VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI

CENTRE FOR POSTGRADUATE STUDIES, KALABURAGI-585106

DEPARTMENT
OF
CIVIL CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

I SEMESTER
SUBJECT CODE: 18CCTL16
LAB MANUAL

Name: …………………………………………………………………………

USN: …………………………………………………………………………
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Name of the Examiners: Signature with date

1.

2.

Sl.No Name of The Experiment Signature

DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

LEARNING OVERVIEW

IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT

Concrete is one of the important construction materials. Study of its constituents and their
properties is essential for preparing desired mix so as to develop required strength
necessary for various types of Structures. The durability of the structures depends upon the
care with which ingredients of concrete are selected, mixed, placed, compacted and cured.

Concrete is used not only for construction of building, but also for concrete roads, gravity
dams, retaining walls, water tanks, airport runway pavements, etc. The information
regarding various properties of concrete in its plastic stage as well as hardened Stage is
necessary to enable the technician and supervisors for quality control during construction
work.

Knowledge of the subject is essential for the Design of Concrete Structures. Strength,
workability, durability and cost are the four important characteristics of concrete
Compressive strength of concrete describes the load caring capacity, workability is the
indicator of ease with which we work on concrete, whereas durability shows the resistance
of concrete to environmental attack. A durable concrete is one that performs satisfactorily
in the working environment during its anticipated exposure conditions during service. The
materials and mix proportions specified and used should be such as to maintain its
integrity and if applicable, to protect embedded metal from corrosion. The factors
influencing durability include:

i) The environment

ii) The cover to embedded steel

iii) The type and quality of constituent materials

iv) The cement content and water/cement ratio of concrete

DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

v) Workmanship, to obtain full compaction and efficient curing

Concrete mix design gives the concrete of required compressive strength, workability
from the available constituents with optimal cost, various propertied of constituents are
required for performing mix design. In concrete technology laboratory the quality of
constituent materials of concrete such as cement sand, coarse aggregate is decided by
performing various tests confirming to IS standards. Similarly, the properties of fresh
concrete were studied to decide its suitability and its ease to perform various operations on
concrete.
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

TESTS ON AGGREGATES
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

AGGREGATE IMPACT TEST

EXPERIMENT NO: 1 DATE:

AIM

To find the impact value of the given aggregate specimen

APPARATUS

 Impact testing machine consisting of a metal base with a plain lower surface supported
well on a firm floor, without rocking. A detachable steel cylindrical cup of diameter 10.2
cm and a depth of 5 cm are rigidly fastened centrally to the base plate. A metal hammer of
weight 13.5 to 14 kg having a lower end in cylindrical shape and having 10 cm diameter 5
cm long is used. The arrangement is made to fall freely from a height of 38 cm on the test
sample in the cup.
A cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 7.5 cm and depth 5 cm for measuring
aggregates.
A tamping rod of circular cross section having 1 cm diameter and 23 cm length, and
rounded at one end.
 IS sieves of sizes 12.5 mm, 10 mm, and 2.36 mm, balance and oven

DEFINITION

The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of the resistance of an

aggregate to a sudden shock or impact, which has different effect than the resistance to
gradually increasing compressive stress.

PROCEDURE

 The test sample consists of aggregate passing through 12.5 mm IS sieve and
retaining on 10 mm sieve and dried in an oven for 4 hours at a temperature of 100°
to 110°C and cooled.
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

 Fill the aggregate in cylindrical measure in 3 layers and each layer is compacted
with 25 strokes of tamping rod. Find the weight of the cylindrical measure and
aggregates.
 The last sample is transferred from cylindrical measure to the cup and compacted
with 25 blows. Place the cup centrally on the base plate.
 The hammer is raised until its lower face is 38 cm above the upper face of the
aggregates in the cup and allowed to fall freely on the aggregates. The test sample
is subjected to a total of 15 such blows being delivered at an interval of not less
than 1 second
 The crushed aggregate is then removed from the cup and sieved on 2.36 mm IS
sieve. Find out the weight of sample passing through 2.36 mm sieve.
OBSERVATIONS:

Weight of Weight of Weight of Weight of the

empty (cylindrical aggregate aggregate
Sl. No. Percentage
cylindrical mould + (12.5mm-10.0 mm) passing sieve
passing
mould aggregate) taken (W1), g (2.36 mm)
(W2), g (W2/W1)*100
g G

Average value =

MODEL CALCULATION

W2
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Aggregate impact value = x 100

W1

RESULT

 The aggregate impact value of the specimen is

INFERENCE

Viva voce:

1. How is aggregate Impact expressed?

2. What do you understand by dry and wet Impact value?

3. Aggregate Impact value of material A is 15 and that of B is 35. Which one is better for
surface course?

Reference:

1. Indian Standard Methods of Test for Aggregate for concrete IS: 2386 Part-IV, Indian
Standards Institution.

2. Indian Standard Specifications for Coarse and Fine Aggregate from Natural Sources for
Concrete, IS: 383 Indian Standards Institution.

3. S.K. Khann a, C.E.G. Justo, Highway Material Testing Laboratory Manual, Nem Chand
& Bros., Roorkee.
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

SHAPE TEST-FLAKINESS INDEX

DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

EXPERIMENT NO: 2 DATE:

AIM

To find the flakiness index of the given sample of aggregate

APPARATUS

 A standard thickness gauge

 IS Sieves of sizes 63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm
 Balance
DEFINITION

The flakiness index of the aggregates is the percentage by weight of particles

whose least dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifth (0.6) of their mean dimension.

PROCEDURE

The sample is sieved with the sieves mentioned in table below. A minimum of 200
of each fraction to be tested are taken and weighed = W 1 g. In order to separate flaky
materials, each fraction is then gauged for thickness on a thickness gauge. The width of
the slot used should be of the dimension specified in column 4 of the table 1 for the
appropriate size of material. The amount of flaky material passing the gauge is weighed to
an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the test sample.

Table 1
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Size of aggregates Thickness gauge (0.6 Length gauge (1.8

Passing, Retained, times the mean times the mean

sieve), mm sieve), mm
Mm mm

1 63.0 50.0 33.90 -

2 50.0 40.0 27.00 81.0

3 40.0 25.0 19.5. 58.5

4 31.5 25.0 16.95 -

5 25.0 20.0 13.50 40.5

6 20.0 16.0 10.80 32.4

7 16.0 12.5 8.55 25.6

8 12.5 10.0 6.75 20.2

9 10.0 6.3 4.89 14.7

FORMULA

(w 1 + w 2 + w 3 +………)

Flakiness Index = x 100

(W1 + W2 + W3 +………

Where,

w 1 , w 2 , w 3 …… are the weights of material passing different slots in

the thickness gauge

W1 , W2 , W3 ……… are the weights of the fractions passing and

retained on specific sieve

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Size of aggregates Slot size of the Weight of Weight of

Passing Retained, thickness gauge, fraction taken fraction passing

Sl.No
, mm (Wn), g (wn), g
mm
Mm

1 63.0 50.0

2 50.0 40.0

3 40.0 25.0

4 31.5 25.0

5 25.0 20.0

6 20.0 16.0

7 16.0 12.5

8 12.5 10.0

9 10.0 6.3

 wn

Flakiness Index = x 100

Wn

RESULT

 The flakiness index of the given sample of aggregate is

INFERENCE
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Viva Voce:

1. What do you mean by flakiness index of an aggregate?

2. What do you infer from flakiness index?

3. How the flakiness index of the sample helps in deciding the design of highway?
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

SHAPE TEST-ELONGATION INDEX

EXPERIMENT NO: 3 DATE:

AIM

To find the elongation index of the given sample of aggregate

APPARATUS

 A standard thickness gauge

 IS Sieves of sizes 63, 50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm
 Balance
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

DEFINITION

The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles

whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than one and four fifth times their mean
dimension.

PROCEDURE

The sample is sieved with the sieves mentioned in table below. A minimum of 200
of each fraction to be tested are taken and weighed = W 1 g. In order to separate elongated
materials, each fraction is then gauged for length in a length gauge. The width of the slot
used should be of the dimension specified in column 5 of the table 1 for the appropriate
size of material. The amount of elongated material passing the gauge is weighed to an
accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the test sample.

FORMULA

( x 1 + x 2 + x 3 +…. )

Elongation Index = x 100

(W1 + W2 + W3 +…… )

Where

x 1 , x 2 , x 3 …. Are the weights of material from each fraction retained

on the specified gauge.

W1, W2, W3 … are the weights of the fractions passing and retained on
specific sieve
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Size of aggregates
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Sl. No Passing, Retained, Slot size of the Weight of Weight of

thickness gauge, fraction taken fraction retained
Mm mm
mm (xn), g (Wn), g

1 63.0 50.0

2 50.0 40.0

3 40.0 25.0

4 31.5 25.0

5 25.0 20.0

6 20.0 16.0

7 16.0 12.5

8 12.5 10.0

9 10.0 6.3

xn

Elongation Index = x 100

 Wn

RESULT

 The elongation index of the given sample of aggregate is

INFERENCE

Viva Voce:

1. What do you mean by elongation index of an aggregate?

2. What do you infer from elongation index?

DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

3. How the elongation index of the sample helps in deciding the design of a highway?

WATER ABSORPTION TEST FOR AGGREGATES

EXPERIMENT NO: 4 DATE:

AIM

To determine the percentage of water absorption of the given aggregate sample

APPARATUS

 A balance of 3 kg capacity
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

 A thermostatically controlled oven

 A container
 Dry absorbent cloth piece

PROCEDURE

About 1 kg of the aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines and then placed
in a container (bucket) with the aggregates completely immersed in water for a period of
24 hours. The aggregates are then removed from the container and allowed to drain water
by gravity. The aggregates are then placed on absorbent clothes and surface dried till no
further moisture can be dried by this cloth. The aggregates should not be exposed to
atmosphere, direct sunlight or any other source of heat during surface drying. The surface
dried aggregate is then weighed ‘W2’ g. The aggregates are then placed in a shallow tray
and kept in an oven maintained at a temperature of 110° C for 24 hours. It is then removed
from the oven, cooled in air in air-tight container and weighed ‘W1’g.

FORMULA

Water Absorption = (W2 - W1) x 100

W1

Where

W2 = weight of saturated aggregates

W1 = weight of oven dried aggregates

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Dry weight of the aggregate W1 =

Weight of saturated aggregate W2 =

W2 - W1

Water absorption = x 100 %

DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

W1

RESULT

 The water absorption of the given aggregate sample is

INFERENCE

Viva voce:

1. How does the Water absorption of the coarse aggregate affects the mix design of
concrete?

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AGGREGATE

EXPERMENT NO: 5 DATE:

AIM

To determine the specific gravity of the given aggregate sample.

APPARATUS

 A balance of capacity about 3 kg, to weigh accurate to 0.5 g

 Pyconometer bottle
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

PROCEDURE

The Pyconometer bottle is cleaned, dried and weighed along with the stopper. It is
fully filled with fresh distilled water and weighed. Then the water from the bottle is
removed and bottle is dried. The given aggregate sample is filled up to 1/3 rd height of the
bottle and weighed. This bottle with 1/3 rd aggregates is filled with distilled water to fill the
remaining space and again weighed. The sample procedure is repeated for 2 to 3 trials.
The mean value of the sample is taken as specific gravity of the given aggregate sample.

FORMULA USED

Where,

W1 – Weight of bottle (g)

W2 – Weight of bottle + 1/3rd filled aggregate ( g)

W3– Weight of bottle + 1/3rd filled aggregate + water ( g)

W4 – Weight of bottle + water (W4), (g)

OBSEVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Sl. No. Observations Trial-1 Trial-2

1 Weight of bottle (W1), g

2 Weight of bottle + 1/3rd filled aggregate (W2), g

3 Weight of bottle + 1/3rd filled aggregate + water (W3), g

4 Weight of bottle + water (W4), g

5 Specific gravity

RESULT

 The specific gravity of the given aggregate sample is

INFERENCE
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST

EXPERIMENT NO: 6 DATE:

AIM

To determine the abrasion value of the given sample of aggregates

APPARATUS

Los Angeles Abrasion Machine consisting of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both ends,
having an inside diameter 70 cm and an inside length of 50 cm, mounted on stub shafts
about which it rotates on a horizontal axis. An opening is provided in the cylinder for the
introduction of the test sample with a removable cover. A removable steel shelf projecting
radially 8.8cm into the cylinder and extending to the full length of it is mounted on the
interior surface of the cylinder rigidly, parallel to the axis. Abrasive charge consisting of
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

cast iron spheres approximately 4.8cm in diameter and 390 to 445 grams in weight are
used. The weight of the spheres and the number of the spheres to be used are specified
depending on the gradation of the aggregates used. The aggregates grading have been
standardised as A, B, C, D, E, F and G for this test and the IS specifications for the grading
and abrasive charge to be used are given in Table-1. The IS sieve with 1.70mm opening is
used for separating the fines after the abrasion test.

