it; - place the lens about 20 cm, from the object and further along the | Focat Lencrt Measurements 27 bench place the mirror M in position. If the mirror has plane surfaces, its position relative to L is immaterial. Carefully adjust the lens holder until an image of the object is sharply focused on the whitened back of the object. (The mirror may require tilting slightly.) Measure the focal length OL. Take a number of independent readings for the position of L (iv) Telescope Method.—A small auxiliary telescope may be made up by utilising the achromatic lens and eyepiece fitting (shown in Fig. 264) and arranging them on the right hand end of the bench at the correct separation such that a distant object is sharply focused. . Telescope EE 0 A Then place the crossiine O and the lens L at the left. On observing through the telescope move L backwards and forwards until a sharply defined image of the cross-line O is seen (see Fig, $4). The distance OL will be the focal length of the lens, As before a mean value for ‘a number of settings should be taken, and the results given by these four methods may be compared, Focal Length of “« Thin ” Concave Lenses. Setup the crosenire object O (Fig. 48) atone end of the optical bench, and form an image of this by means of the Tens A on the Ap Fee, 95, ground glass screen $,. Place a —3D lens from the trial ease in one of the lens holders and insert this in the path of the convergent beam at L. Move the screen until the image is again focused, as at S,. The image produced at $, by the lens A serves as the object for the8 Practica Orrics negative lens, so that the distance L S, is u and is positive in sign, while the distance L S, is » and is also positive. Using the formula 1/f=1/o—1]u as before, the focal length of the negative lens may bbe determined, All values of readings taken {rom the bench should be the mean of a number of independent settings. Move the negative lens L to a fresh position and repeat the experiment. Lens Systems—Two “ Thin” Lenses in Contact. Fag Spot ny bc et ee el ae ee on Fro. 96 A collimator (Fig, 36a) is first set up on the optical bench, the lens C (of about 18 cm, focus) being set in its proper position by means of the "mirror method "" shown in Fig. 33. In the path of the parallel beam thus produced the lens L, (a+4D spectacle lens) is placed, and the image of the cross-line received on the ground glass screen S,, the distance L,S, being recorded. Then, insert a lens of “+8D in another lens holder and place it on the optical bench so that the two lenses are as close together as possible and move the screen until the image is again sharply focused. Record the distance between the screen and the centre of the two lenses. By dividing this distance L,S, in centimetres into 100 the power of the lenses combined will ‘be obtained, when it will be found that the two lenses in contact will give a combined power of +7D. Then, replace the +3D lens by a—1D lens (see Fig. 36b). Note that the screen S, has now to be moved farther from the position S, Record its position when the cross-line is in focus and measure the distance L,S,. As before, obtain the power of the lens combination and note that this should now be +3 dioptres. Focat Lenerit MEASUREMENTS a9 ‘This principle is the basis for the determination of the power of a lens by ‘matching ” it with a lens of equal and opposite power. For example, if we have a lens of unknown power and we have a spectacle lens trial case at hand, a lens can be picked out from the latter which when placed in contact with the former will produce no movement of the image of an object looked at through the two lenses held and moved in front of the eye. Two “ Thin ” Lenses Separated by a Known Distance. ‘An example demonstrating the meaning of “ equivalent focal length” and " back focal length "” of a lens system with an experi- ‘mental verification of the two relations:— Fe. 37. ‘The lens system L (Fig. $7) may be made up of two trial case lenses A and B of +6D and —6D respectively, mounted in the lens holders on the optical bench and separated by a distance of 8 cm. If this be placed in the path of a parallel beam formed by means of the collimator C (having two parallel wires as object) an image of the object will be formed on the ground glass screen S, the distance BS being the back focal length. To determine the equivalent focal length, first measure the separ- ation of the two wires imaged on the screen S, then remove the lens system L from the bench but Keep S in a fixed position. By suitable ‘tials a single lens E may be found which will give the same sized image as that given by the lens combination L. When this has been attained, the distance ES will be the equivalent focal length. From a knowledge of the focal lengths of lenses A and B the two focal lengths f, and fy should be worked out from the formulze given, and fa comparison made between these values and those obtained experi- mentally.30 Practica Oprics Focal Length Measurement by Newton’s Method. A lens formula given by Newton states that the product of the distance of an object from the first focal point of a lens or lens system and the distance of the image from its second focal point, should be equal to the square of the focal length of the lens, Thus, referring to Fig. 98 the relation x.2’=/* is valid, Making use of this equation, the focal length of a lens system L (consisting of two similar lenses of +4D power separated by 10 cm.) may be conveniently carried out. Itis first necessary to find the position of the two focal points F and F (Fig. 38). This can be done by temporarily inserting a 48D lens Cat the correct distance from O such that OC forms a collimator and sgives a parallel beam emerging from it. Placing the lens system in the path of this parallel beam the position of one of the focal points F’ can be located by the ground glass screen and recorded, for at this position an image of the cross-line will be focused. As the two lenses of this system are similar ones the position of F will be at the same distance to the left of the front lens as F’ is to the right of the second lens; if desired dissimilar lenses may be used, in which case F and F! must be found individually by placing each end of the ‘combination in turn towards the collimator. Having, therefore, fixed the two positions of F and F’, the collimating lens C is removed, and the cross-lines O moved so that the distance OF is (say) 15 cm. The screen S is then positioned until ‘an image of the cross-line is sharply in focus and the distance F’ S is measured. The square root of the product of these two distances will give the focal length of the lens system. “Thick” Lenses and Lene Systems. Whilst the foregoing experiments have dealt with supposed infinitely thin lenses and the application of “thin lens” formula, We have in many cases to deal with lenses of finite thickness and Foca Lexcra Measurements a1 sometimes of a complex character. In these cases the thin lens formule no longer hold. The general principles of the Gaussian treatment of thin lens problems may, however, be applied to those of thick Preeiel Tenses provided we use Principal Points and Principal Planes within the lens from which the usual dis- tances. may be measured. For example, in Fig. 99 object distances would be measured from P, and a image distances from P,, The Tength positions of these principal planes are found by the intersection point of an initial parallel ray and the corresponding finally refracted ray projected forward and backward respectively (see diagram). Thus a “thin” lens placed in the plane P, would have a focal length equivalent to that of the thick lens, namely, the distance P,I. Moder requirements demand rather greater accuracy than that obtainable on the simpler form of ‘optical bench already described, so that for more advanced work better apparatus is required. Fig. 40 shows a form of optical bench suitable for such work, and consists of a rod and bar type support fone and a half metres long (divided in millimetres) on which the holders carrying the fittings slide. Some of these fittings are shown in the illustration, Fis, 99. Focal, Length—Magnification Method. ‘This method can be particularly useful for measurements on com- pound Iens systems of all kinds, The theory will be made clear from the Gaussian diagram of Fig. 41 in which an object placed at fh, will be imaged at 4,’ and the magnification thus produced will be m,=h,!/h,=(9,—f)/f. Similatly if the object is moved nearer to the lens so that the object distance is now u, the image will be formed ata distance v, and the magnification will be m,=hy'/h,=(v,~1)/f: by combining the two equations we get is formula in practice, a millimetre scale on glass is placed ‘on one side of the lens at h, and its image is measured by means of a Utilising32 Practica Orics micrometer eyepiece situated at h,’. The magnification may thus be obtained; this is repeated for a second position of object and image. ve, (ick Spite sie, ee Baia | Hie secame seat, Ss Aten incr section) Stee od. Dros exgroved onto a, re so inch dom) Leap 150 Gms ete to Miners Fre. 40, ‘The other requirement, in order to determine the focal length is (v,»,) which is the distance moved by the micrometer eyepiece It will be obvious that the formula may ston the opti! tm. ee fa and u,, in which case pe derived in terms ofthe objet distances, I TFT “The result given by the fst formula may be checked by that given by the later. Focat Lexcrt MEASUREMENTS 33 Negative Thick Lens. ‘The foregoing formule may be applied for the determination of the focal length of a thick negative lens or lens system. The arrangement of the experiment is that shown in Fig. 42 in which an auxiliary positive lens is used to form an image at I, of a glass scale. This image, which can be arranged to be of the same size as the abject, serves as the object for the negative lens when it is interposed in the convergent beam. When this has been done, the h ls Fro. 42, {mage will lie in some such plane as indicated at T, and can then be measured by means of the micrometer eyepiece. The ratio of the size of the image at 1, to that at I, will give the magnification m, for use in the formula. If the negative lens is now moved to the position shown in dotted lines, the image will move to 1, and the magnification m, can be obtained. It should be noted that in determining the value (v,—»,) this corresponds to the distance I, to, 1, plus the movement of the negative lens from its first position to its dotted position; similarly (uj) will be equal to the distance moved by the negative lens alone. Foco-Collimator. This instrument is one of the more convenient devices for focal length measurement, chiefly on account of the simplicity and rapidity of the procedure, and it is therefore ideal as a workshop tool. It consists of a collimator tube at one end of which is mounted a good ‘quality achromatic lens of about 10 in, focus and at the other a lass plate on which are ruled two fine parallel lines A and B about 2mm, apatt (see Fig. 43) situated in the focal plane of C. These two lines subtend an angle 6 at the lens C and this angle can be measured accurately by means of a theodolite. Thus, two parallel earns emerge from the collimator inclined to one another at thisPractica Optics angle, and ifthe lens toe etd is placed in the path of thee beams it will form image A” and BY in ifs foval plane the topes of ‘hich can be measured By means of « mictoneter epic, From the geometry ofthe figure the tingle ABC snd ABP ats siag ones and the angle @ is cominon to both- ‘The angle # is equal to 1 4 e e “3 je UW a | Fro. 4s APBI/f in circular measure, and if @ has al we, and if @ has already been determined, the focal length of the lens under test f=A'B'x1/@. This latter term, namely, the reciprocal of the angle @ in radians, may be worked out as a simple i fn 7 out a simple multpiying factor and engraved on the collimator An additional asset to such an instrument 2 an instrument is to have the graticule ruled with five lines each spaced at 1 mm. intervals, with factors rotked out for the maximum separation and intermediate separation e lines; so that lenses of widely differen: focal lengths ma be accommodated for by the one instrument - @: Seat pe a. _ NBA word may be sd about the posoning ofthe grate acura atthe fons ofthe la C inthe caiman, tn Ted th roma may apply to te focusing of al colts. Tie fear mor method” is employed, with ie resent het {he lotion of the lies proper andthe image fn the soe pane arvied out by viewing the raticle with a microscope he ‘small depth of focus; the method is