Indian J. Dairy Sci.

68(5), 2015

REVIEW ARTICLE

Heat induced changes in khoa : A Review

Sonika Choudhary, Anuradha Kumari and Sumit Arora

Received : 06 November 2014 / Accepted : 01 June 2015

Abstract Khoa also known as mava, khava or Introduction

palghoa, is a partially dehydrated milk product, prepared by
continuous heating and manual stirring-cum-scraping until it Milk is considered nature's most complete food. It provides all
reaches a semi solid (doughy) consistency. Various physico- the essential nutrients for the nourishment of human body.
chemical changes occur in milk during khoa preparation. Due to its excellent nutrient profile, milk is consumed widely
Heating results indenaturation of milk protein forming by people of all age groups. India, continues to be the largest
coagulated mass. Browning reactions viz. maillard (caused producer of milk in world with 133.7 million tones in the year
due to the interaction of lactose with protein) and 2012-13 (Annual report, 2012-13). A considerable share of total
caramelisation browning is induced in milk during khoa milk production is utilized for production of milk based sweets
preparation. Elevated temperature also results in formation as they have been an inseparable part of socio-cultural life of
of heat degraded products. Microstructure of khoa as Indian subcontinent. It has also been reported that from the
revealed by scanning electron microscopy consisted of total milk production, 50-55% was utilized for production of
protein agglomerated protein mass and void spaces in indigenous milk products (Dairy India, 2007).
matrices. The shelf-life of khoa is two to four days under
ambient conditions and three weeks under refrigerated Depending on its characteristics, milk is eminently suitable for
conditions. Khoa is very liable to oxidative, microbial and certain types of region specific indigenous traditional milk
physico-chemical deterioration during storage. The shelf-life products. 5.5% of total milk produced in India is utilized for
can be enhanced by using vegetable parchment paper production of khoa (Kumari et al., 2012). It is top most dairy
wrappers, plastic (polyethylene) film bags/pouches, laminated product consumed in India as compared to cheese and butter
(preferably aluminium coated) pouches, tin plates, or cans in (Ezhil Raj et al., 2010).
pack sizes. Several additives such as antioxidants (BHT and
BHA), bacteriocins (nisin) and preservatives (sorbic acid and Khoa, a heat desiccated traditional Indian milk product
potassium sorbate and their salts) are also used to enhance prepared by heat concentration of milk in an open pan with
shelf life of khoa. continuous stirring and scrapping, is a major intermediate
base for a variety of sweets like burfi, peda, kalakand,
gulabjamun etc. (Acharya and Sapkota, 2008; Soumya et al.,
2015). Cow milk khoa has moist surface, sticky and sandy
Keywords : Khoa; maillard reaction, shelf life, scanning texture as compared to buffalo milk khoa, which is not
electron microscope, antioxidants considered suitable for the preparation of milk based sweets
(Mann et al., 2001). Cow milk was standardized to 4.0% fat
and 8.5% milk solid not fat (MSNF) to prepare khoa. Various
physico-chemical changes occur during conversion of milk
Sonika Choudhary, Anuradha Kumari and Sumit Arora ( ) into khoa which includes change in state of milk, change in
Dairy Chemistry Division colour intensity, homogenization of milk fat, free fat formation,
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India, 132001 heat coagulation of milk protein, lactose present as super
saturated solution, partial precipitation of milk salts and
Sumit Arora increase in iron content (De, 2004).
Principal Scientist, Dairy Chemistry Division
National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India Legal standards of khoa
Ph. No. 0184-2259156 (O), +91-9896054444 (M)
email: [email protected]
As per Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (2011)

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khoya by whatever variety of names it is sold such as pindi, as the evaporation of moisture takes place constantly. When
danedar, dhap, mawa or kava means the product obtained concentration reaches to about 2.8 fold in cow milk and 2.5
from cow or buffalo or goat or sheep milk or milk solids or fold in case of buffalo milk, the thickened mass shows abrupt
a combination thereof by rapid drying. The milk fat content change in colour and consistency indicating that the
shall not be less than 30% on dry weight basis of finished coagulation of milk proteins has started taking place. It is
product. It may contain citric acid not more than 0.1% by stirred and scraped with the help of a scraper to avoid the
weight. It shall be free from added starch, sugar and colouring scorching of milk solids sticking to the pan. The final product
matter. is ready when it shows signs of leaving the sides of the pan.
This stage is called as pat formation and invariably should be
According to Bureau of Indian standards (1981), "khoa shall achieved after moving the pan off the fire and by working the
be heat coagulated milk product obtained by partial contents up and down (Pal, 2006a). The traditional method of
dehydration of milk of buffalo, cow, sheep and goat and their khoa making requires large quantity of energy and in the
admixture. Milk solids suitably processed may also be used. present era, energy saving requires more attention.
It shall not contain any ingredient foreign to milk except the
addition of citric acid in danedar khoa added to develop the In rural India, generally wood, cattle dung, coal, kerosene etc.
desired characteristic. The composition and microbial are used in open chulah as fuel for khoa making which is
standards for khoa are given in Table 1. hardly 8-10% thermally efficient. The traditional method of
khoa making has a number of drawbacks such as: limited
Khoa contains fairly large quantities of muscle building capacity due to batch operation, non-uniform product quality
proteins, bone-forming minerals and energy-giving fat and and thus not suitable for large volume production, Inefficient
lactose. It also retains most of the fat-soluble vitamins A and use of energy and low heat transfer coefficient results in
D and also fairly large quantities of water soluble B vitamins bulky equipment, requires more manual labor due to lengthy
contained in the original milk. Additives to sweetmeats further process, Sometimes burning of the product occurs which
increase the calorific value of the product (Aneja et al., 2002). lowers its quality (Kumar, 2013).