DEFINITION

The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to the
relative rubbing action between the aggregates and steel balls used as abrasive charge;
pounding action of these balls also exists while conducting these tests. This test is more
dependable as pounding action simulates the field conditions where both abrasion and
impact occur.

PROCEDURE

 Clean aggregates dried in an oven at 105-110C to constant weight, conforming to

any one of the grading A to G, as per Table-1 is used for the test. Aggregates
weighing 5kg for grading A, B, C or D and 10kg for grading E, F or G may be
taken in the test cylinder and placed in the cylinder.
 The abrasive charge is also chosen in accordance with Table-1. Depending on the
grading of the aggregate and is placed in the cylinder of the machine. The cover is
then fixed dust-tight.
 The machine is rotated at a speed of 30-33 revolutions per minute. The machine is
rotated for 500 revolutions for grading A, B, C and D, for grading E, F and G, it
shall be rotated for 1000 revolutions. The machine should be balanced and driven
in such a way as to maintain uniform peripheral speed.
 After the desired number of revolutions, the machine is stopped and the
material is discharged from the machine taking care to take out entire stone dust.
Using a sieve of size larger than 1.70mm IS sieve, the material is first separated
into two parts and the finer position is taken out and sieved further on a 1.7mm IS
DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

sieve. The portion of material coarser than 1.7mm size is washed and dried in an
oven at 105 to 110C to constant weight and weighed correct to one gram.
Grading Weight in grams of each testCIVIL
DEPARTMENTOF sample in the size range, mmCONCRETE
ENGINEERING (passingAND
andHIGHWAY
retained) Abrasive charge
MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Number of Weight of charge,

spheres ’g’
80 - 63 – 50 - 40 – 25 - 20 - 12.5 - 10 6.3 4.75 -
63 50 40 25 20 12.5 10 -6.3 -4.75 2.36

- - -

A - - - 1250 1250 1250 1250 12 5000 25

B - - - - - 2500 2500 - - - 11 4584  25

C - - - - - - - 2500 2500 - 8 3330  20

D - - - - - - - - - 5000 6 2500  15

E 2500 2500 5000 - - - - - - - 12 5000  25

F - - 5000 5000 - - - - - - 12 5000  25

 DEPARTMENTOF CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCRETE AND HIGHWAY MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Table-1. Specifications for Los Angeles Abrasion Test

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

The difference between the original and final weights of the sample is expressed as a
percentage of the original weight of the sample is reported as the percentage wear.

 Grade of aggregate =
 Number of spheres used =
 Weight of charge =
 Weight of aggregate, W1 =
 Weight of aggregate coarser than 1.7 mm IS sieve, W2 =

Loss of weight due to wear = W1-W2

W1 – W2

Percentage wear = x 100

W1

RESULT

 The Los Angeles abrasion value of the given aggregate sample is

INFERENCE

Viva voce:

1. The abrasion value found from Los Angeles test for two aggregates A and B are 50% and
38% respectively. Which aggregate is harder? Why? For what types of constructions are these
suitable?

2. Why Los Angeles abrasion test is considered superior to the other form of tests which are
used to determine the hardness of aggregates?

3. Two materials have abrasion values 3 and 10 respectively. Which one is harder and why?
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Reference:

1. Indian Standard Methods of Test for Aggregate for concrete IS: 2386 Part-IV, Indian
Standards Institution.

2. Indian Standard Specifications for Coarse and Fine Aggregate from Natural Sources for
Concrete, IS: 383 Indian Standards Institution.

3. S.K. Khanna, C.E.G. Justo, Highway Material Testing Laboratory Manual, Nem Chand &
Bros., Roorkee

Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST

EXPERIMENT NO: 7 DATE:

AIM

To determine the aggregate crushing value of the given aggregate.

APPARATUS

 Steel cylinder with open ends with internal diameter 25.2 cm square base plate
plunger having a piston of having a diameter of 15cm
 Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 11.5cm and height of 18cm
 A steel tamping rod of 1.6cm diameter and 45 to 60cm long
 IS sieves of size of 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm
 Compression testing machine
DEFINITION

The aggregate crushing value is defined as the ratio of the weight of the fines passing the
specified IS sieve to the total weight of the sample expressed as a percentage.

PROCEDURE

The aggregate passing 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on 10mm sieve is selected for standard
test. The aggregate should be in surface dry condition before testing. The cylindrical measure
is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of approximately equal depth, each
layer being damped 25 times by the rounded end of the tamping rod. After the third layer is
tamped, the aggregates at the top of the cylindrical measure are leveled off by using the
tamping rod as a straight edge. The test sample thus taken is then weighed.

The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate, one third of the test
sample is placed in the cylinder and tamped 25 times by the tamping rod. Similarly the other
two parts of the test specimen are added, each layer being subjected to 25 blows. The total
depth of the material in the cylinder after tamping shall however be 10cm. The surface of the
aggregates is leveled and the plunger inserted so that it rests on this surface in level position.
The cylinder with the test sample and plunger in position is placed on compression testing
machine. Load is then applied through the plunger at a uniform rate of 4 tonnes per minute
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

until the total load is 40 tonnes, and then the load is released. Aggregates including the
crushed portion are removed from the cylinder and sieved on a 2.36mm IS sieve. The
material which passes this sieve is collected.

The above crushing test is repeated upon second sample of same weight in accordance with
above test procedure. Thus two tests are made for the same specimen for taking an average
value.

FORMULA

Aggregate crushing value = 100 (W2/W1)

Where

W1 = total weight of dry sample g

W2 = Weight of the portion of crushed material passing 2.36mm IS sieve in g

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Sl.No. Observations & Calculations Trial -1 Trial -2

1 Empty weight of calibration cylinder, g

2 Weight of cylinder + aggregate, g

3 Weight of aggregate W1 g

3 Weight of aggregate passing through 2.36 mm sieve,

W2 g

4 Crushing value (W2 / W1 ) * 100

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Average of two trials =

RESULT

 The crushing strength of given aggregate is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

STRIPPING VALUE OF AGGREGATE

EXPERIMENT NO: 8 DATE:

AIM

To find the stripping value of the given aggregate sample

APPARATUS

 Heater, Pan, Mixer, Beaker and IS sieves of sizes 20mm and 12.5mm.

DEFINITION

The stripping value of the aggregates is the ratio of the uncovered area observed visually to
the total area of aggregates expressed as a percentage. The value is expressed to the nearest
whole number.

PROCEDURE

 About 200 g of dry and clean aggregates passing 20mm IS sieve and retained on
12.5mm sieve are heated up to 150°C.
 Five percent by weight of aggregate, bitumen is heated up to 160°C. The aggregate
and binder are mixed thoroughly till they are completely coated and mixture is
transferred to a 500ml beaker and allowed to cool at room temperature for about two
hours.
 Distilled water is then added to immerse the coated aggregates. After 24 hours, the
aggregates are observed and the extent of stripping is estimated visually while the
specimen is still under water.

RESULT

 The stripping value of the given aggregate sample is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

TESTS ON BITUMEN
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

BITUMEN PENETRATION TEST

EXPERIMENT NO :1 DATE:

AIM

To determine the consistency of the given sample of bitumen for the purpose of
grading.

APPARATUS

 Penetrometer consisting of a needle assembly with total weight of 100 gm and a

device for releasing and locking in any position. There is a graduated dial to read
penetration values up to 1/10 of a millimeter.
 Water-bath
 Transfer tray

PROCEDURE

 The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency between 75° C and 100° C above
the approximate temperature at which it softens. The sample material free from air
bubbles is then poured into a container to a depth 15mm more than the expected
penetration.
 The sample container is then cooled to the room temperature. It is then placed in
water bath at a temperature of 25° C for a period of one hour. The sample container is
placed in the transfer tray from the water bath and placed under the needle of the
penetrometer.
 Using the adjusting screws the needle assembly is lowered and tip of the needle is
made to touch the top surface of the sample. The initial reading of the Penetrometer in
the dial is adjusted to zero.
 The needle is exactly released for a time period of 5 seconds by pressing the knob.
Final readings are taken on the dial. Three penetration tests are made at least on the
sample by testing at distances of not less than 100 mm apart.
 After each test, needle is disengaged and wiped with benzene and dried.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

OBSERVATIONS

Readings Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

Initial

Final

Penetration value

RESULT

 The penetration value of the given bitumen sample in 1/10 of mm is

INFERENCE

Viva Voce:

1. What are the applications of penetration test?

2. What do you understand by the term 30/40 bitumen?

3. What are the precautions to be taken while conducting a penetration test?

References:
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

1. Indian Standard Method for Tar and Bitumen, Determination of Penetration

of Bitumen, IS: 1203, Indian Standards Institution.

2. Indian Standard Specification for Paving Bitumen, IS: 73.

3. S.K. Khanna and C.E.G Justo, Highway Materials Testing Laboratory

Manual, Nem Chand Bros. Roorkee.

DUCTILITY TEST OF BITUMEN

EXPERIMENT NO: 2 DATE:

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

AIM

To find the ductility value of the given bitumen sample

APPARATUS

 Sample (briquette) moulds, water bath, square-end trowel, putty knife.

DEFINITION

The ductility is expressed as the distance in centimeters to which a standard briquette

of bitumen can be stretched before the thread breaks. The test is conducted at 27± 0.5º C and
a rate of pull of 50 ± 2.5 mm per minute.

PROCEDURE

 The bitumen sample is melted to a temperature of 75º C to 100º C above the

approximate softening point until it is fluid. It is strained through IS sieve 30, poured
on the mould assembly and placed on a brass plate, after a solution of glycerine and
dextrine is applied at all surfaces of the mould
 Thirty to forty minutes after the sample is poured into the moulds, the plate assembly
along with the sample is placed in water bath maintained at 27º C for 30 minutes.
Sample is removed from the bath and excess bitumen is cut off by levelling the
surface using hot knife.
 After trimming, the mould assembly is again placed in water bath maintained at 27º C
for 85 to 95 minutes
 The sides of the mould are now removed and the two clips are thus pulled apart
horizontally. While the test is in operation, it is checked whether the sample is
immersed in water at a depth of at least 10mm.
 The distance at which the bitumen thread of each specimen breaks, is recorded (in
cm) to report as a ductility value.

OBSERVATION

Grade of Bitumen =
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Pouring temperature =

Test temperature =

Periods of cooling

In air =

In water before trimming =

In water bath after trimming =

Briquette Number

i Ii iii
Test property Mean Value

Ductility
Value(cm)

Repeatability
percent

Reproducibility
percent

RESULTS

 The ductility value of the given bitumen sample is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Viva Voce:

1. List the factors that affect the result of a ductility test.

2. What do you understand by the term repeatability and reproducibility?

3. Explain the significance of ductility test.

References:

1. Indian Standard Method for Tar and Bitumen, Determination of Ductility of Bitumen, IS:
1208, Indian Standards Institution.

2. Indian Standard Specification for Paving Bitumen, IS: 73.

3. S.K. Khanna and C.E.G Justo, Highway Materials Testing Laboratory Manual, Nem Chand
Bros. Roorkee.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

SOFTENING POINT TEST

EXPERIMENT NO: 3 DATE:

AIM

To determine the softening point of the given grade of bitumen.

APPARATUS

 Ring and Ball apparatus consisting of two steel balls weighing 2.5 grams and
having a diameter of 9.5mm, two brass rings with ball guides and support used for
placing of rings
 Bath and stirrer
 Thermometer
 Electric heater
 Beaker

DEFINITION
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

The softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains a particular degree of
softening under specified condition of test. Generally higher softening point indicates lower
susceptibility and is preferred in warm climates.

PROCEDURE

Sample material is heated to a temperature between 75 and 100 ° C above the approximate
softening point until it is completely fluid and is poured in heated rings placed on metal plate.
To avoid sticking of the bitumen to the base plate, it is coated with a solution of glycerin and
dextrin. After cooling the rings in air for 30 min, the excess bitumen is trimmed and rings are
placed in the support of the Ring and Ball apparatus.

In the ring and ball apparatus a brass ring containing test sample is suspended in a liquid like
water or glycerin at a given temperature (5° C for water and 35° C for glycerin). A steel ball
is placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is then heated at the rate of five
degree centigrade per minute. The temperature at which the softened bitumen touches the
metal placed at a specified distance below the ring is recorded as the softening point of the
bitumen. Hard grade bitumen posses higher softening point than soft grade bitumen. The
softening point of various bitumen grades used in paving jobs vary between 35 ° C to 70 °
C.

