AWS  Lecture  Series  V  

Prepared  for  the    Indian  Institute  of  Welding  
August  30  through  September  7,  2010  
 
Part  1  
The  Secrets  to  Using  ASME  Section  IX  
 
 

Presented  by:  
Walter  J.  Sperko,  PE  
Sperko  Engineering  
Greensboro,  NC  27406  
www.sperkoengineering.com  
[email protected]  
 
 
 Introductions

The Secrets to Using •! Welding Engineers

ASME Section IX •! Metallurgists
•! Other Engineers
AWS Lecture Series V
Prepared for the Indian Institute of Welding •! NDE specialists
August 30 through September 7, 2010 •! QA/QC specialists
Presented by
Walter J. Sperko, PE •! Welders
Sperko Engineering •! Previous exposure to Section IX
Greensboro, NC 27406
www.sperkoengineering.com
[email protected]

Overview of this lecture – 3 parts

Notice
•! The “Secrets” to reading, understanding All statements by the speaker represent his
and applying Section IX opinion alone and do not necessarily represent
•! Changes in the 2010 Edition the position of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code Committee. All requests for
•! Coordination between Section IX and interpretations or other inquiries relative to ASME
ISO welding standards Code and Standards should be addressed to the
Secretary, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code Committee, ASME International, Three
Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5990.!

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 1!

 Why do we have the ASME Boiler
Secrets to be revealed. . .
and Pressure Vessel Code?
•!What does Section IX cover?
•!When do you have to use Section IX? •! Industrial Revolution
•!Relationship of Section IX to other Code Sections •! Steam became a prime mover for
•!How to read Section IX – Organization and Structure
•!WPS life expectancy
transportation, factories, space heating
•!How to read Section IX – reading variables •! 1905, Brockton, MA
•!Commonly misread procedure qualification variables
•!The biggest lie in the wonderful world of welding •! R. B. Grover Shoe Factory
•!Commonly misread performance qualification variables
•!Common Testing errors
•!Summary
•!NOTE: This seminar will not make you a welding
engineer.

March 20, 1905, 7:30 AM

•! Monday morning. Cold and damp. Plant
engineer David Rockwell fired up the boilers,
including the old boiler built in 1890, to heat the
steam radiators to warm the building. . .
•! The plant manager reported peculiar humming
from the radiators at 7:45.
•! The assistant plant engineer assured him that
everything was OK. Five minutes later. . . .

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 2!

 Historical Background
•! Brockton shoe factory explosion prompted
Massachusetts to establish a Board on Boiler
Rules which published rules in 1908. Ohio
passed similar (but different rules).
•! And the race was on.
•! By 1911, 10 states and 19 cities had adopted
some form of boiler rules. All were different.
•! States were unable to compromise (OURS is
better!), so boilers built for one jurisdiction could
not be installed in others

Historical Background Scope of Section IX

•! Boiler Code Committee was formed in 1911 to •! QW-100 GENERAL
prepare a uniform code that could be adopted by •! “Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
local jurisdictions for safe design, manufacture and Vessel Code relates to the qualification of welders,
testing of steam boilers. welding operators, brazers, and brazing operators,
•! The first edition of this safety code was published in and the procedures that they employ in welding
1914 (Boiler Code). 5” X 8” format, 119 pages and brazing. . . “
•! The Boiler Code was expanded to include pressure •! Section IX does not deal with fabrication or
vessels in 1928 (P&PV Code). inspection except that it specifies the minimum
content of welding procedures that are used for
•! Piping Code development began in 1917
fabrication.
•! Section IX (Welding) was added in 1941

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 3!

 Scope of Section IX Standards Where Qualification
•! QW-100 GENERAL and Construction Are Integrated
•! “. . . . according to the ASME Boiler and Pressure AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code - Steel
Vessel Code and the ASME B31 Code for AWS D1.2 Structural Welding Code - Aluminum
AWS D1.3 Structural Welding Code - Sheet Steel
Pressure Piping.” AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code - Reinforcing Steel
•! It is compatible with the B&PV Code and B31 AWS D1.5 Structural Welding Code - Bridge Welding Code
AWS D1.6 Structural Welding Code - Stainless Steel
Codes; if invoked by other standards or directly in a AWS D1.7 Guide for Strengthening/Repairing Existing Structures
contract, there may be disconnects. AWS D1.8 Structural Welding Code - Seismic Supplement
AWS D1.9 Structural Welding Code – Titanium
•! Other welding standards. . . AWS D14.X Cranes, earthmoving, etc. Equipment welding

API 1104 Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities

API Tank Standards

..

