Porphyry Mineralisation

Module 2
Porphyry Mineralisation Contents i

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Mineralising Processes 1
2.1 Geochemistry of Mineralisation 1
2.2 Changes in Response to Physical Processes 2
3. Hydrothermal Alteration and Veining 9
3.1 Alteration 9
3.2 Veining 10
4. Ore Mineralogy and Zonation 14

5. Evolution in Time 16

6. Large High Grade Cu Porphyries 18

6.1 Size and Grades 18
6.2 Geological Setting 20
7. Cu-Au Porphyries 21
7.1 Size and Grade 21
7.2 Geological Setting 21
7.3 Mineralising Processes 24
7.4 Hydrothermal Alteration 25
7.5 Ore Minerals 25
7.6 Identification of Gold Rich Porphyries 26
8. Supergene Enriched Porphyries and Associated Exotic
Deposits 28

9. Practical Exercise 29

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Porphyry Mineralisation 1

1. Introduction

Of the many factors required to produce an economically viable hydrothermal mineral

deposit, the three most important are a heat source to drive the hydrothermal system, a
source of metals, and localised high permeability. In porphyry systems, the intrusive
provides all three. Both the heat and the metals are directly derived from the intrusive,
while fracturing produced by volatile exsolution creates permeability in and around the
intrusive.

Porphyry mineralisation consists of hypothermal deposits occurring as stockworks or

disseminations that are intimately associated with porphyritic intrusives. Copper or Cu-Au
mineralisation is associated with potassic alteration, although this is frequently overprinted
with possibly some redistribution of Cu. The term hypothermal indicates that initial
mineralisation takes place at high temperatures (around 600°C).

There are three styles of porphyry deposits that are exploration targets under current day
economic conditions. These are large high-grade hypogene Cu porphyries, Cu-Au
porphyries and supergene enriched Cu porphyries and associated exotic deposits. Whilst in
the past, deposits with a considerable range of tonnages and grades have been mined, the
emphasis now is on large comparatively rich copper and copper-gold deposits or deposits
with supergene alteration that can be cheaply exploited using heap leach – SX – EW
technology.

Tin- and silver-rich deposits can also occur. Silver usually exceeds gold in terms of
absolute concentration, but is usually only a minor economic component because of its
lower value. Platinoids are rare but valuable accessories: they may have been under-
reported in the past. Gold-only porphyry deposits are rare and have poor metallurgical
properties. In the past, molybdenum-rich porphyries were a major exploration target.
Molybdenum-rich deposits are more common in the continental setting. The upper limit
(as a bulk average) in porphyry molybdenum deposits seems to be about 0.6 % Mo. A
deposit is regarded as Mo-rich if it has > 0.01 %. There is generally (but not always) an
antithetic relation between Mo and Au content. Today, however, the world demand for
molybdenum is met from the current mines and by-product production from other porphyry
deposits hence molybdenum porphyries are not current exploration targets. None of these
deposit types will be considered in detail.

2. Mineralising Processes

2.1 Geochemistry of Mineralisation

The fluids responsible for near-intrusive alteration and mineralisation in the porphyry
setting are predominantly magmatic in origin, with a small amount of admixed
groundwater or connate water. These fluids are initially hot (up to 600°C) highly saline
(>30% NaCl), moderately acid and oxidised. Under these conditions both gold and copper
travel as chloride complexes rather than bisulphide complexes.

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Porphyry Mineralisation 2

Henley and McNabb (1978) estimated that a 100 million tonne porphyry ore-body could be
formed in 10,000 years, based on an estimated magmatic gas composition and
measurements of the Cl content of fumarolic gases. Thus, there is no difficulty in
providing sufficient volatiles from a typical subduction zone related magma. The recent
recognition of the amount of metals lost to the atmosphere by volcanoes both during their
eruptive and solfataric phases (Hedenquist and Lowenstern 1994) indicates that there is no
problem in finding a source for the metals. It is more a matter of trapping them prior to
dissipation to the atmosphere, to form an ore deposit.

Experimental work on metal-Cl complexes shows that they are less soluble at lower
temperatures, lower chloride contents, higher pH and more reducing conditions. Thus
cooling, dilution and reaction with the country rock will tend to cause metals to deposit.
The Cl complexes are more soluble at lower pressures in single-phase fluid, but as
pressures drop and boiling occurs to produce a two-phase fluid, the metals become
concentrated in the liquid phase and so in effect solubilities in the liquid phase again
decrease. Thus boiling similarly promotes deposition.

Mo-rich porphyry deposits seem to have a higher F/Cl ratio in the fluids. It has been
suggested that this has a mobilising action on silica, enhancing quartz veining in these
deposits.

2.2 Changes in Response to Physical Processes

A significant characteristic of porphyry deposits is evolution of the fluid composition with

time. Initially the fluids may be at high pressure, equalling or exceeding lithostatic
(Figures 1, 2). The magmatic fluids are expelled from the cooling intrusive in the
phenomenon known as second boiling (Phillips 1973). This is a consequence of the
volatile components becoming oversaturated as they are concentrated in the remaining melt
by crystallisation of phenocrysts (Figure 3). The most important crystallisation product is
plagioclase, which crystallises in response to decreasing pressure.

The mechanism for the triggering of second boiling is the upward movement of the magma.
Water in solution in the melt is structurally bound to silica and therefore has the same
molar volume as ice. Upon being released from solution there is a very large volume
increase to that of steam at high temperature. This can produce very high pressures.
There is therefore a strong tendency to induce fracturing (Figure 4). This, along with other
forms of permeability enhancement such as thermal cracking, leads to reducing pressure.
Quite small water quantities in the initial melt are sufficient to have this effect: perhaps as
little as 2.5 % (Cline and Bodnar 1991).

When pressures reduce, the fluid can unmix into two phases (Figure 5), in a very similar
way to boiling of shallow hydrothermal fluids in response to fracturing and pressure
release. A highly saline residual brine is formed and tends to remain near the intrusive
because of its high density, whereas the separated less saline phase is more mobile and
tends to move upwards. Phase separation is the reason why fluid inclusions of two very
different types (some with salinities as high as 70 wt % NaCl, and others as low as 0.2%;
Cline and Bodnar 1991) are often found in close proximity within porphyry deposits. In

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Porphyry Mineralisation 3

the past this has lead to explanations involving two different sequential fluids, but these are
not correct. If the intrusive is at significant depth, a major convective hydrothermal system
capable of hosting low sulphidation epithermal deposits can form with time (Figure 6).
Where the intrusion is shallower, a high sulphidation epithermal deposit can form from the
released vapours.