Traditional khoa making method Khoa production methods and processes

The manufacture of khoa is largely in the hands of private A process was developed for manufacture of khoa using
traders (halwais), who use highly primitive techniques reverse osmosis (RO) and khoa prepared from RO concentrated
essentially based on their experience. The scale of production whole milk (31% TS) was comparable in flavor and texture to
is also too small, each batch comprising of about 4-5 litres conventional product with net energy saving of 335-430kcal/
of milk. The equipments used for manufacture of these heat- kg of milk (Dharampal and Cheryan, 1987). Cow milk was
desiccated dairy products are made up of iron or cast iron or standardized to 4.0 fat and 8.5 milk solid not fat (MSNF) to
mild steel. prepare khoa by solar as well as traditional method. Before
the dehydration of milk in solar cooker, cream was separated
Milk in small lots, preferably buffalo milk is taken in an open from milk by using electrically operated cream separator. After
pan (karahi) and boiled over brisk non-smoky fire. While dehydration period was over, the milk from each vessel was
boiling, milk is continuously and vigorously stirred with a measured and took in kadhai (that is, Iron shallow pan). At
circular motion bya ladle (khunti) to avoid burning of milk the same time calculated quantity of cream (previously
solids on the surface of the pan. Milk thickens progressively separated and pasteurized) added and further stirring cum

Table 1 Composition and microbial standards for khoa as per BIS (1981)
Characteristics Types of khoa
Pindi Danedar Dhap
Total Solids % by mass 65 60 55
Fat % min. (dry basis) 37 37 37
Total Ash, % by mass on dry basis, Max 6 6 6
Titrable acidity as lactic acid, % by mass, Max. 0.8 0.9 0.6
Coliform Count per gram, Max. 90 90 90
Yeast and Mould count per gram, Max. 50 50 50
Source: BIS (1981)