ASME Construction Codes ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping

I Power Boilers
II Materials
Part A -- Ferrous Material Specifications ASME B31.1 Power Piping
Part B -- Nonferrous Material Specifications ASME B31.3, Process Piping
Part C -- Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals
Part D -- Properties (Allowable stress tables, physical properties, etc.) ASME B31.4, Liquid Transportation Systems for
III Rules for Construction of Nuclear Facility Components Hydrocarbons, Liquid Petroleum Gas,
III Division 1 – Metallic Components
III Division 2 -- Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containments
Anhydrous Ammonia and Alcohols
III Division 3 – Spent Fuel and Waste Containment and Transportation Systems ASME B31.5 Refrigeration Piping
IV Rules for Construction of Heating Boilers
ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution
V Nondestructive Examination
VIII Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels Piping Systems
Division 1 – Simple Vessels ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping
Division 2 -- Alternative Rules – more design, inspection, smaller margin ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems
Division 3 -- High Pressure Vessels
ASME B31.12 Hydrogen Piping (published in 2008)
XI Rules for Inservice Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
XII Transport Tanks (Highway and Railway Pressurized)

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 4!

 When is an ASME Code required
to be followed?
1)! Whenever it has been adopted by a Jurisdiction for
Components installed in their jurisdiction:
•! Boiler Code is law in 49 States and all of Canada.
•! Pressure Vessel Code is law in about 41 states and
all of Canada.
•! Section III is law by CFR and Canadian Regulations.
•! Piping Codes are generally not adopted by law
except for Boiler External Piping (part of ASME
Section I)
National Board (www,nationalboard.org) has a publication
N-370 listing adoptions.
Secret: applicability depends on where the component will
be installed

When is an ASME Code required

to be followed?
2) !By contract:!
•! When a code is not imposed by law, Owners and their
engineers will elect to follow the Code and impose it on
fabricators and contractors.!
•! Most commonly occurs with piping since piping codes
are not typically adopted by law.!
•! Also occurs with pressure vessels when a Boiler or
Pressure Vessel Code is not adopted by law.!

3) Just to establish industry-accepted practices (Liability --

Due diligence)!

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 5!

 When is Section IX ASME Section I is Typical. . . .
required to be followed?
•! PW-1.2 Responsibility. Each
Secret: Anytime an ASME Pressure Manufacturer . . . is responsible for the welding
Code is required to be followed! done by his organization and shall establish
the procedures and conduct the tests required
in Section IX to qualify the welding procedures
•! Other codes may refer to it directly. he uses in the construction of the weldments
•! Contract documents may refer to it built under Section I and the performance tests
by reference or they may refer to it of welders who apply these procedures.
directly.

QW-100 All ASME codes

•! QW-100. . . . “Other Sections of the Code •! Some have additional requirements (e.g.,
may specify different requirements than Section III)
those specified by this Section. Such •! some reduce requirements (e.g., B31
requirements take precedence over those of Sections)
this Section, and the manufacturer or •! Some have downstream requirements,
contractor shall comply with them.” e.g. B31 code sections have specific
requirements regarding filler metals that
•! Most Sections do it simply by reference may be used in production.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 6!

 Section IX vs. Other Sections ASME Code Editions and Addenda
•! ASME B&PV Codes have historically been
•! Secret: Read the applicable construction published on 3-year cycles with annual
code; it may contain requirements that addenda. The next edition will be issued July 1,
affect qualification or what has to be in 2010. It will become mandatory for use for new
the WPS. This is especially true when construction January 1, 2011.
impact testing is required.
•! Applicable edition that applies to a boiler, vessel
or piping is based on:
1)! contract date, unless there is an
2)! edition and addenda specified in the
purchase order.

ASME Code Editions and Addenda ASME CODES

Secret: Once work starts on a boiler or INTERPRETATIONS
vessel, the designer works to a specific
edition and addenda, that edition and ASME issues written replies to inquiries
addenda applies to all the work done on concerning interpretation of technical
that boiler, pressure vessel or piping aspects of the Code.
•! regardless of how long it takes to build it
•! regardless of any changes that may be Secret: Interpretations are:
made in later editions or addenda. •!based on the rules as they are written
•!May not apply to later editions/addenda
•!No explanations are provided.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 7!