0 200 400 600 T (°C ) 800 1000 1100 1200

0

“V E R Y L A T E ”
S u r f ic ia l
P y r o p h y llit e - d ia s p o r e - a lu n it e - p y r it e P
H y d r o s ta tic ( 1 k m )
200 “L A T E ”
“ D ” V e in s - S e r ic it iz a t io n
P y r it e - b o r n it e - q u a r tz - s e r ic ite - a n h y d r ite
P y r o p h y llite

P
K a o lin ite

H y d r o s ta tic ( 2 k m )
“T R A N S IT IO N A L ”
L - V

400 “ B ” Q u a r t z v e in s - n o a lt e r a t io n
Q u a r t z - m o ly b d e n it e - c h a lc o p y r it e
40%

a n h y d r it e - t o u r m a lin e
N aC

“E A R LY ”
l B r in

I n t r u s io n - m e ta s o m a t is m
600 B io t it e - K s p a r - q u a r t z - a n h y d r it e
e

b o r n ite - c h a lc o p y r ite
P (b a rs )

P
L ith o s ta tic ( 2 k m )
G r a n it e m in im u m

800
A n d a lu s ite -K s p a r

1000
S e r ic it e -Q u a r t z

2xP
L it h o s ta t ic ( 2 k m )

1200 K : G e o \ le c \ m in \ 9 8 m in \ m o d 4 \ f ig 5 . p p t

Figure 1:
Pressure-temperature environments of intrusion and Early,
Transitional, and Late mineralisation-alteration at El Salvador.
Lithostatic and hydrostatic pressures are noted for 2 km, the
approximate depth of present exposures at the time of formation
(after Gustafson and Hunt 1975)

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Porphyry Mineralisation 4

Figure 2:
Temperature-pressure-depth diagram of the two-phase
boundaries in the H2O-NaCl system. Arrows show pressure and
temperature paths for fluids crossing the transition zone (after
Cunningham 1978)

A further consequence of volatile loss is an increase in the freezing point of the melt, which
results in rapid solidification of residual magma, trapping the phenocrysts (the formation
of which triggered the second boiling) in a fine grained groundmass, to provide the typical
porphyritic texture of mineralised stocks. The name porphyry for these deposits is
therefore very apt, as not only does it describe a most prominent feature, but also this
feature is an integral part of the genesis of the deposit. Intrusives in which this process
takes place are the progenitor intrusives that produce the mineralisation, thus
distinguishing them from the other phases of intrusion present.

The nature of the volatile loss and the fracturing that it produces strongly determines the
overall size and grade of the deposit. If fracturing takes place very shallow and the
fractures propagate to the surface the volatiles will be unconfined and produce a
cataclysmic volcanic eruption rather than form an economic deposit.

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A B
C
Number of crystal nuclei Vapour pressure
Equilibrium F
temperature B
G
Growth rate
A Coarse grain size
Few E
nuclei

Undercooling
D

C D
Number of crystal nuclei
Equilibrium Retrograde
temperature boiling
Phenocrysts Occurs when
Vp>Lp + n + T
Many nuclei Ground mass
Undercooling
Y

Figure 3:
Diagrammatic representation of relationship between rates of
nucleation and crystal growth, and vapour pressure of water (VP
= vapour pressure, Lp = lithostatic pressure, n = nucleation
forces, T = tensile strength of consolidated rock) (after Phillips
1973)

If the volatile loss takes place at sufficient depth to confine the volatiles, the fracturing can
still propagate out into existing fault-fracture networks. In some cases, this can produce
focussing of the fluids and formation of a mesothermal vein deposit. However, this process
can also dissipate the volatiles and produce a larger but lower grade deposit.

At greater depths still, there is less dissipation but also less transfer of gold between the
parent intrusive and the porphyry. Mineralised porphyries do not form in isolation. They
are one part of a much larger intrusive complex, into which the metals of interest have been
concentrated from the parent intrusive. One of the consequences of there being an
intrusive complex is that there can be intrusions predating the mineralised intrusive. These
may then host the mineralised intrusive, or produce contact metamorphism or
skarnification of the surrounding country rock. The consequence of this is that not only
will the progenitor intrusive be intruded into highly competent host rocks, but pre-existing
fault fractures are sealed. Thus, when volatile release does occur, the volatiles will not be
dissipated, but they will give up their ore minerals immediately within and surrounding the
mineralised intrusive, thereby providing higher grades.

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Porphyry Mineralisation 6

A. Shear fractures B. Hydraulic fractures

Surface Surface
Migration of the
Shear fractures hydrothermal solutions Permeation
due to high Normal faults zone
differential Hydraulic
Pmin. brecciation Hydraulic
stress 1 stoping 1
Hydraulic extension
Pmax. of shear fractures Veins Collapse
Veinlets pipe breccia
Major thrust Brecciation
Expansion faults due to the
due to compression
retrograde 2 Crackle 2
boiling
Minor thrusts Hydraulic breccia
tension
Pmax. fractures

3km 3km

C. Mining
Lead and zinc in
peripheral breccia
pipes and fractures
and in replacement Porphyry dykes
bodies 1

Main pyrite zone

Veins Bingham open pit

Disseminated copper ore 2

Deposition in
limestones

Barren porphyry 3km

Figure 4:
Shear fractures, hydraulic fractures and distribution of copper
ore associated with a stock which has undergone retrograde
boiling (after Phillips 1973)

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Porphyry Mineralisation 7

Figure 5:
Isotherms (400° to 700°C) and isobars (300 to 1100 bars) of co-
existing gases and liquids in the system NaCl-H 2O. ABC represents
the compositional changes of the magmatic vapour as it rises vertically
through the plume and AB represents the composition of the co-
existing liquid. In the portion BC at very high temperature gradients
the vapour phase may become supercritical. Salinity variations due to
entrainment of ground water are shown by the shaded area representing
input of meteoric, sea-water, or saline basinal brines respectively (after
Henley and McNabb 1978)

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Porphyry Mineralisation 8

Hot springs
0
Surface region discharge and flow modified by local hydrology

Pyrite
2 Potassic
Approximate depth (km)

Phyllic
Propylitic
Cpy Bn

10% M.W.
Groundwater
4 << 10% Pre-volcanic basement
magmatic
water 50%M.W.

