Ex.

No: 5 PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS

Aim:
To create a database and apply Procedures and Functions

PL/SQL - Procedures

A subprogram is a program unit/module that performs a particular task. These subprograms are
combined to form larger programs. This is basically called the 'Modular design'. A subprogram can
be invoked by another subprogram or program which is called the calling program.

A subprogram can be created −

 At the schema level

 Inside a package
 Inside a PL/SQL block

At the schema level, subprogram is a standalone subprogram. It is created with the CREATE
PROCEDURE or the CREATE FUNCTION statement. It is stored in the database and can be deleted
with the DROP PROCEDURE or DROP FUNCTION statement.

A subprogram created inside a package is a packaged subprogram. It is stored in the database and
can be deleted only when the package is deleted with the DROP PACKAGE statement. We will
discuss packages in the chapter 'PL/SQL - Packages'.

PL/SQL subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can be invoked with a set of parameters.
PL/SQL provides two kinds of subprograms −

 Functions − These subprograms return a single value; mainly used to compute and return a
value.
 Procedures − These subprograms do not return a value directly; mainly used to perform an
action.

This chapter is going to cover important aspects of a PL/SQL procedure. We will discuss PL/SQL
function in the next chapter.

Parts of a PL/SQL Subprogram

Each PL/SQL subprogram has a name, and may also have a parameter list. Like anonymous PL/SQL
blocks, the named blocks will also have the following three parts −

1
S.No Parts & Description
Declarative Part

1 It is an optional part. However, the declarative part for a subprogram does not start with the
DECLARE keyword. It contains declarations of types, cursors, constants, variables, exceptions,
and nested subprograms. These items are local to the subprogram and cease to exist when the
subprogram completes execution.
Executable Part
2
This is a mandatory part and contains statements that perform the designated action.
Exception-handling
3
This is again an optional part. It contains the code that handles run-time errors.

Creating a Procedure

A procedure is created with the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement. The simplified
syntax for the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement is as follows −

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
< procedure_body >
END procedure_name;

Where,

 procedure-name specifies the name of the procedure.

 [OR REPLACE] option allows the modification of an existing procedure.
 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters. IN represents
the value that will be passed from outside and OUT represents the parameter that will be used
to return a value outside of the procedure.
 procedure-body contains the executable part.
 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone procedure.

Example

The following example creates a simple procedure that displays the string 'Hello World!' on the
screen when executed.

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE

greetings AS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Hello World!'); END;
/

2
When the above code is executed using the SQL prompt, it will produce the following result −

Procedure created.

Executing a Standalone Procedure

A standalone procedure can be called in two ways −

 Using the EXECUTE keyword

 Calling the name of the procedure from a PL/SQL block

The above procedure named 'greetings' can be called with the EXECUTE keyword as −

EXECUTE greetings;

The above call will display −

Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The procedure can also be called from another PL/SQL block −

BEGIN
greetings;
END;
/

The above call will display −

Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Deleting a Standalone Procedure

A standalone procedure is deleted with the DROP PROCEDURE statement. Syntax for deleting a
procedure is −

DROP PROCEDURE procedure-name;

You can drop the greetings procedure by using the following statement −

DROP PROCEDURE greetings;

Parameter Modes in PL/SQL Subprograms

The following table lists out the parameter modes in PL/SQL subprograms −

3
S.No Parameter Mode & Description
IN

An IN parameter lets you pass a value to the subprogram. It is a read-only parameter. Inside
1 the subprogram, an IN parameter acts like a constant. It cannot be assigned a value. You can
pass a constant, literal, initialized variable, or expression as an IN parameter. You can also
initialize it to a default value; however, in that case, it is omitted from the subprogram call. It is
the default mode of parameter passing. Parameters are passed by reference.
OUT

2 An OUT parameter returns a value to the calling program. Inside the subprogram, an OUT
parameter acts like a variable. You can change its value and reference the value after assigning
it. The actual parameter must be variable and it is passed by value.
IN OUT

An IN OUT parameter passes an initial value to a subprogram and returns an updated value to
3 the caller. It can be assigned a value and the value can be read.

The actual parameter corresponding to an IN OUT formal parameter must be a variable, not a
constant or an expression. Formal parameter must be assigned a value. Actual parameter is
passed by value.

IN & OUT Mode Example 1

This program finds the minimum of two values. Here, the procedure takes two numbers using the IN
mode and returns their minimum using the OUT parameters.

DECLARE
a number;
b number;
c number;
PROCEDURE findMin(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT number) IS
BEGIN
IF x < y THEN
z:= x;
ELSE
z:= y;
END IF;
END;
BEGI
N
a:= 23;
b:= 45;
findMin(a, b, c);
dbms_output.put_line(' Minimum of (23, 45) : ' || c); END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

Minimum of (23, 45) : 23

4
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

IN & OUT Mode Example 2

This procedure computes the square of value of a passed value. This example shows how we can use
the same parameter to accept a value and then return another result.

DECLARE
a number;
PROCEDURE squareNum(x IN OUT number)
IS BEGIN
x := x * x;
END;
BEGIN
a:= 23;
squareNum(a);
dbms_output.put_line(' Square of (23): ' || a); END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

Square of (23): 529

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Methods for Passing Parameters

Actual parameters can be passed in three ways −

 Positional notation
 Named notation
 Mixed notation

Positional Notation

In positional notation, you can call the procedure as −

findMin(a, b, c, d);

In positional notation, the first actual parameter is substituted for the first formal parameter; the
second actual parameter is substituted for the second formal parameter, and so on. So, a is substituted
for x, b is substituted for y, c is substituted for z and d is substituted for m.

Named Notation

In named notation, the actual parameter is associated with the formal parameter using the arrow
symbol ( => ). The procedure call will be like the following −

findMin(x => a, y => b, z => c, m => d);

5
Mixed Notation

In mixed notation, you can mix both notations in procedure call; however, the positional notation
should precede the named notation.

The following call is legal −

findMin(a, b, c, m => d);

However, this is not legal:

findMin(x => a, b, c, d);

PL/SQL - Functions

In this chapter, we will discuss the functions in PL/SQL. A function is same as a procedure except
that it returns a value. Therefore, all the discussions of the previous chapter are true for functions too.

Creating a Function

A standalone function is created using the CREATE FUNCTION statement. The simplified syntax
for the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement is as follows −

CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])] RETURN
return_datatype
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
< function_body >
END [function_name];

Where,

 function-name specifies the name of the function.

 [OR REPLACE] option allows the modification of an existing function.
 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters. IN represents
the value that will be passed from outside and OUT represents the parameter that will be used
to return a value outside of the procedure.
 The function must contain a return statement.
 The RETURN clause specifies the data type you are going to return from the function.
 function-body contains the executable part.
 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone function.

Example

The following example illustrates how to create and call a standalone function. This function returns
the total number of CUSTOMERS in the customers table.

use the CUSTOMERS table

6
Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION totalCustomers
RETURN number IS
total number(2) := 0;
BEGIN
SELECT count(*) into total
FROM customers;

RETURN total;
END;
/

When the above code is executed using the SQL prompt, it will produce the following result −

Function created.

Calling a Function

While creating a function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. To use a function, you
will have to call that function to perform the defined task. When a program calls a function, the
program control is transferred to the called function.

A called function performs the defined task and when its return statement is executed or when the
last end statement is reached, it returns the program control back to the main program.

To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with the function name and
if the function returns a value, then you can store the returned value. Following program calls the
function totalCustomers from an anonymous block −

DECLARE
c number(2);
BEGIN
c := totalCustomers();
dbms_output.put_line('Total no. of Customers: ' || c);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

7
Total no. of Customers: 6

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Example

The following example demonstrates Declaring, Defining, and Invoking a Simple PL/SQL Function
that computes and returns the maximum of two values.

DECLARE
a number;
b number;
c number;
FUNCTION findMax(x IN number, y IN number)
RETURN number
IS
z number;
BEGIN
IF x > y THEN
z:= x;
ELSE
Z:= y;
END IF;
RETURN z;
END;
BEGIN
a:= 23;
b:= 45;
c := findMax(a, b);
dbms_output.put_line(' Maximum of (23,45): ' || c);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

Maximum of (23,45): 45

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Recursive Functions

We have seen that a program or subprogram may call another subprogram. When a subprogram calls
itself, it is referred to as a recursive call and the process is known as recursion.