 ASME CODES Organization and Structure
Code Cases •! QW-100: “It is divided into two parts:
Part QW gives requirements for welding
•! Code Cases are stand-alone rules that and Part QB contains requirements for
alternatives to existing requirements or brazing.”
provide rules for materials or constructions •! QW-XXX Welding Sections
not covered by existing Code rules.
•! QB-XXX Brazing Sections
•! Code Cases allow alternative rules or new
materials to be used without waiting for •! Prior to 1974 rewrite, all Section IX
publication of new editions or addenda paragraphs began with “Q” (e.g. Q-27)
•! Can take as little as 4 months to enact. •! Soon there will be “QP”. . .

Organization and Structure Organization and Structure

WELDING BRAZING
•! QW-1XX General Requirements •! QB-1XX General Requirements
•! QW-2XX Procedure Qualification •! QB-2XX Procedure Qualification
•! QW-3XX Welder and Welding Operator •! QB-3XX Welder and Welding Operator
Qualification
Qualification
•! QW-4XX Variables
•! QB-4XX Variables
•! QW-5XX Standard Welding Procedures
(SWPSs)

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 8!

 The Secret to Using Section IX The Secret to Using Section IX
Let’s say that the objective it to write
Am I concerned about the and qualify the

WELDER WELDING PROCEDURE. . . .

or about the You have a CHOICE. . . .

WELDING PROCEDURE?

The Secret to Using Section IX

The Secret to Using Section IX
•! QW-100.1 “Any WPSs used by a manufacturer or
•! QW-1XX General Requirements
contractor that will have responsible operational
•! QW-2XX Procedure Qualification control of production welding shall be
•! QW-3XX Welder and Welding Operator –! a WPS that has been qualified by that
Qualification manufacturer or contractor in accordance with
•! QW-4XX Variables Article II (QW-200), or. . . .
•! QW-5XX Standard Welding –! it shall be an AWS Standard Welding
Procedures (SWPSs) Procedure Specification (SWPS) listed in
Appendix E and adopted by that manufacturer
or contractor in accordance with Article V
(QW-500).”

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 9!

 The Secret to Using Section IX The Secret to Using Section IX
QW-5XX Standard Welding •! QW-1XX General Requirements
Procedures (SWPSs) •! QW-2XX Procedure Qualification
•! SWPSs cover GTAW, SMAW and FCAW, P-1 •! QW-3XX Welder and Welding Operator
as welded and heat treated, P-8 to itself and Qualification
P-1 to P-8, 1/8 to 1-1/2 inches in thickness in
the as-welded condition. •! QW-4XX Variables
•! This section stands alone. Read it, buy the •! QW-5XX Standard Welding Procedures
appropriate SWPS(s), perform the (SWPSs)
Demonstration weld(s).
•! Secret: SWPSs can be purchased at AWS.org

The Secret to Using Section IX

•! QW-1XX General Requirements
•! QW-2XX Procedure Qualification
•! QW-3XX Welder and Welding Operator
Qualification
•! QW-4XX Variables
•! QW-5XX Standard Welding Procedures
(SWPSs)

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 10!

 The Secret to Using Section IX The Secret to Using Section IX
Let’s say that the objective it to write •! QW-1XX General Requirements
and qualify the •! QW-2XX Procedure Qualification
•! QW-3XX Welder and Welding Operator
WELDER OR WELDING OPERATOR Qualification
•! QW-4XX Variables
•! QW-5XX Standard Welding Procedures
(SWPSs)

The Secret to Using Section IX

•! QW-1XX General Requirements
•! QW-2XX Procedure Qualification
•! QW-3XX Welder and Welding Operator
Qualification
•! QW-4XX Variables
•! QW-5XX Standard Welding Procedures
(SWPSs)

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 11!

 The Secret to Using Section IX The Secret to Using Section IX
•! QW-1XX General Requirements The Procedure or the Welder?
•! QW-2XX Procedure Qualification Procedure Welder
•! QW-3XX Welder and Welding Operator Qualified SWPS
Qualification Procedure
Read
QW-300
•! QW-4XX Variables Read
Read
•! QW-5XX Standard Welding Procedures QW-200
QW-500
Qualified
(SWPSs)
Adopt Welder
Qualified
SWPS
WPS
Production
Weld

The WPS Contents of the WPS QW-100.1

•! “QW-100.1 A Welding Procedure •! “When a WPS is to be prepared by the
Specification (WPS) is a written manufacturer or contractor, it must address, as
a minimum, the specific variables, both
document that provides direction to the essential and nonessential, as provided in
welder or welding operator for making Article II for each process to be used in
production welds in accordance with production welding.
Code requirements.” •! In addition, when other Sections of the Code
•! Secret: when writing a WPS, write in an require notch toughness qualification of the
active voice (“do this. . .”); remember, WPS, the applicable supplementary essential
variables must be addressed in the WPS.”
you are giving the welder direction

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 12!