Gas

Input magmatic gas

8 H2O-NaCl-KCl-HCl-SO2
Cu-Mo-Au
1km

K:geo\lec\min\98min\mod4\fig10

Figure 6:
Schematic summary of the plume model for a developing porphyry
copper deposit. The thermal profile in the surface zone depends on
local permeability; mushrooming of isotherms occurs only if the system
undergoes little discharge through the surface or multiple symmetrical
relatively high flow discharges. The dispersion plume is shown by the
decked ornament but its boundaries have been arbitrarily chosen to
outline a region characterised by enhanced metal content. Direct
discharge from this region may locally produce a metalliferous hot-
spring precipitate or epithermal vein deposit. Note the small volume of
rock in which isotope data would indicate predominance of magmatic
fluid and, in contrast, the large volume of the dispersion plume
dominated by the groundwater input. The distribution of pyrite and
bornite may depend on late-stage dissolution and re-precipitation of
primary chalcopyrite by encroaching groundwater. Localised boiling
may occur in the surface region (after Henley and McNabb 1978)

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Porphyry Mineralisation 9

3. Hydrothermal Alteration and Veining

3.1 Alteration

The "classic" description of hydrothermal alteration in porphyry deposits is that of Lowell

and Guilbert (1970) (Figure 7). Although our understanding of processes has improved
since then, the alteration types they recognised are still valid. The following main
alteration types can be recognised:

 Potassic: In the potassic zone, the main secondary minerals are biotite, K-feldspar,
quartz and magnetite. Actinolite, garnets and sometimes anhydrite are common
accessories, with minor albite-oligoclase and titanite (sphene) or rutile. Epidote and
chlorite are only minor constituents and if present in any quantity are usually formed
from the other typical potassic minerals by later retrogradation. The near intrusive,
hot fluids with a strongly magmatic character and high salinity cause potassic
alteration.

 Phyllic: Overlying and to some extent marginal to the potassic zone is a zone of
phyllic alteration. Sericite and quartz are the main minerals, with abundant pyrite
and varying amounts of anhydrite. Phyllic alteration may overprint potassic or
propylitic alteration, producing assemblages of mixed character with chlorite and in
some cases calcite. Phyllic alteration is formed by cooler (typically <400°C), and
usually more dilute fluids than potassic alteration. At lower temperatures, phyllic
alteration may be transitional to argillic alteration, with lower temperature clays
such as smectite and kaolinite. This is an unfortunate term because it lumps
together clays which are stable in both neutral and acid pH conditions, and so
indicate different types of fluid.

 Propylitic: Typically marginal to the potassic and phyllic zones is a zone of

propylitic alteration, characterised by chlorite, illite, quartz and epidote, along with
albite, minor K-feldspar and varying amounts of calcite and anhydrite. Propylitic
assemblages may be formed at the same temperatures as phyllic, but have undergone
less metasomatism, either because the fluids responsible were more dilute, less
acidic, and/or because the rocks were less permeable. It is common to see phyllic
alteration as a bleached halo surrounding a vein or fracture, grading out into more
pervasive propylitic alteration.

 Advanced argillic: These assemblages both cut across the other assemblages as
tabular, vertically-oriented zones, or form more extensive lateral blankets or
"lithocaps" at high elevation (Figure 8). In the first case, in porphyry environments,
they are formed by ascending acid fluids of magmatic origin, but at low
temperatures compared to the potassic zones. Similar assemblages making up the
second case can be formed at shallower levels by the secondary formation of acid-
sulphate fluids from epithermal waters. They are strongly destructive of host rocks,
other alteration assemblages and in some instances mineralisation. They may be
zoned, from an alunite-quartz central zone, to an outer envelope with some
combination of quartz, pyrophyllite, dickite, kaolinite, alunite and diaspore. Further

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Porphyry Mineralisation 10

from the fluid channels they may grade into "normal" propylitic or argillic
assemblages.

k:g e o \le c \m in \9 8 m in \m o d 4 \fig 1 1

Figure 7:
Primary ore and alteration zones in an idealised porphyry copper
deposit. (a) Schematic drawing of alteration zoning in a typical
porphyry ore deposit. Closure of the phyllic and propylitic
envelopes at the apex is by inference alone. (b) Schematic drawing
of mineralisation zoning in a typical porphyry ore deposit. The ore
'shell' indicated is typical of San Manuel-Kalamazoo, while in other
deposits no such distinct shell is always recognised (after Henley and
McNabb 1978)

3.2 Veining

Pervasive veining is a feature of many porphyry deposits. Veins may be large, massive
("bull quartz") features that can be recognised over hundreds of metres, or more commonly
a closely-spaced network of finer fracture fillings. Quartz is the most common vein
mineral in these deposits, followed by K-feldspar, sulphides and anhydrite.

As a general rule, quartz veins from porphyry deposits can be distinguished from
epithermal veins in hand specimen by their appearance and texture. Porphyry-related
quartz veins usually have a more vitreous appearance that do epithermal veins (other than
those made of hyaline opal) and are often cloudy due to very numerous tiny fluid
inclusions. They are less likely to demonstrate strong structural alignment than epithermal
veins, and more likely to be wispy or discontinuous. Both of these features are a
consequence of them having been emplaced at a greater depth, and so with pressures closer
to lithostatic compensation. This results in plastic deformation of the veins.

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Porphyry Mineralisation 11

v v
v
v
v
v
v
v
v v v v
+ + v v + +
+ + +
+
+ + v v
+
+ + + v v
+ + v
+ +
+ v
+ + +v v
+ + + +
+
+
s + + s s
s + + + + + s
s s s s s s+ + s s
s +
s + + + + s +
s
s + +

s+ + +
s +
+ s s s + +
s + s s
s s s s
s
+ v v
s
+ + + + +
s s

+ +

Figure 8:
Transverse section of the Tapian porphyry copper deposit to show spatial
relationship between orebody and advanced argillic-alteration (after Sillitoe
and Gappe 1984)

Gustafson and Hunt (1975) introduced a system of classification of porphyry-related veins

for the El Salvador deposit. They distinguished "A", "B" and "D" type veins (Table 1).
Although the original classification was intended only to apply to the El Salvador deposit,
other geologists have since recognised very similar vein types, especially "A" and "D", in
other deposits, and the terminology has gained some general acceptance as useful
descriptive terms especially texturally.

