FAR EASTERN UNIVERSITY- ALABANG

Introduction to Philosophy of the Human person

1st Quarterly lecture notes

Reminder: This “lecture notes” is not simply a reviewer, it is a compilation of points from
past lectures and discussion. I hope this can help you in your preparations for your quarterly
exams.

What is Philosophy?
 Etymological Definition
1. Philosophy comes from two Greek words:
 Philein meaning “lover” or “friend”
 Philos meaning “Love”
 Sophia meaning “wisdom”
2. Thus, etymologically, philosophy (philosophos) is defined as “the love of wisdom”
3. The term was coined by Pythagoras in 6th cen. B.C.E.1
 Classical Definition (Scholastic Tradition)
1. Traditionally, philosophy is defined as: Scientia rerum omnium per causas altissimas, naturali
ratione comparata.
2. Philosophy is “the study of everything according to its ultimate explanation in the light of
reason”
3. The Classical Definition can be divided into three parts:
 “It is the study of everything” – all things are under philosophy; it focuses on being
(every existent thing)
 “According to its ultimate explanation” – it looks for causes or principles
 Cause – something that contributes to the being of a thing
 Principle – explanation of a thing
 “In the light of reason” – Our tool in philosophizing is reason because it is able to go
beyond the here and now
4. Why is philosophy comprehensive? Because we want to go beyond, we want to attain
wisdom.
 Two ways of “philosophizing”
1. Philosophy as Theory
 Objective; concerned merely with the ideas of the philosophers (what they say)
2. Philosophy as a Way of Life
 Not only concerned with what the philosophers; also examines the lives of the
philosophers insofar as it is a “philosophical style” – an art of living
 Philosophy as a way of life is something that is practiced.2

1
“But the first to use the term and to call himself a philosopher or lover of wisdom, was Pythagoras; for, said he, no
man is wise, but God alone.” Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers I.
2
Ideas taken from Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1995; Alexander
Nehamas, The Art of Living: Socratic Reflections from Plato to Foucault (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1998); See especially Roque Ferriols, Mga Sinaunang Griyego (Quezon City: Office of Research and Publications,
1999): “Ano kaya ang pilosopiya? Lalong madaling kilalanin o gawin – sapagkat gawain ang pilosopiya – kaysa sabihin
kung ano.” (5).
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 The Practical definitions of Philosophy

1. To Philosophize:
 IS TO BRACKET BELIEFS
 SUSPEND IMMEDIATE JUDGEMENTS
 SEEK FOR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE ACTUALLY GIVING A JUDGEMENT
 LOOK AT THINGS IN A WIDER PERSPECTIVE

 Nature and Functions of Philosophy

1. Philosophy integrates itself with other disciplines to achieve a comprehensive and
coherent world view
 Philosophy as a discipline is encompassing. It never confines itself to a portion of
human experiences or to a certain aspect of human phenomenon. Philosophy
enables a person to understand the various intricacies of all disciplines and paves
the way for his/her understanding of reality.
2. Philosophy analyzes the very foundations of other disciplines.
 Philosophy concerns itself with the roots of disciplines such as art, science, and even
religion. It explores and examines all their underpinnings.
3. Philosophy analyzes and criticizes treasured beliefs and traditions.
 Philosophy is always on the lookout in putting things to their proper perspectives. It
always has this gift of logical consistencies and traditions. It weeds out all of the
insignificant traces of inconsistency, superstition, and irrationality.

Divisions of Philosophy

 There are 3 main concerns of philosophy: knowledge, being, and action.

o Philosophy of Thought – the division of philosophy that is concerned with truth, the nature of
truth, and different ways of knowing. Disciplines include:
 Epistemology –
 Derived from the Greek word “EPISTEME” (KNOWLEDGE) and “LOGOS” (TO
STUDY)
 It investigates the acquisition of knowledge.
 It deals with the process by which people are led to know that something is
true.
 branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and extent of human
knowledge; literally means “the study of knowledge”
 Two domains of Epistemology
 Rationalism
o Views reason as the chief source of knowledge and the most
important element in the acquisition of knowledge.
o René Descartes (cogito Ergo Sum) (I think, therefore Iam)
 He thought of the world as a mere illusion, as we are
constantly deceived by our senses. But he refuted his Idea by
declaring that man has the capability to think and to
rationalize.
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 Empiricism
o asserts that knowledge comes from the five senses or from our
experiences.
o John Locke (Tabula Rasa)(Blank slate)
 He said that man is a “tabula rasa” of a “Clean slate” A
blank canvas (learning is an unending process)(We learn
through experience)
o Philosophy of Reality – the division of philosophy that is concerned with how we view the
world and ourselves. This can generally be divided into General Metaphysics and Specific
Metaphysics
 Metaphysics (Metaphysics / Ontology) – the study of being as being
 Derived from the Greek word “metaphysika” (Beyond physics)
 It deals with the true nature of reality.
 Asks the question “What is?”
 Generally speaking, Metaphysics is the study of being, or also known as
ontology