To illustrate the concept, let us calculate the factorial of a number. Factorial of a number n is defined
as −

n! = n*(n-1)!

8
 = n*(n-1)*(n-2)!
...
= n*(n-1)*(n-2)*(n-3)... 1

The following program calculates the factorial of a given number by calling itself recursively −

DECLARE
num number;
factorial number;

FUNCTION fact(x number)

RETURN number
IS
f number;
BEGIN
IF x=0 THEN
f := 1;
ELSE
f := x * fact(x-1);
END IF;
RETURN f;
END;

BEGIN
num:= 6;
factorial := fact(num);
dbms_output.put_line(' Factorial '|| num || ' is ' || factorial);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

Factorial 6 is 720

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Step 1

The following will create a table in Oracle. For example I will create a table for customer details.

1. CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER (

2. NAME VARCHAR2(20),
3. GENDER VARCHAR2(7),
4. ADDRESS VARCHAR2(100));

Step 2

After creating the table, write a Stored Procedure for an insert:

9
 1. CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE INSERTcustomer (
2. p_name CUSTOMER.NAME%TYPE,
3. p_gender CUSTOMER.GENDER%TYPE,
4. p_address CUSTOMER.ADDRESS%TYPE)
5. IS
6. BEGIN
7. INSERT INTO CUSTOMER (NAME, GENDER, ADDRESS)
8. VALUES (p_name, p_gender, p_address);
9. COMMIT;
10. END;
11. /

Step 3
Stored Procedure for an update:

1. CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE UPDATEcustomer (

2. p_name IN CUSTOMER.NAME%TYPE,
3. p_gender IN CUSTOMER.GENDER%TYPE,
4. p_address IN CUSTOMER.ADDRESS%TYPE)
5. IS
6. BEGIN
7. UPDATE CUSTOMER SET NAME=p_name, GENDER=p_gender, ADDRESS=p_address
WHERENAME=p_name;
8. COMMIT;
9. END;
10. /

Step 4
Stored Procedure for a select:

1. CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE SELECTcustomer (

2. p_name IN CUSTOMER.NAME%TYPE,
3. p_customer_display OUT SYS_REFCURSOR)
4. IS
5. BEGIN
6. OPEN p_customer_display for SELECT NAME, GENDER, ADDRESS FROM
CUSTOMER WHERENAME=p_name;
7. END;
8. /

Step 5
Stored Procedure for a delete:

1. OR REPLACE PROCEDURE (
CREATE DELETEcustomer
2. IN CUSTOMER3.NAME%TYPE)
p_name
3. IS
4. BEGIN
5. FROM CUSTOMER WHERE
DELETE NAME=p_name;
6. END;
7. /

Result:

Database created successfully. Procedures and Functions are executed successfully.

10
 Ex. No: 6 TRIGGERS

Aim:

To build database and apply triggers.

PL/SQL - Triggers

In this chapter, we will discuss Triggers in PL/SQL. Triggers are stored programs, which are
automatically executed or fired when some events occur. Triggers are, in fact, written to be executed
in response to any of the following events −

 A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE)

 A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or DROP).
 A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or
SHUTDOWN).

Learn About Different Type Of Triggers In Oracle

Overview

Database triggers are specialized stored programs. Oracle engine allows the definition of the
procedures, which are implicitly executed when an insert, update, or delete is issued in a table from
SQL or through the Application, and the trigger automatically executes a DML statement. They are
not called directly, but are triggered by the events in the database. They run between the time, when
you issue a command and the time, you perform the database management system action. You can
write the triggers in PL/SQL.

Introduction

PL/SQL Type of Triggers are based on how they are triggered.

Before Triggers: These triggers are fired before the SQL statement trigger (INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE) is executed. The execution of the triggering SQL statement is stopped, depending on the
various conditions to be fulfilled in the BEFORE trigger.

After Triggers: These triggers are fired after the triggering SQL statement (INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE) is executed. The triggering SQL statement is executed first, followed by the code of the
trigger.

ROW Trigger: The triggers are fired for each and every record, which is inserted or updated or
deleted from a table.

Statement Trigger: The trigger is fired for each row of the DML operation, being performed on a
table. We cannot access the column values for the records being inserted, updated, deleted on the
table nor the individual records.

11
PL/SQL Triggers Syntax Description

CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER trigger_name: Creates a trigger with the given name, else
overwrites an existing trigger with the same name.

{BEFORE , AFTER }: Indicates where should trigger be fired. BEFORE trigger executes before when
statement executes before time or AFTER trigger executes, after when statement executes after time.

{INSERT , UPDATE , DELETE}: Determines the performing trigger event. More than one triggering
events can be used together, separated by OR keyword.

ON Table Name: Determines the performed trigger event in the selected table.

[Referencing {old AS old, new AS new}]: Reference the old and new values of the data, being
changed. : old is used for existing row to perform and : new is used to execute a new row to perform.
The reference names can also be changed from old (or new) to any other user-defined name. You
cannot reference the old values, when inserting a record or new values, or when deleting a record,
because they do not exist.

Note

Insert has no :OLD value (before execution) and have : NEW value (After execution).
Delete has no : OLD value but it has :NEW value.
Update has both : OLD and : NEW value.
for each row: Trigger must fire, when each row gets affected (Row Level Trigger) or just once, when
the entire SQL statement is executed (Statement Level trigger).
WHEN (condition): Valid only for row level triggers. The trigger is fired only for the rows, which
satisfy the specified condition.

There are various events on which a trigger can be written, such as:

1. System events
o Database startup and shutdown.
o Server error message events.
2. User events
o User login and logoff.
o DDL statements (CREATE, ALTER, and DROP).
o DML statements (INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE).

Based on the above condition, we can classify the trigger into five categories: DML trigger, DDL
trigger, Compound triggers, Instead-Of triggers and System or database event triggers. Out of which,
here I am discussing mainly DDL and DML triggers.

DDL Trigger

12
DDL triggers fire, when you create, change or remove objects in a database. They support both
before and after event triggers and work at the database or schema level.
DDL event supported
alter, analyze, associate statistics, audit, comment, create, DDL, disassociate statistics, drop, grant,
noaudit, rename, revoke, truncate .

There are a number of event attribute functions, which can be used to get user, client or system
information, commonly used ones are given below:

Triggers can be defined on the table, view, schema, or database with which the event is associated.

Benefits of Triggers

Triggers can be written for the following purposes −

 Generating some derived column values automatically

 Enforcing referential integrity
 Event logging and storing information on table access
 Auditing
 Synchronous replication of tables
 Imposing security authorizations
 Preventing invalid transactions

Creating Triggers

The syntax for creating a trigger is −

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)

13
DECLARE
Declaration-statements
BEGIN
Executable-statements
EXCEPTION
Exception-handling-statements
END;

Where,

 CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name − Creates or replaces an existing trigger

with the trigger_name.
 {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} − This specifies when the trigger will be executed. The
INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.
 {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} − This specifies the DML operation.
 [OF col_name] − This specifies the column name that will be updated.
 [ON table_name] − This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.
 [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] − This allows you to refer new and old values for
various DML statements, such as INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
 [FOR EACH ROW] − This specifies a row-level trigger, i.e., the trigger will be executed for
each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute just once when the SQL statement
is executed, which is called a table level trigger.
 WHEN (condition) − This provides a condition for rows for which the trigger would fire. This
clause is valid only for row-level triggers.

Example

To start with, we will be using the CUSTOMERS table we had created and used in the previous
chapters −

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedaba | 2000.00 |
d
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

14
The following program creates a row-level trigger for the customers table that would fire for
INSERT or UPDATE or DELETE operations performed on the CUSTOMERS table. This trigger
will display the salary difference between the old values and new values −

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes

BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)
DECLARE
sal_diff number;
BEGIN
sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;
dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

Trigger created.