depicted in Fig. 44, os Fro. 44 Focat Lancra Measunements 38 ‘A useful modification of this instrument intended for quite short + focus lenses (e.g., 2in., 1 in. and less such as eyepieces and even * microscope objectives) is shown in Fig. 48. The collimator is attached to the stage of a microscope, and the microscope itself views the image A’B'; the latter is received on a scale situated in the eye- piece. Taking into account the magnification M of the microscope objective, the multiplying factor will then be (1/M x6). Nodal Slide Method. ‘The nodal pointé of a lens are points on the axis of the system such that an incident ray passing to the first nodal point under a particular angle with the axis will leave the second nodal point under a similar angle. For example, in Fig. 46 the ray ON, makes an angle @ with the optical axis XY, this ray will then emerge from the nodal point N, under the same angle 8. When the medium ‘on each side of the lens system is of the same refractive index, the nodal points coincide ‘with the principal points (see Fig. 39). ol Fro. 46, Fro, 45, From the above principle it is easy to see that if the lens was arranged to rotate about the point N,, the image of an object would remain stationary; and if the incident light is parallel the distance N,I will represent the focal length of the lens. If, however, N, was not over the centre of rotation of the lens, then the image T would swing from side to side, This therefore gives us a method for deter- mining the focal length of a compound lens system, for it is only necessary to have a lens mount which has rotation about a vertical axis and a means of moving the lens to and fro with respect to this axis; a collimator, and an eyepiece for observing the image. These36 Pracricat, Orrics are mounted on the optical-bench and the lens adjusted antil the image at I observed with the eyepiece (or maybe a low-power microscope) appears to remain stationary, then the distance between the centre of rotation and the image plane will give the focal length Fro. of the lens. In order to get an absolute value for this, it may be necessary to use the correction rod so that the direct readings from the bench may be converted into their true values. Fig. 47 shows ‘pictorial view of the optical bench set up for measurements by this method, including the nodal slide mount. CHAPTER III THE EYE The human eye is the organ by means of which we obtain most of the knowledge we are concerned with in cptical matters, and thesefore 1 description of its construction is desirable. It will not be dealt with here from a physiological aspect, but more from the standpoint of an optical instrument. ‘Tue Eve 37 Figure 48 represents a horizontal section of the human right eye. ‘The eye is spherical in form, approximately one inch in diameter, and i surrounded with a tough, opaque outer layer known as the felerotic. At the front of the eye is a more steeply curved spherical transparent layer, called the cornea, It is about one half of a milli ‘metre thick, its two surfaces have an average radius of 72 mm., and it has a refractive index of 1:38, The space iminediately behind the tea seuenonic vireeous Agueous. Fro. 48 comea is filled with a fluid, the aqueous humour, having a refractive index of 1-89, Following this is the crystalline lens, which is double convex in form and is composed of a number of transparent layers ‘varying in refractive index from 1-41 at the centre to 1-38 in the outer layers. Under the action of the citiary muscle the lens can be made to change its shape, and the power of the system is adjusted to focus images of objects at different distances on to the retina. This focusing seffect is known as accommodation, and in normal eyes enables objects ‘rom infinity to ten inches from the eye to be seen clearly. The radii of curvature of the front and back surfaces of the crystalline lens when the eye is focused on a very distant object are about 10 mm. and ©” @ mm. respectively, and its thickness is approximately 3°6 mm. The space immediately behind the crystalline lens is filed with a transparent, jelly-like medium, known as the vitreous humour, having a refractive index similar to that of the aqueous humour, |. Directly in front of the crystalline lens is the iris which auto- ‘matically controls the amount of light entering the eye, The circularPractica, Orrics aperture in the iis (known as the pupil) can be varied in diameter fom about 8 mm. to 2 mm, ‘The inner layer adjacent to the sclerotic is called the choroid which contains dark pigmented cells for absorbing any light which might penetrate the sclerotic, thus preventing any such stray light frem Teaching the retina, The innermost layer situated between the choroid and the vitreous hhumour is the retina. This may be looked upon as the sensitive receiving screen on which sharp images of external bjects are formed. It consists of a transparent tissue covered by clesely packed nerve endings from which the stimulus is conveyed to the brain, via the optic nerve, A little to the right of the position at which the optic nerve enters the eye is a small area of the retina called the macula tutea, in the immediate centre of which is a region known as the fovea centralis. It is here that vision is most distinct, and is the area on which the image is arranged to fall when one is trying to resolve fine detail of an object. Figure 49 shows a diagrammatic drawing of the human eye when treated as a centred optical system. Although the centres of the various surfaces and the pupil do not lie exactly on a common axis we may for most purposes consider the eye as a centred system. The positions of the Fro, 49 ‘cardinal points are indicated in Gusinal points of the Human Eye the diagram; the two principal Strate chm aniae ma, ‘he diagram; the BN or AP=i'mm Points and the two nodal points 20 mm are in each case so close together that they are represented in the figure as single points P and N respectively Some distances of importance are also shown in the diagram. Emmetropia and Ametropia. When the optical system and the axial length of the eye are such ‘hat light from an infinitely distant object is focused exactly on to the retina when accommodation is completely relaxed, the eye is said to be emmetropic, and the condition is that of emmetropia, ‘When this is not the case the eye is said to be ametropic, and the three ‘Tue Eve 39 BE types of ametropia are myopia, hypermelropia, and astigmatism. The FF frst tno named defects ae usualy dve to variations inthe aia length of the eye-ball; and the last named due to lack of sphericity in one ‘or more of the refracting surfaces of the eye, most frequently that of the comea. Figure 50 illustrates the case of emmetropia (a), myopia (b) and hypermetropia (¢). In myopia, or short sight, the refracting power of the eye or its ‘axial length is too great and light from fa very distant object is focused in front of the retina. In hypermetropia, or long sight, the refracting power or the axial length is too small and incident (gy —~- paral light is focused behind the retina, In the case of astigmatism, the refracted beam from a point object will be imaged in two focal lines which ‘may occupy any positions with respect to the retina, but in no case will the object be seen distinctly Fro. 80. == os Near and Far Points. The object point conjugate to the retina, when accommodation is completely relaxed, is known as the far point. This will be (a) at infinity in the case of an emmetropic eye, (b) a real object in myopia, and (c) a virtual object point behind the eye in hypermetropia, The conjugate point to the retina when accommodation is exerted ‘o its fullest extent, is termed the near point; and is the nearest position at which an object can be distinctly seen, ‘The Correction of Ametropia Myopia, ot hypermetrpia may be corrected by placing in front of the of len that wl give the light from an tnfiely distant object the necessary vergence frit o be focused on the retina, As ll be sen from Fig, 51 (a) the necessary condition forthe eorrcton myopia Yo place a diverging lens in front of the eye of such a40 Practical Optics power, that the light is now brought to a focus on the retina instead cf in front of it; whereas in the case of hypermetropia, a converging lens of suitable power will be required (see Fig. 51 (b)) If astigmatism is to be correc- ted, it is necessary to position in front of the eye a cylindrical lens ‘opposite in power to that existent ‘on the refraction surfaces of the eye (eg. on the comea) but with its axis parallel to the cylinder on the latter. (N.B.—The usual distance of the correcting spectacle lens from the cornea is about 20 mm.) a oot Fre, $1 Correction of Myopia and ‘Hypermetropis ‘Working Model of the Human Bye. ‘The preceding remarks concerning emmetropia and ametropia can be conveniently illustrated in practical form by setting up a working model of the human eye on the optical bench. Utilizing the metre opticel bench and fittings of page 21, we may set up at one end a +10D spectacle lens from the trial case and @ ‘ground glass screen 10 cm. away (see Fig. 52) to represent the eye. Moet EYE on Fre, 62 Working model of Eye [At the other end of the bench a collimator is arranged, in order to produce a very distant object for the model eye to “look at." The collimator, which may consist of some bold letter on a piece of clear glass as an object and a lens of about 10 cm. focal length, is focused for infinity as mentioned in chapter II. If the object is now illuminated with a diffuse source of light, an image of the letter should Ke the condition for normal vision. ‘Tue Bye a be seen sharply in focus on the ground glass screen (representing the retina). This illustrates the case of the emmetropic eye, with accom- modation relaxed, looking at an infinitely distant, object (i.e. the far point at infinity). ‘Another lens L, (in this ease of 20 em focus) is placed on the optical bench and arranged to slide between I, and the ground glass screen, By alteration of the distance between L, and L, the power of the lens system is changed, and this produces in effect the “accom modating power" for the model eye which in reality is carried out by the automatic change in curvature of the surfaces of the crystalline lens in the human eye. If, therefore, we bring the lens L, up in contact with £,, this would represent the condition “of maximum accommodation: and if the collimator lens C is then removed, the letter object may be brought towards I, until a sharp image of the letter is again seen in focus on the screen. This position of the object will represent the near point for the model eye. (Approximately 28 em. from L,.) Let us now make the model eye myopic by increasing the distance between L, and G to say 12 cm. “If the collimator is again put in position at the other end of the bench, it will be noticed that the letter ahject i no longer seen sharply defined on the ground glass screen, thus illustrating that in the case of myopia it is not possible {fo see very distant objects clearly. By removing the collimator lens and bringing the object to a position where its image is seen in focus on the screen G, this will be the position of the far point (approximately 65 cm. from L,) for the myopic eye in model form. And by placing the lens L, in contact with L, (ie. with full accommodation exerted) the object can be brought still nearer to Z., until its image is again seen on the screen G. EThe near point thus determined will be found to be 16 em. from Ly. We may now attempt to correct this myopic eye and restore it to Tt was shown earlier that this can ‘be done by the use of a suitable diverging (concave) spectacle lens placed in front of the eye. So that, taking the optical bench model (as we last left it) namely with the myopic eye viewing its “near point’; we can insert a number of diverging lenses (from a trial case) ‘in tum in fron of the eye until one is found which will restore the P. “‘near point position’” to that already determined for the emmetropic42 Practica Oprics i fhe first experiment, (A - 1-SD lens will be found suitable.) ihe lens I should then be removed and the collimator reinserted, ‘when it will be found that the thus corrected myopic eye can now foes very distant objects on its retin A similar experiment to the foregoing one may be carried out for the illustration of hypermetropia. In this case the length 1,6 of the model eye-ball may be decreased to (say) 8 em. If the collimator is again set up, the image of the {etter object wil fall outside the retina screen G and it wil be necessary {o insert the correct