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scrapping process continued until desired body and texture The main reaction in the preparation of khoa is the heat
of khoa were obtained. A uniform quality product in respect denaturation and coagulation of milk proteins. Coagulation of
of flavour, body and texture, colour and appearance, overall milk proteins is brought about by heating to 132-136ºC. Albumin
acceptability and chemical quality was obtained by solar and globulins are coagulated below 100ºC, while casein (CN)
method (Dande et al., 2011). Lakshmi and Sailaja, 2012 reported is coagulated above 100ºC. Desirable heat induced chemical
that nutrient composition of khoa depends on the composition interactions result in reduction of redox potential and water
of cow milk which in turn depends on quality of fodder given activity which extends the product shelf life (Mann et al.,
to cow. Azolla, which grows in association with the blue 2008). Several heat induced changes takes place during khoa
green algae Anabaena azollae, is the most economic and preparation. Other changes are an increase in acidity, maillard
efficient feed substitute for live stock which is very rich in reaction between lactose and protein at elevated temperature
proteins, essential amino acids, vitamins, growth promoter and production of flavour compounds. The changes in milk
intermediaries and minerals (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, components such as fat, protein, lactose, minerals and vitamins
ferrous, copper, magnesium etc). Results revealed that the vary with the methods of preparation.
experimental diet containing azolla given to the cow had shown
an increase in contents like moisture, carbohydrate, fat and Fat content in milk influences the physico-chemical, sensory
protein in khoa sample over control diet, where as total solids and quality characteristics of khoa. The percentage fat
found to be almost equal in both type of khoa. recovery in khoa decreases with the increased fat level in
milk (Ranganadham and Rajorhia, 1989). It was observed that
Yield of khoa the combined action of scraping and agitation causes the
rupture of fat globule membrane resulting in the release of
The yield of khoa depends on several factors, including the higher amount free fat. Coagulation of membrane proteins
type and quality of milk, the extent of dehydration, the type also contributes to release of free fat from the fat globules.
of khoa manufactured and its moisture content and handling Hemavathi and Prabhakar (1973) isolated and identified methyl
losses (e. g. overflow, sticking residues, etc.). The moisture ketones and saturated aldehydes as major classes of carbonyls
content is the most important factor responsible for the yield in khoa and burfi. Bhat and Ramamurthy (1982) isolated steam
of khoa (Thakur and Joshi, 2002). Khoa prepared from buffalo volatile monocarbonyls from skim milk as well as cultured milk
milk has higher yield and better quality both in physical and by steam distillation method. He classified the monocarbonyls
chemical characteristics as compared to cow milk khoa (Gupta into methyl ketones, 2,4dienals, and alk-2-enals. Methyl
and Gupta, 2013). ketones were the major monocarbonyls class in steam
distillates of both cow and buffalo milk fat.
Gross composition of khoa
Desiccation of milk during khoa making brings about changes
For chemical composition of laboratory made khoa samples, in milk proteins. The major change in khoa making is the heat
a lot of variations can be observed in fat, total solids, protein, denaturation and coagulation of milk proteins, as evidenced
lactose, and ash content. Gross composition of laboratory by an abrupt change in colour and consistency of product
made khoa sample is presented in table - 2 towards the end of the process (Davies, 1940). De and Ray
(1952) observed heat coagulation of cow and buffalo milk
It can be seen from the table that the fat content in laboratory started at a ratio of concentration of 2.83 and 2.48 and ends
made khoa sample prepared from cow and buffalo milks ranged at 3.57 and 3.05, respectively. Bonomi et al., (1988) observed
between 21.73 to 45.90 % with an average of 31.55 %. Similarly, that heating of milk affected number of hydrophobic sites on
for other parameters like total solids the value ranges from protein surface changes and also resulted in conformational
63.29 to 80.80, protein 16.30 to 25.80, lactose 18.85 to 35.97 modifications in proteins, including the exposure of previously
and ash 2.82 to 5.20 with an average of 73.05, 20.31, 26.88 and buried hydrophobic sites which could thereafter interact and
4.04 respectively lead to protein aggregation and eventually protein precipitation.
Carbonaro et al., (1996) reported that surface hydrophobicity
Physico-chemical changes in milk constituents on conversion of milk protein increased due to changes in dominant casein
into khoa (CN) which may be affected by interactions between κ-CN
and β-lg.Aneja et al.,(2002) observed that β-lg and α-la
Since khoa is essentially a heat desiccated product and hence undergo coagulation and interacted with κ-CN during heating
served as the base for making various khoa based sweets. of milk. Rajorhia et al.,(1990) analyzed that heat coagulation of
The steps employed for its production includes constant milk observed during the final stages of khoa making could
agitation and boiling of the milk in an open pan. These be attributed to the destabilization of CN, altered salt balance
processing steps lead to the evaporation of water from milk, and high temperature.
there by concentrating the milk.

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Table 2 Gross composition of laboratory made khoa sample

Type of milk Chemical constituents (%) References
Fat Total solids Protein lactose Ash
Buffalo milk 45.9 80.8 22.1 27.4 4.5 De and Ray, (1952)
Cow milk 34.8 74.4 25.8 34.3 5.2 De and Ray, (1952)
Buffalo milk 37.1 80.7 17.8 22.1 3.7 Srinivasan and Anantakrishan, (1964)
Cow milk 25.9 74.4 19.2 25.6 3.7 Srinivasan and Anantakrishan, (1964)
Buffalo milk 21.73 68.8 - - - Rajorhia (1971)
Cow milk 26.05 70.05 - - - Rajorhia (1971)
Mixed milk 39.11 73.5 20.54 28.57 - Hemavathi and Prabhakar, (1973)
Mixed milk 22.4 66.13 19.54 20.29 3 Kumar et al., (1975)
Buffalo milk 39.44 74.98 23 33.26 4.28 Narain and Singh, (1981)
Cow milk 34.14 76.85 23.17 25.97 4.84 Narain and Singh, (1981)
Mixed milk 36.2 75.4 23.39 35.8 4.56 Narain and Singh, (1981)
Buffalo milk 32.2 77.7 17.7 23.7 3.7 Kumar and Srinivasan, (1982)
Cow milk 22 69.1 19.1 24.2 3.7 Kumar and Srinivasan, (1982)
Buffalo milk 32.28 70.5 16.3 18.85 2.82 Patel et al., (1985)
Mixed milk 27.33 72.2 - - - Sharma and Lavania, (1987)
Buffalo milk 37.53 63.29 - - 5.04 Rajorhiaet al., (1990)
Buffalo milk 22.3 64.64 19.8 21.1 - Sapre and Deodhar, (1991)
Buffalo milk - 80.38 18.11 25.51 3.82 Gothwal and Bhavadasan, 1992)
Cow milk - 74.44 19.15 26.64 3.75 Gothwal and Bhavadasan, 1992)
Range 21.73-45.90 63.29-80.80 16.30-25.80 18.85-35.97 2.82-5.20
Average 31.55 73.05 20.31 26.88 4.04