The following points need to be considered here −

 OLD and NEW references are not available for table-level triggers, rather you can use them
for record-level triggers.
 If you want to query the table in the same trigger, then you should use the AFTER keyword,
because triggers can query the table or change it again only after the initial changes are
applied and the table is back in a consistent state.
 The above trigger has been written in such a way that it will fire before any DELETE or
INSERT or UPDATE operation on the table, but you can write your trigger on a single or
multiple operations, for example BEFORE DELETE, which will fire whenever a record will
be deleted using the DELETE operation on the table.

Triggering a Trigger

15
Let us perform some DML operations on the CUSTOMERS table. Here is one INSERT statement,
which will create a new record in the table −

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (7, 'Kriti', 22, 'HP', 7500.00 );

When a record is created in the CUSTOMERS table, the above create trigger,
display_salary_changes will be fired and it will display the following result −

Old salary:
New salary: 7500
Salary difference:

Because this is a new record, old salary is not available and the above result comes as null. Let us
now perform one more DML operation on the CUSTOMERS table. The UPDATE statement will
update an existing record in the table −

UPDATE customers
SET salary = salary + 500
WHERE id = 2;

When a record is updated in the CUSTOMERS table, the above create trigger,
display_salary_changes will be fired and it will display the following result −

Old salary: 1500

New salary: 2000
Salary difference: 500

Example.1

The given DDL trigger prevents truncating the table on the schema level.

1. SQL> create or replace trigger prevent_truncates

2. before truncate on schema
3. begin
4. raise_application_error(-20001,'TRUNCATE not permitted');
5. end;
6. /

Trigger created.

1. SQL> create table salary_bk as select * from salary;

Table created.

16
 1. SQL> select * from salary_bk;

ROLLNO EMPNAME DESIGN BPAY DA TA PF NETSAL

---------- --------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
10001 S.Krishnan HOD 25000 1500 1200 2250 27000
10002 K.K.Omana Asst.Manager 19500 1500 1200 1800 22000
10003 Anishkumar.K Asst.Manager 19500 1500 1200 1800 22000
10004 Girishkumar.K Asst.Manager 19500 1500 1200 1800 22000

ERROR at line 1

ORA-00604: error occurred at recursive SQL level 1

ORA-20001: TRUNCATE not permitted
ORA-06512: at line 2
SQL>

Example.2

The below given trigger updates every create statement, which happens in the schema level into the
log_table.

1. SQL> CREATE TABLE log_table(

2. user_name VARCHAR2(100),
3. event_date DATE,
4. detail VARCHAR2(400));

Table created.

1. SQL>
2. CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER log_create_trigg
3. AFTER CREATE ON SCHEMA
4. BEGIN
5. INSERT INTO log_table
6. (user_name, event_date, detail)
7. VALUES
8. (USER, SYSDATE, 'created object is: ' || ora_dict_obj_name);
9. END;
10. /

Trigger created.

1. SQL> select * from log_table;

No rows are selected.

17
 1. SQL> create table abc as select * from dba_users;

Table created.

USER_NAME EVENT_DAT DETAIL

------------ --------- -------------------------
MAHI 19-OCT-12 created object is: ABC

Database event trigger

These triggers fire, when a system activity occurs in the database like the login and logoff event
triggers. They are useful for auditing the information of the system access. These triggers, allow you
to track the system events and map them to the users.

Example

Below given trigger logs the logging information into log_trigger_table.

1. SQL> CREATE TABLE log_trigger_table (

2. user_name VARCHAR2(30),
3. event_date DATE,
4. action VARCHAR2(300));

Table created.

Trigger created.

SQL> exit
Disconnected from Oracle Database 11g Enterprise Edition Release 11.2.0.1.0 - 64bit
Production With the Partitioning, OLAP, Data Mining and Real Application Testing options.

C:\Users\DELL\node1>sqlplus

18
SQL*Plus: Release 11.2.0.1.0 Production on Fri Oct 19 17:39:19 2012

19
Copyright (c) 1982, 2010, Oracle. All rights reserved.

Enter user-name: mahi

Enter password:

Connected to:

Oracle Database 11g Enterprise Edition Release 11.2.0.1.0 - 64bit Production With the Partitioning,
OLAP, Data Mining and Real Application Testing options:

1. SQL> select * from log_trigger_table;

USER_NAME EVENT_DAT ACTION

------------ --------- -----------------------------------
MAHI 19-OCT-12 Logging On

DML Trigger

These triggers fire, when you insert, update or delete the data from a table. You can fire them once
for all the changes on a table or for each row change, using statement- or row-level trigger types,
respectively. DML triggers are useful to control DML statements. You can use these triggers to audit,
check, save and replace values before they are changed.

Example.1

Below given example inserts each record, which will be deleted from salary table into sal_deleted
table.

1. SQL> select * from salary;

ROLLNO EMPNAME DESIGN BPAY DA TA PF NETSAL

---------- --------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
10001 S.Krishnan HOD 25000 1500 1200 2250 27000
10002 K.K.Omana Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10003 Anishkumar.K Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10004 Girishkumar.K Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10005 Arunkumar.K Programmer 12000 1440 1320 1080 13800

Table created.

SQL>

Now create the trigger.

20
SQL>ed sal_delete_trig

Create or replace trigger sal_delete before deleting on salary. For each row, begin:

Trigger created.

1. SQL> delete from salary where rollno = 10005;

1 row deleted.

1. SQL> select * from salary;

ROLLNO EMPNAME DESIGN BPAY DA TA PF NETSAL

---------- --------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
10001 S.Krishnan HOD 25000 1500 1200 2250 27000
10002 K.K.Omana Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10003 Anishkumar.K Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10004 Girishkumar.K Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000

SQL>

1. select * from sal_deleted;

ROLLNO NAME DEL_DATE

---------- --------------- ---------
10005 Arunkumar.K 19-OCT-12

Example.2

The following trigger will insert the system time automatically into DOJ field, while inserting the
records into student_details table.
SQL>

1. create table student_details

2.
3. 2 (rollno number(5), name varchar(15),
4. 3 dob date, doj date, dop date );

Table created.

1. SQL> ed student_details_trig;
21
 2.
3. create trigger student_details_trig before insert
4. on student_details for each row
5. begin
6. :new.doj := sysdate;
7. end;
8. /
9. SQL> @student_details_trig

Trigger created.

1. SQL> select * from student_details;

No rows selected

1. SQL> select sysdate from dual;

SYSDATE
---------
19- OCT-12

1. SQL> insert into student_details (rollno,name,dob) values (1001,'MAHESH','30-OCT-86');

1 row created.

1. SQL> select * from student_details;

ROLLNO NAME DOB DOJ DOP

---------- --------------- --------- --------- ---------
1001 MAHESH 30-OCT-86 19-OCT-12
SQL>

Here, you can see DOJ is automatically inserted by the trigger.

Example.3

Following trigger will insert each record into salupdated table before the update happens in salary
table,

1. SQL> select * from salary;

ROLLNO EMPNAME DESIGN BPAY DA TA PF NETSAL

---------- --------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
10001 S.Krishnan HOD 25000 1500 1200 2250 27000
10002 K.K.Omana Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10003 Anishkumar.K Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10004 Girishkumar.K Asst.Manager 20000 1500 1200 1800 22000

22
 1. SQL> create table salupdated(
2. rollno number(5),
3. empname varchar(15),
4. design varchar(15),
5. bpay number(8,2),
6. da number(6,2),
7. total number(8,2),
8. ta number(6,2));

Table created.

1. SQL> ed salupdate_trig

create or replace trigger salupdate_trig before update on salary for each row,

1. insert into salupdated values (:old.rollno, :old.empname, :old.design, :old.bpay, :old.da, :old.
netsal, :old.ta);
2. end;
3. /
4. SQL> @salupdate_trig

Trigger created.

1. SQL> select * from salupdated;

no rows selected

1. SQL> update salary set BPAY=21000 where DESIGN='Asst.Manager';

3 rows updated.