converging lens (a +8D lens) in front of the eye ‘order to focus the letter sharply on the sereen G. Thus the hyper, ‘metropic eye model will have its “far point’ restored to the normal infinite distance, whereas when I. is now placed in contact with, (to ive the effect of fall accommodation) the normal distance (28 ex.) for the “near point” will again be found. The collimator lens ig Temoved of course and the object brought towards the eye as before to obtain this reading. To illustrate the effect of asti tatism, the lens I, and the screen G Should first be re-set to their positions for the model ofthe emmetropic eve as i experiment No. 1. The lens L, should then be placed in Contact with L, and the object brought up to the position of the near Point. The letter object, however, should now be changed for one consisting of radial lines (see Fig. 58). ‘The model eye may now be made purposely astigmatic by introducing a weak cylindrical lens, (such as a ~0'5D) immediately in front of lens Z,; and on viewing the ground glass sereen G (i.e. the retina) it will be noticed that instead of all the radial lines now being in focus, only one or two will appear so. The correction of this defective eye can then be carried out by making use of the spectacle trial case, choosing a suitable correcting cylindrical lens (namely a +0-SD ey} and whilst placing it in front of the eye, it must be rotated in its own lane until alt the radial lines are again seen in focus on the retinal Screen G. When this has been done, it will be noted that the eorecting cylinder is one which is opposite in power to that present in the defective eye but with its axis parallel to the axis of the cylinder contained in the eye, Fee. 63 Ee ‘Tue Eve & Resolving Power. - . : i et scted with vision is the a - power of the eye or its limit in ability to see fine detail of en Beg On en of wrth ty, re ‘out (from his astronomical observations) that the limi in the ve 7 v ranged that the compl lock eee parent lines illuminated from behind may be eae homes Saw be well supported and indeed verified by a theory ‘based on the diameter of the foveal cones in relation to fe liamet ee aes ee best] Fro. 4 8. ‘ Hmholtz, Physiological Optics (English translation), Vol. 1, p. 176“4 Pracricat, Oprics diameter of the Airy diffraction dise of a lens system may be taken as Wain OD land in the case of the eye the refractive index NV’ of the medium in ‘which the image is formed can be assumed as 1-34, whilst U'y, can be deduced from the average semi-diameter y of the pupil divided by the focal length f of the eye (see Fig. 49), namely yi 2 _ Fm =O. The wavelength (A) =0-00055 Thus, the diameter of the Airy diffraction dise on the retina of the human eye _1-22.x 0:00055, = T3tx 010 The theory put forward by Hering* waa baced on the Fro. 38, assumption that if two diffraction discs (corresponding to two very close object points) were formed ‘on the foveal region of the retina, it would be necessary to have at least one foveal cone between the centres of the diffraction discs in order to carry a stimulus to the brain which would enable the dises to be seen separately; or in other words that the two object points might be resolved. This very natural assumption is illustrated in a diagrammatic drawing in Fig. 56 in which two diffraction discs are shown super- imposed on the foveal cone mosaic and separated by a distance equal to twice the diameter of a foveal cone; that is, with one cone separating the centres of the dises. The distance between the centres of the diffraction discs would therefore be § microns or 0-005 mm. The angle which this distance subtends at the optical centre or nodal point of the eye is equal to 0-005 mm. divided by the length Hering. Leipsig Berichte, 1900, pp. 16 =0-0050 mm, Transverse section of Cones in the Foveal Region of the Human eti “photomicrograph by EF ‘Finshasm. Mag.” x 1600. Tre Eve 45 NEF (oe Fg 49) o: 295 0-009 radian, This eosspons ery closely faded tw an angle of aoe mite of FovEAL CONE woe wegen are, which is also the vival te < acuity limit determined by subjective measurement, hel ‘Thus it would appear that the fore- Gor omeree going is likely 10 be a satisfactory SFAa CONE Ge S4) theoretical explanation of the resolving cal power of the human eye. There are, however, other modifications of this theory based on more recent researches, and the reader will do well to consult a number of references given in W. D. Wright's Perception of Light (published by Messrs. Blackie and Son Ltd.). CHAPTER IV THE TELESCOPE The telescope, in its various forms, is of such general use that its principle should be thoroughly understood. This is best done by making up working models of the varying types of telescopes by means of the optical bench and spectacle lenses from a trial case already described, for in this way one can have access to the vatious optical components and vary the distances of the latter and so illustrate the ‘effects clearly. The external tube or mount of the complete telescope uently hides the internal lenses and only mystifes the student; so that whilst itis, of course, advisable to take measurements on and to (dissemble the complete instruments at a later period, it is more helpful in the earlier stages to make the necessary diagrammatic sketches and ‘calculations and to make up the models according to the specifications thus arrived at. The following experiments are arranged with this in view. "Model Telescopes. The experiment consists in setting up a simple astronomical or Jnverting telescope and taking measurements in connection with the46 Practica Optics instrument and then repeati — eating the measurements for a Galilean ‘Astronomical Telescope, en nets optical Bench for the experiment. At the left hand } place a lens (fom the tial case) of fainly long focal length ae SSS ete “A Se etre OS beh Fo. Path of Rays in Astronomical Telessope (Diagrammatic) +2D, in one of the lens holders. Receit in 4490 ldes. Resi an image of so diet obj pode bythe lens on he rune gas wren Pt a second holder and on the other side of the ind screen a short focal length Ten, such as 42120, ‘Tae a ys bench completely round and again focus the date che ee Sve-ighths ofan inch in dame in diameter. Now look at the distant abe Neh the Btn of he we es Ths base et 3g or astronomical telescope; the + 2 D. lens would be known as the objects, while the +12. i the eyeice (Se He a7 Sie frm cnr adore hepa a bes ad stray light and this improve the contrat at Observe that-— (i) The image is larger than the ol is subtends a greater angle at the eye. Piet os smn dey, ft (Gi) The image is inverted and reversed, johatte the distances, off the optical bench, from the object ase image, and fromthe eyedens tothe image, and compare eae ‘Tux Teescore 9 Fvalues with the nominal focal-lengths of the two lenses as given by be the focal power engraved on the lens ring. Focal length (in cm.) =100/power (in dioptres) Observe that the distance apart of the lenses when the telescope is focused for parallel light is equal to the sum of the focal-lengths. In this condition the telescope is said to be in “normal ” or “* afocal ” adjustment. Find the position with a ground-glass screen of the image of the 0.G. aperture projected by the eye-lens. This image is variously known as the Ramsden circle, the eye-ting, or the exit-pupil. Note that for comfortable vision this image must fall on the pupil of the eye of the observer. Magnifying Power. This may be defined as the ratio:— angle under which the image is seen throug! ‘angle under which the object is seen by tt In order to understand clearly the way in which the magnified image is produced by means of the telescope, the student should make 1 diagram for himself on the lines shown in Fig. 87. Parallel rays from the distant object are drawn meeting the object glass under an angle 6. The ray BI passes through the optical centre of the 0.G. and is therefore undeviated; the ray AT is parallel to the axis. Where these two rays intersect, the image I (of the distant object) will be formed. This image is at the focus of the eyepiece and therefore the ray AI, if continued on parallel to the axis, will, after passing through the eyepiece lens, intersect the axis at the other focal point of the latter, and all other rays passing through I will emerge parallel to this ditection, The virtual magnified image seen through the tele- scope will be seen under the angle @', which may be expressed as [fap where W/is the height of the image at I the instrument e unaided eye. ‘The angle under which the object is seen directly by the eye alone is (neglecting the length of the telescope) '/foa- Hence, the magnifying power48 Pracricat, Orrics Magnification—Direct Determination. ‘Use the telescope as already set up, observe through i with one eye a distant vertical scale (see Fig. 64) whilst with the other eve Gow the scale directly. Note how many divisions of the scale, seen by the unaided eye, are covered by a single division as seen throug the telescope. The number of divisions thus seen in the space of Fie. 88. Ray Path for Formation of Exit-Pupi one magnified division is equal to the magnifying power of the tele- scope, Compare this result with the calculated value of the magni: ing power obtained by dividing the focal length of the 0.G. by that of the eyepiece lens. Determination of the Magnifying Power from the Diameters of the Entrance- and Exit-pupils. IMuminate the 0.G. with diffused light, by placing a frosted lamp clean rit Place a ground-glass screen in one of the optical bench Seine a receive an image of the O.G. aperture projected by treet sens, on to it. Measore the size of this image with a rllk toe eye ee ing a band magnifier to help in observations. Also ete seine diameter of the O.G. (with a pair of dividers). Then, diameter_of entrance-popil the magnifying power= —“Figmeter of exi-pupi “The reason for this will be clear by referring to the diagram in Figs. The exit pupil A’B! (being an image of the objectslass A iSeued by the eyepiece) will be found by drawing rays fom ae na’ pasong through the optical centre C of the eyepiece lens; fhew raystwl pass on undeviated, And by drawing rays from A and Ty pusing through the focus F; these will emerge parallel to the axis ‘Tue Tetescore rr ‘Their intersection at A’ and BY will give the position and size of the exit-pupil, and from similar triangles AB/ab=foa/far (and A'B’=ab). From previous experiment foo/fy ‘Therefore AB/A’ magnifying power. Diameter of entrance-pupil_ Diameter of exit-pupil. Magnifying Power= Measurement of Field of View. Direct the telescope towards some distant wall (not less than $0 yards away) and observe what positions on the latter just appear on the extreme edges of the field when viewing through the eyepiece. ‘An assistant can mark these positions with chalk. By measuring the distance L apart of the chalk lines and the distance D of the wall from the O.G. of the telescope, the value L/2D will give the tangent of the semi-angular field of view. Pn fees ee — a ___ bebe ‘Fis. a Path of Rays in Galilean Type Telescope (Diagrammatic) By determining the diameter of the diaphragm placed in the focal plane of the eyepiece and dividing this by the focal length of the object glass, this will also give the angular field, and may be used as a check on the provious determination. Galilean Telescope. Set up on the metre optical bench, a4-4D. lens in a holder at about the middle of the bench. Receive an image of a distant object, produced by this lens on a ground glass screen. Put a—10 D. lens in | holder and place it on the bench between the O.G. and the ground glass screen, at a distance equal to the focal length of the negative ens (namely, 10 cm.) from the latter. Observe the distant objectI ——__ 30 Practica Orrics through the telescope and adjust Position of the eye lens until ¢ and adjust the position of the zl re Ten the lenses. This is now a siny aos simple form of Galilean telescope. (See Observe that— The image isl larger than the object as seen di i one Sreater angle at the eye, ae oe (i) The image is erect and not rever as elm ed as inthe case ofthe simple 19 ite et be ee ce up othe ae ns, and hat moving the eye from side to ade an entniny obtained, although its angular value remains conta oe dati A an = V tet moat ene pant Fyemece M Fro, 60, cssurement of EsitPupil for Galilean Tekacoye, Objet glows Repeat the same rea it mentioned before with the ast nomic nd taba ts sort ns Guan aga MD 8 magia . a ee Ih ray dis for finding tay from A passing through the focus F. Thi rn walk ga Shan Pt ‘Tue Texescore 31 receive a real image