Lactose is a major carbohydrate present in milk and milk produced on heating protein-free filtrate of heated milks
products. It is a disaccharide consisting of one molecule of containing less than 1.0% lactose and free of ions in 6.4 N
glucose and galactose and present in khoa in the form of a sulphuric acid was used for quantitative determination of
super saturated solution dispersed in the form of droplets. lactulose. The absorptivity of the coloured solution of lactulose
During heating two major changes are related to lactose. One at 330 nm was 14- fold more than that obtained from 62.5-fold
is increase in acidity due to thermal decomposition and the more concentration of lactose and other aldoses.
other is the maillard reaction on heating of milk. Decomposition
of lactose leads to the formation of compounds such as The milk salts are regarded as the most important factor in
formic, acetic, propionic, pyruvic and lactic acid. Maillard the heat stability of milk. Heat treatment causes reduction of
type of browning is caused due to the interaction of lactose both the total soluble and ionic calcium. This reduction can
and protein at elevated temperature. The early maillard reaction be attributed to a conversion of soluble calcium to the
is confined to the formation of the protein-bound amadori colloidal state (Muldoon and Liska, 1972). Rajorhia and
product "lactulosyllysine". Breakdown of the amadori product Srinivasan (1979) studied the distribution of minerals as
leads to the formation of furosine and hydroxymethylfurfural affected by heat treatment during khoa preparation. He
(HMF). Sahai (1990) reported high value of HMF indicating observed a remarkable reduction in the total as well as soluble
the vigorous maillard reaction and intense heat stress on milk calcium, magnesium and phosphorous. Storage of khoa at
during preparation of khoa. Lactulose is formed in heated 30ºC and at low temperature did not affect the relative
milks by the alkaline isomerization of lactose catalysed by the distribution of these minerals. Boghra and Mathur (1991)
free amino group of CN as reported by Richards and studied the effect of heat on the soluble salts and found
Chandrasekhara, 1960. that acidification of cow milk resulted in shifting of all colloidal
Ca, Na, K, Mg and citric acid into dialyzable form. A
A rapid spectrophotometric analysis for quantitative concomitant increase in the level of all minerals up to khoa
determination of lactulose in heated milk and milk products stage was observed. The market samples of khoa contained
was standardized by Adhikari et al., (1991) in which minimum 4-5 times more iron and about twice of zinc than laboratory
of 10 mg/100 ml concentration of lactulose could be determined made samples (Boghra and Mathur, 1996). They have
in high heated milk products. The reddish-brown colour concluded that iron and zinc entered as contaminants in