1. SQL> select * from salary;

ROLLNO EMPNAME DESIGN BPAY DA TA PF NETSAL

---------- --------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
10001 S.Krishnan HOD 25000 1500 1200 2250 27000
10002 K.K.Omana Asst.Manager 21000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10003 Anishkumar.K Asst.Manager 21000 1500 1200 1800 22000
10004 Girishkumar.K Asst.Manager 21000 1500 1200 1800 22000

1. SQL> select * from salupdated;

ROLLNO EMPNAME DESIGN BPAY DA TOTAL TA

---------- --------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
10002 K.K.Omana Asst.Manager 20000 1500 22000 1200
10003 Anishkumar.K Asst.Manager 20000 1500 22000 1200
10004 Girishkumar.K Asst.Manager 20000 1500 22000 1200

23
SQL>

Example.4

Following DML trigger will raise an Application error, while trying to delete the records belonging to
Asst.Manager.

1. SQL> select * from salary;

ROLLNO EMPNAME DESIGN BPAY DA TA PF NETSAL

---------- --------------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
10001 S.Krishnan HOD 25000 1500 1200 2250 27000
10002 K.K.Omana Asst.Manager 19500 1500 1200 1800 22000
10003 Anishkumar.K Asst.Manager 19500 1500 1200 1800 22000
10004 Girishkumar.K Asst.Manager 19500 1500 1200 1800 22000

1. SQL> CREATE or REPLACE TRIGGER not_del

2. AFTER
3. DELETE ON salary
4. for each row
5.
6. BEGIN
7. IF :old.DESIGN = 'Asst.Manager' THEN
8. raise_application_error(-20015, 'Not Delete this Row');
9. END IF;
10. END;
11. /

Trigger created.

1. SQL> delete from salary where rollno=10004;

2. delete from salary where rollno=10004
3. *

ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20015: Not Delete this Row
ORA-06512: at "MAHI.NOT_DEL", line 3
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'MAHI.NOT_DEL

Result:

Trigger program executed successfully.

24
Ex. No: 7 EXCEPTION HANDLING

Aim:

To construct database and apply Exception Handling in PL/SQL Program.

An error condition during a program execution is called an exception and the mechanism for
resolving such an exception is known as an exception handler. SQL Server provides TRY, CATCH
blocks for exception handling. We can put all T-SQL statements into a TRY BLOCK and the code
for exception handling can be put into a CATCH block. We can also generate user-defined errors
using a THROW block.

Syntax of Exception Handling

BEGIN TRY

/* T-SQL Statements */

END TRY
BEGIN CATCH

- Print Error OR
- Rollback Transaction

END CATCH

In exception handling all T-SQL statements are put into a try block. If all statements execute without
any error then everything is OK else control will go to the catch block.

PL/SQL - Exceptions

In this chapter, we will discuss Exceptions in PL/SQL. An exception is an error condition during a
program execution. PL/SQL supports programmers to catch such conditions using EXCEPTION

25
block in the program and an appropriate action is taken against the error condition. There are two
types of exceptions −

System-defined exceptions
User-defined exceptions

Syntax for Exception Handling

The general syntax for exception handling is as follows. Here you can list down as many exceptions
as you can handle. The default exception will be handled using WHEN others THEN −

DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling goes here >
WHEN exception1 THEN
exception1-handling-statements
WHEN exception2 THEN
exception2-handling-statements
WHEN exception3 THEN
exception3-handling-statements
........
WHEN others THEN
exception3-handling-statements
END;

Example

Let us write a code to illustrate the concept. We will be using the CUSTOMERS table we had created
and used in the previous chapters −

DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type := 8;
c_name customerS.Name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;
BEGIN
SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr
FROM customers
WHERE id = c_id;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);

EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');
WHEN others THEN

26
 dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

No such customer!

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The above program displays the name and address of a customer whose ID is given. Since there is no
customer with ID value 8 in our database, the program raises the run-time exception
NO_DATA_FOUND, which is captured in the EXCEPTION block.

Raising Exceptions

Exceptions are raised by the database server automatically whenever there is any internal database
error, but exceptions can be raised explicitly by the programmer by using the command RAISE.
Following is the simple syntax for raising an exception −

DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF condition THEN
RAISE exception_name;
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
statement;
END;

You can use the above syntax in raising the Oracle standard exception or any user-defined exception.
In the next section, we will give you an example on raising a user-defined exception. You can raise
the Oracle standard exceptions in a similar way.

User-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL allows you to define your own exceptions according to the need of your program. A user-
defined exception must be declared and then raised explicitly, using either a RAISE statement or the
procedure DBMS_STANDARD.RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.

The syntax for declaring an exception is −

DECLARE
my-exception EXCEPTION;

Example

27
The following example illustrates the concept. This program asks for a customer ID, when the user
enters an invalid ID, the exception invalid_id is raised.

DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type := &cc_id;
c_name customerS.Name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;
-- user defined exception
ex_invalid_id EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF c_id <= 0 THEN
RAISE ex_invalid_id;
ELSE
SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr
FROM customers
WHERE id = c_id;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);
END IF;

EXCEPTION
WHEN ex_invalid_id THEN
dbms_output.put_line('ID must be greater than zero!');
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

Enter value for cc_id: -6 (let's enter a value -6)

old 2: c_id customers.id%type := &cc_id;
new 2: c_id customers.id%type := -6;
ID must be greater than zero!

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Pre-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL provides many pre-defined exceptions, which are executed when any database rule is
violated by a program. For example, the predefined exception NO_DATA_FOUND is raised when a
SELECT INTO statement returns no rows. The following table lists few of the important pre-defined
exceptions −

Exception Oracle SQLCODE Description

28
 Error
It is raised when a null object is automatically
ACCESS_INTO_NULL 06530 -6530
assigned a value.
It is raised when none of the choices in the WHEN
CASE_NOT_FOUND 06592 -6592 clause of a CASE statement is selected, and there is
no ELSE clause.
It is raised when a program attempts to apply
collection methods other than EXISTS to an
COLLECTION_IS_NULL 06531 -6531 uninitialized nested table or varray, or the program
attempts to assign values to the elements of an
uninitialized nested table or varray.
It is raised when duplicate values are attempted to
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX 00001 -1
be stored in a column with unique index.
It is raised when attempts are made to make a
INVALID_CURSOR 01001 -1001 cursor operation that is not allowed, such as closing
an unopened cursor.
It is raised when the conversion of a character
INVALID_NUMBER 01722 -1722 string into a number fails because the string does
not represent a valid number.
It is raised when a program attempts to log on to
LOGIN_DENIED 01017 -1017
the database with an invalid username or password.
It is raised when a SELECT INTO statement
NO_DATA_FOUND 01403 +100
returns no rows.
It is raised when a database call is issued without
NOT_LOGGED_ON 01012 -1012
being connected to the database.
PROGRAM_ERROR 06501 -6501 It is raised when PL/SQL has an internal problem.
It is raised when a cursor fetches value in a variable
ROWTYPE_MISMATCH 06504 -6504
having incompatible data type.
It is raised when a member method is invoked, but
SELF_IS_NULL 30625 -30625
the instance of the object type was not initialized.
It is raised when PL/SQL ran out of memory or
STORAGE_ERROR 06500 -6500
memory was corrupted.
It is raised when a SELECT INTO statement
TOO_MANY_ROWS 01422 -1422
returns more than one row.
It is raised when an arithmetic, conversion,
VALUE_ERROR 06502 -6502
truncation, or sizeconstraint error occurs.
It is raised when an attempt is made to divide a
ZERO_DIVIDE 01476 1476
number by zero.

System Defined Exception

In a System Defined Exception the exceptions (errors) are generated by the system.

29
Example

1. Declare @val1 int;

2. Declare @val2 int;
3. BEGIN TRY
4. Set @val1=8;
5. Set @val2=@val1/0; /* Error Occur Here */
6. END TRY
7. BEGIN CATCH
8. Print 'Error Occur that is:'
9. Print Error_Message()
10. END CATCH

Output

Error Occur that is:

Divide by zero error encountered

User Defined Exception

This type of exception is user generated, not system generated.