OBSERVATIONS

Temperature at which the ball touches the plate

Sl. No.

2
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

RESULT

 The softening point of the given grade of bitumen is

INFERENCE

Viva Voce:

1. What are the factors which affect the ring and ball test results?

2. What is softening point? If material A has softening point of 56 and B has 42 which binder
is good and why?

References:

1. Indian Standard Method for Tar and Bitumen, Determination of Softening Point of
Bitumen, IS: 1205, Indian Standards Institution.

2. Indian Standard Specification for Paving Bitumen, IS: 73.

3. S.K. Khanna and C.E.G Justo, Highway Materials Testing Laboratory Manual, Nem Chand
Bros. Roorkee.
DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST FOR BITUMEN

EXPERIMENT NO: 4 DATE:

AIM

To determine the specific gravity of the given bitumen sample.

APPARATUS

Analytical balance equipped with a pan straddle.

DEFINITION

The specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the bituminous
material to the mass of an equal volume of water, the temperature of both being specified as
27° C ± 0.1° C.

PROCEDURE

Balance method is used to determine the specific gravity of the bitumen. In balance method,
the bitumen test specimen is cube shaped, above 12 mm on each edge. It is prepared by
pouring by liquefied bitumen sample in brass mould to provide the sample of required
dimensions and is cooled. The sample is weighed in air and is then weighed in distilled water
maintained at 27° C ± 0.1° C to the nearest 0.1 mg.

FORMULA

Specific gravity = e / (e – f)

Where

e = weight of dry specimen

f = weight of the specimen when immersed in distilled water

OBSERVATIONS
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Weight of the dry specimen e =

Weight of the specimen when immersed in distilled water, f =

CALCULATIONS

Specific gravity =

e-f

RESULT

 The specific gravity of the given specimen is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

VISCOSITY TEST FOR BITUMEN

EXPERIMENT NO: 5 DATE:

AIM

To determine the Viscosity of the given bitumen sample

APPARATUS

Viscometer, cup, valve, water bath, sleeves, stirrer, receiver and thermometer

DEFINITION

Viscosity is defined as the inverse of fluidity. The degree of fluidity at the application
temperature greatly influences the ability of bituminous material to spread, penetrate into the
voids and also coat the aggregates and hence affects the strength characteristics of the
resulting paving mixes.

PROCEDURE

 The tar cup is properly leveled and water in the bath is heated to a temperature specified
for the test and stirring is also continued. The sample is heated at the temperature 20°C above
the specified test temperature and the material is allowed to cool. During this, the material is
stirred continuously. When material reaches slightly above test temperature, the same is
poured in the cup, until the leveling peg on the valve rod is just immersed.
 In the graduated cylinder, 20 ml of the mineral oil or one percent by weight solution of
soft soap is poured. The receiver is placed under the orifice. When the sample material
reaches the specified testing temperature within ± 0.1° C and is maintained for 5 minutes, the
valve is opened. The stop watch is started, when cylinder records 25 ml. the time is recorded
for flow up to a mark of 75 ml.
 The time in seconds for 50 ml of the sample to flow through orifice is
defined as the viscosity at a given test temperature. Therefore, the temperature
at which the test was conducted and the diameter of the orifice used should also
be mentioned.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

OBSERVATION

Grade of Bitumen =

Specified test temperature =

Size of orifice, mm =

Actual test temperature =

Test property Test Run Mean Value

i ii iii

Viscosity in
seconds

Repeatability
percent

RESULT

 The viscosity value of the given specimen is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Viva Voce:

1. Explain the term viscosity.

2. What are the uses of viscosity test?

3. What are the precautions to be taken during viscosity test using orifice viscometer?

References:

1. Indian Standard Method for Tar and Bitumen, Determination of Viscosity of Bitumen, IS:
1206, Indian Standards Institution.

2. Indian Standard Specification for Paving Bitumen IS: 73.

3. S.K. Khanna and C.E.G Justo, Highway Materials Testing Laboratory Manual, Nem Chand
Bros. Roorkee
DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST

EXPERIMENT NO: 6 DATE:

AIM

To determine the flash point and fire point value of the given bitumen sample

APPARATUS

Pensky – Martens closed tester consist of cup, lid, stirring device, cover, shutter,
flame exposure device.

DEFINITION

The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of
substance momentarily takes fire in the form of flash under specified condition of test.

The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited and burns
under specified condition of test.

PROCEDURE

 The material is filled in the cup up to a filling mark. The lid is placed to close the cup in
a closed system. All accessories including thermometer of the specified range are suitably
fixed. The bitumen sample is then heated.
 The stirring is done at a rate of approximately 60 revolutions per minute. The test flame
is applied at intervals depending upon the expected flash and fire points. First application is
made at least 17°C below the actual flash point and then at every 1°C to 3°C. The stirring is
discontinued during the application of the test flame.
 The flash point is taken as the temperature recorded on the thermometer at the time of the

flame application that causes a bright flash in the interior of the cup in a closed system.
For open cup it is the instance when flash appears first at any point on the surface of the
material.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

OBSERVATION

Bitumen grade / cutback type & grade:

Type of equipment: Closed cup / Open cup:

Rate of Heating

Time,
Minutes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Temperature

ºc

Test Number
i Ii iii
Test property Mean Value
Flash point

Fire point

Variations from mean

value

RESULT

 The flash point value of the given specimen is

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 The fire point value of the given specimen is

INFERENCE

Viva Voce:

1. Define flash and fire points.

2. What is the significance of flash and fire point test?

3. What are the parameter that affects the result of flash and fire point tests?

References:

1. Indian Standard Method for Tar and Bitumen, Determination of Flash and Fire Point of
Bitumen, IS: 1209, Indian Standards Institution.

2. Indian Standard Specification for Paving Bitumen IS: 73.

3. S.K. Khanna and C.E.G Justo, Highway Materials Testing Laboratory Manual, Nem
Chand Bros. Roorkee.
DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

MARSHAL STABILITY TEST

EXPERIMENT NO : 7 DATE :

APPARATUS

 Mould Assembly Cylindrical moulds of 10 cm diameter and 7.5 cm height are

required. It further consists of a base plate and collar extension. They are designed to be
interchangeable with either end of cylindrical mould.
 Sample Extractor For extruding the compacted specimen from the mould, an extractor
suitably fitted with a hack or compression machine.
 Compaction Pedestal and Hammer It consists of a block capped with M.S. plate to
hold the mould assembly in position during compaction. The compaction hammer consists of
a flat circular tamping face 8.8 cm diameter and equipped with a 4.5kg weight constructed to
provide a free fall of 45.7 cm. Mould holder is provided consisting of spring tension device
designed to hold compaction mould in place on the compaction pedestal.
 Breaking Head It consists of upper and lower cylindrical segments or test heads
having an inside radius of curvature of 5 cm. The lower segment is moulded on a base having
two vertical guide rods which facilitate insertion in the holes of upper test head.
 Loading Machine The loading machine is provided with a gear system to lift the base
in upward direction. On the upper end of the machine, a precalibrated proving ring of 5 tonne
capacity is fixed. In between the base and the proving ring, the specimen contained in test
head is placed. The loading machine produces a movement at the rate of 5 cm per minute.
Machine is capable of reversing its movement downward also. This facilitates adequate

space for placing test head system after one specimen has been tested.
 Flow meter One dial gauge fixed to the guide rods of a testing mach9ne can serve the
purpose. Least count of 0.025 mm is adequate. The flow value refers to the total vertical
upward movement from the initial position at zero load to a value at maximum load. The dial
gauge or the flow meter should be able to measure accurately the total vertical movement
upward. Besides the above equipment, the following are also required: Ovens on hot plates,
Mixing apparatus, Water bath, Thermometer of range up to 2000C with sensitivity of 2.50C.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

PROCEDURE

In the Marshal method each compacted test is subjected to the following tests and
analysis in the order listed below:

 Bulk density determination

 Stability and flow test
 Density and voids analysis
At least three samples are prepared for each binder content and in all four to five binder
contents are selected.

PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS

The course aggregates, fine aggregates and the filler material should be proportioned
and mixed in such a way that final mix after blending has the Up gradation within the
specified range. The specified gradation of mineral aggregates and bitumen binder as per
IRC: 29-1968 are given Table 2.

The aggregates and filler are mixed together in the desired proportion as per design
requirements and fulfilling the specified gradation. The required quantity of the mix is taken
so as to produce a compacted bituminous mix specimen of thickness 63.5 mm approximately.

Approximately 1200 g of aggregates and filler are taken and heated to a temperature
of 1750C to 1900C. The compaction mould assembly and rammer are cleaned and kept
preheated to a temperature of 1000C to 1450C. The bitumen is heated to temperature of 1210C
to 1380C and the required quantity of first trial percentage of bitumen (say 3.5% by weight of
mineral aggregates) is added to the heated aggregates and thoroughly mixed using a
mechanical mixer or by hand mixing with trowel. The mixing temperature for 80/110 grade
bitumen may be around 1540C and that for 60/70 grade about 1600C.The mix is placed in a
mould and compacted by rammer, with 50 blows on either side. The compacting
temperatures may be about 1380C for 80/100 grade bitumen and 149 0C for 60/70 grade. The
compacted specimen should have a thickness of 63.5 mm. The weight of the aggregates taken
may be suitably altered to obtain a thickness of 63.5 ± 3.0 mm. At least two specimens, but
preferably three to four specimens should be prepared at each trial bitumen content which
may be varied at 0.5% increments up to about 7.5 or 8.0%.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

TESTS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COMPACTED SPECIMENS

The specific gravity values of different aggregates, filler and bitumen used are determined
first the theoretical specific gravity Gt of the mix is given by:

Gt = 100

(W1/G1 )+ (W2/G2 )+ (W3/G3 )+ (W4/G4 )

W1 = percent by weight of coarse aggregates

W2 = percent by weight of fine aggregates

W3 = percent by weight of filler

W4 = percent by weight of bitumen in total mix

G1, G2 and G3 are apparent specific gravity values of the course aggregates,
fine aggregates and filler respectively and G4 is the specific gravity of
bitumen.

DENSITY AND VOIDS ANALYSIS

Soon after the compacted bituminous mix specimens have cooled to room
temperature, the weight, average thickness and diameter of the specimen are noted. The
specimens are also weighed in air and then in water. The bulk density value G b of the
specimen if calculated from the weight and volume.

The voids analysis is made as given below:

VV, % = 100 (Gt - Gb) Where

Gt Vb = volume of bitumen

Vv = air voids in the mix, %

Vb, % = Gb x W4./ G4 VMA = voids in mineral aggregates, %

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

VFB = voids filled with bitumen, %

VMA, % = Vv + Vb

VFB, % = 100Vb

VMA

MARSHALL STABILITY AND FLOW VALUES

The specimens to be tested are kept immersed under water in a thermostatically

controlled water bath maintained at 60º ± 1ºC for 30 to 40 minutes. The specimens are taken
out one by one, placed in the Marshall Test head and Marshall Stability value (maximum load
carried in kg, before failure) and the flow value (the deformation the specimen undergoes
during loading up to the maximum load in 0.25mm units) are noted. The corrected Marshall
Stability value of each specimen is determined by applying the appropriate correction factor,
if average height of the specimen is not exactly 63.5 mm. The correction factor are given in
Table.2

DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM BITUMEN CONTENT

Five graphs are plotted with values of bitumen content against the values of:

Density , Gb in g/cm2

Marshall Stability, S in kg

Voids in total mix, Vv in %

Flow value, F (0.25 mm units)

Voids filled with bitumen, VFB in %

Let the bitumen contents corresponding to maximum density be B1, corresponding to

maximum stability be B2 and that corresponding to the specified voids content Vv (4.0% in
the case of dense AC mix) be B 3. Then the optimum bitumen content for mix design is given
by:

B0= (B1 + B2 + B3) / 3

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

The value of flow and VFB are found from the graphs, corresponding to bitumen
content B0. All the design values of Marshall Stability, flow, voids and VFB are checked at
the optimum bitumen content B0, with the specified design requirements of the mix.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF THE MIX

As per IRC: 29-1968, when the specimens are compacted with 50 blows on either
face, the designed AC mix should fulfill the following requirements.

i) Marshall stability value, kg (minimum) = 340

ii) Marshall flow value, 0.25 mm units = 8 to 16
iii) Voids in total mix, Vv in % = 3 to 5
iv) Voids in mineral aggregates filled with bitumen , VFB in % = 75 to 85

The highest possible Marshall Stability values in the mix should be aimed at
consistent with the other three requirements mentioned above. In case the mix designed does
not fulfill any one or more of the design requirements, the gradation of the aggregates or filler
content or bitumen content or combination of these are altered and the design tests are
repeated till all the requirements are simultaneously fulfilled.