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market samples usually through the iron and galvanized karahi and buffalo milk at 1:1 ratio. The yield of khoa is closely
and kunti used by the manufacturers. proportional to the percentage increase in total solids than
fat. Hence, buffalo milk is preferred for its high total solids
Sapre and Deodhar (1988) reported that the retention of vitamin content.
ranged from 72.2% for vitamin B2 and 81.6% for folic acid.
The maximum loss was observed in case of vitamin B2 Ranganadham and Rajorhia (1989) reported that khoa
followed by ascorbic acid, vitamin B6, vitamin A and folic manufactured from buffalo milk yielded more free fat than
acid. Most of these losses were observed in the first stage obtained from cow milk. Cow milk gave a product with sticky
(dhap) of khoa production. It might be due to more moisture body leading to lower sensory scores than khoa prepared
content. Subsequent heating of dhap during the final phase from buffalo milk. Khoa made from buffalo milk on the other
resulted in only small additional losses, which ranged between hand has a soft body and smooth texture and is highly
2.50 % for vitamin B2 and 6.4% for folic acid and 18% in suitable for sweets making because of high fat content. Buffalo
vitamin A. milk fat contains high amount of unsaturated milk fat of long
chain which results in high free fatty acids (FFAs). Stickiness
Heat induced changes in microstructure and texture of khoa: in cow milk khoa was attributed to insufficient release of free
fat (Vogra and Rajorhia, 1983).
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) study of heat induced
changes during khoa making revealed that continuous boiling Desiccation conditions
of milk during khoa preparation led to gradual coalescence of
casein-whey protein complexes to a fuzzy agglomerated mass Khoa is prepared by continuous boiling of milk until desired
precipitating out as large interlinked gritty particles. SEM of concentration of solids (65-70%) is reached. De (2004)
cow milk khoa (Fig.1a) revealed agglomerated protein-lactose standardized the method of preparation of khoa. The
complex, inter linked together with thick bridging material with recommended temperature of evaporation was boiling point of
minimal void space while buffalo milk khoa (Fig. 1b) had milk till pan contents reach a pasty consistency and then
loose matrix with uneven surfaces and voids. In case of mixed lowering the temperature to simmering temperature (85ºC to
milk khoa (Fig. 1c) compact agglomerated protein lactose 90ºC). Higher evaporation temperature at the later stages of
complex was observed. It had a slightly denser matrix than khoa preparation leads to the development of undesirable
buffalo milk (Adhikari, 1992). characteristics. Temperature below the optimum produces
undesirable colour and appearance, flavour, body and texture;
Gupta et al., (1990) found increase in total solids was besides being more time consuming.
accompanied by a considerable increase in Instron hardness,
gumminess and chewiness but decrease in cohesiveness of Fat/SNF Ratio
khoa. Significant inter-relationships among texture profile
parameters, particularly between hardness and cohesiveness, De (2004) reported that with the increasing amount of fat in
gumminess and chewiness and also between cohesiveness milk, the moisture content in khoa decreased irrespective of
and all other parameters indicating that one or two most type of milk. He reported that if fat in milk was relatively more
important texture profile parameters could probably serve as than certain minimum level (cow milk 4% and buffalo milk 5%)
an index of texture profile of khoa. Interrelationships among then it leads to more moisture being removed. On the other
texture, composition and microstructure of buffalo milk khoa hand if SNF in milk is relatively less than a certain minimum
and gulabjamun were investigated by Adhikari et al., (1994). level (cow milk 8.5% and buffalo milk 9%) then the degree of
He reported that Instron hardness, gumminess and chewiness dehydration must necessarily be less. Therefore, moisture
were negatively correlated with moisture and fat contents, but content in khoa varies directly with the ratio of SNF/Fat. The
positively with protein, lactose, added carbohydrates, ash and loss of total solids in handling cow or buffalo milk is due to
calcium content for both khoa and gulabjamun. milk solids sticking to surface of karahi prior to pat formation
that are difficult to scrape. Fat percentage in raw milk
Factors affecting quality of khoa progressively increased the loss of total solids, which reduced
gradually until a minimum is reached with milk testing 4 % fat
Type of milk for cow milk and 5% fat in buffalo milk, respectively. The
optimum level of fat for maximum recovery of solids in khoa
The quality of khoa depends on type of milk. Cow milk varies with the ratio of Fat/SNF. Presence of more fat in either
produces pale yellow colour in the dehydrated product while type of milk than the optimum causes a sharp rise in the
buffalo milk gives it a colour, which is light greenish-white. percentage loss of total solids. It was also observed that
De (2004) reported 18.3% yield from pure cow milk, 21.6% separated milk of either type gives an unsuitable product. A
yield from pure buffalo milk and 20.0% from admixture of cow progressive increase in the fat level of milk induces a gradual

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improvement in product. alkali bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxides which improve