1. Declare @val1 int;

2. Declare @val2 int;
3. BEGIN TRY
4. Set @val1=8;
5. Set @val2=@val1%2;
6. if @val1=1
7. Print ' Error Not Occur'
8. else
9. Begin
10. Print 'Error Occur';
11. Throw 60000,'Number Is Even',5
12. End
13.
14. END TRY
15. BEGIN CATCH
16. Print 'Error Occur that is:'
17. Print Error_Message()
18. END CATCH

Output

Error Occur
Error Occur that is:
Number Is Even

30
Here 60000 denotes the error number and 5 denotes the state to associate with the message.

The following are system functions and the keyword used within a catch block:

1. @@ERROR
2. ERROR_NUMBER()
3. ERROR_STATE()
4. ERROR_LINE()
5. ERROR_MESSAGE()
6. ERROR_PROCEDURE()
7. ERROR_SEVERITY()
8. RAISERROR()
9. GOTO()

Now we will see some examples to help understand all these functions and keywords.

First create a table and enter some value into the table as in the following:

1. Create TABLE Employee

2. (
3. Emp_IId Int identity(1,1),
4. First_Name Nvarchar(MAX) Not NUll,
5. Last_Name Nvarchar(MAX) Not Null,
6. Salary Int Not Null check(Salary>20000),
7. City Nvarchar(Max) Not Null
8. )

Insert data into Employee.

1. Select 'Pankaj','Choudhary',25000,'Alwar' Union All

2. Select 'Rahul','Prajapat',23000,'Alwar' Union All
3. Select 'Sandeep','Jangid',27000,'Alwar' Union All
4. Select 'Sanjeev','Baldia',24000,'Alwar' Union All
5. Select 'Neeraj','Saini',22000,'Alwar' Union All
6. Select 'Narendra','Sharma',23000,'Alwar' Union All
7. Select 'Divyanshu','Gupta',25000,'Alwar'

Now execute a select command.

1. Select * From Employee

31
Example 1: (@@ERROR)

@@ERROR return the error number for last executed T-SQL statements. It returns 0 if the previous
Transact-SQL statement encountered no errors else return an error number.

Output:

Msg 547, Level 16, State 0, Line 1

The UPDATE statement conflicted with the CHECK constraint

"CK Employee Salary 68487DD7". The conflict occurred in database
"Home_Management", table "dbo.Employee", column 'Salary'.

The statement has been terminated.

A check constraint violation occurred.

Example 2 (ERROR_NUMBER)

ERROR_NUMBER() returns the error number that caused the error. It returns zero if called outside
the catch block.

1. BEGIN TRY
2.
3. Update Employee set Salary=19000 Where Emp_IID=5
4. END TRY
5. BEGIN CATCH
6. SELECT ERROR_NUMBER() AS ErrorNumber;
7. END CATCH;
8. GO

Output

32
Now a question develops of what is diff @@ERROR and ERROR_NUMBER. Let me explain.

1. ERROR_NUMBER can only be used in a catch block, outside a catch block it returns Null
but @@ERROR can be used inside or outside the catch block (see Example 1).

2. ERROR_NUMBER is a contrast to @@ERROR, that only returns the error number in the
statement immediately after the one that causes an error, or the first statement of a CATCH
block.

Now we will see an example and observe the differences between them.

1. BEGIN TRY
2.
3. Update Employee set Salary=19000 Where Emp_IID=5
4. END TRY
5. BEGIN CATCH
6.
7. SELECT ERROR_NUMBER() AS ErrorNumber;
8. print @@ERROR
9. END CATCH;
10. GO

Output

1. BEGIN TRY
2.
3. Update Employee set Salary=19000 Where Emp_IID=5
4. END TRY
5. BEGIN CATCH
6. print @@ERROR
7. SELECT ERROR_NUMBER() AS ErrorNumber;
8.
9. END CATCH;
10. GO

Output

33
Example 3 (ERROR_MESSAGE)

ERROR_MESSAGE returns the message text of the error that caused the error. The return type of
ERROR_MESSAGE is nvarchar(4000).

1. BEGIN TRY
2.
3. Update Employee set Salary=19000 Where Emp_IID=5
4. END TRY
5. BEGIN CATCH
6. SELECT ERROR_MESSAGE() AS ErrorMsg;
7.
8. END CATCH;
9. GO

Output

The UPDATE statement conflicted with the CHECK constraint

"CK Employee Salary 68487DD7". The conflict occurred in database
"Home_Management", table "dbo.Employee", column 'Salary'.

Example 4 ( ERROR_STATE)

ERROR_STATE returns the state number of the error. The return type of ERROR_STATE is INT.

1. BEGIN TRY
2.
3. SELECT SALARY + First_Name From Employee Where Emp_IID=5
4. END TRY
5. BEGIN CATCH
6. SELECT ERROR_STATE() AS ErrorState , ERROR_MESSAGE() ErrorMsg ;
7. END CATCH;
8. GO

Output

34
Example 5 (ERROR_LINE)

ERROR_LINE returns the line number at which an error occurred. The return type of ERROR_LINE
is INT.

1. BEGIN TRY
2. SELECT SALARY + First_Name From Employee Where Emp_IID=5
3. END TRY
4. BEGIN CATCH
5. SELECT ERROR_STATE() AS ErrorLine;
6. END CATCH;
7. GO

Output

Example 6 (ERROR_PROCEDURE)

ERROR_PROCEDURE returns the name of the Stored Procedure or trigger of where an error
occurred. The return type of ERROR_PROCEDURE is nvarchar(128).

Return value

Return value returns the Stored Procedure Name if an error occurs in a Stored Procedure or trigger
and the catch block is called.

It returns NULL if the error did not occur within a Stored Procedure or trigger or it isb called outside
the scope of a CATCH block.

First we create a Stored Procedure.

1. Create Procedure My_Proc

2. AS
3. begin
4. BEGIN TRY
5. SELECT SALARY + First_Name From Employee Where Emp_IID=5
6. END TRY
7. BEGIN CATCH
8. SELECT ERROR_PROCEDURE() AS ProcName;
9. END CATCH;
10. END

Now execute this Stored Procedure.

1. Exec My_Proc

35
Output

Example 7 (ERROR_SEVERITY)

ERROR_SEVERITY returns the severity of the error. The return type of ERROR_SEVERITY
is INT.

1. BEGIN TRY
2. SELECT SALARY + First_Name From Employee Where Emp_IID=5
3. END TRY
4. BEGIN CATCH
5. SELECT ERROR_SEVERITY() AS ErrorSeverity;
6. END CATCH;

Output

The severity level of an error message provides an indication of the type of problem that Microsoft®
SQL Server encountered. In the preceding example the Severity Level is 16. That means that the error
can be removed by the user.

Some important severity levels are:

13 Indicates transaction deadlock errors.

14 Indicates security-related errors, such as permission denied.

15 Indicates syntax errors in the Transact-SQL command.

16 Indicates general errors that can be corrected by the user.

Example 8 (RAISERROR)

RAISEERROR is used to generate an error message and initiates error processing for the session.

36
 4. BEGIN CATCH
5. RAISERROR(N'An Error Is Occur',16,3);
6. END CATCH;

Output

In RAISERROR(N'An Error Is Occur',16,3) the first argument represents the error messagethe ,
second argument represents the Severity Level and the last argument represents the Error State.

Example 9 (GOTO)

GOTO causes a jump to a specific step or statement. It alters the flow of execution to a label. We
declare some labels in batch and alter we can move at a specific label. GOTO can exist within a
conditional control-of-flow statements, statement blocks, or procedures, but it cannot go to a label
outside the batch. GOTO cannot be used to jump into a TRY or CATCH scope.

1. Declare @Var Int;

2. Set @Var=1
3. Print 'Goto exercise'
4. If @Var%2=0
5. GOTO Label1;
6. else
7. GOTO Label2;
8. Set @Var=@Var+1;
9. Label1:
10. Print 'Var Is Odd'
11. Label2:
12. Print 'Var Is Even'

Output

Goto exercise
Var Is Even

Example 10

1. BEGIN TRY
2. SELECT SALARY + First_Name From Employee Where Emp_IID=5
3. END TRY
4. BEGIN CATCH
5. SELECT ERROR_STATE() AS Error_Stat,ERROR_SEVERITY() AS ErrorSeverity, ERRO
R_LINE() as ErrorLine, ERROR_NUMBER() AS ErrorNumber, ERROR_MESSAGE() AS
ErrorMsg;
6. END CATCH;

37
Output

Exercise 11 (Transaction Management)

Exception handling is mainly used for Transaction Management. Let us see an example.