TUB MIX FORMULA

The proportions in which the different aggregates, filler and bitumen are to be mixed
are specified are to be mixed are specified by weight or by volume for implementation during
construction:

CALCULATIONS

The following values are either measured or computed:

i) Bulk density
ii) Stability
iii) Flow
iv) Percent air voids
v) Percent voids filled with bitumen or tar
vi) Percent voids in mineral aggregates
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Values (i), (ii) and (iii) are measured whereas values listed in (iv), (v) and (vi) are
computed from the following:

Percent Air voids

Gt - Gb

Vv = x 100

Gt

Where Gb = bulk density

Gt = theotrically specific gravity mixture

100

Gt =

W1/G1 + W2/G2 + W3/G3 + W4/G4

Where W1 = percent by weight of coarse aggregates

W2 = percent by weight of fine aggregates

W3 = percent by weight of filler

W4 = percent by weight of bitumen in total mix

G1, G2 and G3 are apparent specific gravity values of the course aggregates, fine
aggregates and filler respectively and G4 is the specific gravity of bitumen.

Percent of Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

VMA = Vv + Vb
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Where Vb = Gb x W4 / G4

Percent of Voids Field with Bitumen or Tar (VFB)

VFB = 100 x Vc / VMA

RESULTS

Above values obtained for four or five binder contents with a constant aggregate
gradation are plotted on the graph for determining optimum binder content. A typical set of
such plots is shown in Figure.

From these plots, bitumen contents are determined corresponding to the following:

i) Maximum stability
ii) Maximum bulk density
iii) Percentage air voids between 3 to 5 (depending upon the type of mix and the traffic
intensity, usually taken at 4%)
The optimum bitumen content of the mix is the numerical average of the three values
for the bitumen contents determined as mentioned above.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Table – 1 Correction Factors

Volume of specimen Approximate Correction factors

in cubic meter thickness of specimen
in mm
457-470 57.1 1.19
471-482 58.7 1.14
483-495 60.3 1.09
496-508 61.9 1.04
509-522 63.5 1.00
523-535 65.1 0.96
536-546 66.7 0.93
547-559 68.3 0.89
560-573 69.9 0.86
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Table -2 Specified Grading of Aggregates for Bituminous Concrete

Percentage passing, by weight

Grade 1 Grade 2
Sieve size
20 mm - 100
12.5 mm 100 80-100
10 mm 80-100 70-90
4.75 mm 55-75 50-70
2.36 mm 35-50 35-50
600 micron 18-29 18-29
300 micron 13-23 13-23
150 micron 8-16 8-16
75 micron 4-10 4-10
Binder content
percent by weight of 5-7.5 5 – 7.5
mix

DISCUSSION

The Marshall Stability test method is very simple and rapid method for designing
bituminous mixes scientifically. The stability values obtained in this test procedure indirectly
represent the strength of a paving mix at a zero vertical stress level which is critical.

Mixes with very high Marshall Stability values and very low Flow values are
undesirable as the pavements of such mixes may be brittle and are likely to crack under heavy
traffic.

Viva Voce:

1. What is the significance of flow value in Marshall Test?

2. What is filler? 3. What are the essential properties of bituminous mixes?

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Reference:

1. S.K. Khanna and C.E.G Justo, Highway Materials Testing Laboratory Manual, Nem Chand
Bros. Roorkee.

2. Ministry of Road Highway Transport, fourth revisions, by Indian Road Congress.

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

TESTS ON CEMENT

DETERMINATION OF WATER FOR CEMENT PASTE OF NORMAL

CONSISTENCY
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

EXPERIMENT NO : 1 DATE :

AIM
To determine the percentage of water for normal consistency for a given sample of
cement.
PRINCIPLE

Cement paste of normal consistency is defined as percentage of water by weight of

cement to produce a consistency, which permits a plunger of 10mm diameter to penetrate up
to a depth of 5mm to 7mm above the bottom of the Vicat’s mould. It is necessary to
determine the quantity of water to be mixed to prepare a cement paste of standard consistency
for performing the tests for setting times. Compressive strength and soundness etc.the
quantity of water to be added in each of the above mentioned experiments bear a definite
relation with the percentage of water for normal consistency.

APPARATUS

Vicat’s apparatus with plunger of 10mm diameter and 50mm length, weighing 300mm
and vicat’s mould with non-porous plate, balance with weights – capacity 1kg, graduated
measuring cylinder, trowel, enameled trays standard spatula, thermometer, and stopwatch.

PROCEDURE

 Weight about 400g cement, accurately and place it in the enameled trays.
 To start with add about 25% of clean water and mix it by means of a spatula. Care
should be taken that the time of gauging is not less than 3 minutes and not more than
5 minutes. The gauging time shall be counted from the time of adding water to the dry
cement until commencing of the test.
 Place the mould together with the non – porous glass plate under the plunger of
Vicat’s apparatus. Adjust the indicator to show zero reading when plunger just it
touches the bottom surface of the test mould. Fix the plunger assembly near its top
position.
 Fill the Vicat mould with this paste, the mould resting on non – porous glass plate.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 Make the surface of the cement paste level with the top of the mould with a trowel
weighing 210 grams. The mould should be slightly shaken or tapped to expel air.
Place the filled mould under the plunger with the surface of the paste just in contact
with the plunger bottom.
 Release the plunger quickly, allowing it to sink into the paste.
 Prepare new trail pastes every time new, with varying percentages of water and test as
described above until the plunger penetrates 5mm to 7mm above the bottom of the
mould.
 Express this amount of water as a percentage by weight of the dry cement.

PRECAUTIONS

 Clean appliances should be used for gauging.

 The temperature of cement and water and that of the test room at the time of test
should be as far as possible range from 25c to 29c (27+2c)
 In filling the mould the operators hands and the blade of the gauging trowel alone
should be used.

OBSERVATIONS

Quantity of cement used (C) =

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Sl.No. Percentage of water Penetration from

added bottom

w (%) of the mould (mm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

RESULT

 The percentage of water for normal consistency is

INFERENCE

DETERMINATION OF INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF

CEMENT

EXPERIMENT NO: 2 DATE:

AIM

To determine the initial and final setting time of cement for a given sample of cement.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

PRINCIPLE

When water is mixed with cement to form a paste, hydration reaction starts. Out of
the three active compounds viz C3A, C3S, C2S, C4AF react quickly with water to produce a
jelly like compound, which starts solidifying. This action of changing from a fluid state to a
solid state is called setting (loss of plasticity) and should not be confused with hardening.
This point of starting the process of solidifying is termed as initial setting and is arbitrarily
judged by a needle (one square mm cross section) when it penetrates in test block up to 5 to
7mm from the bottom. Final setting is assumed to have occurred when the annular ring fails
to make the impression on the surface of the test block but the needle makes impression.

APPARATUS

Vicat’s apparatus with mould and non-porous plate, needle 1 sq.mm and needle with
annular attachment, balance (with weight box) of capacity 1Kg graduated measuring cylinder
100ml, trowel of about 210g weight, enameled trays, standard spatula, Stop watch,
thermometer (0 to 100c)

PROCEDURE

 Weigh about 400g of a neat cement

 Prepare a neat cement paste by adding 0.85 times the percentage of water required for
standard consistency.
 Start the stopwatch at the instant when water is added to the cement.
 Fill the Vicat’s mould with the cement paste prepared with the mould resting on the
non-porous plate. Gauging time should not be less than 3minutes and should not
exceed 5minutes.
 Fill the mould completely and smoothen off the surface of the paste, making it level
with the top of the mould.
 Place the test block confined in the mould and resting on the non-porous plate, under
the rod, bearing 1sq.mm needle.
 Lower the needle gently till it comes in contact with the surface of the test block and
quickly release, allowing it to penetrate into the test block and note penetration, after
every 2minutes.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 Repeat this procedure until the needle fails to pierce the block for about 5mm
measured from the bottom of the mould. Stop the stopwatch and note the time, which
is the initial setting time.

DETERMINATION OF FINAL SETTING TIME

 Replace the needle of the Vicat’s apparatus by the needle with an annular attachment.
 Release the needle with the annular ring attachment as described earlier till the needle
point makes an impression there on the surface, while the attachment fails to do so.
 The time that elapses from the moment water is added to the cement till the needle
makes only an impression is considered as final setting time for the cement under test

PRECAUTIONS

 Needle must be cleaned with spirit each time before use.

 Shift the position of the mould after recording the penetration reading so that the
penetration may not be at the same place.
 Check up the stopwatch for accuracy.
 Clean appliances shall be used for gauging.
 Test mould should be kept in 90% relative humidity and at 27+2C and away
from direct draught of air

OBSERVATIONS

Quantity of cement (C) = (g)

Water of standard consistency (P) =

Water to be added 0.85 P  C =

Temperature at the time of testing:

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Cement = C

Water = C

Room = C

INITIAL SETTING TIME

Sl. Time at which water Time at which Reading

No penetration readings are of
is first added (T1)
taken penetratio
Hou Minut Secon Hour Minut Secon n
r es ds es ds
(mm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Time when needle fails to penetrate 5mm to 7mm from the bottom of the mould

(T2) =

Initial setting time (T2-T1) =

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Sl.No Time at which water is Record of

first added (T1) impression
Hour Minutes Seconds
s
1.
2.
3.
4.
FINAL SETTING TIME

Time when the needle makes an impression but the attachment fails to make one

(T3) =

Final setting time (T3-T1) =

RESULT

 The Initial Setting Time of Cement is

 The Final Setting Time of Cement is

INFERENCE

DETERMINATION OF SOUNDNESS OF CEMENT

EXPERIMENT NO: 3 DATE:

LE – CHATLIER METHOD
AIM

To test for the soundness of the cement.

PRINCIPLE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

The presence of free lime (CaO) and magnesia (MgO) in cement tends to increase the
volume of the hardened concrete thus causing disintegration. During manufacture of cement,
free lime is produced which reacts with water to increase its volume considerably. Magnesia
also has the same effect but its rate of reaction is slow. Cement having such a property is
classified as unsound cement. Unsoundness is measured with the help of Le-Chatlier mould.

APPARATUS

Le – Chatlier’s apparatus, two glass plates, trowel, enameled tray, measuring cylinder,
blow lamp, a stove or water bath with electric heating arrangement, thermometer, stopwatch,
balance and weighing box.

PROCEDURE

 Place the mould on a glass plate and fill it with cement paste prepared by adding
water 0.78P of cement mass. Care should be exercised to keep the edges of the mould
gently together, while this operation is being performed. ‘P’ refers to percentage of
water for normal consistency.
 Cover the mould with another piece of glass plate.
 Place a small weight on this, covering glass plate and immediately submerge the
whole assembly in water at a temperature of 29C to 32C and keep it there for
24hours.
 Measure the distance between separating indicator points to an accuracy of
an mm.
 Submerge the mould again in water at a temperature prescribed above.
 Bring the water to boiling, with the mould kept submerged for 25 to 30minutes, and
keep it boiling for three hours.
 Remove the mould from water, allow it to cool and measure the distance between the
indicator points.
 The difference between these two measurements represents the expansion of the
cement.

PRECAUTIONS
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 All the measurements of quantity of cement and water should be done accurately by
mass.
 The edges of the split mould should be kept together gently while filling the mould
with the paste. Even a fine thread, can be wound very gently so as to avoid the
splitting up of the brass mould due to filling of the paste.
 Water should be brought to boiling point gradually in the specified time.
 Le-Chatlier apparatus should be handled by pressing indicator arms.