of the exit-pupil. This image will not necessarily .,be of the same size as the exit-pupil, but the diameter should be roted; and having determined afterwards the magnification given by ‘the auxiliary positive lens with the ground glass screen at the same distance as used in the experiment, the true size of the exit-pupil may be obtained. Huygenian Eyepiece. This form of eyepiece is employed in many sighting instruments which are used for observational work, chiefly on account of the absence of colour fringes to the image in the outer parts of the field. In other words this eyepiece suffers less from chromatic differ- ence of magnification than other forms. The eyepiece consists of two Feld ton“ Fre. 61 Huygenian Eyepiece Model. plano-convex lenses, the field-lens having approximately twice the focal length of the eye-lens, with a separation equal to one-and-a-half times the focus of the latter. ‘A model of this can be made up by employing two spectacle lenses of +6D. and +12D. arranged in holders on the optical bench and separated in distance by 12-5 cm, (See Fig. 61.) At the focus of the +12D. (namely, 8:8 cm. from it) place the diaphragm of five- eighths inch diameter aperture. The telescope objective (i.e., the +2D. lens previously used) should then be placed on the optical bench and adjusted so that its focal plane lies in the plane of the diaphragm. In this way one can observe the appearance of some distant test-object and compare the results given by this telescope with those given by the telescope with one eye-lens only. The effect of the field lens (the +6D. lens) may be clearly seen and it will be noted that the exit-pupil moves up much closer to the eye-lens and thus facilitates the location of the eye, whilst at the same time its size has been changed.52 PRacticaL Orrics Ramsden Eyepiece. . Tn this type of eyepiece, feld-lens and eyeens have similar focal lengths, bat are separated by a distance equal to seven-enths of the foral length of either lens. Set up two +7 D. lenses and space Fro. 2, Model of Four Lens Terrestrial Fyepiece (Ray Diagram) them by a distance=7!10x (143 cm.) =10 cm. (This will give the Came power of eyepiece as the Huygenian.) Place the diaphragm sare pench and adjust it so that it appeats sharply in focus when Tooking through the eyepiece system. Again pat the +2 D. object glass atthe other end of the optical bench and focus a dfn’ object Bia “ihe diaphragm. Note the position of the exit-pupil in relation fe the eyelens, also its ize and observe that the focal plane of te complete eyepiece is outside the lens system, whereas with the Houygenian type it is between the lenses. Four-Lens Terrestrial Eyepiece. "The introduction of a two-lens-erector piaced between the object- fase and eyepiece ofa telescope is one way of converting the stone, sls orm into the terrestrial type of instrument. The principle of Ts socalled four Tens eyepiece can be conveniently illustrated on the optical bench and the arrangement ofthe Tenses will be seen from Tig. 62. The inverted image of some distant object is Sst formed wre he, ground glass screen at I by the +2D. objectglass,. The oe est cases consists of two lenses of similar focal length sha separated by a distance equal to oneand-achalt times the focal Tongth of either; whilst the image I is sited at a distance of oe, wert the focal length of either lens of the erector in front of the Best rae ee nat we may make up a working model by placing two +10 D- lentes in theit holders on the optical bench, separating them by 15 cm- ‘Tue Texescore 53 and arranging the font lens ofthe eector to be 8m. fom the image ane Tr Then in te more holders set up the Hoygenian eyepiece Cady deci), ho Boies 16 cm. tom the ae thereto, Now return tothe eretor sje and proceed to insert Setean the lence diaphragm, the postion and He of whichis Important to determine this iluminate the whole aen of the objet face by means of difse source of light and find the poston of a ground glas screen paced between the eretor lenses so that a sharp Sage ofthe 0.6. is formed on the later, - Record the position onthe bench and measure the diameter of the image, which will be found to be about 7 min, Remove the gound-glass screen and replace it bby diaphragm with the above dameter bole init. The teresa tap new opty iving oh te sae te image of distant objects will be Correciy erected an snag of i seen to be correctly erected’ and ee In order fo istrate in practice the prin ice the principle of the seflctn seleape, the Newinian for ofthis icient tay be se up with M Fro, 63. Refccting Telescope the aid of the optical bench, as this is easier to demonstrate than the Gregorian or Cassegrain types, which require an opening through the _ Fig, 63 shows the arrangement of the optical parts: M is surface: silvered mirror of about 40 cm. radius, Strictly this should be of parabolic form, but for small apertures a spherical mirror will be found quite satisfactory; and, indeed, a silvered concave spectacle lens mounted in one of the fittings may be utilized for this p' utilized for this purpose. At about 17 cm. from the mirror is mounted a small diagonal plate Poe 54 Practica Oprics -————. £2 int Spspiece which observes the magn atJ.-‘The whnletney ey Foetal toward a distant object and used asa complete telcos aie improvement in the chromatic aberration vill te noted eee Sompared with the model tetescopes made up witha single log athe asthe object gla. ‘Measurements on Manufactured Telescopes, Whit the foregoing experinents inthis chapter are intended to itustate the bond principles ofthe telsenp, the me ts onthe commercially manutacured nomen ee soificaton from those already dear iI I HH a AEORFIn] [O | retarue| 4 I Hu ouneme A PP Pes CK] 2 Fic. 64 Open Field Objects for Telescope Testing ii | iN Fs ond. therefore, itis desirable in the frst place to have suitable testobjects set up at a convenient distance (eg., about ive Perce) from an open window at which the observations are made Fig. 64 shows a suggested form of such test abjecls which have Proved satisfactory in practice. A horizontal white board with lect lines wrist an arbitrary vertical scale will be found best forthe estinener of magnification. Black letters on a white ground, radial line con a broad white band on a dark background (all diaminated by day. Tight from mirrors at the back) serve as definition teste relating to Tue Tevescore _ gatism and chromatic aberation respect Fry Resolving power tes may be eared cat quately by tras of he sy, langes an ceva hls a fering se fad quantitatively by a glas plate (having alternate lap an a tip) which can be rotated about is midpoint R.A Black pe Fr, 65, Attasimuth Mount for Telescope Testing ae eee ee alee een eli ao of tesople sights, and merry bulb efletng the sun's image serves well as an artificial star for testing the aberratior ba It is advisable to have a rigid form of support for helaing the telescope to be tested; this may consist of two V a a suitable altazimuth mounting illustrated in Fig. 65.rrr 56 Practicat, Orrics Magnification—Direct Observation. Having directed the telescope towards the vertical scale of the 9P¢r> fr Shects (Fig. 64), the image seen throug the instrument fet es te superimpose. on the scale divisions seen directly 9% erage, By counting the number of the latter covered DY SF -——— magnifying power of the telesto ‘This simple method somettfes Rx presents difficulty to the observer due ——>—~ ett sopermpne he to vt eh te ely i Sepa pace Howe ; Revanemte nasa eS 7 2a tne dt eer Ry as and a silvered reflector R,, arranged ves fitted over the end of the telescope eyepiece By this meaty tine eye alone can see the image of the scale through the telescope and ; by a slight rotation of R, coin- Simultaneously the unmagnified image, aaa of any two lines may be made and the magnification read of- Magniicatioo—Enteance- and Exit-Pupil Method. ‘The telescope may be supported in a vertical position over an ittaminated white surface, and the exit-pupil observed with an ey tece inthe focal plane of which is mounted x scale divide in inthe Piece Miimette, The diameter of the exit-pupil can thus be measure or ths value divided into the measured diameter of the object-glas aatt wive the magnification of the telescope, provided the whole “Tamever of the O.G. is being utilized. In order to check this latter rats smilie scale on glass may be held in contact with te rainy of the object glass and the exit-pupil observed where an image sro ot ale willbe seen: the effective diameter of the 0.G. can thas bbe measored. Tn place of the scaled eyepiece travelling microscope may De employed, and indeed this is advisable if attempting to measure the Seeger the exit pupil of a telescope fitted with a concave eje- fiece e.g, Galilean binocular) for te extpupil can only Pe ‘Tue Tetescore Oo focused by using a fairly low fo 1 fairly low-power objective in the microscope as i Ts on te intetal ie of the eyepiece ee Exie pop “The diameter ofthe ext pupl given bythe instrument aoc for he bghscs of te age wn rope tat ote Shjet dependent on te arn of te eitpopl and te zea of he eeu tctaage at inns epa ca aca ‘Zerg ote enteral anton, for eae, i ght sight Tomy te as small ar two milimetes and ia dull weather appre Tata four millimetres whereas at night may be as large ab ight Siivete tr dameter, "A the aren ox cle =ary wil be onen thatthe ight gaeing power oie ye sen es rete or eho nr dpm, Cogent ape nde night we should have an extopl ofa lent 8 mn ater histor feng tyme’ nm ail ap ia nh sep png or any gen sn um ion, the object would not appear as bright as the object seen iy by the anaied eye oeslectng loses dv to absorpon and sehecion by the opel Pats of the anroment). “Then, the rato ‘of Liiglilieas of the image to that of the object — S80 of exit-pupil. ‘of eye-puy epreate See tra fl objet rt aes etd a aogeler ivisions, the field of view (real) may be read off by observit fa si SS ae ec tee whee - era te cela sept ol hs) toe cee er by a direct reading off the scale or by setting the cross-line ofthe teecope in tum on thee two points and reading the angular a ies Te leprn tal ued Palace real field multiplied by the magnifying power of the instrument.58 Practica Optics Types of Telescope Objectives and Eyepieces, Blan lst srtace, In thi objective the primary chose ee and spherical aberration is correcte is pad her ‘orrected and the lens is practically free ce a Pie | Fin, : Conn Crom. Fit FRAUNHOFER Steel, Gauss Fee. 67, Types of Telescope Objective. Cooxe sua Ps, in which the fit tens is stated in font is due t iohil "Silly stnper curves are requited for the ace the removal of the aberrations can be carried out to much the s es degree as in the Fraunhofer type, “ane Jn the Gauss form, the efown losis infront surfaces do not have similar radii. ite of of freedom inthe removal ofthe se 8 in front, but the contact This permits of a greater degree "rations, for example, such a lens asefal, but & more complet knewie lee knowledge can only bata ‘experience of the actnal computing work involved, : 8 1a connection with ejepies wh commercially-made telescopes, owatmays ene the well-known Huygenian and ‘Tue Tetescore td Ramsden types (already described) still hold their place, although the former is more generally employed on account of the small jehromatic difference of magnification inherent in this type. For higher-power eyepieces and when wider fields of view are required is necessary to employ rather more complicated systems, such as | SHH | & Fic. 68, Achromatized Eyepieces. those indicated in Fig. 68. ‘Type (a) is the Abbe orthoscopic eye- piece, whilst (b) and (c):are two forms of the achromatized Ramsden eyepiece. The previous remarks relating to the design of the object- glasses also apply to these lens systems Definition Tests. The optical performance of a telescope is necessarily of primary importance, but the judging of the quality of definition given by the instrument is not always an easy operation and depends largely on the experience of the observer. For example, highly trained men can tell (by directing a telescope towards a set of objects similar to those shown in Fig. 64) whether the instrument is giving “first quality "definition or not and also in many cases they can tell what is the cause of inferior definition should this be manifest; this judge- ‘ment may be facilitated jf an auxiliary telescope (giving an excellent performance) is kept as‘ standard of reference and mounted along- side the instrument under test so that alternate observation can be made and the results compared. For less-trained observers, however, the star-test will