o Philosophy of Morality (Action) – the division of philosophy concerned with action, practice
or man’s way of behaving and relating with his fellow man.
 Ethics – branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of moral reality
o Derived from the Greek word “ETHOS” (CUSTOM) or (HABIT)
o It’s main aim is to synthesize the concepts of right and wrong
behavior.
o 3 domains of Ethics
1. Metaethics: deals with the origin and meaning of ethical
concepts
2. Normative ethics: concerned with the setting of certain
standards of what is morally right and morally wrong.
3. Applied ethics: the domain of moral philosophy that
attempts to apply theories to situation in life.
 Aesthetics
o Derived from the Greek word “AISTHETIKOS” (OF SENSE
PERCEPTION)
o It deals with the nature and appreciation of art, beauty, and good
taste.
o Human judgement of aesthetic is not only anchored in one’s ability
to criticize and appreciate art using senses perception.
o One’s judgement on what is beautiful transcends beyond sensory
level, and includes both emotional and intellectual aspects.
 To summarize, the core branches of Philosophy are the four core topics namely: Epistemology,
Metaphysics, Ethic, and Aesthetics.
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Development of Philosophy

 “Philosophy as a human activity is historical in character, i.e., it is characterized by a historical

development which is cyclical and linear at the same time” [Zwaenepoel: 1984].
o Philosophy is cyclical - philosophers always take up the same age – old problems and basic
questions [wiederholung];
o Philosophy is linear - through repetition, it is enriched with new insight.
 In the West, Philosophy is believed to have began in Greece on the island of Miletus with Thales.
 The history of Western Philosophy can be roughly divided into 4 major eras: Ancient Philosophy,
Medieval Philosophy, Modern Philosophy, and Contemporary Philosophy.
 The transition to a different philosophical era is due to a shift in metaphysical attitudes or world views
(Weltanschauung).
o Ancient Philosophy - refers to a broad historical period in which the basic concepts of many
modern philosophies were founded and defined. In Western culture, ancient philosophy
usually refers to theories from the Greco-Roman period dating between the 5th century BCE
and the 4th century CE.
 Thought is centered on the cosmos – it is cosmocentric.
 The cosmos is understood as the realm of the gods, nature, and humanity. All three
appear to obey a certain cosmic law to which harmony and peace are dependent.
 The first philosophers (The Pre-Socratics) reduced the multiplicity of the cosmos into
a single principle that explains everything. They were searching for the Arche. The
Pre-Socratics are:
 Thales – Water
 Anaximander – Boundless (Apeiron)
 Anaximenes – Air
 Pythagoras Mathematics (Numbers)
 Heraclitus – Logos; phusis krupthesthai philei
 Parmenides – Being
 The Pre-Socratics were concerned with nature. This shifted with the Sophists and
Socrates where the concern turned to human affairs. Hence Socrates, his student,
Plato, and Aristotle expanded the discussion of philosophy.

(ON ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY)

 Ancient philosophy refers to a broad historical period in which the basic concepts of many
modern philosophies were founded and defined.
 In Western culture, ancient philosophy usually refers to theories from the Greco-Roman
period dating between the 5th century BCE and the 4th century BCE.
 In Western history, the period of ancient philosophy is best known for the teachings of these
great Greek philosophers: The pre-socratics, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

WHY GREECE?
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Mythos – concerned with the narratives of the gods; promotes the status quo (conservative);
maintains what is tradition

Logos – concerned with reason; it began with the idea that natural phenomena are explained by
other natural phenomena

Reasons why Western Philosophy developed in Greece:

1. There was no priestly class of censors (because of ritual prescriptions)
2. The Greek’s imagination was too graphic (think of the poems, epics, and myths)
3. The Greeks were aware of change; sensitivity to change makes us pessimistic but it also
allows us to look for explanations

PRE-SOCRATICS
1. THALES - There is something that undergoes change; substances change from one to
another; the underlying source (stoicheon) must be WATER because it assumes different
forms
2. ANAXMENES - He argued that the ultimate stuff of the world is AIR. Because it moves
bodies then proceed to the processes of change.
3. HERACLITUS – Heraclitus was using the image of fire in a subtler way, figurative sense.
There is something about the nature of fire that gives insight into both the appearance of
stability (the flame’s form is stable) and the fact of change (in the flame, everything changes).
4. ANAXIMANDER - the ultimate is not specific; it is boundless (no definite form) and
infinite; it is the APEIRON or the INDETERMINATE; he also views the cosmos as a vortex
which was interrupted which resulted in definite things (similar to the Big Bang)

CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY
1. SOCRATES:
MAN ACCORDING TO SOCRATES.
Socrates’ discourse on understanding man moved in two directions—outward, to
objective definitions, and inward, to discover the inner person, the soul or his
uniqueness(personality), which, for Socrates, was the source of all truth. Such a search is not to
be conducted at a weekend lecture but is the quest of a lifetime.