1. Begin Transaction Trans

2. Begin Try
3. Delete From Employee Where Employee.Emp_IID<3
4. Update Employee Set Employee.First_Name='Pankaj kumar' Where Employee.Emp_IID
='6th' /* Error Will Occur Here */
5. If @@TranCount>0
6. begin Commit Transaction Trans
7. End
8. End Try
9. Begin Catch
10. if @@TranCount>0
11. Print 'Error Is Occur in Transaction'
12. begin Rollback Transaction Trans
13. End
14. End Catch
15.
16. Select * From Employee

Output

When to use Exception Handling:

1. In Transaction Management to Rollback the transaction.

2. While using cursors in SQL Server.

38
 3. When implementing a DML Query (insert, update or delete) for for an checking the error and
to handle it.

Result:

39
The exception handling program is executed successfully.

40
 Ex.No: 8 DATABASE DESIGN USING ER MODELING, NORMALIZATION AND
IMPLEMENTATION FOR ANY APPLICATION

What is ER Modeling?

Entity Relationship Modeling (ER Modeling) is a graphical approach to database design. It uses
Entity/Relationship to represent real world objects.

An Entity is a thing or object in real world that is distinguishable from surrounding environment. For
example each employee of an organization is a separate entity. Following are some of major
characteristics of entities.

 An entity has a set of properties.

 Entity properties can have values.

Enhanced Entity Relationship (EER) Model

Enhanced Entity Relationship (EER) Model is a high level data model which provides extensions to
original Entity Relationship (ER) model. EER Models supports more details design. EER Modeling
emerged as a solution for modeling highly complex databases.

EER uses UML notation. UML is the acronym for Unified Modeling Language; it is a general
purpose modeling language used when designing object oriented systems. Entities are represented as
class diagrams. Relationships are represented as associations between entities. The diagram shown
below illustrates an ER diagram using the UML notation.

Why use ER Model?

Now you may think why use ER modeling when we can simply create the database and all of its
objects without ER modeling? One of the challenges faced when designing database is the fact that
designers, developers and end-users tend to view data and its usage differently. If this situation is left
unchecked, we can end up producing a database system that does not meet the requirements of the
users.

100
Communication tools understood by all stakeholders(technical as well non-technical users) are
critical in producing database systems that meet the requirements of the users. ER models are
examples of such tools.

ER diagrams also increase user productivity as they can be easily translated into relational tables.

Case Study: ER diagram for "MyFlix" Video Library

Let's now work with the MyFlix Video Library database system to help understand the concept of ER
diagrams. We will using this database for all hand-on in the remainder of this tutorials

MyFlix is a business entity that rents out movies to its members. MyFlix has been storing its records
manually. The management now wants to move to a DBMS

Let's look at the steps to develop EER diagram for this database-

1. Identify the entities and determine the relationships that exist among them.
2. Each entity, attribute and relationship, should have appropriate names that can be easily
understood by the non-technical people as well.
3. Relationships should not be connected directly to eachother. Relationships should connect
entities.
4. Each attribute in a given entity should have a unique name.

Entities in the "MyFlix" library

The entities to be included in our ER diagram are;

Members - this entity will hold member information.

Movies - this entity will hold information regarding movies
Categories - this entity will hold information that places movies into different categories such
as "Drama", "Action", and "Epic" etc.
Movie Rentals - this entity will hold information that about movies rented out to members.
Payments - this entity will hold information about the payments made by members.

Defining the relationships among entities

Members and movies

The following holds true regarding the interactions between the two entities.

A member can rent a more than movie in a given period.

A movie can be rented by more than one member in a given period.

From the above scenario, we can see that the nature of the relationship is many-to-many. Relational
databases do not support many-to-many relationships. We need to introduce a junction entity.
This is the role that the MovieRentals entity plays. It has a one-to-many relationship with the
members table and another one-to-many relationship with movies table.

101
Movies and categories entities

The following holds true about movies and categories.

A movie can only belong to one category but a category can have more than one movie.

We can deduce from this that the nature of the relation between categories and movies table is one-to-
many.

Members and payments entities

The following holds true about members and payments

A member can only have one account but can make a number of payments.

We can deduce from this that the nature of the relationship between members and payments entities is
one-to-many.

Now lets create EER model using MySQL Workbench

In the MySQL workbench , Click - "+" Button

Double click on Add Diagram button to open the workspace for ER diagrams.

102
103
Following window appears

104
Let's look at the two objects that we will work with.

The table object allows us to create entities and define the attributes associated with the
particular entity.
The place relationship button allows us to define relationships between entities.

The members' entity will have the following attributes

 Membership number
 Full names
 Gender
 Date of birth
 Physical address
 Postal address

Let's now create the members table

1. Drag the table object from the tools panel

2. Drop it in the workspace area. An entity named table 1 appears

3.Double click on it. The properties window shown below appears

Next ,

105
 1. Change table 1 to Members
2. Edit the default idtable1 to membership_number
3. Click on the next line to add the next field
4. Do the same for all the attributes identified in members' entity.

Your properties window should now look like this.

Repeat the above steps for all the identified entities.

Your diagram workspace should now look like the one shown below.

106
Lets create relationship between Members and Movie Rentals

1. Select the place relationship using existing columns too

2. Click on membership_number in the Members table
3. Click on reference_number in the MovieRentals table

Repeat above steps for other relationships. Your ER diagram should now look like this -

107
Summary

 ER Diagrams play a very important role in the database designing process. They serve as a
non-technical communication tool for technical and non-technical people.
 Entities represent real world things; they can be conceptual as a sales order or physical such as
a customer.
 All entities must be given unique names.
 ER models also allow the database designers to identify and define the relations that exist
among entities.

What is Normalization? 1NF, 2NF, 3NF & BCNF with Examples

What is Normalization?

Normalization is a database design technique which organizes tables in a manner that reduces
redundancy and dependency of data.

It divides larger tables to smaller tables and links them using relationships.

The inventor of the relational model Edgar Codd proposed the theory of normalization with the
introduction of First Normal Form, and he continued to extend theory with Second and Third Normal
Form. Later he joined with Raymond F. Boyce to develop the theory of Boyce-Codd Normal Form.

108
Theory of Data Normalization in SQL is still being developed further. For example, there are
discussions even on 6thNormal Form. However, in most practical applications, normalization
achieves its best in 3rd Normal Form. The evolution of Normalization theories is illustrated below-

Database Normalization Examples -

Assume a video library maintains a database of movies rented out. Without any normalization, all
information is stored in one table as shown below.

Table 1

Here you see Movies Rented column has multiple values.

Database Normal Forms

Now let's move into 1st Normal Forms

1NF (First Normal Form) Rules

 Each table cell should contain a single value.

 Each record needs to be unique.

The above table in 1NF-

1NF Example

109
Table 1: In 1NF Form

Before we proceed let's understand a few things --

What is a KEY?

A KEY is a value used to identify a record in a table uniquely. A KEY could be a single column or
combination of multiple columns

Note: Columns in a table that are NOT used to identify a record uniquely are called non-key columns.

What is a Primary Key?

A primary is a single column value used to identify a database record

uniquely.

It has following attributes

 A primary key cannot be NULL

 A primary key value must be unique
 The primary key values cannot be changed
 The primary key must be given a value when a new record is
inserted.

What is Composite Key?

A composite key is a primary key composed of multiple columns used to identify a record uniquely

In our database, we have two people with the same name Robert Phil, but they live in different
places.

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Hence, we require both Full Name and Address to identify a record uniquely. That is a composite
key.

Let's move into second normal form 2NF

2NF (Second Normal Form) Rules

 Rule 1- Be in 1NF
 Rule 2- Single Column Primary Key

It is clear that we can't move forward to make our simple database in 2nd Normalization form unless
we partition the table above.

Table 1

Table 2

We have divided our 1NF table into two tables viz. Table 1 and Table2. Table 1 contains member
information. Table 2 contains information on movies rented.