afford an ‘easier means of both testing the optical performance and determining the nature of the aberration if the instrument is defective. ~ This test consists in directing the telescope towards an artificial star and in examining the expanded out-of-focus image on both sides of the best focus. The artifical star may consist either of a steel ball reflecting aii image of the sun or of a minute hole suitably illuminated‘Appeoronce of inoge Fro. 68 ‘star Test Mustrating Sphetical Aberration ‘Tue TeLescore a ina dark corridor. (Methods for producing various forms of artificial star have been described by the author in the Optician, February, 1925, Vol. 69, No. 1769, pages 5-7). ‘The defects which may be present in a telescope objective are (i) chromatic aberration (Gi) spherical aberration (ii) coma and (iv) astigmatism. ‘A tworlens achromatic objective (intended for visual work) 1s generally designed so that the red (C line) and blue (F line) are brought to a common focus, whilst the focus for green light is found nearer to the lens; consequently the expanded images of a white star ‘would show (within the focus) a purple outer ring with a green centre and a green outer ring and purple centre outside the focus. An apochromatic objective—in which red, green and blue are brought to ‘one focus—would show a white circular patch on each side of the focus. For the examination of the lens for the presence of spherical aberration a monochromatic star may be used (preferably green). By referring to Fig. 69a (which is a grossly exaggerated diagrammatic illustration of the union of the rays in the image formed by the objective) it will be seen that if the rays from all parts of the ubjective coincided in one point (j-e., freedom from spherical aberration), the appearance of the circular patch of light on each side of the best focus position would be similar. If, on the other hand, appearances are seen resembling those in Fig. 69 (b) and (c) “‘under-corrected”” or “‘over-corrected”” spherical aberration would be indicated respectively. ‘The defect, known as coma, is caused by oblique rays through the Jens not intersecting on the oblique axis pr (see Fig. 70). This produces a flared tail to an otherwise circular image of the star and sgives a distinctly unpleasant appearance to images seen at the edge of the field, Should this aberration be present in the centre of the field it is more serious and should not be tolerated; it may be caused by a tilting or an error of centering of one or both the components of the objective. ‘Astigmatism is also an aberration due to oblique rays and may ‘be caused by stch rays in meridians at right angles to one another ‘coming to a focus at different distances along the oblique axis. For‘Squaring-on Test. The optical performance of a telescope objective may be impaired by its incorrect mounting in the telescope tubes for example, both Fro. 70 Mostrating Come (Diagrammati), coma and astigmatism may be caused by the o Tor being co-linear with the axis of the tube. "A deviee fo checking ean Sewn in Fig. 72 and consists of a tube T (which fe swell lished diagonal plate P ed in the telescope eye- Horvseot a! Ye lee On ptical axis of the O., ALLE —— Fro. 71, Mlustrating Astigmatism (Diagrammatic) Picee tube and the diagonal plate illuminated by a ditfuse source Of light, virtual images of the illuminated plate {in the form of aa Gunulus of light) will be seen relected in the various surfaces of the objective at the other end of the tube. As the fourth ative of many objectives is usually a very long one (and sometimes flat) {fe reflected image from this surface appears approximately the sone site as the object, and if properly squared-on would look soneaiee ar asin ig. 78. By titing the lens the appearanee (a) may Re restored. Having secred this condition, the viral images from Fie, 72 Squaring on Eyepiece. Jd for; thee are geerly sch the other leesurfacs may be look ssn mas er (as they are produced by rfetion Irom retry tured conver er coeave sats) andi he lnscompovens ae Appearances seen with Squating-on Test properly centred, the images should all appear concentric, as shown in Fig. 78c, Produced inthe nage. For example ight scattered and ref often ease trovblesome effets, sng snctine to tity ot Donat way of tetng hs det to died fhe ttremantene oe Practicat, Orrics ‘Tue TeLescore 65 woe material (see Fig. 74). Its diameter A suitable form of polariscope may be made up by utilizing @ circular black patch of opaa circratanee {vom the telescope object glass should be such that the reflecting surface (at the appropriate angle) as polariser and a Nicol gxitpupil of the instrament is just “” blacked-out ” when viewed prism as analyser. (See Figs. 76 a and b.) and ug wl pu br ergoreae defect may be in a prismatic binocular. ‘Neco! prem a snder (8) A complete Te atrumenty e-Bee 3 Prismatic Binocular Berar toss) OFF ng Aachen, Under test Borisee Fr. 76, Examination of Optica) Parts in Polarised Light es 78 7 ee oa to ay eae a number of lenses semaine pac; Wy spigot san wok "Soa eee : we shop Faure [Sgn inn o com sae fen adv cna on gl ae wane fp esol so te thennh Only pon tol fey sean be a at segue red allow ae bong he ‘The proper use of screening the prism ‘employment of diaphragms will help in the Test for Strain. Resolving Power. at for Semi ance that gone ofthe opal pats ofa telescope JE Resving power may be dined as the ability of les stem to system should show signs of being strained for otherwise the defini reveal fine detail. It may be expressed as the angle which two just- ser a vnent nay be impaired, sometimes producing « JF Telved image sbtend atthe objective, or in terms of the aan He if te sn ese, Srin can gute wo- IF Ste of objet just sue ata given dtance from the lens Sfttingly be produced by clamping a lens too tightly in its cel, F A very smal) distant object point viewed by a lens will give an ming Oe Ean in he sport. e's importa, thelr, to Ay incon de (ee Fig. 77) at its focus. The diameter of this avoid such distortion of the glass surfaces. sap dise is given by 124 _ where A= ‘Consequently, the various components (lenses or prisms) in their =e aT, rogite or the completely assembled instrument are examined in refractive index of the medium in the image space (us Totrised ight, when strain will be revealed by the presence of “ight fir, and therefore N’ is equal to unity) U’y is the angle that the Petes of sometimes even colour in an otherwise dark Geld (oe xbeme marginal ry from the lens makes with the optcal ex ‘when polariser and analyser are “crossed ")- fence, the larger the diameter of the lens for a given focal length, ye wave length of the light; N’Airy disc. Calling thi am resolving power angle 8 will = ate mapas ct om Okc al, ag lh telescope objective is equ is {sisope obj equal to 1224/4 where 4 is the full aperture of rehire i pee poner nce Fra. 77, z Airy Disc. Z FOE # ome inch diam seconds of arc, whist for a 100" fea thas of ae ist for a 100" telescope the angle # is ligne ‘bout one inch at a thousand yards, Power of a telescope is to direct 0 consisting of altemate cl ‘opaque stripes (in effect a com by aylignt es (in effect a course grating) illuminated by daylight ) and then to rotate this grating Separation of the lines malt "ltiplied by the cosine "ich he geting hase ved * experiment may be camied out ether ut either in the form of an open. a type of object or in the labofatory, where ie ama available. The set-up of the apparatus can be arrang as ielaued in Fig. 79, the telescope viewing the gr svi cee aed Gb, the front), and if the distance D ig 100 yard the size of 7 tal ys he grating G would require to be approximately @ fect by 2 feet, ‘Tue Texzscore td Soch an object area may not occupy the whole angular field of the telescope, but this is not essential as it is only in the centre of the field where such a critical test as resolving power would be made, ‘The grating itself may be produced by painting black stripes (utilizing sa stencil for doing this) on a piece of plate glass of the size already indicated, making the clear spaces equal in interval to the opaque Grating tet be) Fra. 79, Resolving Power Test for Telescopes For objectives of one inch aperture and at a distance 2x D=200 yards the strips would require to be one fifth of an inch wide, whilst {for a two inch diameter lens the strip width would have to be of the order of a one tenth of an inch. As the grating is also rotatable, the apparent separation of te lines may be decreased until resolution ceases. If the experiment is to be carried out in a cotridor indoors with the object at a much closer distance (e.g., D=25 yards, say) one can use a piece of Process Screen (Gin. square), having 50 lines per inch ‘on it. This mounted on a rotating table, such as a spectrometer circle, would serve the purpose well Such an experiment is an excellent one, more especially if an iris diaphragm is fitted over the objective of the telescope, so that the resolving power may be measured for successive apertures of the lens and these results plotted. Necessary Povler of Eyepiece. In order to do justice to the resolving power of the telescope objective itis necessary to render visible to the eye the smallest image interval given by the O.G. This is done by using the appropriate power of eyepiece. For example, the resolving power angle @ for a one inch diameter objective would be 1:22 4/4 =1-22 x 0:000022"/1" '=0-000027 radians, and if its focal length is twelve inches, the value68 Practica OPTICS for the amales tage interval 1 in Fig, 78 wil be 12 0-000027 = 000002 inches 00002 inches yiewed by the umnided eye at its “near pat" oo —-—-=-_—_ woe eee Visual Acuity i one mate of are (or 00008 ane I pe peossary power ofthe eyepiece mut be 000030000082 0 times (very costly) 1 mes (ve oifying power of an eyepiece may be taken a6 tance of distinet vision, = te Djgane of dane. tne eeiee foal rth Ml be of ——_— inca rer bute Visual Acuity angle, in which ease the eyepiece ae te be x20 or 08 inch focal length. The following table (1) may be found useful TABLE 1. Tweomerien RESOLVING ‘Nocassany Powsx oF EYEHiHCE: Poter al Diameter Obiest in. [casing Visual Acuity of 1’) ‘of Object- terval just ir telescope working at as | ssoheie | fiter eTS rT ai xT | 0.000013, tm | xs Z| Goose | osm | x9 ips {| 00000067 ) 0:42" xa | x80 | Gedo | oe | 6s | xa Binocular Telescopic Instruments. sr chiet advantage of the binocular telescope over the monoctia? type, is that both eyes can be employed for observa and the Pez qaent stereoscopic power of the eyes maintained afd {8 certain consetMsnanced. Moreover, by the use of prisms in the (wo, tele- Scopes the effective Tength of the instrument is reduced, making it scores Tmpacts whilst atthe same time providing a means for ceslng the image. >.4 Practical Optics raphs at diferent foc ar aken. Buta photograph canbe examined rape tang in atl which ay not be possible with an obec Sten hot of petmanent ratte TABLE Vil. _ | Regeich iene. | NA ee ° ret meses! |Feetetn | ela Rams eg le El Troragmm | oan | fee | wax | 4 | mae foreemm om | ox | ioe | ao | ait eee oe ase |oma | oe 10 for gmm |e | ie | sx | 2 | x8 pegom [8] is | sos | | tt Tin general, the microscope has to be set up in a similar way and ‘with the same care as for visual work, and then it is only necessary to mount a suitable housing—for carrying the photographic plate— behind the eyepiece, focus the image carefully and expose the plate. It is usually advisable to employ a “" projection eyepiece,”” and the focusing is best done by substituting a piece of clear glass for the ‘groundeglass screen; on the clear glass is an ink linc, which may be Viewed with a hand magnifier simultaneously with the image of the object. pve | Pat a Fic, 104 LMagnifeation ia Photomicrography (ay Diagram) agrammatic illustration of the image formation in photo. rion and the way in which the magnification may be derived in tice i ven nF 104 agnification (for photomicrography) poe he Te From the diagram it will be seen that, strictly speaking, the camera length” should be measured {rom the focal point F’, of ‘THe Microscore. 95 the eyepiece to the plate, but in practice this point is very close to the eyelens, and therefore one can measure from the metal eye-cap without committing any serious error. ‘As an example of the use of the above formula, let us take a one- sixth inch objective (j.e., f.=4 mm.) working at a tube-length of 160 mm, and with a x5 projection eyepiece (i.e., f.