the shelf life of milk by neutralizing the developed acidity
Milk Acidity (Soumya et al., 2015). Addition of neutralizers can cause
increased mineral concentration in body fluids and soft organs
Prakash and Sharma (1984) observed acidity of milk increased leading to kidney stone development and commercial
when milk was converted into khoa. Fresh milk resulted in preparation of neutralizers might even be contaminated with
khoa with good sensory and quality characteristics. Pindi heavy metals like arsenic, lead, etc. Continuous use of such
khoa can only be made from fresh milk having acidity in the milk and milk product may cause health hazards (Satoskar et
range of 0.14 to 0.16% as lactic acid. More than 0.17% acidity al., 2000). Since the frequency and quantity of milk consumed
in milk produces khoa with grainy texture. The size and by infants and children are much more compared to adults,
hardness of grains increased with the increase in acidity. the health risk is more for them (Soumya et al. 2014).
However, for the manufacture of danedar khoa, acidity upto
0.18% developed by addition of an acidulant is optimum. In Zariwala et al., (1978) collected 551 khoa samples from various
addition to grainy texture, khoa prepared from high acidity retail dealers and reported that the majority of samples had
milk, developed due to natural souring, had acidic/sour flavour. a very hard and granular texture with dirty white or grey
Such khoa is not suitable for manufacture of good quality colour exhibiting bitter or salty taste. These characteristics
sweets. may be attributed to the use of high acid milk or addition of
neutralizers. Ghatak and Bandyopadhyay (1987) reported that
Stirring speed out of 35 samples of milk collected from local milk vendors
in Kalyani, sodium carbonate was present in 7 samples. Kumar
Continuous stirring of milk during khoa making is very (1999) reported 2 out of the 4 brands of skim milk powder
important and stirring speed should be optimum for good collected from Delhi and Haryana to be positive for
quality khoa. According to De (2004) low speed of stirring neutralizers. The effect of neutralizers on the physico-chemical
(30 - 40 rpm) resulted in an undesirable texture and flavour properties of milk and milk products was studied by Rajput
in khoa. Medium speed of stirring (96 - 100 rpm) make the (1982). He reported that neutralized milk and milk products
product highly suitable for preparation of khoa based sweets. had yellowish colour, loose body, sticky texture, salty taste
High speed of stirring (150 - 160 rpm) resulted in high oiling and sour smell. Khoa prepared from slightly sour milk had
off in the product, which is not desirable. acidic smell, salty taste, increased gumminess and chewiness,
coarse structure with increased acidity and greater grain size.
Homogenization of milk Hardness of grain led to poor body and texture which was
not suitable for preparation of sweets (Rajorhia et al., 1990).
Normally milk is no thomogenized for khoa making. However, Neutralized milk produces grains of very small size or no
under certain circumstances, such as use of recombined milk grains at all. Khoa made from neutralized milk has either salty
or for increasing the fat by adding butter oil or butter, or soapy or sour flavour, depending on the extent of
homogenization of milk becomes essential. Khoa prepared neutralizer used and the level of souring (acidity) in milk
from homogenized milk is brittle and lack cohesiveness as fat before neutralization. The moisture retention in khoa prepared
globules are subdivided to a finer size, the surface area from neutralized milk was higher and this resulted in a higher
increases relative to the volume. In case of milk fat globules, yield (Pal, 2006b). A recent report in the "The Times of India"
there is no longer sufficient membrane material to cover the (2012) had the doctors urging people to avoid adulterated
new surface. The fresh fat surfaces represent an attraction for khoa for safer and healthier life. Consumption of such product
the hydrophobic side of the sub micelles, and they now coat may increase blood pressure during delivery and could even
the fat globules forming a new membrane. Notice, that it is lead to strokes. It could even damage the liver and kidneys
only a small portion of the micelles, which are needed for the and ultimately prove to be fatal. According to a report
coating; the majority of the micelles remain intact. The moisture published on Oct.15th, 2009 in 'Daily News and Analysis' 400
retention in such khoa is also more, which results into kg of adulterated was recovered from Greater Noida. 43 kg of
softness and higher yield (Pal, 2006a). adulterated was seized ahead of Diwali celebration from
Gurgaon (The Times of India, Nov. 4th, 2010). PFA officials
Neutralized milk and its effect on quality of khoa seized 300 kg while conducting regular check in wholesale
market in Moti gate area of New Delhi (The Hindu,
Due to unhygienic conditions, initial microbial load, poor milk Oct.25th,2011).20 quintal adulterated based sweets were
quality, lack of transportation facilities of milk from production recovered in Jaipur and sweets worth Rs 12 lakh was found
centers to the processing plants soon after milking and limited in Thane (IBN live, Oct. 15th,2012). On Oct.20th (2012)
cold storage leads to development of acidity which further 'Hindustan Times' also reported 1,000 kg of adulterated was
reduces the shelf life of milk. Middlemen add neutralizers like seized by PFA officials from Firozpur, Haryana. Recent reports

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also point towards large scale adulteration of khoa. On Nov. and Kulkarni, 2006b).
11th (2012), 'The Times of India' reported the seizure of
adulterated khoa from sweets shops in Allahabad. Further, A study of various constants of fat extracted from khoa had
Business standards on Nov. 12th (2012) also reported the been made by Narang (1969). He reported that khoa started
seizure of adulterated khoa from Ghaziabad. to deteriorate and gave out a rancid flavour within 48 h when
kept at room temperature. Butyro refractometer reading and
Storage and shelf life studies on khoa: reichert-meissl value showed a decreasing trend while polenske
value increased. Iodine value and saponification value was
Khoa has low keeping quality at room temperature. Rajorhia found to be constant. Free fatty acid values showed a marked
and Srinivasan (1979) reported shelf life of 3 days at room increase. Boghra et al., (1991) studied the effect of heat on
temperature and 14 days under refrigerated conditions. During the soluble salts of milk and found that acidification of cow
storage, rancidity increased due to free fatty acids in khoa. milk resulted in shifting of all colloidal Ca, Na, K, Mg and
Even though the khoa and khoa based milk sweets are citric acid into dialyzable form. A concomitant increase in the
produced under strict hygienic conditions in organized sector, level of all minerals up to khoa stage was observed. Decrease
they are prone for microbial contamination. It may gain entry in pH, increase in acidity, FFAs, peroxide value, tyrosine value
into food at any stage of processing right from the farm to was also observed during storage at 10°C/30days. Studies on
till the food is reached to the final consumer like at the time lipids isolated at various stages during preparation of khoa
of packing, transport and storage etc, so it becomes imperative from cow and buffalo milk was conducted by Arora (1978). He
not only to take all kinds of preventive measures and also to observed an increase in total phospholipid, carbonyl and
evaluate at every stage (Agarwal and Rachappa, 2006) Dairy decrease in FFAs at various stages during preparation. The
products prepared under unhygienic conditions pose a great fatty acid composition of khoa was analysed by capillary gas
threat to the health of the consumer. Khoa is perishable food chromatography (GC) and compared with those obtained with
product and has short shelf-life. The high nutritive value and cow milk, buffalo milk and toned milk. Among the samples
high water activity (0.96) of khoa is conducive to growth of analysed, 57% showed fatty acid composition characteristic
bacteria (Sawhney et al., 1994). Staphylococcus aureus and of milk fat. The ratio of major saturated fatty acids to
Bacillus cereus are main bacteria responsible for food borne unsaturated fatty acids (S/U) including 18:1trans fatty acids
illness in khoa. The microbial quality of khoa is initially good were calculated for all the fats. The GC profiles of 43% samples
during the time of production and decreases gradually with showed the composition of fatty acids not conforming to milk
storage and marketing. The presence of molds in khoa causes fats (Amruthakala, 2012).
its fast deterioration by producing discoloration defects as
well as disagreeable flavors. Efficacy of solar radiation on Methods to increase shelf life of khoa
germicidal influence on khoa during storage was observed by
Chavan et al., (2006a). He reported that solar radiation has a The critical point for the deterioration of khoa was identified
definite role insignificant reduction of yeast and mould counts. as air tight packaging. This problem can be minimized through
Solar energy and microwaves techniques exhibited germicidal changing the packaging material to muslin cloths which allows
and micro biostatic property during its application in khoa free air flow and reduced anaerobic microorganism growth
storage and were reported as an ideal and promising (ICMR, 2000). In the absence of proper packaging, the rate of
techniques for preservation of dairy products like khoa (Chavan chemical deterioration of khoa such as oxidation and browning