We have introduced a new column called Membership_id which is the primary key for table 1.
Records can be uniquely identified in Table 1 using membership id

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Database - Foreign Key

In Table 2, Membership_ID is the Foreign Key

Foreign Key references the primary key of another Table! It

helps connect your Tables

 A foreign key can have a different name from its

primary key
 It ensures rows in one table have corresponding rows in
another
 Unlike the Primary key, they do not have to be unique.
Most often they aren't
 Foreign keys can be null even though primary keys can
not

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Why do you need a foreign key?

Suppose an idiot inserts a record in Table B such as

You will only be able to insert values into your foreign key that exist in the unique key in the parent
table. This helps in referential integrity.

The above problem can be overcome by declaring membership id from Table2 as foreign key of
membership id from Table1

Now, if somebody tries to insert a value in the membership id field that does not exist in the parent
table, an error will be shown!

What are transitive functional dependencies?

A transitive functional dependency is when changing a non-key column, might cause any of the other
non-key columns to change

Consider the table 1. Changing the non-key column Full Name may change Salutation.

Let's move into 3NF

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3NF (Third Normal Form) Rules

 Rule 1- Be in 2NF
 Rule 2- Has no transitive functional dependencies

To move our 2NF table into 3NF, we again need to again divide our table.

3NF Example

TABLE 1

Table 2

Table 3

We have again divided our tables and created a new table which stores Salutations.

There are no transitive functional dependencies, and hence our table is in 3NF

In Table 3 Salutation ID is primary key, and in Table 1 Salutation ID is foreign to primary key in
Table 3

Now our little example is at a level that cannot further be decomposed to attain higher forms of
normalization. In fact, it is already in higher normalization forms. Separate efforts for moving into
next levels of normalizing data are normally needed in complex databases. However, we will be
discussing next levels of normalizations in brief in the following.

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Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

Even when a database is in 3rd Normal Form, still there would be anomalies resulted if it has more
than one Candidate Key.

Sometimes is BCNF is also referred as 3.5 Normal Form.

4NF (Fourth Normal Form) Rules

If no database table instance contains two or more, independent and multivalued data describing the
relevant entity, then it is in 4th Normal Form.

5NF (Fifth Normal Form) Rules

A table is in 5th Normal Form only if it is in 4NF and it cannot be decomposed into any number of
smaller tables without loss of data.

6NF (Sixth Normal Form) Proposed

6th Normal Form is not standardized, yet however, it is being discussed by database experts for some
time. Hopefully, we would have a clear & standardized definition for 6th Normal Form in the near
future...

Project Title:-

Database system for Library Management system

Project Overview Statement
As You Know that a Library is collection of books in any institute .Librarian resposibilty is to
manage all the records of books issued and also returned on Manualy.

Case study
Current system:
All the Transaction(books issues & books returned) are manualy recorded(registars.)
Students search books by racks it so time consuming
And there is no arrangement.
Also threat of losing recorde.

Project Aim and Objective

The project aim and objective are:
To eliminate the paper –work in library

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-to record every transaction in computerized system so that problem such as record file missing
won’t happen again

Backgroud of Project

Library Management system is an application refer to other library system and is suitable to use
by small and medium size libray .

It is use by librarian and libray admin to manage the library using a computerized system.

The system was designed to help librain record every book transcation so that the problem such as
file missing will not happened again.

Design view
The library has the following tables in its database;

1. Books (book_id, ISBN,bookName, BOOKAUTHOR and bookedition)

2. student (student_id, studentname, student_email, student_address)

3. Staff (staff_id, staff_name, staff_address, staff_gender, staff_phone)

4. department (department_id, branch_name)

5. Issue (issue_id, issue_date, expiry_date, book_name, book_id)

6. Return (return_id, expiry_date, isuue_date, book_id)

NORAMALIZATION OF TABLE

Why Normalization:
Database normalization is the process of removing redundant data from your tables in
order to improve storage efficiency, data integrity, and scalability.
Normalization generally involves splitting existing tables into multiple ones, which must be
re-joined or linked each time a query is issued.

Given table is converted to its 1NF as follows.

• STEP NUMBER 1:
elimination of duplicative columns from table 1.
• Step number 2:
create separate table for each group of related data and identify each row with unique column
(primary key).

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 nd
2 normal form
A table is in first normal form and each non-key field is functionally dependent upon primary
key.
Now we'll take the table above and design new tables that will eliminate the repeted
date in non key _field

To decide what fields belong together in a table, think about which field
determines the
values in other fields.
Create a table for those fields and enter the sample data.
ink about what the primary key for each table would be and about
the relationship between the tables.
ark the primary key for each table and make sure that you do not have repeated data in
non-key fields.

ird normal form (3NF) requires that there are no functional dependencies of non-
key attributes on something other than a candidate key.
of the non primary-key attributes are mutually independent
ere should not be transitive depeinces.

Normalization of Tables in Database

ISSue_id Book_id Student_id

1122 110,120,320 bitE183

In the ISSUE Table there is repating book_id . A student has issued 3 books.

After first Normalization

ISSUE_ID book_id Student_id

1122 110 bitE183

1122 320 bitE183
1122 120 bitE183

Second normalized Form:

In the following Student relation all attributes are

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 dependent on the primary key StudID

Student_id Name Depid Issue_date Expairy_date

Phone

BITf13E183 Azhar 20 17-6-15 1-7-15 3127400

We can create two other relations from Student Table one is Department fields
are fully dependent on the primary keys DEp_id

DEp_id Dep_name

11 CS & IT Department
22 Education Department

33 Economics Department

44 Laaw Department

Student_id Name Issue_date Expairy_date Phone

BITf13E183 Azhar 15-6-15 1-7-15

312-
7400558

Before third normal form

Staff_id Name Genda Designation Address City state cell

r

1101 Shaid M Librarian House no Sargodha punjab 300-

12 street 6 1234567

1345 Riaz m Data entery Statilete Sargodha Punjab 0346-

town 1234567

2264 Arshad m Naib qaisd Raza Sargodha Punjab 0333-

garden 1234567

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After 3rd Normalization

Staff table

Staff_id Name Gender

Staff conatact

Staff_id Address City State Telephone cell

STUDENT Table before Third normalized Form :

Std_id Name Gender Address City State Phone Dep_id

After third normal

Student_id Dep_id Department

IT-113 C-26 Cs & IT

Lm-456 L-11 Law

Eng-98 E-41 ENGLISH

Studentcontact table:

Student_id Address City State Phone

IT-111 Statlite twon Sargodha Punjab 312-1234567

Cs-786 Sahiwal sargoda punjab 300-1234567

Student table:

Student_id Name Gender studentDepartment

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 Normalization End

ARCHITECTURE OF TABLES IN SQL SEERVER 2012 AND RECORD FIRST TABLE

IS BOOK
Design view

Records

120
 nd
2 table Issues
Design view

Student _id is forigen key in book table

Record

121
 rd
3 table student

Design view

Dep_id is forign key in student table

Record view

122
Student contact Design
view

Record

Department table - Design view

Here student_id is forigen key

123
Record view

Return table

Here book_id,issue_id, staff_id ,student_id are forigen keys

124
 Record view

Staff table Design

view
Deg_id is forigen key
Record view

Staff deginations table

125
Design view

Staff_id is forigen key Record view

Staff contact table Design view

Record view

126
127
 Books
PK book_id
PK

ISBN
book name
book edition book
Rack_no

authorname

RETURN STUDENT

PK student_id
PK return _id

student_name
book_id
issue-date
expairy -date
student_dep
dep_no
issue_id
student_id

student contact
STAFF

PK std_id
PK staff_id

address
staff-name streeet
phone state
staff-gender

E-mail
designation contact_no
designation _id

DEPARTMENT
staff contact
PK dep_no

PK staff_id
dep_name

address
street
state

E-mail
contact_no

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Relational Model of ERD

Staff contact

Staff_id Address City State Phone

Staff

Staff_id Name Desgination Gender

Designation

Designation_id Designation

Student contact

Student_id Address City State phone

Student

Sttudent_id Name Gender Student_dep

Department

Dep_id Department name

Book

Book_id Isbn Book_name Edition Author Rack_no

name

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 ISSUEs

Issue_id Book_name Book_id Stud_id Issue_date Expairy_date

RETURN

Return_id Book_id Issues_date Retuen_date

Entity Relationship Model in SQL SERVER 2012

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Ex.No: 9 CONNECTING TO ORACLE DATABASE USING C#

Aim:

Introduction

Oracle is the most widely used database system available in the market. And on the other
hand if we talk about the .Net framework, it’s a software framework developed by the
software giant Microsoft (we all know this), it includes a large class library known as the
Framework Class Library (FCL) and provides language interoperability across several
programming languages.