=2 inches), then the primary magnification m,—h'/h=160/4=40. And if a camera length of 20 inches is to be employed, then camera length fe thus giving a total magnification on the plate of 400 diameters. Similarly, if the camera length be made 90 inches in length a final ‘magnification of 600 is obtained, and so on. The correct necessary magnification to employ, however, is given in a later paragraph. ‘An alternative and advisable method of determining the magnifi- cation is to mount a stage micrometer on the microscope and photo- graph the scale divisions, and then to measure up on the plate the size of a known interval of the object. my hl [ht= 10/210 Apparatus for Photomicrography. ‘The general arrangement of the apparatus for photomicrogrephic work is illustrated in Fig. 105. The illumination system on the left of the diagram consists of a high-power source of light S (such as a Pointolite “ lamp or an automatically-operating arc lamp) and an Plan view of Photomicrographic Apparatus, auxiliary condenser C fitted with itis diaphragm I,. It is sometimes advisable to insert a cooling trough T containing water. The dist- lance of the source and the position of the lens C should be arranged s0 as to produce an enlarged image of the former of suficient size to fil the aperture of the substage condenser E, Having focusede ee e microscope, the Jens-s is bee SS ‘image of the iris diaphragm I, is in in te mae the object is thus controlled, Be the Tami id par a sa el ater on sar lng ey Cah ein a ater sce Ui theang mn es The magatatn neceoy . eae nae in this case is decided, not by the Bian ofthe ee (as dtr on pg 9), SS wn oe pt lotographic plate. It is, of course, well knc th t {he ran sn vase for diferent types of pate ana oe tat sae aut pats have an average gui see charren mat mm., whilst a slow pl Proocas plate) hare ake : ow plate een . O05 mam. We may therefore tke sca ron Pas) Basa Se ; asa aver parties af the rete hepatic are notes ie considered sive ‘Tae Microscore 7 arrange the magnification so that the smallest distance between two F points in the object should in the image cover at least ten times the ‘grain size, in order to safely resolve the image. Hence the necessary ‘magnification . 001 mm, x 10 ™ object interval resolved by objective. Ths, for #* objective, magnification =0-10/0-0012 Gye =0-10/0-00048 pete ee =0.10/0-00027 =370 x Whilst the above magnifications are sufli-ient to photographically resolve the image of the smallest object interval discernable by the stated objectives, it may be necessary sometimes to employ twice or three times these figures in order to save enlarging the negative after- wards for the purpose of more comfortable viewing. If, however, shortness of exposure is important, it is advisable to keep to the ‘magnifications set out above. Illumination of Opaque Objects. When opaque objects are to be examined with the microscope, the eubstage illuminator is no longer suitable and other means have to be employed. Considering first the case of low-power objectives, where the working distance is relatively long (¢.g., half an inch or longer), the object may be illuminated by a number of 4-volt lamps suitably arranged at four points round the object glass. (See Fig. 106.) Such 1a method is also convenient for macrophotography. With objectives having a focal length of between 25 mm. and 8 mm., and with a working distance down to approximately 3 mm., a “ring illuminator” (Fig. 107) is frequently used. This consists of a parabolic reflector which brings the incident parallel beam to a focus on the specimen; the latter has to be small in dimensions in order to allow the incident beam to pass; but the device is particu- Jarly useful, for with the annvlar illumination thus obtained, all shadows are eliminated. ‘Another method, which does not, however, necessitate the specimen being small in dimensions, is depicted in Fig. 108. Here the illuminat- ing system is arranged in an outer barrel surrounding the objective ‘and the light is focused down on to the object either by lenticular prisms or a mirror system. ¢98 Practicat. Optics [All the foregoing methods have the advantage that the light for illuminating the specimen does not pass through the microscope objective, asin the case of the * vertical illuminator "” described later, ‘This prevents light being back reflected from the lens surfaces and Fro. 107. Ring Ilsmsisater. cat lack of contrast in the image. This problem of removing ane acjoa isa mach more serious defect than i generaly real Backrest favo when sing mrtal specimens as the object 39 ve oeh canbe reeled and sated from the objective tha ii ot post ose the surface ofthe specimen atall* Nevertheles, forthe highest power miro scope ebjectives iti amen essential to use the" vente ilumiator” This consists ints simplest form ofa plane glass reflector ar aghangled prism (hed in an adjstable trom) sented immediately behind the Ghjetive (Fig. 108), and thos the incident ght reflected down though the Tes en ee specimen. The Hight returned by Tedetion at te ater agin pases through thr objective and through the pall plate to forthe fel image. A pam Minar (we dlagram) ca aso be Wed cit in pombe that the wpe of non-refecting sms (ce chapter 8) on the 16 ig posible aroscope lenses ay help to lesen thi trouble. re. 108. THe Microscor 99 ‘The arrangement of the optical parts when using a “ vertical illuminator” should be given consideration. In order to comply with the condition that the source of light should be focused in the pplane of the object, the source or effective source should be situated ata distance from the objective equal to that of the primary image, i . nM UJ ; Ly op Pordil_iote L Corde ote (erbn type) PF 6,108 Vesta tumoator. Fre. 110 that isto say, in Fig. 110 the distances marked D should be similar. ‘Then by having an iris diaphragm in front of the lamp as indicated, ‘he illuminated area on the specimen can be controlled. ‘The distance of this itis sui Uhe mivsuscope axis can, however, be reduced by interposing a lens L (Fig. 111) in such a postion that ‘a virtual image is formed at the long conjugate of the objective as shown diagrammatically in the figure, thus itis possible to use a short and compact side-tube to contain the vertical illuminator wnit. A second iris placed at 1, (Fig. 110) enables the aperture of the objective to be controlled ; When it is necessary to have more light available for illuminating the specimen, such a, for instance, when photographic wor being done with a high-power objective, another arrangement of the optical parts may have to be employed, This is shown in Fig. 112. An image of the iris diaphragm (1) is formed in the plane of the object as before; the source (generally a carbon arc ot tungsten arc, e.g., a Pointolite) and condenser L, are arranged to give an enlarged image of the former on the lens L,, which in turn Fee, 111 | |100 Practicat Optics Tue Microscope 11 forms an image of the iris (2) on the back ‘ens of the microscope both the aperture of the objective and the ecimen may be controlled, this being done without absorption taking place, thus saving the use of quartz lenses such as are required for wavelengths from 300A to 200A. Thus the apparatus shown in Fig. 118 can be quite useful. A { ! i i i The formula governin, (namely 0614/N. either by increasing the numerical a p—o 4 ns 2, ig the retoving power ofa microscope objective A.) indicates that finer deta should be chia estre of the lens pr by deren : Bee. 112, ing the wavelength of the light with which it is used limit in N.A, has (for some time now) been reached, tie cay one he only hope A secondary, but nevertheless equally i Apts bat ae ‘qually inportant point connected with chm rental absorption and rection a in vari types of abet when kmiated wih una at “4, = Ny od dea-volet. oe Fhoreleent Fe. 13, Screen Microscopy with Wavelength 36504. Apparatus for Uitra-Viotet equal advantage. these effects begin to use a wavelength the ordinary glasses to show up, and it may be help in some wa (such as 3650), ought which will still pass through F wellscreened mercury are M used as the source of light and an image of this is formed by the condenser C on to the sub-stage iluminator of the microscope, the general set-up being similar to that already described for photomicrography (see page 95). Having focused the object with either an Hg green or violet filter in the illuminating beam, a piece of Wood's ULV. glass (about three-eighths of an inch thick) is substituted for either of these. Such a glass has & maximum transmission at wavelength 9650A and removes the remainder of the visible and ultra-violet parts of the spectrum almost entirely, Jn order to focus the U.V. image in the plane of the plate, the ground-glass screen is replaced by an opaque fluorescent screen and the latter viewed from the front by means of an observation window ©. The intensity of illumination on this screen will be found suff cient to allow of focusing the image with the microscope, following ‘which a number of photographs on one plate (see page 96) are taken with fine adjustment movements corresponding to half the depth of focus of the objective each time. Such a procedure enables the usual range of glass objectives to be employed, for neither Canada balsam, nor the immersion uid, absorb at all seriously at this wavelength; there may be some slight spherical aberration introduced by using the Tenses at the wavelength for which they are not designed, but it is rot sufficient to upset the definition very much. (This may be cortected if desired by alteration of the tube-length).. For initial experiments a biological specimen of some kind will be found interesting as an object, taking one photograph in visual light and one in ultra-violet (A86S0A). The absorption and contrast effects, in the two pictures will in general be quite marked. Fig. 114a and b is an example ofthis. U,V. Microscope Using Wavelengths 3000A to 200A. In order to further increase the resolving power and contrast effects obtainable with the microscope, it is necessary to use shorter wave~ lengths than that mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Wave- lengths, such as 2749 A, 2318A, 2144A and 190A, are some of the ‘more prominent ones which have been used, when the resolving power302, Practica Optics would be increased appioximately twice and three times forthe fst and last named wavelengths respectively. The advantage to be gained when an unstained biological specimen is illuminated wit Sifferent U.V. wavelengths is clearly shown in Fig. 115, where various stages of absorption can be readily seen. UY Spectrum formed pore Fie, 16. Apparatus for UltraViolet Microscopy with Wavelength 8000 to 20004. ane ee eet tat the abject wil ave ft fo be Tcted nd ‘THe Microscore 105. quartz lens Q with a piece of uranium glass U situated at its focus. Thus the image through the microscope is formed on this screen, which in turn is viewed through a Ramsden eyepiece E having glass lenses. In this way it is possible to find the approximate focus of the ULV. image before commencing to take a series of photographs for finding the exact focus. This latter process is carried out by inserting a mask in front of the plate (as already described) and Fluorescent. Fee. 117 Fluorescent Eyepiece. moving the fine adjustment through an amount equal to half the depth of focus of the objective for each exposure. A fuller deserip- tion of this whole technique, including the method of producing the spark source, the fluid for U.V. immersion objectives, etc., will be found in Chapter XII of Practical Microscopy, Martin and Johnson, With the advent of new optical materials, it has been found possible to combine lithium fluoride with fused quartz and produce achromatic ultra-violet objectives.