Fig. 1a Fig. 1b Fig- 1c

(P- denotes protein lactose complex, v- denotes voids present in protein)
Figure1: SEM of cow, buffalo and mixed milk khoa

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Indian J. Dairy Sci. 68(5), 2015

increases. Use of ply laminated pouches and tin containers for packaging of khoa followed by two-ply packs, high density
increased the shelf- life of khoa (Ramzan and Rahman, 1973). polythene and parchment paper. It was observed that khoa
Jha and Verma (1988) observed increased storage stability of samples packed inparchment paper and HDPE were reported
khoa for 40 days by addition of potassium sorbate. Wadhawa to be acceptable up to 5 and 14days at 8ºC±1ºC, whereas
et al.,(1993) stated that the storage life of khoa can be laminate packaged samples were observed to be of satisfactory
enhanced by using different types of food preservatives and grade for more than 5 days at 37ºC, 30 days at 8ºC±1ºC and
antimicrobial agents. more than 75 days at sub-zero temperature. Goyal and
Srinivasan (1989) studied the effect of four different flexible
Rao et al. (1977) studied the effect of different levels of packaging materials viz. P1-posterpaper/aluminum foil/LDPE
potassium sorbate on keeping quality of khoa at 30°C and at 55 - 60 gm/sq.m., 0.02 mm and 150 gauge, P2-poster paper/
5°C. They found that the packaging materials impregnated aluminum foil/LDPE (55 - 60 gm/sq.m., 0.009mm, 150gauge ;
with 20% potassium sorbate solution and injection of nitrogen P3-MST cellulose film/LDPE 300gm/sq.m. and 150 gauge and
into tins containing khoa enhanced shelf-life up to 10 and 18 P4-tin cans on the chemical quality of khoa stored at 37± 5ºC
days at 30° and 5°C, respectively. Concentration less than and 60% relative humidity (RH) for 0, 5, 10and 15 days. Khoa
20% was not effective. Kalra et al., (1977) observed that khoa samples packaged in tin cans (P4) showed the least chemical
samples stored with nisin up to 28, 42 and 90 days at 30°C, changes exhibited by the samples packed in the packaging
22°C and 10° C showed no bacterial counts which maybe materials P1, P2 and P3 respectively. They reported that the
attributed to the combined bacteriostatic and bactericidal greatest decrease in moisture content of the khoa samples
properties of nisin against microflora of khoa. Under rule 55 occurred for the packaging materials (P3) due to permeability
of PFA Rules (1955), sorbic acid and its salt of sodium/ of moisture vapor. The smallest decrease in moisture content
calcium/potassium are permitted @ 2000 ppm in paneer/chhana occurred for the (P4) tin cans; which were completely
(Mahindru, 2000). impermeable to moisture ingression. It was also observed that
the significant differences in the values for different packages
Rehman and Salaria (2006) reported the effect of synthetic (P1, P2, P3 and P4) were perhaps mainly due to differential
antioxidants on storage stability of freshly prepared khoa. growth of acid producing microorganisms. Kumar et al., (1977)
FFA, peroxide value and Iodine value were used to assess observed that laminates containing aluminum foil provide
the development of rancidity during 30 days of storage of at good protection against moisture losses because of their
25°C and 45°C. Butylatedhydroxy anisole (BHA) and superior moisture barrier properties. Acharya and Agrawal
butylatedhydroxy toluene (BHT) were added to freshly (2010) reported when freshly prepared khoa was stored at
prepared khoa to extend the storage life, results illustrated room temperature (25±1ºC) and refrigerated temperature (5±1°C)
that synthetic antioxidants inhibited the development of by using different packaging materials such as LDPE,
rancidity during storage of khoa. Shelf life was easily extended aluminum foil/PVC and three layer laminated (polyester/
to 30 days by the addition of BHA or BHT. met.BOPP/LDPE) in different conditions viz. normal and shrink.
All of the packaging materials on both conditions showed no
Packaging of khoa significant difference except normal LDPE on mean sensory
score and chemical parameters of khoa during storage at
Packaging is the integral part of the processing in food 5±1ºC whereas it showed highly significant difference at
industry. Packaging serves as the vital link in the long line 25±1°C among three packaging materials. Three layer laminated
of production, storage, transport, distribution and marketing. sample showed significantly higher sensory quality, high pH,
A scientifically designed package should afford protection low acidity, peroxide value (PV), free fatty acids and lower
against moisture loss, flavor loss, oxygen, microbial and microbial count than other two packaging materials. Similarly,
fungus attack apart from being compatible with food. Bhat et shrink packaged sample showed better quality in terms of
al.,(1948) suggested a method for steaming of khoa for 15 to sensory and microbial attributes of khoa compared to normal
20 min to prevent the spoilage of the product. Rudreshappa packaging. No colonies of yeast and mold, coliform were
and De (1971) reported that the laboratory made khoa samples observed during the storage period. Shrink packaged khoa in
with an initial moisture content of 20-25% and warm packaging three layer laminated increased storability to 27 days at 25±1°C
(80ºC-90ºC) at the time of packaging in tin cans ensured a against three days for unpacked ordinary khoa.
maximum shelf life of 14 days at 37ºC, whereas packaging at
25ºC to 30ºC affected the acceptability adversely, rendering Conclusions
the canned product unmarketable. Rao et al., (1977) reported
that khoa packaged in tin cans stored at 5ºC were of A considerable share of total milk produced in India is utilized
satisfactory quality after 60 days; khoa in aluminium foil / for khoa preparation. It forms an important base material for
polyethylene remained satisfactory for 30 days. Kumar et al., preparation of varieties of milk sweets which are integral part
(1977) found four ply aluminium coated laminates proved best of Indian food heritage. As there is no strict quality parameters