 Changes to the WPS QW-200.1
•! (c) “Changes may be made in the nonessential
variables of a WPS to suit production
requirements without requalification provided
such changes are documented . . . . . This may
be by amendment to the WPS or by use of a
new WPS.”
•! Revisions, supplemental cover sheets, notes on
drawings can be considered amendments.

Changes to the WPS QW-200.1

•! (c) “Changes in essential or supplementary
essential (when required) variables require
requalification of the WPS (new or additional
PQRs to support the change in essential or
supplementary essential variables).”

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 13!

 Changes to the WPS QW-200.1
•! When an essential or supplementary essential
variables is changed, additional PQR(s) are
required to support the change and the WPS
must also be revised by amendment to the WPS
or by use of a new WPS.
•! Example: addition of PWHT

Format of the WPS QW-200.1 The contents of the WPS

•! Every essential and nonessential variable has to
•! (d) “The information required to be in the WPS be addressed on the WPS – always!
may be in any format, written or tabular, to fit the •! Supplementary essential variables have to be
needs of each manufacturer or contractor, as addressed ONLY when the construction code
long as every essential, nonessential, and, requires the WPS to be qualified with impact
when required, supplementary essential testing.
variables outlined in QW-250 through QW-280 •! Some variables are addressed intrinsically by
is included (on the WPS) or referenced (to some addressing other variables, e.g., QW-410.64
other document by the WPS).” addresses use of torch cutting for P-11A and
•! All formats are permitted. P-11B materials; if the base metals that the WPS
•! Legitimate to refer the welder to the drawing. specifies are P-1, there is no need to specifically
address QW-410.64 in the WPS

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 14!

 Intrinsically Addressed matters. . . QW-100.1, The PQR
•! “The purpose for qualification of a WPS
Indicate Gender
is to determine that the weldment
•! ____ Male proposed for construction is capable of
•! ____ Female providing the required properties for its
•! What was the date of your last intended application. Welding procedure
pregnancy ______ qualification establishes the properties
of the weldment, not the skill of the
welder or welding operator.”
•! If “Male” is checked, the date of
pregnancy is intrinsically addressed…. •! Secret: The assignment of essential
variables by SC IX is based on this
concept.

QW-100.1, The PQR

“The Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)
documents what occurred during welding the
test coupon and the results of testing of the
coupon. As a minimum, the PQR shall
document
•! the essential variables and other specific
information identified in Article II for each
process used during welding the test
coupon and
•! the results of the required testing.”

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 15!

 QW-100.1, The PQR continued. . . QW-100.1, The PQR
. . . and other specific information identified in
Article II. . . See QW-200.2(b) •! “In addition, when notch toughness
testing is required for procedure
•! “One or more combinations of welding
qualification, the applicable
processes, filler metal, and other variables supplementary essential variables for
may be used when welding a test coupon.
each process shall be recorded.”
The approximate thickness of weld metal
deposited shall be recorded for each
process and for each set of essential and,
when required, supplementary essential
variables.”

Notch-Toughness Tests
•! “QW-171.1 General. Charpy V-notch impact
tests shall be made when required by other
Sections. Test procedures and apparatus
shall conform to the requirements of SA-370.
•! QW-171.2 Acceptance. The acceptance
criteria shall be in accordance with that
Section specifying impact requirements.”
•! Test temperature, acceptance criteria must
be provided by that Section

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 16!

 Notch-Toughness Tests QW-200.2 The PQR
•! “The PQR is a record of variables
•! “QW-171.3 Location and Orientation of Test
recorded during the welding of the test
Specimen. The impact test specimen and
coupons. It also contains the test results
notch location and orientation shall be as given
of the tested specimens.
in the Section requiring such tests.”
•! Secret: The Section tells you what to test: weld
metal, HAZ, the base metal, where to removed
specimens relative to depth of the coupon,
how many specimens, test temperature,
acceptance criteria, etc.

QW-200.2 The PQR

•! “(b) Contents of the PQR. The completed
PQR shall document all essential and,
when required, supplementary essential
variables of QW-250 through QW-280 for
each welding process used during the
welding of the test coupon.”

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 17!