* This will, in time, greatly facilitate the methods of ultra-violet microscopy, for with such a lens focusing difficulties disappear and the monochromator may be surplanted by a source used directly in front of the microscope with appropriate ULV. filters. ULV. Microscope with Wavelengths 2000A to 100A. in order to use this range of wavelengths it is necessary to have the instrument in a vacuum; for air (or rather the oxygen content of it) absorbs considerably in this region. The most suitable optical material for use here is lithium fluoride (Li.F.), as this transmits radiations down to 1100A. quite freely, but as there is no material which can be used for achromatizing the lens system, the latter must be of the" monochromat ’” form and therefore a monochromator must also be employed for illuminating purposes. The arrangement of the apparatus in this case is shown in Fig. 118, in which the entire optical $B. X. Johnson—Proc, Phys, Sor—Vol. S1—p, 1094—1999, *B. K€ Johnsoa—Proe’ Phyn, Sor. Vol. s8—p. 714-1941a Pracricat, Orrics system (made of Li.F.) is enclosed in a metallic vacuum chamber, Zhe spark discharge used as a source is mounted externally and its Fre. 18, ‘Yeewum Micoxeope for Region 2000 4 1000AOpteal Pats of Lithiam Focusing of the microscope and movement of the plate (for a amber of exposures) is carried out by controls A and B through Nac-tight cone fittings. For the metal electrodes at the spatk gap, tin will be found suitable, for it gives strong and well-spaced spectrums Tines at the following wavelengths*: 1901, 1757, 1640, 1570, 1438, 1847, 1223, 1192, 10624. For work in this region it is necessary to use a special form of Photographic plate as gelatin absorbs these particular radiations, con: sequently a Schumann plate, or, better, an Ilford Q2 plate, will be found suitable. It will be obvious that only “dry” objective can be ‘used in a vacuum, and this fact limits the usefal numerical aperture of the lithium fluoride lens system to abou: 075; consequently the absolute resolving power of such a microscope used with wave, Tength 1100A. would not exceed that obtained with an immersion objective (N.A.=1-25) used with wavelength (say) 200A. Never. theless, selective absonption and reflection effects in the object may ‘till be present; this field has to be explored, Another type of optical system applicable to this work is a form of reflecting microscope. Johnson’, Linfoot” and Burch? have all Johason—Journ, Scientific Insr.—Vol, xv.. No. 4p, 126-1998, johnson Journ, Scientie Instr-—Vol at Nov iat ge 9 ‘99p, 2, 25th, 1043. ‘Tae Microscore 105 described methods whereby the objective may “ tivr accompanied by an aulary Ten, a Schmit plate or anoth Lats take a meh hy Bac dpe in Fig 19; he objet consists of an elipsoial ior and a spherical convex mieror, wi oe LF eyepece day oy 8 SS ex) OE get [A Reflection Microscope suitable for the Vacuum Region this enables the object slide to be placed Sate cnet mor anf be of toma dimes Sttablefguring' othe lipsldal mir sh seem can be had ee fm sphere rd cay aoa he > tm peat on alows a al et be ed. The yen Course, achromatic so ued ae so altalet mirscope i has the advantage that nochange infocus from the wslseiting to ay ected Vs wavelength neces “Phe dom, fom the fa that LAR, les ave oa, inp tat i ef tment eal be wd atc n te 200K. to 10008. and indeed down to about M004, provided the TEP. was removed and a concave grating sbsitated for use a8 moncchrometor It must be remembered, however, that he electing prwer of meat decease very rapidly with a eduction in waver Tongth and teeore exposure tine iy be vey Tong. Electron Microscope. From what has been sid in the foregoing paragraph it becomes apparent that increasing difficulties are met within the attempt to ‘use shorter and shorter wavelengths with the microscope; moreover, i ‘we go below 300A. we begin’ to enter the region of X-rays, where it is 4B, K, Johnson—Proc, Phys. Soe.—Vel. S8—p, 258-—1941106 Practicat. OPTics impossible either to reflect or refract the rays, and therefore impc land so produce an image by this means. of electrons Sen ‘a Fro, 120, : seam of leckons eanating rom sor example if we nage gir pean eres ape ant) and pang though the Sis of foe voit 0 a ie elecrons wil shane tee Geton of ath a aa tey face ata pnt An dtl are et ind maybe looked spon os bung ade op of a tes “Pace perf apg rece, mach Oe oer eS ote human ee (Fie 125). te 1 aeength by atraon of the potential pot oer the cole (ace Fig. 1200) shorter foows electrical lenses may tou Soom can be Hoe hat of a iczoscope Ie sn, Sc oat ap. mP—Bect ion Franhlin TaatuuteVal. 218, No. 8-2. it ser Physik—Vel. SIP. 9741926. +L. ©, Martia— Journ, Teles ise VK, Zworykin tay, 1893. Busch—~ 5 THe Microscore a Although the electron refraction Iaws* closely resemble those for the refraction of light through glass lenses, the optical analogy is not quite complete, but sufficiently so to enable a study of image forma- tion by electron beams to be made, Electrical lenses, however, suffer from the usual aberrations which are common to optical lenses and have in fact to be used with much more restricted apertures in order 4o obtain any sort of good quality definition in the image. Fw. 121, Electron Microscope (Diagrammatic). The wavelength (A) of an electron radiation may be stated as follows -— ison day AP x10" cms, where V is the voltage applied to the emitting cathode and anode, and the constant 150 being a factor governed by the charge of the electron and its mass (e/m). If, therefore, we assume a potential V of 18,000 volts we find that the wavelength becomes 0-1 angstrom unit; or fifty thousand times shorter than the wavelength of green light of the visible spectrum. Unfortunately it is not possible at present to have a numerical aperture of the electrical lens exceeding about 0-01, which is approxi- mately one hundred times less than an immersion microscope objective, Nevertheless, by applying the resolving power formula (O61A/N.A.) to these conditions, we see that theoretically the fine- ness of detail resolved should be five hundred times better than with the visual microscope. As yet such a resolving power has not been attained in practice; but only an increase of forty to fifty times that of the visual microscope; in spite of this, however, a very distinct advance has been made and valuable results will, no doubt, accrue from work with the instrument.eee ee a 108 Practical Optics A vatity of types of eet but thet general principle depicted dagamawtity nt fom which i will be sen that the main cosponents ge ot eg obietve and projeton cols) are sma to the pte! coma inary microscope, but the whole apparatus i eonenet Fie. 122, Electron Microscope at Royal Colege of Science, South Kensington, ee ‘Tue Microscore 109 ma vacuum chamber. The vacuum has to be maintained at a pressure of about 10-° mm. Hg. and as the volume of the container is considerable, this involves experience in vacuum technique and the use of diffusion pumps backed by a fast operating oil pump. Also the maintenance of steadiness in the voltage and current in the eleetrical lens coils and the electron source is of great importance. For a more complete description of one form of the instrument, however, reference may be made to the Journ, Roy. Micro. Soc., 1999, Vol. LIX, pp. 208-216, and to Iissenschafiliche Verdjfentli- chungen aus den Siemens—Werken, 1938, Vol. XVII, part I. The \ Fro, 128, ‘ine Oxide Smoke Particles 11,500 (taken with above instrument). necessary magnification required to resolve the detail given by the electron microscope will obviously be high, and it may be of interest to calculate this for the case mentioned here, namely, when using 15,000 volt electrons, and N.A.=0-01. The theoretical resolving power would be 6 x 10-' mm. or 0-006y. If we used a Process Photo graphic plate (average grain size 0-005 mm.) on which to receive the image, the necessary magnification 0-005 x 10 @x 10° which is approximately 80,000 times.no Practicat Optics If, however, we assume that under present conditions we can only obiain one tenth of the expected resolving power due to the aberrations in the electrical lens, and a consequent reduction of numerical aperture to 0-001 (sce page 98, line 21), then a magnification of 8,000 would Sswffice, In either case such a demand requires that the instrament ‘hall be of rather long dimensions, owing to the fact that the electrical Tenses cannot be made of particularly short focal length. A photo- graphic illustration of the instrument is shown in Fig. 122, together swith a photograph taken with it of zinc oxide particles at 11,500 times (Fig. 128). Measurement of the diameter of the small spicules indicate that the resolving power here is of the order 0-026, that is about ten times better than that obtainable with the visual microscope. CHAPTER VI PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES In order to appreciate the high quality of definition given by the modern photographic lens, it is desirable to consider what the require: ments of the ideal Jens are and then to see how nearly such require: ments can be fulfilled. An ideal photographic lens should have:— No chromatic aberration No spherical aberration No coma No astigmatism No distortion A perfectly flat field Rapidity of exposure (i.e. small F/ratio! Large depth of focus. Large angular field of view. Itis impossible to design a lens which will stisfy all these conditions simultaneously; and, indeed, it is difficult to correct more than a few Of these aberrations at one time. Moreover, as some of the require: ments (for example, rapidity of exposure and large depth of focus) fare immediately opposed to one another, it is necessary to arrange the design according to the purpose for whieh the particular lens is to be used. ‘The meaning of the first four named aberrations have already been explained in Chapter IV, and distortion of the image is defect which Puotorariic LeNses in fe snteexplanato xlanaion, In Fig. 71th line foci at A and B are known asthe foe athe egal eco, wheres the mum Site of the constricted rays at C (which s midway between & and B) is as the dae of least confason, The leas of thee sss they pass tum heen otha ofthe sown othe inage et Fi shows the shape ofthe later, together with that ofthe astigmatic Curvature of field, however, requires some Fro, 12 ‘stigmatic Fields of « Photographie Lens fields frequently encountered with a photographic lens. The diameter of this disc of light decides the quality of definition given by the photographic lens and should not exceed about 0-008 inches for a plate or print which is to be examined with the unaided eye; but if the negative is to be enlarged afterwards the disc may have to be as small a5 0,008 inch in diameter. Pinhole. Although this chapter is devoted to photographic “‘ lenses,"” one may at the outset make an exception and include the pinhole camera; for although the quality of definition given by this device is not particularly good, practically all the conditions enumerated above, with the exception of short exposure, are automatically satisied, For example, the absence of distortion, the large (almost infinite) lepth of focus, and the large angular field might render the pinholea Practica Oprics camera useful in certain cases for photographing architectural subjects where length of exposure does not matter. The most favourable diameter of the hole for a previously determined distance of the photo. eraphic plate can be obtained from:— Diameter of hole= (4) 72) where d is the distance of the plate from the hole in inches and 120 a factor depending on the diameter of the diffaction dise given by a ‘small hole, 1 will be found instructive to take a pinhole photograph with (say) & quarter-plate camera fitted with a properly drilled hole of correct diameter in place of the usual lens. It is of interest to take some Pictorial view in which there are both near and distant objects and with wide angular separation; also to take a ptotograph of the chart shown in Fig. 128 and to compare critically the definition on the plate given in turn by the pinhole and by a well-corrected photographic lens. Fo, 1, Elimination of Coma by'hiovement of the Diaphragm, Early Lenses, The earliest form of lens used in cameras consisted of a bi-convex Jens which gave poor results generally. Such a lens had to be reduced in aperture to about F/32 to give any satisfactory definition on the plate, Wollaston’s discovery (1812) for the improvement of definition by using a stop in front of the lens was of great importance; for it can be shown that by moving the stop with respect to the lens a position ‘will be found at which coma can be eliminated. Fig. 125, a, b and c, ‘lustrates this point which can be proved geometrically by means Puorocrariic Lenses us of ray-tracing methods described in Chapter I. This fact is a basic principle utilized in the systematic design of photographic lenses. Tt can also be shown that a fatter wil be obtained ifthe lens takes the form of a meniscus shape rather than a bi-convex shape; and in consequence the simple type of landscape lens (as it was then called) was usually as indicated in Fig. 126, c. This type still persists in large numbers in “‘ box” cameras, and although the quality of definition is not good beyond F/16, the small number of air-glass surfaces (i.e., two) prevents reflected and scattered light from reaching the plate and consequently produces good contrast in the image. Hence the popularity of this camera in the hands of the non-technical person, — a | 5 : iS eee eure 4 felt ea Tf LE a @ - eo ee Movement of the