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prescribed to khoa, so adulteration is common practice and 283-285

occurs in every step of manufacture and marketing of khoa Business standards (2012) Seizure of adulterated khoa from Ghaziabad Nov.
12th
and khoa based dairy products. Marketing of khoa in an Carbonaro M, Bonomi F, Iametti, S. Carnovale, E. (1996) Modification in
organized sector and high price of the commodity often makes disulfide reactivity of milk induced by different pasteurization conditions.
it susceptible to adulteration to gain economical benefit. There J Food Sci 61(3):495-499
is a wide variation in the chemical composition and yield of Chavan KD, Kulkarni, MB (2006a) Effect of solar radiation and microwave
heating on microbiological quality of khoa. Indian J Dairy Sci 59(5):
khoa due to the use of varied techniques by khoa 291- 295
manufacturers. Hence there is a need to adopt standard Chavan KD, Kulkarni, MB (2006b) Solar radiation: an effective approach
procedure for khoa manufacture. A need for change in PFA for khoa preservation. J Dairying Food Home sci 25(4) :182-185
definition seems inevitable. To elucidate a new standard for Daily News and Analysis (2009) 400 kg adulterated khoa seized in Greater
Noida Oct 15th
khoa, there is need for fundamental study regarding the factors Dairy India (2007) Dairy India Yearbook Publications, 2007 : xxiv+840
affecting physicochemical and microstructural changes occurs Dande KG, Gaikwad SM, Mushtaq SAK (2011) Utilization of solar energy in
during khoa manufacture, as influenced by type of milk. In dehydration of milk and in the manufacturing of khoa.Afr J Food Sci
India, stringent measures should be execute to ensure strict 5(15):814-816
Davies WL, (1940) Indian Indigenous Milk Products, 2nd edition. Thacker
adherence of hygienic practices during khoa manufacture at Spink and Company Pvt. Ltd. Calcutta
small scale, unorganized sector to ensure public health safety De S (2004) Outlines of dairy technology, 19th edition Oxford publishing
and adequate shelf life of product. Company New Delhi
De S, Ray, SC (1952) The studies on the indigenous method of khoa
making. Part-1.the influence of the conditions of dehydration and the
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