SOCRATIC DIALOGUE/METHOD
Socrates spent much of his time in the streets and marketplace of Athens, querying every man he
met about whether that man knew anything. Socrates said that, if there was an afterlife, he would
pose the same question to the shades in Hades.

1. A question is posed (e.g., the question of what virtue is, or justice, or truth, or beauty);
Socrates becomes excited and enthusiastic to find someone who claims to know something.
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2. Socrates finds “minor flaws” in his companion’s definition and slowly begins to unravel it,
forcing his partner to admit ignorance. (In one dialogue, Socrates’ target actually ends up in
tears.)

3. An agreement is reached by the two admittedly ignorant companions to pursue the truth
seriously. Almost all the dialogues end inconclusively. Of course, they must do so. Socrates
cannot give his disciples the truth. Each of us must find it out for ourselves.

Socrates’ enemies conspired against him, getting him indicted for teaching false
doctrines, for impiety, and for corrupting the youth. He was then sentenced to death.

SOCRATIC LEGACY
1. “Know thyself”
2. “The unexamined life is not worth living”
3. “Virtue is knowledge of good and bad”

SOCRATES’ NOTION OF THE SOUL:

The soul is the center of morality of the Human person, he believes that the soul is the one
responsible for man’s inward capacities.

1. Human nature is determined by one’s soul

2. Soul is the center of moral life.
3. The soul is nurtured by knowledge

2. PLATO
The most important of Socrates’ young disciples was Plato (427–347 B.C.E.), who was
one of the most powerful thinkers in history. He is also the founder of the first university, the
Academy, where students read as exercises the Socratic dialogues that Plato had written.
PLATO’S WORLDVIEW
His philosophy highlighted by his claims of the existence of the greater realm of reality apart
from the humans’ own physical world. This world he called the world of Forms, which can be
seen through his Allegory of the Cave. His concept of the Allegory of the cave is his way of
showing man’s capacity of attaining knowledge and truth. For Plato, truth and knowledge cannot
be attained in this world because the world itself is but a poor imitation of a greater world (World
of Forms).

PLATO’S CONCEPT OF MAN AND SOCIETY

Just as the individual’s whole being has three aspects—the appetitive (bodily needs),
animal side; the spirited source of action; and the rational aspect—so does the ideal City
have three classes —the workers and the artisans; the soldiers; and the rulers. In the parts of man,
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the rational part must convince the spirited part to help it control the appetitive. Otherwise, there
will be an unbalanced soul

His political philosophy was encapsulated in his political treatise known as the republic, where
he believed that an ideal society must be composed of workers and warriors ruled by a
philosopher-king.

PLATO’S NOTION OF THE SOUL

Plato believes that the soul is a pre-existing concept which came from his idea of the world of
forms. The soul, committing sins in the said world of forms, is punished and was able to fall
down into the physical world is then trapped inside man’s body (which for Plato is an imperfect
being/concept)

• The body is the tomb of the soul.

• The SOUL’S embodiment is a misfortune.

4 arguments of the soul according to Plato

1. LIFE AND DEATH (CYCLE OF BIRTH AND REBIRTH)
2. KNOWING IS REMINISCING (LIFE IS A SERIES OF REMEMBERING)
3. INCORRUPTIBILITY OF THE SOUL
4. ARGUMENT FROM OPPOSITES (THE SOUL AND THE BODYARE DIFFERENT
ENTITIES)

3. ARISTOTLE
Plato’s influence is clearly seen in the thought of one of his best students, Aristotle (384–322
B.C.E.). Aristotle, born in Stagira, spent twenty years at Plato’s academy. Soon after the death of
the master, Aristotle left the school because of disagreements with its new chiefs, and he founded
an academy of his own, the Lyceum. In Aristotle’s school, Platonic philosophy was taught, but it
was also criticized.