Astigmatic Surfaces with Change ia Shape of the Lens. ‘An interesting point in the design of this type of lens is that by altering its shape without altering its power or focal length (in other words, by ‘ beading ”” the lens) the astigmatic surfaces, and therefore the curvature of field, may be changed. For example, in Fig. 126, a, b and c, by making the lens successively more meniscus in shape the curvature of the field can be changed from being curved towards the lens to being curved away from it. The best position of the stop (for the elimination of coma) is shown diagrammatically in each case, and it will be noted that it approaches the lens as the latter becomes more steeply curved. Obviously, then, the design can be arranged4 Practica Optics such that a flat field and freedom from coma can be secured simul- tancously, Experiment. ‘An experiment to illustrate some of the foregoing remarks may be carried out as follows: — ‘Using a short length (about 9 inches) of optical bench (suggested in Fig. 27, mounted in front of some camera bellows) we can place +5 °D lens in its holder and form an image of a page of print on to the ground glass screen. Fig. 127 shows the general arrangement of the apparatus together with approximate dimensions, Msg ee +90. Grand goss ‘Soncentrie orcles Sone Fro. 127 Apparatus for sustratng experimentally te. rics involved in various ‘Eypes of Photographic Less. ‘The object may consist of some good quality printed matter stuck down on to a flat card or board; alternatively an object of the type shown in Fig. 128 can be used. The latter is rather more helpful, ‘as itis designed for the purpose of telling whet aberrations are causing the defective image; for instance, the white holes on the black cross «will show flared tails when coma is present, the white crosses on black circles will show up astigmatism, the rectilinear lines the distortion, ‘and the asterisks the effects of chromatic and spherical aberration; Whilst a measure of the curvature of field may be obtained by racking the ground glass screen from the position of axial focus to marginal focus. Having set up the object test chart (suitably illuminated) about ‘aft. éin, from the lens, the image is received on the ground glass PxotocRarsic Lenses us sen which tas conti ces drawn onthe ound autae. ewig he later with an eyepiece the image maybe sh le the centre of the field, the lens being at full aperture (i 4 out one-and-a-quarter inches diameter for a spect sf = lens) for the first part of the experiment. oe vie cyepies cote, ‘By moving the eyepiece outwards Fre, 128 Test-Chart for Photographic Lenses from the centre one can determine when the definition begins to fai c . and hence (by means of the concentric circles) the diameter of the fred fel, ‘Then cea d ; ace a diphragm, having» ole ameter, in contact withthe front ofthe lens and again dtersing the size of the well-defined field the lens, and again determinePRT eet 4 us Practical Oprics Finally slide the diaphragm along the optical bench until there is zo sign of coma present, that is when the white holes at the edge of the field show no trace of flared tail on either side of them: this will be the correct position of the stop and observe the diameter of the ood field. From the diameter of the latter and the known focal length of the lens, the angular extent of the field giving good definition mav be obtained; also the ratio of the focal length to the diaphragm diameter Will give the F-ratio. These two numerical values are the important factors to know in connection withthe performaace of all photographic lenses, (Instead of viewing the ground glass screen with an eyepiece, Photographs may be taken and examined critically afterwards ) Achromatized Meniscus Lenses. ‘The next stage in the development of photographic lenses was to achromatize the meniscus type mentioned above, At that period {about 1860) photographic plates were chiefly sensitive in the region ‘of the G" line (A=4340.A) of the solar spectrum and therefore the design was so arranged that the D and G lines were brought to one and the same focus, thus enabling the visual and photographic image ta he in the same plane; also, of course, the general definition ‘was improved because of the chromatic correction, ‘The spherical aberra. tion was not entirely corrected, for it is necessary’ to have some residual outstanding in order to correet the coma (a distinclly worse aberration as far as photographic lenses are concerned). In the earlier stages of this lens, hard crown and dense flint com- Ponents were employed; two forms of the achromatized meniscus type are shown in Fig. 129 a and b. Later a third ‘orm of this type wes evolved (Fig. 128) using some of the (then) new barium-crown, lasses, which enabled a considerable reduction in astigmatism to be obtained. In order to appreciate the great advance in lens design which ‘ccurred when the barium-crown glasses were introduced by Abbe and Schott in 1886, consideration of the Petzval theorem must be made. The Petzval surface represents the curvature of field produced by a lens as computed from paraxial formule, in the absence of any astigmatism. It is more or less an ideal, for in practice astigmatism {s extremely difficult to eliminate; nevertheless the analytical methods of this theorem help considerably in the choice of glasses forthe design of photographic lenses, Porocraraic Lenses 7 ‘The radius of curvature R of the Petzval surface for a lens of small | aperture may be taken asi— on the left and right respectively of each surface of radius r. For example, if we apply this relation to single len (in air) of refractive index 152 and with radii, and r,, then 2 rH) 4a (BEB) (Meh) = (aE) (85 "New" Achromat: "Old" chromate { | ak Got dnde Ganse crown fiat Flt erown Grubb type Chevalier type @) &) o i ae power, and f the focal length of the lens; then fo 1 iNewns Pracricat Orrics 8, = 15.2 inches. (E.G. Assuming /=10 inches, Ne=1.520, and v = 1 40 0,066, and ~. i ee i068 vit en i is required to ful the Peteval and achromatism condition seeeetip arn the ese of «cemented sehromati dub ‘example, we have where the suffixes a and b refer to first and second components of the font Oe a paNy (exes) and Cam ~1/} No (0.09) where f is the focal'length of the combination so that R For an achromatic lens with separated components, the condition for zero Petaval curvature is that de tal), o--@)S where ms the rato ofthe separation ofthe lenses to the foal eng of lens fit te foregoing wil be een that none to secure a fat ae ican an N values of the two glasses de ds Bluse ide eB ae ae : : jotographic lens of. um et een pth “Mew"” glasses. ors a5 IN Nov viNq Pulotocrariic Lenses 19 vin Oo 4 DE. 20.4 33.6 I/R=19.5/10 x 26.90.0725 HC. 39.9 60.5 i Difference = 19.5 26.9 Thus it will be seen that an achromatized doublet using “‘ old” Blasses has a greater curvature of field than the ten-inch focus lens of one glass only (see page 118), ‘Whereas utilizing ‘“new’” glasses we have a considerably flatter field (see below), vin v LF. 30.8 75 T/R=4.4/10x9.4=0.0468 DBC. 35.2 56.9 SR=214 inches, Difference = "4.4 9.4 Furthermore, when using ‘* old glasses the sagittal field is in ‘most cases nearer to the lens than the tangential field, but the employ- ment of the barium crown glass enables the tangential field to be brought from behind the sagittal field to in front of it, thus giving the possibility of superimposing the two fields (if desired) and climinating the astigmatism. An additional point of interest is that if the v/NN values were plotted against the 2 values for all types of glasses (see Fig. 190) we could select two glasses which would give a low Petzval sum by choosing ‘two which gave the least slope of line joining them; for the quantity represents the slope of the line joining the two glasses selected and thus for a low Petzval value this slope must be inclined as little as possible towards the horizontal. Thus in the figure the dotted line joining the two sets of glasses indicates that a dense barium erown combined with an extra light fint would give the lowest Petzval curvature, It will be understood, of course, that the foregoing only gives a ‘general outline of the way in which the Petzval theorem may be Uilized for obtaining a choice of glasses when designing a lens system which is required to give a flat field. The theorem, at best, gives a theoretical approximation to the desired aim; and this must always . be backed up by exact determination of the aberrations as calculated120 Practicat, Optics by ray-tracing methods, nevertheless it is disti it by apiracng me tis distinctly useful in the initial Symmetrical Lenses. Tt soon became realized that a lens syst at a lens system arranged symmetric about a central stop is automatically con pe ieee! : iy cometed for dstoron if objet nd image distance wer these, Sh a lens ao astonate ty freed from coma and transverse chromatic aberration, tle PH Fro, 190, Although the corestion of these aberton only tv fr magico, thy are get rede even when jt sa nape distant not he same No vane to be gine in a mt: aeraton peril abr signin sed cueaee Of fel, by lzng the symietsal prin” note fact that dstortnn and coma can be minimed has Tal a great use of this principle. as PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES 121 Fig. 191 shows an early form of this type, which consisted of two ‘meniscus lenses of the same glass with their concave surfaces each facing the diaphragm. The latter had to be greatly reduced in aperture in order to give satisfactory definition; in fact, this lens originally worked at about F/35. Experiment. ‘A working model of a symmetrical type Jens may be made up with the apparatus suggested in Fig. 127 by utilizing two +2°5 D trial case lenses mounted on the short optical bench, and separated by a distance of 5.7 cm, With the lens system directed towards the illuminated chart (Fig. 128) or page of print, the image may be observed with the eyepiece or photographed on a plate; first with the system at full aperture, and then with a diaphragm of half-inch in diameter placed midway between the two lenses. As before the diameter of the well- defined field can be determined and hence the angular field; also the F/ratio utilized in each case. As the equivalent focal length of this lens system will be similar to that of the single lens on which the fist experiments were carried out, a direct comparison in performance can be made. {is a | Sy | Teeth is _ Following the simple type illustrated in Fig. 122 it was quite natural that the achromatized form of symmetrical Jens would appear, and Fig. 132 shows such a type using the so-called ““old’’ glasses of hard ‘crown and dense flint, This lens was a distinct step forward in the design of photographic lenses, for although the résidual astigmatism is still fairly large, the correction of coma and distortion was so much better than had hitherto been obtained, and the additional fact that it could be used at an F /ratio of from 8 up to $.6 and would still give {good definition, led to the adoption of its name as the rapid-rectilinear |122 Practica Oprics tens: With tis type, however, the astigmatic fs may be wong tego avy oma the lens by ehangng the shape of oth com soar ot tn seta Sli in moat eases nearer to fhe Tens than aaa tial jostacin the nef he ingle meni or" od glass see areeey ieee Teng with a consequent lege amount of stignatsn “New Glass” Symmetrical. : Meader to improve this Tater defect it was felt from previous extern that BY ting two "new glass” aehromats as the com ore the would be aecomplished; but practice was found tht hen the tangent eld was brought nearer fo fhe Tes it cold wot bemade to coimide with the sgl Sed Ogin of he“ Anasgmats” Tener gested by P. odoiph (1890) tat the aymmetral (ype teas ght be improved by compensating. the astigmatism. and ‘curvature field given by the first component by an equal and opposite cmeast given hy the seand component. This he di by combing sera gac’” achromat as font component with 2." new gas 2a eat the rear component (ee Fig. 188), at the same ime my | ee OFF | (Sa) (Nefise) (Sr) Fio. 134 ‘Triple Protar. ‘Rudolph Type of Photographic Lens (Prot). correcting the other aberrations. This principle led to an excellent design, the definition being good over the entire field of 40 degrees working at an F/ratio af 4:8, the field being particularly flat with relatively little astigmatism, : {A series of these lenses were made working at various F /ratios; the lens was originally called the “‘Anastigmat,"” but was changed to “

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