 QW-200.2 The PQR QW-200.2 The PQR
•! “Nonessential or other variables used •! “All variables, if recorded, shall be the
during the welding of the test coupon actual variables (including ranges) used
may be recorded at the manufacturer’s during the welding of the test coupon.
or contractor’s option.”
•! Recording some nonessential variables •! If variables are not monitored during
fills out the PQR. welding, they shall not be recorded.”
•! Recording them does not affect how they
are addressed on the WPS. •! Implication?
•! Secret: Complete PQRs in the Passive
voice (i.e., the weld was heat treated.)

QW-200.2 The PQR QW-200.2 The PQR

•! “(c) Changes to the PQR. Changes to •! “(d) Format of the PQR. The information
the PQR are not permitted. . . . ” required to be in the PQR may be in any
•! Historical Record format . . . as long as every essential
•! Typos and, when required, supplementary
essential variable required by QW-250
•! Code changes (P-number is reassigned) through QW-280, is included.
•! Annotate •! Also the type of tests, number of tests,
•! Certify and test results shall be listed in the
•! Secret: Date the test coupon was welded PQR.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 18!

 QW-200.2 The PQR Life expectancy of a WPS/PQR
•! “(e) Availability of the PQR. PQRs used
•! QW-100.3 “Welding Procedure
to support WPSs shall be available, upon
Specifications, Procedure Qualification
request, for review by the Authorized
Records, and Welder/Welding Operator
Inspector (AI).
Performance Qualification made in
•! The PQR need not be available to the accordance with the requirements of the
welder or welding operator. 1962 Edition or any later Edition of
Section IX may be used in any
•! How about the WPS? construction built to the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code or the ASME B31
Code for Pressure Piping.”

Life expectancy of a WPS/PQR Life expectancy of a WPS/PQR

•! QW-100.3 “Welding Procedure •! Secret: Once WPSs and PQRs are
Specifications and Welder/Welding qualified, they are good for pretty much
Operator Performance Qualification forever except when impacts are required
records meeting the above requirements •! They may be updated to later editions of
do not need to be amended to include the code at the manufacturer or
any variables required by later Editions contractor’s option assuming data was
and Addenda recorded that supports the revisions (e.g.,
•! except as specified in QW-420.1.” GMAW-S)
•! How about except as specified in
QW-420.1???

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 19!

 Life expectancy of a WPS/PQR Life expectancy of a WPS/PQR
•! QW-420.1. •! QW-100.3 “Qualification of new Welding
•! When base metals are reassigned to Procedure Specifications or Welders/
another P-number by in QW-422 (e.g, Welding Operators and requalification of
P-5 became P-5A, P-5B and P-5C existing Welding Procedure
around 2001 AD), all PQRs listing the Specifications or Welders/Welding
reassigned base metals as the test Operators shall be in accordance with
coupon need to be examined and the the current Edition (see Foreword) and
WPS they support need to be revised to Addenda of Section IX.”
show the new P-number -- for new work.

QW-201 Manufacturer’s or
Life expectancy of a WPS/PQR
Contractor’s Responsibility
•! Except for WPSs affected by •! QW-201
reassignment of P-numbers, WPSs are •! “The Code recognizes a manufacturer or
contractor as the organization which has
good for forever.
responsible operational control of the
•! All new qualifications are done to current production of the weldments to be made in
edition and addenda. accordance with this Code.”
•! WPS with multiple PQRs dated over a •! Secret: This sentence defines a manufacturer
decade. or contractor as the organization that has first-
line responsibility for supervising those who
•! How about a Vessel designed in 2002 follow the WPSs while doing production
that is still being built? welding

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 20!

 QW-201 Manufacturer’s or QW-201 Manufacturer’s or
Contractor’s Responsibility Contractor’s Responsibility
•! Each manufacturer or contractor shall The weldments to be tested for qualification
qualify the WPS by the welding of test of procedures shall be welded either by
coupons and the testing of specimens –!direct employees or
and the recording of the welding data –!by individuals engaged by contract for their
and test results in a document known as services as welders or welding operators
a Procedure Qualification Record (PQR). –!under the full supervision and control of the
manufacturer or contractor.