"B" veins at El Salvador comprise coarse quartz and minor molybdenite with occasional
anhydrite, tourmaline, chalcopyrite and minor pyrite. K-feldspar is notably absent. The
quartz is often aligned, approaching a "coxcomb" structure, and the centre of the vein may
be vuggy. Texturally the "B" veins are continuous planar structures with parallel walls and
some form of internal banding. They were presumably emplaced when the host rocks were
not only cool enough to sustain brittle fracture, but subject to some form of preferentially-
directed stress. At El Salvador many of the "B" veins have low angles of dip, suggesting
that they were deposited in fractures formed by relief of vertical stress, e.g. by erosion.

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Porphyry, High Sulphidation Epithermal, and Skarn Mineralisation 12

Table 1: Porphyry-related vein types at the El Salvador deposit, Chile (after Gustafson and Hunt 1975)

Silicate Assemblage and Texture Alteration Halo Age and Structural Style Sulphide Assemblage and Fluid Inclusions
Texture
“A” Veins Quartz-Kspar-anhydrite-sulphide Halos of Kspar, usually “A” quartz veins are the earliest of Disseminated chalcopyrite- Extremely abundant;
with rare traces biotite; quartz ranges perthitic, are more or less all veins, invariably cut by “B” bornite, with proportions both high-salinity (I)
from 50% to 95%. The Kspar is developed about most quartz veins. Repeated ‘A” vein usually similar to the and low-density (II)
usually perthitic. The fine veins. These may be very formation started prior to the background sulphide; traces of types.
equigranular texture of quartz is thin and inconspicuous, intrusion of “X” Porphyry and molybdenite locally.
shared by the other minerals which especially in strong K- persisted after emplacement of the
are evenly disseminated through the silicate altered rock. They “L” Porphyry complex. The earliest
vein. No vein symmetry is typical, are strongest and most veins are most randomly oriented and
but banding of Kspar at the edges or obvious about late veins in discontinuous, commonly segmented
centre is not uncommon. More or relatively fresh rock. and ‘wispy’. Widths usually range
less sutured contacts between quartz from 1 to 25 mm, and strike
and Kspar are common. continuity from centimetres to a few
metres.
“B” Veins Quartz-anhydrite-sulphide, with Lack of alteration halos is Younger than “A” veins and older Molybdenite-chalcopyrite is Abundant, both high-
Kspar characteristically absent. The characteristic. than “D” veins, “B” veins cut all characteristic. Traces of salinity (I) and low-
quartz is relatively coarse grained Occasionally faint and intrusive rocks except Latite. They bornite occur in some, but density (II) types. In
and tends to be elongated irregular bleached halos are are characteristically regular and more commonly minor pyrite some veins with
perpendicular to the walls, present, but most are continuous, and tend to have flat occurs in contrast to bornite- drusy centrelines, the
occasionally approaching probably due to attitudes. Widths usually range from chalcopyrite in the walls. youngest quartz
‘cockscomb’ texture. Granular superimposed veining. 5 to 50 mm, and strike continuity Sulphides tend to be coarse contains markedly
quartz, especially in sheared bands, from metres to tens of metres. grained and occupy banding fewer inclusions
is common. Vein symmetry, of parallel to the walls or cracks which tend to be of
sulphides, anhydrite or granularity perpendicular to them. low salinity (type III).
along centre-lines, margins or
irregular parallel bands, is typical but
unevenly developed.
“D” Veins Sulphide-anhydrite with minor quartz Feldspar-destructive halos
“D” veins cut all “A” and “B” quartz Pyrite is usually predominant, Only sparse low-
(except where superimposed on “B” are characteristic, butveins, but are almost entirely older with chalcopyrite, bornite, salinity (III)
veins) and occasional carbonate. The patterns vary and have not
than pebble dykes. They are enargite, tennantite, sphalerite inclusions are seen in
quartz is typically free of inclusions, been well documented. continuous, though locally irregular and galena common. Minor quartz, anhydrite and
and tends to show crystal form. Sericite or sericite-chlorite
and ‘lacing’, and occupy systematic molybdenite and many other sphalerite.
Anhydrite locally forms coarse halos may or may not have
structure patterns. Widths usually sulphides occur locally.
crystalline masses and is commonly outer kaolinite-calciterange from 1 to 75 mm, and strike ‘Reaction’ textures are
banded with the sulphides. halos. continuity from metres to tens of typical.
metres.
Note: Textural characteristics and sulphide assemblages given are those of typical veins in the main mineralised centre (background chalcopyrite-bornite zone).
Gradations between types and zonal variations are seen.

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Porphyry, High Sulphidation Epithermal, and Skarn Mineralisation 14

"D" veins at El Salvador have pyrite as the characteristic mineral with quartz as a minor
component or even absent. Other mineralogy comprises anhydrite, chalcopyrite, bornite,
enargite, tennantite, sphalerite, galena and other sulphides. In contrast to "A" and "B"
veins, “D” veins are associated with strong phyllic, or sometimes phyllic-propylitic
(sericite-chlorite) or argillic alteration haloes. Texturally, "D" veins are larger, more
regular and more continuous than the earlier veins. At El Salvador they tend to be near-
vertical structures with a radial orientation around the porphyry.

4. Ore Mineralogy and Zonation

Chalcopyrite is the most important copper ore in porphyry deposits, with lesser bornite
(Figure 9). Pyrite is an important sulphide phase but is not usually economically
significant. Late-stage veins may contribute to the grades, and have a more diverse
mineralogy including galena, sphalerite, tennantite-tetrahedrite and tellurides. In higher-
level advanced argillic zones, enargite and luzonite can be important ore minerals.