OBSERVATIONS

Room temperature (tc) =

Weight of cement sample ( C ) g =

Water required for standard consistency (P) =

Water added to the sample (0.78 P x C) =

Distance between the pointer ends before heating (D1) =

Time at which the sample is put in water =

Time when water is brought to boiling point =

Time of heating (to be kept 3 hours) =

Distance between the pointer ends after heating (D2)=

Difference (D2-D1) =

AUTO CLAVE METHOD

APPARATUS

Balance and weight box, Graduated glass cylinder of 150 ml capacity, Moulds of 25 x
25 mm size and 282 mm internal length and other accessories like Autoclave, length
compactor
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

PROCEDURE
 Standard batch of cement paste is prepared taking 500 g of cement mixed with
sufficient water to give a paste of standard consistency.
 Stainless steel or non corroding metal reference inserts with knurl heads shall be set in
the mould to obtain an effective gauge length of 250 mm.
 The test specimen shall be moulded in one or two layers, each layer being
compacted with the thumb or forefinger by pressing the paste into the corners, around
the reference inserts and along the surface of the mould.
 After the mould has been filled, it shall be immediately placed in a moist closet or
moist room.
 At 24 + ½ hour after moulding, the specimen shall be removed from the moist
atmosphere, measured for length and placed in the Autoclave at room temperature in a
rack such that the four sides of each specimen shall be exposed to saturated steam.
 The vent valve of the autoclave shall be closed when the steam begin to escape. The
temperature of the autoclave shall be raised at such a rate as will being the gauge
pressure of the steam to 2.1 MPa is 1 to 1.5 hours from the time the heat is turned on.
The pressure shall be maintained for 3 hours.
 At the end of 3 hours period, the heat supply shall be shut off and the autoclave
cooled at a rate such that the pressure will be less than 0.1 MPa. at the end of the hour.
Any pressure remaining shall be slowly released by partially opening the vent valve
until atmospheric pressure is attained.
 The autoclave is then opened and the test specimen is immediately placed in water,
the temperature of which is above 90c.
 The water surroundings the bars shall then be cooled at a uniform rate by adding
cool water so that the temperature of the water shall be lowered to 27 + 2c in 15
minutes. It is maintained for 15 minutes.
 The specimen is then surface dried and their lengths measured.

PRECAUTION
 The pressure gauge should have a maximum capacity of 4.2 MPa.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 It is better to have the pressure gauge tested, but in any event thermometer shall
always be used together with pressure gauge, so as to provide a means of deducting
any failure of the pressure gauge, to indicate any unusual condition etc.
 The automatic control shall be maintained in proper working order at all times.
 The safety valve shall be set so as to relieve the pressure at about 6 to 10 percent
above the maximum of 2.1MPa specified, that is at about 2.3 MPa.
 Heavy leather work gloves shall be worn to prevent burning of the hands when
removing the top of the autoclave at the end of the test.

OBSERVATIONS

Room temperature (tc) =

Weight of cement sample ( C ) g =

Water required for standard consistence (P) =

Water added to the sample (P x C) =

Distance between the pointer ends before Autoclaving (D1) =

Time at which the Vent value of Autoclave is closed =

Time when gauge pressure is 2.1 MPa =

Time at which heat supply is shut of (to be kept 3 hours) =

Distance between the pointer ends after autoclaving (D2 ) =

Difference (D2-D1) =

RESULT

 The soundness of the cement is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

DETERMINATION OF FINENESS OF CEMENT

EXPERIMENT NO: 4 DATE:

AIM

To determine the fineness of given sample of cement.

PRINCIPLE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

a. By sieving
Strength development of concrete is the result of the reaction of water with cement
particles. The reaction always starts with the cement available at the surface of the
particles. Thus, larger the surface area available for reaction, greater is the rate of
hydration. Rapid development of strength requires greater degree of fineness. However,
too much of fineness is also undesirable because the cost of grinding of cement to higher
fineness is considerable. Finer cement deteriorates more quickly when exposed to air and
likely to cause more shrinkage but less prone to bleeding. Greater fineness also requires
greater amount of gypsum for proper retardation.

b. By Air- Permeability
The fineness of cement particles is measured in terms of specific surface area in square
centimeter per gram. The apparatus consists of means to draw a stream of dry air at a
constant velocity through a bed of powdered cement contained permeability cell and the
resulting pressure drop measured by a manometer connected to the top and bottom of the
bed.

S = K/e x  e3/(1-e) x(t/0.1) x (cm2/g)

Where

K = Apparatus constant

e = Porosity of the bed

t = Measured time

e = Density of cement and

 = Viscosity of air at the test temperature.

With the specified porosity of e = 0.500 and temperature at 27 + 2 c

S = (521.08 K  t)/e cm2/g

APPARATUS

Weighing balance of capacity 200g, I.S. Test sieve of 90 microns, trowel, tray 300mm
x 300mm, bristle brush with 250mm handle, air permeability Apparatus with filter paper etc.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

PROCEDURE
Sieving
 Weigh accurately 100 g of cement and place it on a standard 90 micron I.S. sieve.
 Break down any air set lumps in the sample with fingers but do not rub on the sieve.
 Continuously sieve the sample by holding the sieve in the both hands and giving a
gentle wrist motion or mechanical sieve shaker may be used for this purpose.
 Weigh the residue after 15 minutes of continuous sieving.
 Repeat the procedure for two more such samples.

PRECAUTIONS

 The cleaning of the sieve should be done very gently with the help of a brush of
25mm or 40mm bristle brush with 250mm handle.
 After sieving, the cement must be removed from the bottom surface of the sieve
gently.
 Weighing machine should be checked for accuracy before use.
 Sieving must be carried out continuously.

OBSERVATIONS

Weight of cement taken on IS: 90 micron sieve = 100 g

Weight of residue after 15 minutes of sieving = g

Sampl Wt.of sample Wt.of Fineness as

e No. (g) Residue percentage
(g) residue
1. 100
2. 100
3. 100
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Average Percent =

Air – Permeability

 Insert the conical surface of the cell with a cement bed of porosity 0.500 in to the
socket at the top of the monometer. Take care not to disturb the cement bed.
 Close the top of the cylinder with a suitable plug. Open the stop cock and with gentle
aspiration raise the level of the monometer liquid to that of the highest etched line,
close the stop cock and observe that the level of the monometer liquid remains
constant. If it fails, remake the cell, monometer joint and check the stop cock, repeat
the leakage test until the improved sealing produces a steady level of the liquid.
 Open the stop cock and by gentle aspiration adjust the level of the liquid, to that of the
highest etched line.
 Close the stopcock. Remove the plug from the top of the cylinder. The Monometer
liquid will begin to flow. Start the timer as the liquid reaches the second etched line
and stop it when the liquid reaches the third line.
 Record the time t to the nearest 0.2 seconds and the temperature to the nearest 1C.
 Repeat the procedure on the same bed and record the additional values of time and
temperature.
 Prepare a fresh bed of the same cement and carry out the permeability test twice on
the second bed, recording the values of time and temperature as before.

Formation of the bed

To give a cement bed of porosity e = 0.500, weigh a quantity of cement m 1,
calculated from

m1 = 0.500 v (g)

Where,

 = Density of the cement (g/cm3)

v = volume of the cement bed.

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

This mass correctly compacted will produce a bed of porosity 0.500. Place the
perforated disc on the ledge at the bottom of the cell and place on it a new filter paper disc.
Ensure that the filter paper disc fully covers the perforated disc and is flat by pressing with a
clean dry rod. Place the weighted quantity of cement, m1,in the cell taking care to avoid loss.

Tap the cell to level the cement. Place a second new filter paper disc on the leveled
cement. Insert the plunger to make contact with the filter paper disc. Press the plunger
gently but firmly until the lower face of the cap is in contact with the cell. Slowly withdraw
the plunger about 5 mm, rotate it through 90 and gently but firmly press the bed once again
until the plunger cap is in contact with the cell. The bed is now compacted and ready for the
permeability test. Slowly withdraw the plunger.

Determination of the Bed volume

Apply a very thin film of light mineral oil to the cell interior. Place the perforated disc
on the ledge in the cell. Place two new filter paper discs on the perforated disc and ensure that
each covered the base of the cell whilst lying flat by pressing with a rod.

Fill the cell with mercury. Remove any air bubbles with a clear dry rod. Ensure that the cell is
full by pressing a glass plate on the mercury surface until it is flush with the cell top. Empty
the cell, weigh the mercury to the nearest 0.01g m 2, and record the temperature. Remove one
filter paper disc. Form a compacted cement bed by the method described in and place on it a
new filter paper disc. Refill the cell with mercury, removing air bubbles and leveling the top
as before. Remove the mercury, weigh it to the nearest 0.01 g (m3), and check the temperature.

The bed volume V is given by

V = [(m2 -m3 )/D] cm2

Where, D is the density of mercury at the test temperature.

Repeat the procedure with fresh cement beds until two values of V are obtained differing by
less than 0.005 cm3. Record the mean of these two values of V.

Determination of the Apparatus Constant:

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

From the supply of reference cement of known specific surface prepare a compacted
cement bed and measure its permeability by the procedure given above. Record the time t,
and the temperature of test. Using the same bed 1. Repeat the procedure twice and record
two further values of time and of temperature. Repeat the whole procedure on the further
samples of the same reference cement. For each of the three samples calculate the means of
the three times and temperature. For each sample calculate:

K = {S0 0 (1- e)0.1 0 ]/ (e3xt0 ) }

Where

S0 = Specific surface of the reference cement (cm2/g)

0 = Density of the reference cement (g /cm3)

t0 = Mean of the three measured times (s) and

0 = Air viscosity at the mean of the three temperature (Pa.s)

With the specified porosity of e = 0.500

K = [1.414 S0 0 (0.1 0 ) / t0 ]

Take the mean of the three values of K as the constant K for the apparatus.

The resulting value of S to the nearest cm2/g shall be reported as the specific surface of the
cement.

PRECAUTIONS

 The volume of compacted cement should be calculated accurately.

 The time taken by the manometer liquid to fall from one mark to other should be
measured very accurately.

OBSERVATIONS
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Samp Trial Time (t) Specific Mean

le surface
Sec.
S
1. 1
1. 2
S1 =
2. 1
2 2 S2 =

Specific surface = (S1+ S2 )/2

(Difference between two values shall be with in 1%.)

RESULT

 The fineness of given sample of cement

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CEMENT

EXPERIMENT NO: 5 DATE:

AIM

To determine the compressive strength for the given sample of cement.

PRINCIPLES
The compressive strength test is the final check on the quality of the cement. The
compressive strength is measured by determining the compressive strength of cement mortar
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

cubes of 1:3 proportions. The compression test enables also to distinguish rapid hardening
cement from low heat and ordinary cement.

APPARATUS

Cube vibration machine, cube moulds 70.6mm size, trowel, enameled tray, non-
porous steel plates, measuring cylinder100ml, balance thermometer.

PROCEDURE

 Oil the interior faces of the mould.

 The material for each cube shall be mixed separately and quantities of cement,
standard ennore sand (I.S: 650-1966) and water are taken as follows:
Cement: 200gm, standard sand 600gm.

Water: (p/4 +3.0) percent of combined mass of cement and sand where p
is percent of water for normal consistency.

 Place in an enamelled tray a mixture of cement and standard sand in the proportion of
1:3 by weight as given below.
 Mix it dry with the trowel for one minute and then with water until the mix is of
uniform colour.
 Gauging time should not be less than 3minutes and should not exceed 4minutes. If it
exceeds mixture is rejected and operation is repeated with the new sample.
 Place the assembled mould on the vibrating machine and firmly hold it in position by
means of suitable clamps. Securely attach a hopper of suitable size and shape at the
top of the mould to facilitate filling and this hopper shall not be removed until
completion of the vibration period.
 Immediately after mixing mortar as specified above, place the entire quantity of the
mortar in the hopper of the cube mould and compact the same by vibration for a
period of about 2minute a speed of 12000 + 400 vibrations per minute.
 Keep the test cubes at a temperature of 270+20c in an atmosphere of at least 90%
relative humidity for 24 hours after completion of vibration.
 At the end of this period remove the test cubes from the mould and immediately
submerge in clean fresh water at 27oc + 2oc and keep there until taken out just prior to
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

testing. The water in which cubes are submerged should be renewed after every 7
days. The cubes should not be allowed to dry up before testing.
 Test three cubes for compressive strength at the periods mentioned below:
Ordinary Portland cement – 3, 7, and 28days
Rapid hardening cement – 1,3and 7dayS

Low heat Portland cement – 3,7and 28 days

 Place the test cube centrally on the platform of the compression-testing machine
without any packing between the cube and the steel platens of the testing machine.
 Apply the load steadily and uniformly starting from zero at a rate of 350 kg/cm 2 per
minute. Continue the load till the cube fails.
 Record the load at failure (in Newton’s) and calculate the compressive strength as unit
stress N/mm2.
PRECAUTIONS

 All appliances should be clean.

 The mixture which takes more than 4 minutes of mixing should be rejected.
 In assembling the mould, cover the joints between the halves of the mould with a thin
film of petroleum jelly in order to ensure that no water escapes during vibration.
 Apply the load on the specimen gradually and centrally on the specimen.
 The specimen should be tested just after it is removed from the curing tank and should
not be allowed to dry or contain surface water.