QW-201 Manufacturer’s or QW-201 Manufacturer’s or

Contractor’s Responsibility Contractor’s Responsibility
It is not permissible for the manufacturer or Who has to qualify the WPSs?
contractor to have the supervision and The manufacturer or contractor that has first-line
control of welding of the test weldments responsibility for supervising the welders who do
performed by another organization. production welding is the organization that has to
qualify the WPS.
It is permissible to subcontract any or all
How about Welders?
nondestructive examination, and mechanical
Same provisions apply to welder qualification –
tests, provided the manufacturer or the organization that supervises the welders is
contractor accepts the responsibility for any the organization that has to qualify the welders.
such work.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 21!

 QW-250 WELDING VARIABLES QW-250 WELDING VARIABLES
•! “QW-251.1 Types of Variables for
Welding Procedure Specifications.
These variables listed for each welding
process are subdivided into essential,
supplementary essential and
nonessential variables.

QW-250 WELDING VARIABLES QW-250 WELDING VARIABLES

SECRET:!

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 22!

 QW-250 WELDING VARIABLES QW-250 WELDING VARIABLES
•! “QW-251.1 Types of Variables for
Welding Procedure Specifications.
•! The “Brief of Variables” listed in the
tables are for reference only. See the
complete variable in Welding Data of
Article IV.(QW-400)”
•! Secret: the “brief of variables” is not the
variable!

QW-250 WELDING VARIABLES QW-250 WELDING VARIABLES

•! “QW-251.4 Special Processes
•! (a) The special process essential
variables for corrosion resistant and
hard-surfacing weld metal overlays are
as indicated in the following tables for the
specified process. Only the variables
specified for special processes shall
apply.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 23!

 How do you read variables??? NQW-402.1

A change in the Type of

Groove (Vee-groove, U-
groove, single bevel,
double bevel, etc.) is a
nonessential variable. . . .

What if QW-402.1 was Essential? NQW-402.4

A change in the Type of The deletion of the backing in

Groove (Vee-groove, U- single-welded groove welds is
a nonessential variable.
groove, single bevel,
Double-welded groove welds
double bevel, etc.) is a are considered welding with
essential variable. . . . backing.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 24!

 What if . . . .
NQW-402.10
QW-402.10 was essential?
A change in the specified A change in the specified
root spacing is a root spacing is an
nonessential variable. . . . essential variable!!!!

EQW-403.8 Base metal “T” vs Weld metal “t”

A change in the base metal

thickness beyond the range
qualified in QW-451, is an
essential variable. . . .
except as otherwise
permitted in QW-202.4(b).!

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 25!

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 26!
 Illustrations of QW-451.1 for Illustrations of QW-451.1 for
Single process coupons Multiple process coupons

Base metal “T” vs Weld

metal for each process “t”

Secret: Apply only the Variables QW-200.4 Combination of

for the process Welding Procedures
•! QW-403.3 Electron Beam •! (a) More than one WPS having different
essential, supplementary essential, or
•! (a) . . . requalification is required where the
nonessential variables may be used in a
base metal thickness differs by 20% from
single production joint.
that of the test coupon thickness when the
test coupon thickness is 1 in. and under, •! Each WPS may include one or a
and 10% when the test coupon thickness is combination of processes, filler metals,
over 1 in. . . . or other variables.

•! Never gets to QW-451. . . !

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 27!

 QW-200.4 Combination of QW-200.4 Combination of
Welding Procedures Welding Procedures
•! (a) Where more than one WPS •! (a) Alternatively, qualification of WPSs for
specifying different processes, filler root deposits only may be made in
metals, or other essential or accordance with QW-200.4(b).
supplementary essential variables is •! 200.4(b) allows developing a multi-process
used in a joint, QW-451 shall be used to WPS for root process welding based on the
determine the range of base metal qualified base metal thickness limits of the
thickness and maximum weld metal second process. Bail out paragraph that
thickness qualified for each process, filler provides an exception to QW-451.1.
metal, or set of variables, and those •! Secret: QW-200.4(b) NOT a
limits shall be observed. REQUIREMENT.

QW-403.11 QW-424
•! Base metals specified in the WPS shall Base metals are assigned P-Numbers in
be qualified by a procedure qualification table QW/QB-422; metals that do not
test that was made using base metals in appear in table QW/QB-422 are
accordance with QW-424. considered to be unassigned metals
except as otherwise defined for base
metals having the same UNS numbers.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 28!

 QW-420 P-numbers
•! QW-420 BASE METAL GROUPINGS
•! Secret: P-Numbers are alphanumeric
designations: accordingly, each P-Number shall
be considered a separate P-Number (e.g., base
metals assigned P-No. 5A are considered a
separate P-Number from those assigned P-No. 5B
or P-No. 5C).