0
T=550°C
bn + py
cv + hm
cpy + mag bn + hm
cpy + py
cpy + hm
log aS2

-5 cpy + po
chc + hm
bn + mag
bn + po

chc + mag
-10
-25 -20 -15 -10
log aO2
Gold-bearing porphyry
Biotite
copper deposits
k:geo\lec\min\98min\mod04\fig13.ppt

Figure 9:
The field of copper-gold deposition in K-silicate alteration zones of gold-rich
porphyry copper deposits as a function of oxygen and sulphur activities (after
Beane and Titley 1981). Abbreviations: bn = bornite, chc = chalcocite, cpy =
chalcopyrite, cv = covellite, hm = hematite, mag = magnetite, po = pyrrhotite,
py = pyrite

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Porphyry, High Sulphidation Epithermal, and Skarn Mineralisation 15

Ore mineralogy in porphyry deposits is systematically zoned, parallel to the alteration

zonation (Figure 7). Reasons for the zonation in terms of fluid chemistry and ore mineral
stability have been summarised by Hemley and Hunt (1992) (Figure 10). They predict a
general outwards zonation of Fe (as magnetite)-Cu-Zn-Pb-Fe sulphides, which is
consistent with field evidence. The zonation is affected not only by falling temperatures,
but also by the fact that copper solubility is less affected by pressure changes than are
lead, zinc and iron. Thus pressure release due to hydrofracturing will mobilise the other
elements outwards, but will leave copper behind in the central zone.

4
Fe
Fe

3
LOG PPM

Pb
Zn
Zn

2 Cu

Pb
Cu

200 300 400 500 600

K:geo\lec\min\98min\mod4\fig14
Temperature °C

Figure 10:
Composite 1-kbar, 1-m total chloride solubility diagram using the K-feldspar
-muscovite-quartz buffer in the mixed sulphide system, showing implied
transport, deposition, and zoning relation for the metals with temperature.
Dashed extensions of the saturation curves are visual extrapolations.
Horizontal arrows are undersaturated transport paths for the metals in an
increment of migrating, cooling solution. Precipitation occurs down the
saturation curves when the curves are intersected (after Hemley and Hunt 1992)

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In the innermost zone, chalcopyrite, bornite and magnetite occur. Pyrite is present, but is
usually less abundant than chalcopyrite. This zone more or less corresponds to the
potassic zone of alteration. Gold where present usually correlates with copper. In the
richest Cu-Au porphyries, bornite is found with chalcopyrite and gold inclusions with
exsolution textures. This indicates that originally Cu-Fe-S intermediate solid solution
formed. This has a high capacity to incorporate gold into its structure at high
temperatures. As the deposit cools it unmixes to form bornite, chalcopyrite and gold.
Such textures indicate that mineralisation took place at temperatures in excess of 550°C.

Where minor phyllic overprinting of potassic alteration has occurred, magnetite tends to be
replaced by hematite, but the copper mineralogy is unaffected. In outlying or overlying
phyllic zones, pyrite is more abundant than chalcopyrite, and bornite is lacking. Pyrite
thus forms an uneconomic "pyrite halo" around the economic ore bodies. This can be as
large as 60 km2 and can be a useful exploration indicator.

In propylitic zones, pyrite is the predominant sulphide, with only minor base metal
sulphides. There may however be late-stage veins with more base metals (and gold).

Molybdenum mineralisation, where it occurs, tends to cut across the other mineralisation,
both in space (zonation) and time (paragenesis). It can be found through the potassic,
phyllic and into the propylitic zones. In some cases it occurs in a distal location, forming a
halo around the copper and gold economic mineralisation, and it has been used as an
exploration tool, but this is by no means always the case. In other cases it is only found in
the central zone.

In advanced argillic zones, enargite, luzonite, covellite and tennantite-tetrahedrite can be

found.

5. Evolution in Time

A common occurrence in porphyry deposits is the partial overprinting of early potassic

alteration by later phyllic, or phyllic plus chlorite alteration. In some cases this
corresponds to the onset of meteoric-water dominated hydrothermal convection. At an
early stage, fluids are largely of magmatic origin, giving potassic alteration: at a later stage
groundwater encroaches and cooler, more reactive fluids cause phyllic alteration (Figures
11, 12) and this can redistribute copper. However, it should also be noted that simple
cooling of the fluids that produce potassic alteration would produce a fluid which could
cause phyllic alteration. These fluids have the potential to form extra copper
mineralisation and in some deposits (e.g. Rio Blanco-Los Bronces) are estimated to be
responsible for a substantial proportion of the mineralisation. These fluids are possibly
sourced from the deeper parts of the same progenitor intrusive although in some cases (as
at Rio Blanco-Los Bronces) they are clearly associated with a later intrusive event.

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Figure 11: Staged alteration model

Model showing four sequential stages of alteration and
mineralisation (after Gustafson and Hunt 1975)

The paragenetic sequence of mineralisation parallels the alteration sequence. Since

temperature and pressure at any point usually fall with time, the same sequence in time is
K:geo\lec\min\98min\mod4\fig16
often observed as the zonation in space, as both are controlled by the same processes
(Figure 13). Thus magnetite and copper tend to be early, followed by lead and zinc, and
then pyrite.

On a longer time scale, overprinting of porphyry deposits with later alteration and
mineralisation of a more epithermal character is common. If intrusion and the
establishment of a convective hydrothermal system was a single event, then the sequence
from porphyry to epithermal mineralisation could be seen as a simple cooling trend. It is
likely to be enhanced, however, by erosion over the lifetime of the hydrothermal system,
and by magmatic evolution causing later intrusives to have a different composition or
different intrusive/extrusive style. Thus post-mineralisation diatremes associated with
dacite extrusives are common. These may themselves be mineralised, but can also be
destructive of earlier porphyry deposits. The implication is that early intrusives were

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emplaced at greater depth and retained their volatiles, whereas later intrusives were closer
to the surface because of uplift and erosion and were able to vent explosively.

Potassic

P hyllic

P ropylitic

V apour
dom inated
(boiling) zone

Intrusive
S tock

M eteoric
F luid

M agm atic
F luid

Figure 12:
Model of hydrothermal systems with contrasting orthomagmatic and
convective fluid flow patterns (after Roberts and Sheahan 1988)

6. Large High Grade Cu Porphyries

6.1 Size and Grades

Because of the nature of the mineralisation (widespread) and the fact that mining is bulk
rather than selective, it is usual for an economic deposit to be associated with readily
identified and volumetrically-significant sub-economic zones: more so than, for example, a
vein-hosted gold deposit. This means that existing mines can respond readily to an
increase in prices by reducing cut-off grades. Because of this factor and the large scale of
typical porphyry-based mines, it is more economically challenging for a new porphyry
deposit to be brought into production than a new epithermal gold deposit. If copper prices
rise, it is cheaper for existing mines to simply drop their cut-off grades than for a new mine
to open.