Prerequisites

1. Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 or higher (I’ll be using Visual Studio 2012).
2. Oracle database 9.2 or higher or Oracle Database XE
3. Install Oracle Data Access Component (ODAC)

Use this link to download ODAC,

http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/topics/dotnet/utilsoft-086879.html

Moving Forward

Once you have installed ODAC, you must look for the following assembly files.

 Oracle.DataAccess.dll (this assembly file is required)

 Oracle.ManagedDataAccess.dll (optional)
 Oracle.Web.dll (optional)

Add the following references:

1. Go to Solution Explorer
2. Right-click and select Add Reference
3. Click on Extensions
4. Select the above mentioned files and click OK

Go to the web.config file and you can see the following code.

<assemblies>

<add assembly=”Oracle.DataAccess,Version=4.121.1.0, Culture=neutral,

PublicKeyToken=*************”/>

</ assemblies>

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And you can also see a folder name, bin, that has already been created in the Solution
Explorer.

ORA-12154: TNS: could not resolve the connect identifier specified

This error usually occurs when the code doesn’t find the specified settings. This is quite
confusing and irritating as well. The best thing you can do is declare the TNS setting in the
code itself to prevent such errors.

The following is the sample of how to create TNS entries.

String oradb=”Data Source=(DESCRIPTION=” + “address =(protocol=tcp)

(host=your_host_name) (PORT =1521))” + “(CONNECT DATA=” + “(SERVER
=DEDICATED)” + “ (SERVICE_NAME=XE)));” + “User ID=your_user_id;
Password=********;”;

You must understand the following details before creating TNS entries.

1. Your host provider.

This SQL query can help you determine the host name,

1. SELECT SYS_CONTEXT (‘USERENV’, ‘SERVER_HOST’) FROM DUA

L;

2. You need to know the Service name. You can find it in tnsnames.ora. This allows you
to register an instance with the listener.
3. Third is the user id and password.
4. Don’t forget to add "using Oracle.DataAccess.Client;" namespace.

The source code

1. using System;
2. using System.Collections.Generic;
3. using System.Linq;
4. using System.Web;
5. using System.Web.UI;
6. using System.Web.UI.WebControls;
7. using Oracle.DataAccess.Client;
8. using System.Data; & nbsp;
9. public partial class _Default: System.Web.UI.Page {
10. //creating TNS entries
11. string oradb = "Data Source=(DESCRIPTION =" + "(ADDRESS = (PROTOCOL
= TCP)(HOST = Your host name)(PORT = 1521))" + "(CONNECT_DATA =" + "(S

132
 ERVER = DEDICATED)" + "(SERVICE_NAME = XE)));" + "User Id= your user id
;Password=<strong>******</strong>;";
12. protected void Page_Load(object sender, EventArgs e) {}
13. protected void btn_Click(object sender, EventArgs e) {
14. OracleConnection conn = new OracleConnection(oradb);
15. conn.Open();
16. Response.Write("Connected to Oracle" + conn.ServerVersion);
17. // Close and Dispose OracleConnection object
18. conn.Close();
19. conn.Dispose();
20. Response.Write("Disconnected");
21. }
22. }

Remarks

 OracleConnection(): Initializes a new instance of the OracleConnection.

 OracleConnection(oradb): Initializes a new instance of the OracleConnection class
with the specified connection string.
 OracleCommand(): Initializes a new instance of the OracleCommand.
 CommandText: Gets or sets the SQL statement or Stored Procedure to execute against
the database. (Overrides DbCommand.CommandText.)
 Connection: Gets or sets the OracleConnection used by this instance of the
OracleCommand.
 OracleDataReader: To create an OracleDataReader, you must call the ExecuteReader
method of the OracleCommand object, rather than directly using a constructor.
Changes made to a resultset by another process or thread when data is being read may
be visible to the user of the OracleDataReader.

Output

133
 Ex. No: 10 INVENTORY CONTROL SYSTEM.

AIM:

To develop a Inventory Control System using Oracle as s back end(data base) and Microsoft
Visual basic as a front end.

TABLE CREATION:

TABLE NAME:SUPPLIER

SQL> create table supplier(supno number(10),supname varchar2(20),supdate date,price

number(20),quantity number(10),ITEM_NAME VARCHAR2(20));

Table created.

SQL> insert into supplier values(1,'pit','12-jan-2014',8000,2,'MONITOR');

1 row created.

SQL> insert into supplier values(2,'PEC','6-MAR-2014',4000,1,'KEYBOARD');

1 row created.

TABLE NAME:ITEM

SQL> CREATE TABLE ITEM(ITEMNO NUMBER(10),ITEM_NAME

VARCHAR2(10),PRICE NUMBER(10),QUAT_AVAILABLE NUMBER(10));

Table created.

SQL> INSERT INTO ITEM VALUES(101,'MONITOR',80000,3);

1 row created.

SQL> insert into ITEM VALUES(102,'MOUSE',70000,10);

1 row created.

SQL> COMMIT;

Commit complete.

CODING

FORM1:

Private Sub Item_Click()

Form3.Show

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End Sub

Private Sub Supplier_Click()

Form2.Show

End Sub

FORM2:

Private Sub Command1_Click()

Adodc1.Recordset.AddNew

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("supno") = Text1.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("supname") = Text2.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("supdate") = Text3.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("price") = Text4.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("quantity") = Text5.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("item_name") = Text6Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Update

MsgBox "Data Added"

End Sub

Private Sub Command10_Click()

Form3.Show

End Sub

Private Sub Command3_Click()

Adodc1.Recordset.Delete

Adodc1.Recordset.Update

End Sub

Private Sub Command4_Click()

Unload Me

135
End Sub

Private Sub Command5_Click()

If Adodc1.Recordset.EOF = False Then

Adodc1.Recordset.MoveNext

Else

MsgBox "END OF FILE!", vbOKOnly, "Warning"

End If

End Sub

Private Sub Command6_Click()

Adodc1.Recordset.MoveFirst

End Sub

Private Sub Command7_Click()

Adodc1.Recordset.MoveLast

End Sub

Private Sub Command8_Click()

If Adodc1.Recordset.BOF = False Then

Adodc1.Recordset.MovePrevious

Else

MsgBox "BEGIN OF FILE!!", vbOKOnly, "Warning"

End If

End Sub

Private Sub Command9_Click()

Form1.Show

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End Sub

FORM3:

Private Sub Command1_Click()

Adodc1.Recordset.AddNew

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("itemno") = Text1.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("item_name") = Text2.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("price") = Text4.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Fields("quat_available") = Text5.Text

Adodc1.Recordset.Update

MsgBox "Data Added"

End Sub

Private Sub Command10_Click()

Form2.Show

End Sub

Private Sub Command3_Click()

Adodc1.Recordset.Delete

Adodc1.Recordset.Update

End Sub

Private Sub Command4_Click()

Unload Me

End Sub

151
Private Sub Command5_Click()

If Adodc1.Recordset.EOF = False Then

Adodc1.Recordset.MoveNext

Else

MsgBox "END OF FILE!", vbOKOnly, "Warning"

End If

End Sub

Private Sub Command6_Click()

Adodc1.Recordset.MoveFirst

End Sub

Private Sub Command7_Click()

Adodc1.Recordset.MoveLast

End Sub

Private Sub Command8_Click()

If Adodc1.Recordset.BOF = False Then

Adodc1.Recordset.MovePrevious

Else

MsgBox "BEGIN OF FILE!!", vbOKOnly, "Warning"

End If

End Sub

Private Sub Command9_Click()

Form1.Show

End Sub

152
SCREEN SHOTS:

HOME PAGE

SUPPLIER FORM

153
ITEM FORM

Result:

Thus the Inventory Control System Mini project has been implemented and executed
successfully.

154