QW-420 P-numbers Other Listings for P-Numbers

•! “If an unlisted base metal has the same UNS
number designation as a base metal listed in
•! B&PV Code and B31 Piping Code
table QW/QB-422, it shall be considered as Allowable Stress Table assignments
assigned to that P-Number or P-Number plus come from Subcommittee IX
Group Number. •! Appendix D of Section IX -- Sort by P-
•! Secret: For welding purposes, ASTM versions of number.
specifications have the same UNS number have
the same P-number as the ASME specification
•! Secret: www.pnumbers.com, a fully
material. sortable and searchable listing supported
by C-Spec.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 29!

 Table QW-424.1 – THE BASIC RULES!
Base Metal(s) Used for Base Metals Qualified EQW-404.4
Procedure Qualification
Coupon
One metal from a P-Number to Any metal assigned that P- •! A change from one F-Number in
any any metal from the same P- Number
Number
QW-432 to any other F-Number
One metal from a P-Number to Any metal assigned the first P- or to any other filler metal not
any metal from any other P- number to any metal assigned
Number the second P-number listed in QW-432.
Any unassigned metal to the
same unassigned metal
The unassigned metal to itself
•! (F-number = Filler Number)
Any unassigned metal to any P- The unassigned metal to any
number metal metal assigned to the same P-
•! Secret: Section IX does not tell
Number as the qualified metal you what filler metal to use
Any unassigned metal to any The first unassigned metal to
other unassigned metal the second unassigned metal

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 30!

 EQW-404.4
•! A change from one F-Number in
QW-432 to any other F-Number
or to any other filler metal not
listed in QW-432.
•! Secret 1: you can use any filler
metal you can qualify
•! Secret 2: Filler metals do not
have to have F-numbers

EQW-403.9
•! The most commonly missed For single-pass or multi-pass
essential variable. . . . welding in which any pass is
greater than 1/2 inch (13 mm)
thick, an increase in base metal
thickness beyond 1.1 times that
of the qualification test coupon
is an essential Variable.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 31!

 Miscellaneous Secret
•! QW-211 Base Metal
•! The base metals may consist of either
plate, pipe, or other product forms.
Qualification in plate also qualifies for
pipe welding and vice versa.
•! Not true for welders. . . . They are on the
other side of the invisible wall.

Optimum W/Dratio is 3:2

Miscellaneous Secret 2 Miscellaneous Secret 2

•! QW-401.3 When a procedure has been •! Secret: WPSs that are already qualified by
previously qualified to satisfy all tension and bend test can be upgraded for
requirements other than notch impact tested applications by welding a
toughness, it is then necessary only to test coupon big enough to remove the
prepare an additional test coupon using impact test specimens following that WPS
the same procedure with the same plus the supplementary essential variables.
essential variables, but additionally with •! Repeating tension and bend tests is not
all of the required supplementary necessary provided the existing WPS is
essential variables, with the coupon long followed.
enough to provide the necessary notch-
toughness specimens.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 32!

 ASME Section IX
Welder and Operator Qualification

Walter J. Sperko, P.E

Sperko Engineering

Performance Qualification
•! QW-300.1 This Article lists the welding
processes separately, with the essential
variables which apply to welder and welding
operator performance qualifications.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 33!

 Performance Qualificaiton ASME Section IX Distinction
Between Welder and Welding
•! The welder qualification is limited by the Operator
essential variables given for each welding
process. These variables are listed in
•! Welder- one who performs a manual
QW-350, and are defined in Article IV
or semi-automatic welding operation.
Welding Data (QW-400).
•! The welding operator qualification is limited •! Welding Operator -one who
by the essential variables given in QW-360 operates machine or automatic welding
for each type of weld. equipment

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 34!

 Welder vs. Operator

•! Manual Welding -welding wherein

the entire welding operation is
performed and controlled by hand
•! Semiautomatic arc welding -arc
welding with equipment which
controls only the filler metal feed.
The advance of the welding is
manually controlled.

Welder vs. Operator

•! Machine Welding -welding with

equipment which performs the welding
operation under the constant
observation and control of a welding
operator.
•! Automatic Welding -welding with
equipment which performs the welding
operation without adjustment of the
controls by a welding operator.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 35!