OBSERVATIONS

Temperature: Room = c

o
Water = c

Specimen Date Date Act Size of Area of Load Compressiv

Identificati and and ual Sampl at e Strength
Specime
on Time time of age e Failur
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

of Testing LxBxH n e (N/mm2)

Castin
(mm) (A) mm2 (N)
g

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Average Compressive Strength (N/mm2) at

RESULT

 The compressive strength for the given sample of cement is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

TESTS ON FRESH AND HARDENED CONCRETE

CONSISTENCY OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE BY SLUMP

TEST

EXPERIMENT NO: 1 DATE:

AIM

To determine the consistency of fresh concrete of given proportions by slump test

where the nominal maximum size of the aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.

APPARATUS

Mould in the form of a frustum of a cone with bottom diameter = 200 mm

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Top diameter = 100 mm, Height =300 mm

Tamping rod, 16 mm diameter and 0.6 m length rounded at one end trough, trowel, and G.I.
plain sheets

PROCEDURE

 The internal surface of the mould shall be thoroughly cleaned and freed from moisture
and any set concrete before commencing the test.
 The mould shall be placed on a smooth horizontal, rapid and non-absorbent surface,
such as a carefully leveled metal plate.
 Prepare the concrete mix as per design of proportions taking batch of about 15 to 20
kg total. Mix them thoroughly first, dry and then with water.
 The mould shall be filed in four layers, each approximately one quarter of the height
of the mould. Each layer shall be tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the
tamping rod. The strokes shall be distributed in a uniform manner over the cross –
section of the mould and for the second and subsequent layers shall penetrate into the
underlying layers.
 The concrete shall be struck off level with a trowel or the tamping rod, after the last
layer has been rodded. Any mortar which may have leaked out between the mould and
the base plates shall be cleaned away.
 The mould shall be immediately removed from the concrete by raising it slowly and
carefully in vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside.
 The slump shall be immediately determined as the difference between the height of
the mould and that of the highest surface of the subsided concrete specimen. The
above test shall be carried out at a place free from vibration or shock and within a
period of two minutes after sampling.

PRECAUTIONS

 Apply the strokes with the tamping rod uniformly through the full depth of the
concrete or previous layer.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 Remove the mould very slowly by lifting it vertically upwards so that concrete with
mould does not get disturbed.
 The base plate used in the experiment should be clean and smooth so that there is
complete contact between base plate and the bottom of the mould.
 Test should be performed away from the ground vibrations produced due to
machinery or some other sources.
 Test should be completed in a minimum time say 2 to 3 minutes.

OBSERVATIONS:

SI.NO. W/C Proportions Slump

W:C:F.A:C.A (mm)
1
2
3
4
5

RESULT:

 The Consistency of fresh concrete is

INTERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

WORKABILITY OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE BY

COMPACTING FACTOR TEST

EXPERIMENT NO: 2 DATE:

AIM

To determine the workability of freshly mixed concrete by the compacting

factor test.

APPARATUS

Compacting factor apparatus, trowels, hand scoop, tamping rod, platform weighing machine
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

PROCEDURE

 Prepare the concrete mix as per designed proportions

 Place the sample of concrete gently in the upper hopper with a hand scoop. Fill up
the concrete in level with the brim.
 Open the trap door so that the concrete falls into the lower hopper.
 If the concrete sticks to the sides of the hoppers, push it gently with the help of rod
from top.
 Open the trap door of the lower hopper and allow concrete to fall into the cylinder.
 With the plane of the blade of the trowel in each hand and moving them
simultaneously one from each side across the top of the cylinder and at the same
time keeping them pressed on the top edge of the cylinder, remove the excess
concrete remaining above the level of the top of the cylinder.
 Clean the outside of the cylinder
 Determine the weight of the cylinder to the nearest 10 gm.
 Refill the cylinder from the same samples of concrete in layers approximately 5
cm deep layers being heavily rammed or preferably vibrated so as to obtain full
compaction.
 Finish the top of fully compacted concrete in level with the top of the cylinder.
Clean the outside of the cylinder and weigh it again.
 Calculate the compacting factor from the masses of partially compacted concrete
under standard effort and fully compacted concrete.
PRECAUTIONS

 Oil the inner surface of the hoppers and cylinder before starting the experiment.
 Perform the test on a level ground
 Fill the top hopper gently and to the same extend each time
 The time between the end of mixing and release of concrete from top hopper must
be constant say 2 or 3 minutes.
 The hoppers and the cylinder must be washed clean and wiped off before use

OBSERVATIONS

Mass of the empty cylinder (W1) = Kg (N)

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Sl. W/ Proportion Wt of Wt of Wt of Wt of Wt of Compact

N C sC : cylinder cylinder cylinder partially fully ing
o rati FA:C.A with withfully with compact compa factor=
o partially compact partially ed cted
(W2–
compact ed compact concrete concret
W1)
ed concrete ed e
(W3-W2)
concrete concrete (W3-W2)
(W3) Kg(N) (W2)
(W2) Kg(N) (W2 – Kg(N)
Kg(N) W1)
Kg(N)

1. 0.50

2. 0.55

3. 0.60

4. 0.65

5. 0.70

RESULT

 The workability of freshly mixed concrete by the compacting factor test is

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

INFERENCE

WORKABLITY OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE BY

VEE-BEE CONSISTOMETER METHOD

EXPERIMENT NO: 3 DATE:

AIM

To determine the workability of freshly mixed concrete by Vee Bee Consistometer

Method.

APPARATUS

The Vee Bee Consistometer consists of a vibrating table resting upon elastic supports,
a cylindrical metals pot, a sheet metal frustum of cone, open at both ends and a standard
tamping rod ( 600 mm long and 16 mm diameter with one end rounded)

PROCEDURE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 First, Concrete mix shall be prepared with the designed mix.

 A slump test shall be performed in the sheet metal cylindrical pot by filling the
conical mould.
 The glass disc attached to the swivel arm shall be moved and placed just
touching the top of the slump concrete in the pot. The cone shall then be lifted up and
the slump noted on the graduated rod by lowering the glass disc on the top of the
concrete cone. The electrical vibrator shall be switched on and stop watch
simultaneously started.
 The vibration shall then be continued to level off the concrete surface and the
time taken for conversion of conical to cylindrical mould shall be noted with a stop
watch in seconds.

PRECAUTIONS
 The remoulding is assumed to be complete when the glass plate rider is completely
covered with the concrete and all cavities in the surface of the concrete have
disappeared. This is judged visually and may introduce error in establishing the end
point.
 The slump test to be performed before giving vibrations to the table should be
performed as per standard practice.
 The test should be performed away from vibrating machinery.

OBSERVATIONS

The input energy required for compaction is a measure of workability of the mix and this is
expressed in Vee Bee seconds i.e. the time require for the concrete remoulding from conical
specimen to cylindrical specimen.

SI.NO. Proportions of the W/C Vee Bee time Slump

Mix
(sec) (mm)
W:C:S:CA
1
2
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

RESULT

 The workability of freshly mixed concrete by Vee Bee Consistometer Method

INFERENCE

WORKABILITY OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE BY FLOW

TABLE METHOD

EXPERIMENT NO: 4 DATE:

AIM

To determine the workability of freshly mixed concrete by Flow- table method.

APPARATUS

Flow- table, mould in the form of a frustum of a cone, tamping rod 1.6cm in diameter
and 61cm long rounded at the end.

PRINCIPAL

In this test a standard mass of concrete is subjected to jolting. The spread or the flow
of the concrete is measured and this flow is related to workability.

PROCEDURE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 The apparatus consists of a flow table, about 76 cm. in diameter over which
concentric circles are marked. A mould made from smooth metal casting in the form
of a frustum of a cone is used with the following internal dimensions. The base is
25cm, in diameter, upper surface is 17 cm in diameter, and height of cone is 12 cm.
 The table top is cleaned of all gritty material and is wetted. The mould is kept on the
center of the table, firmly held and is filled in two layers. Each layer is rodded 25
times with a tamping rod.
 After the layer is rodded evenly, the excess of concrete which has overflowed the
mould is removed. The mould is lifted vertically upward and the concrete stands on
its own without support.
 The table is then raised and dropped 12.5 mm 15 times in about 15 seconds. The
diameter of the spread concrete is measured in about 6 directions to the nearest 5 mm
and the average spread is noted.
 The flow of concrete is the percentage increase in average diameter of the spread
concrete over the base diameter of the mould.

Spread diameter in cm – 25

Flow, percent = X 100

25

The value could be ranging anything from 0 to 150%.

A close look at the pattern of spread of concrete can also give a good indication of the
characteristics of concrete such as tendency of segregation.

OBSERVATION

Diameter of the spread concrete =

Flow, percent =

RESULT
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 The workability of freshly mixed concrete by Flow- table method is

INFERENCE

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

EXPERIMENT NO: 5 DATE:

AIM

To determine the cube strength of concrete of given design mix proportions.

APPARATUS

Cube moulds 150 mm and 100 mm (machined to a tolerance of +0.025 mm and

angles 90 + 0.5C on internal faces) in size, weighing machine, mixer, tamping rod,
compression testing machine etc.

PROCEDURE

 Weigh ingredients as per design mix proportions including water.

 Mix them thoroughly in the mechanical mixer until uniform colour concrete is
obtained. The materials should be sufficient for casting of 6 cubes of 150 mm size or
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

6 cubes of 100 mm size. The concrete can also be mixed by hand in manner so as to
avoid loss of water. In mixing by hand the cement and fine aggregate shall be first
mixed dry to uniform colour and then the coarse aggregate is added and mixed until
uniformity throughout the batch is achieved. Next water shall be added to dry
materials and mixed until uniform concrete is obtained.
 Pour the concrete so prepared in the moulds which have been oiled with medium
viscosity oil. Fill concrete in cube moulds in three layers, each of approximately 50
mm and ramming each layer 25 times with standard tamping rod, or by suitable
vibrators.
 Finish off surplus concrete from the top of moulds with trowel.
 Cover the moulds with wet mats or gunny bags and mark them after about 3 to 4
hours.
 Specimens are removed from the moulds after 24 hours and cube specimens are
submerged in clean water at 27 + 2C.

PRECAUTIONS
 All the materials should be weighed to an accuracy of 1 in 1000.
 The mould and the base plate must be oiled lightly before use to prevent the concrete
from sticking to the moulds.
 During compaction the blows should be evenly distributed over the surface of each
layer.
 Excess vibration should be avoided when compaction is done by vibration to avoid
segregation and loss of water from the spaces between the moulds and their base
plates.
 The cubes should not be allowed to dry and they must be tested after taking out from
water.
 At least three specimens should be tested for each test period and mean crushing
strength should be taken as crushing strength of concrete for the given age. While
calculating the average strength of any individual variation from the average is more
than 15 %, that result should be rejected and the test may be repeated or more than
three cubes tested for each age so that at least three cubes are within 15 % of average.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 Cubes should be placed in the testing machine centrally on patterns and load
increased gradually at the rate of 14 N/mm2 per minute till crushing occurs. Testing is
carried out according to IS: 516 – 1969.
OBSERVATIONS
Sl Identifica Date Date Actual Dimensi X- Max. Comp. Rem
. tion of of ons of sectio strengt arks
age of Load
N castin testin specime nal h
Mark specim
o g g n area (N) (N/mm
en
(m2) 2
)
L B H
1
2
3
4
5

RESULT

 The cube strength of concrete of given design mix proportions is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

EXPERIMENT NO: 6 DATE

AIM

To determine the flexural strength (modulus of rupture) of concrete of given

proportions.

APPARATUS

Steel prism (beam) moulds of the following sizes: 100 mm x 150 mm x 500 mm,
when maximum size of aggregate is less than 20 mm, 150 mm x 150 mm x 700 mm, when
maximum size of aggregate is up to 30 mm, Standard tamping rod, mixing tools and
appliances, needle or table vibrator, the testing machine capable of applying the load at
suitable rate (4 KN / minute for 150 mm specimens and 1.8 KN/minute for 100 mm
specimens) bed of testing machine with two similar steel rollers (38 mm in diameter),
mounted at 600 mm or 400 mm C/C distance.

PROCEDURE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 Prepare the concrete mix with designed proportions.