ARISTOTLE’S WORLD VIEW

He was known for criticizing Plato’s theory of Forms. Aristotle contradicted this view, asserting
that there is only one world and that we are right smack in the middle of it.
He refuted Plato’s idea of the Forms and said that the world itself is filled with both Form
and Matter, He said that a distinction must be drawn between form and matter, but that these two
features of reality can be distinguished only in thought, not in fact. Forms are not separate
entities. They are embedded in particular things. They are in the world. To think otherwise is an
intellectual confusion. A particular object, to count as an object at all, must have both form and
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matter. Form, as Plato had said, is universal, in the sense that many particulars can have the same
form. Aristotle called an object’s form its “whatness.” That is, when you say what something is
(it’s a tree, it’s a book), you are naming its form. The form is a thing’s essence, or nature. It is
related to the thing’s function (a wheel, a knife, a brick, etc.). An object’s matter is what is
unique to that object. Aristotle called it the object’s “thisness.” All wheels or trees have the same
form (or function), but no two have the same matter. Matter is “the principle of individuation.”

According to Aristotle, there is general verbal agreement that the end toward which all human
acts are directed is happiness; therefore, happiness is the human good because we seek happiness
for its own sake, not for the sake of something else. But unless we philosophize about happiness
and get to know exactly what it is and how to achieve it, it will be platitudinous simply to say
that happiness is the ultimate good.

ARISTOTLE’S CONCEPT OF MAN AND SOCIETY

He came to the conclusion that a human’s function is to engage in “an activity of the soul which
is in accordance with virtue” and which “is in conformity with reason.”

For Aristotle, there are two kinds of virtue: intellectual and moral. Intellectual virtues are
acquired through a combination of inheritance and education, and moral virtues through
imitation, practice, and habit. The habits that we develop result in states of character, that is, in
dispositions to act certain ways, and these states of character are virtuous for Aristotle if they
result in acts that are in accordance with a golden mean of moderation.

Hence Aristotle believes that man’s excellence is towards happiness as the mean for ultimate
goodness. Aristotle’s moral philosophy, as it appears in his manuscript now called The
Nicomachean Ethics, reflects his teleological metaphysics. The notion of goal, or purpose, is the
overriding one in his moral theory. Aristotle noted that every act is performed for some purpose,
which he defined as the “good” of that act. (We perform an act because we find its purpose to be
worthwhile.) Either the totality of our acts is an infinitely circular series (we get up in order to eat
breakfast, we eat breakfast in order to go to work, we go to work in order to get money, we get
money so we can buy food in order to be able to eat breakfast, etc., etc., etc.)—in which case life
would be a pretty meaningless endeavor— or there is some ultimate good toward which the
purposes of all acts are directed. If there is such a good, we should try to come to know it so that
we can adjust all our acts toward it in order to avoid that saddest of all tragedies—the wasted
life.

ARISTOTLE’S NOTION OF THE SOUL

Basically, Aristotle debunked the ideas of his teacher (Plato)
Key arguments:
1. The SOUL is one with the body.
2. The SOUL is the one that gives life to the body.
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3. The SOUL and the BODY is one in composition.

4. The BODY is corruptible so is the SOUL

TRUTH, FACT, and OPINION

1. Fact: Is a piece of information having objective reality which is acknowledge by the
greater whole.
2. Truth: Is a proposition believed to be the absolute reality.
3. Opinion: It is a judgement based on personal convictions, which may or may not be
factual, truthful, or false.

THEORIES OF TRUTH
• Since truth is a vague concept, philosophers formulated several theories to understand
truth.

• It is a theory which states that the truth of a proposition is determined by its relationship
(correspondence) to the way things actually are in the world (reality).

• A proposition is true if and only if what it contends relates to what is real. Truth,
therefore, corresponds to facts; hence, truth is absolute

THEORIES OF TRUTH
1. The correspondence theory:
• It is a theory which states that the truth of a proposition is determined by its
relationship (correspondence) to the way things actually are in the world (reality).
• A proposition is true if and only if what it contends relates to what is real. Truth,
therefore, corresponds to facts; hence, truth is absolute
2. The coherence theory:
• It is a theory which states that a proposition is true if it is consistent with a system of
other propositions considered true.
• The truthfulness, therefore, of a person’s judgment (proposition) is based on the
statement’s coherence to a certain set of established beliefs.
3. The Pragmatic theory:
• It holds that a proposition is true if it is useful.
• Pragmatics linked the nature of truth with the principle of action and the concept of
utility
• This theory contends that judgement must be continually verified and validated by
having close encounter and interaction with the world.
• This theory implies that in order to know the truth, a person must engage oneself with
something that is beneficial and rewarding.
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POINTS TO PONDER:
• Lecture on St. Thomas Aquinas is not anymore included in this lecture notes (refer to
your book for Aquinas’ notion on the soul)
• Please also review the Fallacies, which can be seen in your book.
• For the lectures on the Mental faculties of the Human mind please refer to your book.
Compiled by:

Mr. Carlos Raymund O. Dimapilis

Ad usum privatum.
(For private use only)