What is considered an economic mine will vary greatly depending on the local situation and
infrastructure, but in general mining rates are at least 50,000 tonnes per day. Some are
much larger.

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EARLY LATE
TIME
MAGMATIC METEORIC

MINERALS Biotite Chlorite Sericite

TEMPERATURE 250°
>750°

SALINITY 2-3 m
>30 m

Drk (Biotite)

18Ork (Fspar)
k:geo\lec\min\98min\mod04\fig18.ppt

Figure 13:
Variations in hydrothermal parameters during evolution of
porphyry copper deposits. The double vertical line denotes the
magmatic-meteoric transition. Fluid temperature (°C) and
salinity (equivalent NaCl molality) are determined from fluid
inclusion studies. Decreases in hydrogen and oxygen isotope
ratios are based on theoretical concepts and measurements at
Butte, Montana (after Deane 1983)

The deposits may be vertically extensive, with economic grades extending over 1000 m or
more. Unless very good grades or an unusually favourable mining situation are found, a
minimum deposit size for a new mine on a hypogene copper-only porphyry deposit is a
billion tonnes. Average copper grades need to exceed 1%. A selection of superior deposits
that also includes gold rich and supergene enriched deposit is included in Table 2.

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Table 2: Superior porphyry deposits (adapted from Sillitoe, 1998)

Deposit Location Type Tonnes Cu % Au

x 106 g/t
Grasberg Indonesia LHGH-GRK 1750 1.13 1.22
(3146)* (0.88)* (0.78)*
Bingham USA LHGH-GRK 2995 0.73 0.31
El Teniente Chile LHGH 2855 1.31
Rio Blancos Chile LHGH 2885 0.99
Los Bronces
Collahuasi Chile LHGH 1200 0.87
Cuajone Chile LHGH-(SOE) 1600 0.74
Cananea Chile LHGH-(SOE) 1950 0.70
Sar Cheshmeh Iran LHGH-(SOE) 1100 0.90
FSE Philippines GRD 356 0.73 1.24
Batu Hijau** Indonesia GRD 642 0.61 0.55
Minas Conga Peru GR 237 0.32 0.93
Alumbrera Argentina GRK 551 0.52 0.67
Cerro Casale Chile GR 791 0.29 0.71
Escondida Chile SOE 1760 1.59 0.24
Chuquicamata Chile SOE 2229 1.41
(506)*** (1.56)
* - underground reserves
** - Irianto and Clark (1995)
*** - oxide
LHGH - large high grade hypogene
GR - gold rich
GRD - gold rich with dioritic progenitor intrusive
GRK - gold rich with potassic progenitor intrusive
SOE – supergene oxidised or enriched
(SOE) supergene profile present but excluded from resource estimate

6.2 Geological Setting

Large Cu rich deposits are most commonly found associated with granodiorite porphyries,
but also occur in diorite and quartz diorite porphyries. These are usually part of a more
complex intrusive complex, with a very much larger fractionated magma chamber feeding
them. The progenitor intrusive has an emplacement depth with the top of the deposit in the
range of 3 to 6 km. It is considered that these intrusive complexes have limited associated
volcanism. Hence, the pre-existing basement or earlier intrusives usually hosts them. The
deposits take on the same general shape as their progenitor intrusive, which may be
elongate in the direction of the least principal stress at the time of its formation. The
deposits may be a kilometre wide but greater then 5 km in length.

These mineralised intrusives are invariably related to magmatism at convergent plate

margins. Large deposits are mainly found in compressive arcs where there has been a

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shallow dip on the subducted slab. The deposits occur in belts along major fault systems,
that being in a compressive environment had reverse movement. Deposits are localised
along these major structures where there is a major cross cutting structure, generally pre-
existing, and possibly reactivated basement faults. The deposits along a belt tend to have a
similar age generally corresponding to the height of an orogeny. The formation of these
deposits under conditions of strong structural stress is a major factor in producing their
size. As some of the largest deposits have two separate mineralising events a long period
of subduction and mineralisation in the same area is also a positive factor. The later stage
events include tourmaline rich breccia pipes as at Rio Blanco - Los Bronces or telescoped
high sulphidation copper mineralisation as at Chuquicamata.

7. Cu-Au Porphyries

7.1 Size and Grade

Sizes and grades of some superior Cu-Au porphyries are given in Table 2 above. For
comparison other Cu-Au porphyries are shown in Table 3. These deposits need to be over
200 million tonnes and have better than 0.65% Cu and 0.6 ppm Au.

Table 3: Selected Cu-Au porphyry deposits

Deposit Location Tonnes Cu Au Reference

x 106 % g/t
Gorontalo Indonesia 300 0.7 0.4 Tyrwhitt (1996)
St. Tomas Philippines 324 0.34 0.61 Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Didipio Philippines 106 0.5 1.1 Tyrwhitt (1996)
Dizon Philippines 105 0.43 0.93 Sillitoe and Gappe (1984)
Amacan Philippines 109 0.4 0.4 Tyrwhitt (1996)
Kingking Philippines 100 0.5 0.5 Tyrwhitt (1996)
Taysan Philippines 119 0.4 0.4 Tyrwhitt (1996)
Panguna PNG 500 0.42 0.5 Tyrwhitt (1996)

7.2 Geological Setting

There are two main types of Cu-Au porphyries. The first, which is typical of those found
in island arcs, usually has a progenitor intrusive with a dioritic (Table 2) composition.
They may be associated with adakites (dacitic rocks with high Sr contents and high
LREE/HREE ratios considered to have formed by melting of young, hot subducted slabs
(Sajona and Maury 1998). The progenitor intrusives are usually small (<1km2 in
outcrop). Generally they are shown as simple stocks in most models (Figure 14) but they
can have much more complicated morphologies, with concurrent complications in the
distribution of ore. They are frequently multi-stage, with mineralisation associated with
only some of the stages of intrusion (Figure 15). Often the earliest stages of intrusion are
the best mineralised. Thus post-mineralisation dykes or stocks are common. Mineralised

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porphyries frequently occur around the margins of much larger unmineralised intrusives,
which have an equigranular texture. The mineralised intrusives commonly occur in
groups. The intrusive is generally emplaced with its top between 2 and 5 km below the
surface. Gold rich intrusives are shallow, to the extent they can be hosted by coeval
volcanics. Since these can be high relief volcanoes, which can be subject to strong erosion
and sector collapse, the mineralised intrusives can be exposed as overlying parts of the
volcano are removed. This may be accompanied by overprinting.