 With 20 mm maximum size aggregate cast three beams of size 100 x 100 x 500 mm
compacting these by standard method by filling these in two layers, each layer being
rammed more than 100 times by standard tamping rod or vibrated to ensure full
compaction. Ramming rod is if 25 mm square type 400 mm long and has 2 kg mass
(20 N weight).
 After casting, the moulds shall be covered with wet cloths or gunny bags, specimens
shall be removed by opening the moulds after 24 hours and wet covered for 6 or 27
days. Specimen shall be tested immediately on removal from water. The dimensions
of each specimen shall be noted before testing.
 The bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers shall be wiped clean and
any loose sand or other material removed from the surfaces of the specimens where
they are to make contact with the rollers. The specimen shall then be placed in the
machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the upper most surface as
cast in the mould, along middle third points spaced 200 mm or 133 mm apart. The
axis of the specimen shall be carefully aligned with the axis of the loading device . No
packing shall be used between the bearing surfaces of the specimen and the rollers.
The load shall be applied without shock and increasing continuously at a rate such
that the extreme fibre stress increases at approximately 0.7 N/mm 2 (7kgf/cm/min) that
is at a rate of loading of 4 KN (400 kg/min) per minute for 150mm specimen data rate
of 1.8 kN (180kg) per minute for the 100 mm specimens. The load shall be increased
until the specimen fails and the maximum load applied to the specimen during the test
shall be recorded. The appearance of the fractured faces of concrete and any unique
features in the type of failure shall be noted.
 Measure the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support ‘a’. note if ‘a’
is greater than 200 mm for 150 mm specimen or greater than 133 mm for 100 mm
specimens.
 Determine the modulus of rupture (flexural strength) by formula f b = p x l/bd2 when
‘a’ is greater than 200 mm for 150 mm specimens (or ‘a’ is greater than 133 mm for
100 mm specimens). Or fh = 3p x a/bd2 N/mm2.
When ‘a’ is less than 200 mm but more than 170 mm specimens (or ‘a’ is greater

than 133 mm for 100 mm specimens).

P is maximum load in N (kg).

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

B, d, l are width, depth and span of the beam respectively all in mm.

If ‘a’ is less than 170 mm for 150 mm specimen or less than 110 mm for 100mm
specimens, the results of the tests are to be discarded.

PRECAUTIONS
 The loading should be applied centrally and without subjecting the specimen to any
torsional stresses or restraints.
 The axis of the specimen shall be carefully aligned with the axis of the loading device.
 No packing shall be used between the bearing surfaces of the specimen and the
rollers.
 The load shall be applied without shock and increasing continuously at the specified
rate.

OBSERVATIONS

Sl. Mix W/C Size of Max.load Modulus

No proportions ratio specimen N(Kg) of rupture
W: C: F.A.: C.A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

RESULT

 The flexural strength (modulus of rupture ) of concrete of given proportions is

INFERENCE

NON-DESTRUCTIVE METHODS OF TESTING OF HARDENED

CONCRETE SCHMIDT REBOUND HAMMER TEST
EXPERIMENT NO: 7 DATE:

AIM
To determine the compressive strength of hardened concrete.

PRINCIPLE
The test is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the
hardness of the surface against which the mass impinges.

DESCRIPTION

This is a useful and practical instrument for site work, but the results must be
interpreted with caution taking into account its limitations. The instrument measures the
surface hardness of the concrete but experience based on tests has shown that the rebound
number can be related empirically to the compressive strength provided the following points
are taken into consideration:

 The result is affected by the position in which the concrete is struck whether it be over
a stone, on the mortar paste, or near an air bubble.
 Floated or trowelled surfaces give higher results than moulded surfaces.
 If a repeat test is made on the same spot or near to it a lower reading is obtained.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 Low readings are obtained within about 50 mm of the edge of the concrete.
 If the object tested is small. It may be jerked by the blow and a low result will In
consequence be obtained. All concrete tested should have a minimum mass or be
suitably held. The solidity of the backing to the object hit influences the result even if
the object is held.
 The surface hardness of the concrete is the property measured and the hardness varies
with the depth from the surface of the concrete. An accurate indication of the concrete
compressive strength can be obtained only by calibration.
 The accuracy is greater if a separate calibration is carried out for each particular type of
concrete to be tested. The test determines in reality the hardness of the concrete surface and,
although there is no unique relation between hardness and strength of concrete, empirical
relationships can be determined for similar concretes cured in such a manner that both the
surfaces tested by the hammer and the central regions, in whose strength we are interested,
have the same strength. Changes affecting only the surface of the concrete, such as the degree
of saturation at the surface, would be misleading as far as the properties of the concrete
within the structure are concerned. The type of aggregate used affects the rebound number so
that the relation between the rebound number and strength should be determined
experimentally for every concrete used on a site. This test is mainly used for comparative
study only. However, the hardness of concrete depends on the elastic properties of the
aggregate used, and may also be affected by large differences in mix proportions. The test is
useful as a measure of uniformity of concrete and is of great value in checking the quality of
the material throughout a structure.
PROCEDURE

In the rebound hammer test a spring loaded mass has a fixed amount of energy
imparted to it by extending a spring to a fixed position say (h 1), this is achieved by pressing
the plunger against the surface of the concrete under test. Upon release the mass rebounds
from the plunger, still in contact with the concrete surface and say the distance travelled by
the mass is h2. The ratio of the h2 to h1 expressed as a percentage gives us the rebound
number. The distance travelled by the mass is measured by a rider moving along a graduated
scale. The rebound number is arbitrary measure since it depends on the energy stored in the
given spring and on the size of the mass.

LIMITATIONS
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

 The hammer test has to be used only against a smooth surface, preferably a formed
one.
 Trowelled surfaces have to be rubbed with a carborundum stone to make them smooth
if they are to be subjected to a hammer test.
 Small objects, if subjected to this test should have solid backing which otherwise due
to jerking effect could give erroneous readings.
 Test on Concrete cannot be repeated on the same spot or near to it as it would give a
lower reading.

OBSERVATIONS

Sl.No Location Rebounded Number expressed Compressive

. strength from
h2/ h1 x 100
curves
1

RESULT

 The surface hardness of the concrete is

INFERENCE
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Concrete Mix Design as per IS 10262-2009 –

Procedure and Calculations

Procedure for concrete mix design calculation as per IS 10262-2009 based on strength and
durability, workability, economy.

To produce concrete of required strength and properties, selection of ingredients and their
quantity is to be found which is called concrete mix design. Proper mix design will solve
every problem arises in concrete while placing or curing etc.. The mix design also helps to
produce economical concrete.

Generally, cement is more costly than other ingredients of concrete. So, quantity and quality
of cement is designed by proper mix design concept. In this article we are going to discuss
about the concrete mix design concept as per IS 10262-2009.

Concrete mix design concept is majorly depending upon the following

o Strength and durability

o Workability

o Economy

o specifications
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Concrete Mix Design Procedure as per is 10262 – 2009

Procedure for concrete mix design requires following step by step process:
1. Calculation of target strength of concrete

2. Selection of water-cement ratio

3. Determination of aggregate air content

4. Selection of water content for concrete

5. Selection of cement content for concrete

6. Calculation of aggregate ratio

7. Calculation of aggregate content for concrete

8. Trial mixes for testing concrete mix design strength

Step 1: Calculation of Target Strength of Concrete

Target strength is denoted by ft which is obtained by characteristic compressive strength of
concrete at 28 days (fck) and value of standard deviation (s)
ft = fck + 1.65 s
Standard deviation can be taken from below table

Grade of concrete Standard deviation (N/mm2)

M10 3.5

M15 3.5

M20 4.0

M25 4.0

M30 5.0

M35 5.0

M40 5.0
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

M45 5.0

M50 5.0

Step 2: Selection of Water-Cement Ratio: Ratio of the weight of water to weight of

cement in the concrete mix is water-cement ratio. It is the important consideration in concrete
mix design to make the concrete workable. Water cement ratio is selected from the below
curve for 28 days characteristic compressive strength of concrete.

Fig: Selection of Water-Cement Ratio for Concrete Mix Design

Similarly, we can determine the water-cement ration from the 7-day concrete strength, the
curves are divided on the basis of strength from water cement ratio is decided. Which is
observed from the below graph.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Fig: Concrete Compressive Strength vs. Water

Cement Ratio

Step 3: Determination of Aggregate Air content

Air content in the concrete mix is determined by the nominal maximum size of
aggregate used. Below table will give the entrapped air content in percentage of volume of
concrete.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Nominal maximum size of Air content (% of volume of

aggregate concrete)

10mm 5%

20mm 2%

40mm 1%

Step 4: Selection of Water Content for Concrete

Select the water content which is useful to get required workability with the help of nominal
maximum size of aggregate as given in below table. The table given below is used when only angular
shaped aggregates are used in concrete as well as the slump should be 25 to 50mm.

Nominal maximum size of aggregate Maximum water content

10mm 208

20mm 186

40mm 165

If the shape of aggregate or slump value is differing from above, then some adjustments are required
as follows.

Condition Adjustment

Sub angular aggregate Reduce the selected value by 10%

Gravel with crushed stone

Reduce the selected value by 20kg

Rounded gravel Reduce the selected value by 25kg

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Using plasticizer Decrease the selected value by 5-10%

Decrease the selected value by 20-

Using super plasticizer
30%

For every increment of 25mm

Increase the selected value by 3%
slump

Step 5: Selection of Cement Content for Concrete

Water – cement ratio is determined in step2 and quantity of water is determined in step -4. So,
we can easily calculate the quantity of cement from these two conditions. But, the value
obtained should satisfy the minimum conditions as given in the below table. The greater of
the two values is decided as quantity of cement content.

Cement Content for Plain Cement Concrete

Exposure Plain Cement Concrete (P.C.C)

ratio of volumes of coarse aggregate and volume of total aggregates for different zones of fine
aggregates from the below table.

Nominal Ratio of volume of coarse aggregate and volume of total

maximum size of aggregate for different zones of fine aggregate
aggregate Zone – 1 Zone – 2 Zone – 3 Zone – 4
10mm 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50
20mm 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66
40mm 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.75

Step 7: Calculation of Aggregate Content for Concrete

We already determine the coarse aggregate volume ratio in the total aggregate volume. So, it
is very easy that, 1 – volume of coarse aggregate will give the volume of fine aggregate.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Alternatively, there are some formulae to find the volume of fine and coarse aggregates as
follows.

Mass of fine aggregate is calculated from below formula

Similarly, mass of coarse aggregate is calculated from below formula.

Where, V = volume of concrete

W = water content

C = cement content

Gc = sp. Gravity of cement

P = aggregate ration obtained

F.A & C.A = masses of fine and coarse aggregates

Gf & Gca = sp. Gravities of fine and coarse aggregates.

Step 8: Trial Mixes for Testing Concrete Mix Design Strength : Based on the
values obtained above, conduct a trail test by making at least 3 cubes of 150mm size as per
above standards. Test that cubes and verify whether the required strength is gained or not. If
not, redesign the mix with proper adjustments until required strength of cube occurs.

Bonds and Patterns in Brickwork

BOND

The word bond, when used in reference to masonry, may have three meanings:

Structural Bond: The method by which individual masonry units are interlocked or tied
together to cause the entire assembly to act as a single structural unit. Pattern Bond: The
pattern formed by the masonry units and the mortar joints on the face of a wall. The pattern
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

may result from the type of structural bond used or may be purely a decorative one unrelated
to the structural bonding.

Mortar Bond: The adhesion of mortar to the masonry units or to reinforcing steel.

STRUCTURAL BONDS

Structural bonding of masonry walls may be accomplished in three ways: (1) by the
overlapping (interlocking) of the masonry units, (2) by the use of metal ties embedded in
connecting joints, and (3) by the adhesion of grout to adjacent wythes of masonry.

The overlapped bond is based on variations of two traditional methods of bonding. The first
is known as English bond and consists of alternating courses of headers and stretchers (Fig.
1). The second is Flemish bond and consists of alternating headers and stretchers in every
course, so arranged that the headers and stretchers in every other course appear in vertical
lines (Fig. 1).

FIG. 1a English and Flemish Bonds

 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

English and Flemish Bonds FIG. 1b

The stretchers, laid with the length of the wall, develop longitudinal bonding strength; while
the headers, laid across the width of the wall, bond the wall transversely.

Modern building codes require that masonry-bonded brick walls be bonded so that not less
than 4 per cent of the wall surface is composed of headers, with the distance between
adjacent headers not exceeding 24 inches, vertically or horizontally.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Metal-Tied Masonry Walls

Most building codes permit the use of rigid steel bonding ties in solid walls.

At least one metal tie should be used for each 4 1/2 sq ft of wall surface. Ties in alternate
courses should be staggered. The distance between adjacent ties should not exceed 24 in.
vertically nor 36 in. horizontally. Additional bonding ties, spaced not more than 3 ft apart
around the perimeter and within 12 in. of the opening, should be provided at all openings.

If ties less than 3/16 in. in diameter are used, tie spacing should be reduced so that the tie area
per square foot of wall is not less than specified above.