R o ck Type
D om e
3000m P re s e n t s u rfa c e
D ia t r e m e

L a t e - m in e r a l in t r u s io n

I n t r a - m in e r a l in t r u s io n

M a in in tr u s io n
2000
H o s t ro c k s

A lte r a tio n

A d v a n c e d a r g illic

P h y llic
1000
P r o p y litic

P o ta s s ic

H y d r o th e r m a l b r e c c ia

S k a rn
0
0 1000m
J:geo\lec\min\98min\mod4\fig2.ppt

Figure 14:
Generalised model for intrusive and alteration relationships in gold-rich
porphyry copper systems (modified from Sillitoe and Gappe 1984)

Intrusion-related and hydrothermal breccias are common in Cu-Au porphyry deposits,

most particularly around the margins of the intrusive and the immediately surrounding
country rock, and can be genetically connected with mineralisation by providing permeable
pathways for fluid flow. Thus ore bodies in some cases are annular in form, with a barren
or sub-economic intrusive core (Figure 15). Selective mineralisation of certain host rocks
(eg. skarns) can enhance this situation.

Cu-Au porphyry deposits are frequently structurally localised. They can occur in
association with major strike-slip faults, or more especially where these intersect second-
order structures, giving rise to local extension and dilation.

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1600

Volcanic rocks
1400
Volcanic rocks

1200

1000 Metres
above
sea-level
Mineralised porphyry
complex 800

600
Late mineral
quartz diorite

0 100 200m
400
LEGEND
0.2 - 0.29% Cu
<0.3% Cu
200

Figure 15:
Section of the Santo Tomas II porphyry copper-gold deposit to
show in-depth truncation of the mineralised porphyry complex
by a late-mineral quartz diorite (after Sillitoe and Gappe 1984)

These deposits form in arcs usually close to the time that subduction (or at least steep
subduction) is ending as a result of collision with a continental terrane or major oceanic
ridge. The subducted plate is usually young and hot with little sediment.

The second type of Cu-Au porphyry has progenitor intrusives with potassic compositions
(Figure 16) ranging from monzodiorite to syenite, although monzodiorites are the most
common. These tend to produce both larger and richer deposits (see Table 3) than those
associated with diorites, but otherwise have very similar features. They occur either in
collision zones that post-date subduction or in the back arc. As both of the environments
may include calcareous sedimentary units, associated skarns are not uncommon.

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Figure 16:
Schematic cross-sections illustrating the geological setting of
porphyry copper-gold mineralisation in Indonesia at (A)
Grasberg that has a potassic progenitor intrusive and (B)
Tombulilato and Batu Hijau that have dioritic progenitor
intrusives (after Carlile and Mitchell 1994)

7.3 Mineralising Processes

The mineralising process is the basically the same as in copper-only porphyries. There are
indications that gold rich porphyries may be hotter and have more saline and acid fluids,
and there is no doubt that their fluids are more oxidised. One of the consequences of these
hotter more oxidising conditions is that the first formed copper mineral is ISS (Intermediate
Solid Solution) which is only stable at high temperatures. ISS can incorporate significant
gold in its structure resulting in the early capture of gold from solution in the centre of the
deposit. As it cools the ISS unmixes to form bornite and chalcopyrite with exsolution
textures and with inclusions of gold. This results in a similar distribution of copper and
gold (Figure 17).

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Figure 17:
Distribution of copper and gold on an upper level of the Dizon
deposit, Philippines (from Sillitoe and Gappe 1984)

7.4 Hydrothermal Alteration

In comparison to copper-only porphyries, biotite is more abundant and usually dominates

over K-feldspar in the potassic assemblage. This is a consequence of the more acid and
saline fluid chemistries. Magnetite is abundant and anhydrite can be a common alteration
and vein mineral. The presence of magnetite and anhydrite are the consequence of the
more oxidised solution. Although not entirely absent, phyllic alteration is very restricted in
some deposits. This is a positive feature, as extraction of the gold becomes difficult if
there has been a phyllic overprint.

7.5 Ore Minerals

Chalcopyrite is still the main Cu mineral, however bornite is more common than in copper-
only deposits and can increase in abundance with depth. Chalcopyrite often forms very
distinctive exsolution textures with bornite and these can contain inclusions of gold. Gold
can also occur as individual grains enclosed in quartz.

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7.6 Identification of Gold Rich Porphyries

Cu-Au porphyry mineralisation can be geologically identified:

 Directly, by recognising Cu-Au porphyry ore

 Indirectly, by recognising an eroded or overprinting lithocap

 Indirectly, by recognising the surrounding hydrothermal alteration

 Indirectly, by recognising mineralised clasts in post-mineralisation breccias

a) Cu-Au Porphyry Ore

Good gold-rich porphyry ore is typically grey to black in colour, from the abundant
secondary biotite and magnetite enclosed in quartz. It is criss-crossed with quartz veinlets,
forming a stockwork, with the veinlets containing chalcopyrite and magnetite with
subordinate bornite. In polished section finding intergrown chalcopyrite and bornite with
exsolution textures is a very positive sign of a gold rich porphyry. Disseminated
mineralisation will also be present. Gold is never visible to the naked eye and is most
common as microscopic grains enclosed in the bornite. The rock’s original texture is
usually destroyed. As grades decrease, so does the intensity of the stockworking and the
alteration, and the rock’s original texture - usually porphyritic - becomes more apparent.
Less desirable ore (mainly because gold extraction becomes more difficult) has overprinted
alteration. These rocks are bleached, pyrite has been introduced and replaces the
magnetite, and nothing of the original porphyritic texture remains. However the stockwork
and the mineralisation remain and when examined petrographically, ghosts of the potassic
alteration also remain. The quartz veinlets making up the stockwork have a distinctive
texture. They are sinuous and bifurcating, the quartz is vitreous, translucent and
equigranular, and open spaces are rare. Where there is open growth the quartz forms squat
crystals.

b) The Lithocap

At structurally higher levels than the porphyry mineralisation there may be a lithocap
(Figure 18). Lithocaps are not necessarily restricted to gold rich porphyries. However,
since the deposits tend to form shallow and are oxidised and hence can produce greater
amounts of sulphuric acid from released volatiles, lithocaps tend to be best developed over
gold rich porphyries. Such lithocaps may host high-sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation; this aspect of the lithocap is discussed in more detail in Module --. The
lithocap consists of residual silica and pyrite-rich advanced argillic and argillic alteration.
For the underlying porphyry mineralisation to be of economic significance, the vertical
distance between the lithocap and the ore has to be as small as possible, so the lithocap has
to be either deeply eroded, directly overprinting the mineralisation, or there is a major
vertical structural offset. Therefore, a two-stage approach is required.

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Firstly, the lithocap has to be identified and differentiated from the advanced argillic and
argillic alteration produced by steam heated aquifers overlying boiling neutral systems.
This can be done by the recognition of the more exotic mineralogy of porphyry lithocaps,
which includes: high sulphidation sulphosalts and base metal sulphides, barite,
woodhouseite, topaz, dumortierite, andalusite and corundum. There are also systematic
differences in the S and O isotope ratios in alunite.

Secondly, either erosion or overprinting needs to be identified. The presence of

pyrophyllite, diaspore, andalusite, corundum and sericite in the alteration assemblages and
the presence of octahedral pyrite, bornite and tennantite in the sulphide assemblages can
identify erosion. Overprinting can be recognised by the identification of ghosts of potassic
alteration, particularly in a porphyritic intrusive or by finding the quartz stockwork. Major
vertical offsets can be recognised by sudden changes of alteration assemblages along a
linear feature.

c) The Surrounding Alteration

Regionally there will be propylitic alteration that should contain epidote. Approaching an
area of mineralisation the epidote should become more abundant and coarser grained.
There can also be overprinting by phyllic alteration, which in turn can be overprinted by
argillic alteration. It is however the recognition of higher temperature alteration minerals
or their pseudomorphs which is most important in the vicinity of mineralisation. These
minerals include garnet, secondary amphibole, pyroxene and magnetite. Where secondary
biotite or its pseudomorphs are found it should be within or directly bordering
mineralisation. There should also be an increased abundance of magnetite, but this should
be clearly distinguished from magnetite skarn. This alteration can of course be
overprinted, and where this is the case it is the recognition of the quartz stockwork which is
important.

d) Clasts in Post-mineralisation Breccias

Late stage diatreme formation is a very common feature of shallowly emplaced porphyry
deposits. These can contain mineralised clasts derived from pre-existing porphyry
mineralisation. Where diatremes containing mineralised clasts outcrop, identification of
such clasts can lead to identification of a porphyry body at depth. The discovery of the Far
South East (FSE) deposit in the Philippines has been attributed to this method. However,
it must be noted that whilst the FSE deposit is large and rich, it is also deep, hot and has
not yet been developed. This method may therefore be able to identify porphyry deposits
but they may not be economic to develop because they lie at depth, or because some, if not
all, of the deposit has been destroyed for it to be incorporated into the diatreme breccia.

8. Supergene Enriched Porphyries and Associated Exotic Deposits

Supergene enrichment is an important factor in many Cu-porphyry deposits. With minor

weathering, there is oxidation of sulphides and re-mobilisation of metals. With more

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extensive weathering, a gossanous mass of iron and copper oxides may be left. Supergene
processes may likewise concentrate gold. Supergene enrichment can extend to great depths
in arid climates, but in tropical island arcs does not often exceed 100 m.

The exploration for porphyries has now come full circle in that initially only supergene
enriched porphyries were targets because the technology was lacking to exploit the lower
grade hypogene resource. Now, because of lower copper prices and the development of
new extractive technology the emphasis has returned to supergene enriched bodies. There
is a large field of literature on supergene enrichment, for example Anderson (1986) and this
course will not cover this topic in detail. Sizes and grades of some superior supergene
enriched porphyries are given in Table 2 above.

The supergene enrichment process is driven by the oxidation of pyrite forming sulphuric
acid that leaches hypogene copper minerals. Thus pyrite rich deposits and those which
have a limited ability to neutralise the acid have the strongest supergene enrichment. These
are deposits that have phyllic or advanced argillic overprints. Both overprinting
assemblages contain much more pyrite than potassically altered rocks. Advanced argillic
assemblages having already suffered acid leaching have little capacity to neutralise any
more acid. As they may also host high sulphidation copper mineralisation, in addition to
earlier mineralisation associated with potassic alteration, the richest supergene deposits are
found where this is the case.

Supergene enrichment is strongest in semi-arid climates, which have a strong seasonality to

the rainfall and is more limited in the humid tropics or where there is rapid erosion.
Oxidation of the pyrite takes place above the water table, the deeper the water table the
better as this increases the zone of oxidation, so there should not be a lot of rainfall.
However, some water is required to transport the acid leachate to the deposition point so
some seasonal rainfall is required. Higher rainfall or strong erosion leads to high water
tables and possible removal of copper bearing material before it is fully leached.

Once the copper leachate is formed it can percolate down onto the hypogene deposit and
once it reaches the water table it can be reduced and neutralised resulting in deposition of
the supergene copper minerals. If there is flowing groundwater aquifer the leachate may be
transported laterally and deposit downstream from the hypogene deposit to form an exotic
deposit. Although exotic deposits are not as large as the largest porphyry deposits they can
contain as much copper as a medium sized porphyry and being shallow are amenable to
open pit mining and have a favourable metallurgy. These factors make them attractive
deposits. For a more detailed review see Munchmeyer (1996).

9. Practical Exercise

A We will now extend the problem of Module 1 to the near-porphyry environment.

Imagine some pure water in the upflow zone of a hydrothermal system, which has a
boiling-point-for-depth temperature gradient and is therefore under hydrostatic
rather than lithostatic pressure. At a depth of 3000 m, it is at a temperature of

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365°C. If it rises by 500 m to 2500 m, what maximum temperature is it now at if it

does not boil (refer to Figure 6) ?

..................................... °C

B How much has the temperature changed in 500 m ?

..................................... °C

C What is the average rate of temperature change per 100 m over this interval ?

..................................... °C

D How does this compare to the rate of change per 100 m at 256 m ? (Refer back to
the exercise in Module 1)

E What does this imply about vertical alteration and mineralisation zonation gradients
in porphyry deposits compared to epithermal deposits ?

F What does it imply about the probable vertical extent of economic mineralisation in
porphyry deposits ?

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Revision C: Jun 00: J1217211: A 