Structural bonding of solid and reinforced brick masonry walls is sometimes accomplished by
grout which is poured into the cavity or collar joint between wythes of masonry.

The method of bonding will depend on the use requirements, wall type and other factors,
However, the metal tie method is generally recommended for exterior walls. Some of the
advantages of this method are greater resistance to rain penetration and ease of construction.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Metal ties also allow slight differential movements of the facing and backing which may
relieve stresses and prevent cracking.

PATTERN BONDS

Frequently, structural bonds, such as English or Flemish, or variations of these, may be used
to create patterns in the face of the wall. However, in the strict sense of the term, pattern
refers to the change or varied arrangement of the brick texture or color used in the face.
Therefore, it may be possible to secure many patterns using the same structural bond. Patterns
also may be produced by the method of handling the mortar joint or by projecting or
recessing certain brick from the plane of the wall, thus creating a distinctive wall texture that
is not solely dependent upon the texture of the individual brick.

There are five basic structural bonds commonly used today which create typical patterns.
These are: Running bond, common or American bond, Flemish bond, English bond and block
or stack bond, as illustrated in Fig. 3. Through the use of these bonds and variations of the
color and texture of the brick, and of the joint types and color, an almost unlimited number of
patterns can be developed.

Traditional Pattern Bonds

Running bond. The simplest of the basic pattern bonds, the running bond, consists of all
stretchers. Since there are no headers in this bond, metal ties are usually used. Running bond
is used largely in cavity wall construction and veneered walls of brick, and often in facing tile
walls where the bonding may be accomplished by extra width stretcher tile.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Common or American Bond. Common or American bond is a variation of running

bond with a course of full length headers at regular intervals. These headers provide structural
bonding, as well as pattern. Header courses usually appear at every fifth, sixth or seventh
course.

In laying out any bond pattern, it is important that the corners be started correctly. For
common bond, a three-quarter brick should start each way from the corner at the header
course.

Common bond may be varied by using a Flemish header course.

Flemish Bond. Each course of brick consists of alternate stretchers and headers, with the
headers in alternate courses centered over the stretchers in the intervening courses. Where the
headers are not used for the structural bonding, they may be obtained by using half brick
called "clipped" or "snap" headers.

Flemish bond may be varied by increasing the number of stretchers between headers in each
course. If there are three stretchers alternating with a header, it is known as "garden wall"
bond. If there are two stretchers between headers, it is designated as "double stretcher garden
wall" bond. Garden wall bond may also be laid with four or even five stretchers between the
headers.

English Bond. English bond is composed of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. The
headers are centered on the stretchers and joints between stretchers in all courses are aligned
vertically. Snap headers are used in courses which are not structural bonding courses.

English Cross or Dutch Bond. English cross or Dutch bond is a variation of English bond
which differs only in that vertical joints between the stretchers in alternate courses do not
align vertically. These joints center on the stretchers themselves in the courses above and
below.

There are two methods used in starting the corners in Flemish and English bonds. Figure 3
shows the so-called "Dutch corner" in which a three-quarter brick closure is used, and the
English corner in which a 2-in. or quarter brick closure, called a "queen closure", is used. The
2-in. closure should always be placed 4 in. in from the corner, never at the corner.

Block or Stack Bond. Block or stack bond is purely a pattern bond. There is no
overlapping of units since all vertical joints are aligned. Usually this pattern is bonded to the
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

backing with rigid steel ties, but when 8 -in. bonder units are available, they may be used. In
large wall areas and in load bearing construction, it is advisable to reinforce the wall with
steel reinforcement placed in the horizontal mortar joints. In stack bond it is imperative that
prematched or dimensionally accurate masonry units be used if the vertical alignment of the
head joints is to be maintained.

Figures 4 and 5 illustrate patterns that may be obtained by varying brick color. Figure 4 is a
double stretcher garden wall bond with the pattern units in diagonal lines. Figure 5 shows a
garden wall bond with the pattern units set in dovetail fashion.

Wall Texture. Recently many contemporary modifications of the traditional bonds have
been used by projecting and recessing units, also by omitting units to form perforated walls or
screens. Figure 6 illustrates contemporary uses of masonry which imaginatively extend the
traditional patterns.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Contemporary Bonds

MORTAR JOINTS

As previously indicated, the treatment of mortar joints in the face of the wall affects the
pattern and wall texture. The mortar serves four functions:

1. It bonds the units together and seals the spaces between.

2. It compensates for dimensional variations in the units.

3. It bonds to and, therefore, causes reinforcing steel to act as an integral part of the wall.

4. It provides a decorative effect on the wall surface by creating shadow or color lines.

Mortar joint finishes fall into two classes: troweled and tooled joints. In the troweled joint,
the excess mortar is simply cut off (struck) with a trowel and finished with the trowel. For the
tooled joint, a special tool, other than the trowel, is used to compress and shape the mortar in
the joint.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Figure 7 shows a cross section of typical mortar joints used in good brickwork.

Mortar Joints

Concave Joint ( 1 ) and V-Shaped Joint ( 2 ) . These joints are normally kept quite
small and are formed by the use of a steel jointing tool. These joints are very effective in
resisting rain penetration and are recommended for use in areas subjected to heavy rains and
high winds.

Weathered Joint (3). This joint requires care as it must be worked from below. However,
it is the best of the troweled joints as it is compacted and sheds water readily.

Struck Joint (4). This is a common joint in ordinary brickwork. As American mechanics
often work from the inside of the wall, this is an easy joint to strike with a trowel. Some
compaction occurs, but the small ledge does not shed water readily, resulting in a less
watertight joint than joints (1), (2) or (3).

Rough Cut or Flush Joint (5). This is the simplest joint for the mason, since it is made
by holding the edge of the trowel flat against the brick and cutting in any direction. This
produces an uncompacted joint with a small hairline crack where the mortar is pulled away
from the brick by the cutting action. This joint is not always watertight.

Raked Joint (6). Made by removing the surface of the mortar, while it is still soft. While
the joint may be compacted, it is difficult to make weather-tight and is not recommended
where heavy rain, high wind or freezing is likely to occur. This joint produces marked
shadows and tends to darken the overall appearance of the wall.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

Colored mortars may be successfully used to enhance the patterns in masonry. Two methods
are commonly used: (1) the entire mortar joint may be colored or (2) where a tooled joint is
used, tuck pointing is the best method. In this technique, the entire wall is completed with a
1-in. deep raked joint and the colored mortar is carefully filled in later.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST

IS :2131-1981

AIM: To determine the resistance of soil against penetration

APPARATUS:

1. Tripod

2. Manila rope

3. Doughnut hammers of weight 63.5kg

4. Anvil

5. Split spoon sampler

6. Driving rod.

PROCEDURE

The standard penetration test is conducted in a bore hole using a standard split- spoon
sampler. when the bore hole has been drilled to the desired depth, the drilling tools are
removed and the sample is driven into the soil by a drop hammer of 63.5kg mass falling
through a height of 750mm at the rate of30 blows per minute (IS: 2131-1963).the number of
hammer blows required to drive 150mm of sample is counted. The sample is further driven
by 150 mm and the number of blows recorded. Likewise, the sampler is once again further
driven by 150 mm and number of blows recorded. The number of blows recorded for the first
150 mm is disregarded. The number of blows recorded for the last two 150 mm intervals are
added to give standard penetration number (N).in other words, the standard penetration
number is equal to the number of blows required for 300 mm penetration beyond a seating
drive of 150 mm. If the number of blows for 150 mm drive exceeds 50, It is taken as refusal
and test is discontinued. If the split spoon sampler is driven less than 45cm (total), then the
penetration will be for the last 30cm of penetration (if less than 30cm is penetrated, the logs
should state the number of blows and the depth of penetration. THEORY: The standard
penetration test is most commonly used in in-situ test, especially for cohesion-less soils
which cannot be easily sampled. The test is extremely useful for determining the relative
density and the angle of shearing resistance of cohesion-less soils. It can also be used to
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

determine the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soils. The standard penetration
number is corrected for dilatancy correction and overburden correction and overburden
correction as explained below.

(a) Dilatancy correction: Silty fine sand and fine sand below the water table develop pore
pressure which is not easily dissipated. The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil
and hence the penetration number (N).Terzaghi and peak (1967) recommend the following
correction in the case of silty fine sands when the observed value of N exceeds

The corrected penetration number, Ne = 15 + � � (NR-15)

Where NR is recorded value and NC is the corrected value NR ≤ 15, NC = NR

(b) Overburden pressure correction: In granular soils, the over burden pressure affects the
penetration resistance. If the two soils having same relative density but different confining
pressures are tested, the one with higher confining pressure gives a higher penetration
number. As the confining pressure in cohesion-less soils increases with the depth, the
penetration number for soils at shallow depths is underestimated and that at greater depth is
overestimated. For uniformity, the N-values obtained from field test under different effective
overburden pressures are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure.

Gibbs and Holtz (1957) recommend the use of the following equation for dry or moist clean
sand

. Ne = NR X 𝟑𝟓� / �+𝟕�

Where NR observed N value and � = effective overbidding pressure.

The eq2.2 is only applicable for cr :::; 280 kN/m2.

The ratio ( Ne / NR ) should lie between 0.45 and 2.0.if ( Ne / NR ) ratio is greater than 2.0,
Ne should be divided by 2.0 to obtain the design value used in finding the bearing capacity of
the soil. The correction may be extended to saturated silty sand and fine sand after modifying
the NR according to Eq.2.2, i.e. Nc obtained from Eq. 2.2 would be taken as NR

In Eq. 2.1. Thus the overburden correction is applied first and then the dilatancy correction is
applied. Peck, Hansen and Thornburn (1974) give the chart for correction of N values to an
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

effective overburden pressure of96 kN/m2, according to them. Correction is given by Bazaara
(1967), and also by Peck and Bazaara (1969), is one of the commonly used corrections.
According to them,

The value of the standard penetration number N depends upon the relative density of the
cohession-less soil and the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil. If the soil is
compact or stiff, the penetration number is high. The angle of shearing resistance ((j)) of the
cohesion-less soil depends upon the number N. in general, greater the N-value, the greater
shearing resistance table 2.1 gives the average values of a for different ranges of N The
consistency and the unconfined shear strength of the cohesive soils can be approximately
determine from the SPT number N. as the correlation is not dependable, it is advisable to
determine the shear strength of the cohesive soils by conducting shear test on undisturbed
samples or by conducting in-situ vane shear test. Table 2.2 gives the approximate value of the
unconfined shear strength for different ranges of N the unconfined compressive strength can
also be determined from the following relation.

A sub-soil investigation report should contain the data obtained from bore holes , site
observations and laboratory results. It should also give recommendations about the suitable
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

type of foundation, allowable soil pressure and expected settlements. It is essential to give a
complete and accurate data collected. Each bore hole should be identified by code number.
The location of each bore hole should be fixed by measurement of its distance or angles from
some permanent feature. All relevant data for the bore is recorded in a boring log.

A boring hole gives description or classification of various strata encountered at different

depth.

• Any additional information that is obtained in the field, such as soil consistency, unconfined
compressive strength, standard penetration test, cone penetration test, is also indicated on
boring

• log. It should also show water table. If the laboratory tests have been conducted, the
informaton abollt index properties, compressibility, shear strength, permeability, etc should
also be provided.

The data obtained from a series of bore holes is presented in the form of a sub-surface profile.
Sub-surface profile is a section tlu'ough the ground along the line of exploration. It indicates
the boundaries of different strata, along with their classification. It is important to remember
that conditions between bore holes are estimated by interpolation, which may not be correct.
Obviously, the larger the number of holes, the more accurate is the sub-surface profile. The
site investigation report should contain the discussion of the results. The discussion should be
clear and concise. The recommendations about the type and depth of foundation, allowable
soil pressure and expected settlements should be specific. The main findings of the report are
given in conclusion.

(1) Introduction, which gives the scope of investigation.

(2) Description of proposed structure, the location and geological conditions at the site.

(3) Details of the field exploration programme, indicating the number of borings ,tbeir
location and depth.

(4) Details of the methods of explorations.

(5) General description of the sub-soil conditions as obtained from in-situ tests, such as
standard penetration test, cone penetration test.
 DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI

(6) Details of the laboratory test conducted on the soil samples obtained and the results
obtained.

(7) Depth of ground water table and changes in water levels.

(8) Discussion of the results.

(9) Recommendations about the allowable bearing pressure, the type of foundation or

(10) Conclusion the main findings of the investigations should be clearly stated. it should be
brief but should mention salient points.

(11) Limitations of the investigations should also briefly stated.

DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI
DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI
DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI
DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI
DEPARTMENTOF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY VTU, CPGS, RO , KALBURAGI