 Performance Qualification Performance Qualification
•! A welder or welding operator may be •! The welders or welding operators . . .
qualified by radiography of a test coupon, shall be tested under the full supervision
radiography of his initial production and control of the manufacturer,
welding, or by bend tests taken from a contractor, assembler, or installer during
test coupon except as stated in QW-304 the production of these test weldments. It
(for Welders) and QW-305 (for Welding is not permissible for the manufacturer,
Operators). contractor, assembler, or installer to
•! Secret: Qualification by removal of bend have the welding performed by another
specimens from production welds is not organization.
permitted

Performance Qualification Supervision and Control

•! . . . . .shall be tested under the full •! The test supervisor should be capable of
supervision and control of the identifying, verify and recording the
manufacturer, contractor, assembler, or information that will be entered on the
installer during the production of these QW/QB-484 form since it will be certified
test weldments. as correct by the manufacturer or
•! What is “supervision and control?” contractor.
•! Are there any qualifications for the
person who provides “supervision and
control?”

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 36!

 Records
•! QW-301.4 Record of Tests. The record . . .
shall include
•! the essential variables (QW-350 or QW-360)
•! type of test and test results
•! ranges qualified in accordance with QW-452
for each welder and welding operator.
•! A suggested form for these records is given in
Form QW-484 (see Nonmandatory Appendix
B).
•! Certifying Signature

Intent of Tests Testing Process

•! QW-30l.l Intent of Tests. •! QW-30l.2 Qualification Tests. Each
•! The performance qualification tests are manufacturer or contractor shall qualify
intended to determine the ability of each welder or welding operator for each
welders and welding operators to make welding process to be used in production
sound welds welding.
•! For both welders and operators, this is
demonstrated by welding a test coupon.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 37!

 Testing Process Testing Process
•! QW-30l.2 Qualification Tests. •! QW-30l.2 Qualification Tests.
•! The performance qualification test •! Changes beyond which requalification is
(coupon) shall be welded in accordance required are given in
with a qualified Welding Procedure –!QW-350 for welders
Specifications (WPS), except that when
performance qualification is done in –!QW-360 for welding operators.
accordance with a WPS that requires a
preheat or postweld heat treatment, •! Welders and Welding Operators are
these may be omitted. distinct from each other for qualification
•! (A WPS must be followed during the test) purposes

Biggest lie in the welding industry Welders

•! “A welder is qualified to a procedure. . .” •! QW-304 Welders
•! A WPS must be followed during the test, but •! Except for the special requirements of
that WPS does not limit what the welder is QW-380, each welder who welds under
qualified to do in production. Welders : the rules of the Code shall have passed
–!are qualified for each process they will the mechanical and visual examinations
use prescribed in QW-302.1 and QW-302.4
–!Limited by the essential variables in respectively.
QW-350 (for welders) or QW-360 (for •! Default Testing is visual and mechanical
operators) (!)

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 38!

 Welders Extent of Testing
•! Alternatively, welders making a groove
weld using SMAW, SAW, GTAW, PAW, •! QW-304.1
and GMAW (except short-circuiting •! Alternatively, a 6 in. (150 mm) length of
mode) or a combination of these the first production weld made by a
processes, may be qualified by welder using the process(es) and/or
radiographic examination. mode of arc transfer specified in
•! Secret: RT is not permitted for QW-304 may be qualified by
qualification of GMAW-S radiography

Extent of Testing Retesting

•! QW-305 Welding Operators •! QW-321 Retests
•! Same as QW-304 except: •! A welder or welding operator who
•! QW-305.1 . . . .Alternatively, a 3 ft fails one or more of the tests
(0.9 m) length of the first production prescribed in QW-304 or QW-305,
weld made entirely by the welding as applicable, may be retested
operator in accordance with a under the following conditions.
qualified WPS may be examined by
radiography

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 39!

 Retesting Further Training
•! QW-321.1 Immediate Retest. •! QW-321.4 Further Training.
•! When an immediate retest is made, •! When the welder or the welding
the same test method shall be operator has had further training or
used (visual, mechanical or practice, a new test shall be made
radiography) and the welder or
for each position on which he failed
welding operator shall make two
to meet the requirements.
consecutive test coupons or double
the length for each position which he
has failed, all of which shall pass the
examination requirements.

Further Training Welder Performance Variables

•! QW-351 General
•! A welder may be qualified by making tests
•! QW-321.4 Further Training. with each individual welding process, or with
•! How much training is “Further a combination of welding processes in a
single test coupon.
Training?” •! The limits of weld metal thickness for which
–!Instruction on Specific Technique he will be qualified are dependent upon the
approximate thickness of the weld metal he
–!Go over in the corner and practice deposits with each welding process, exclusive
–!Don’t come back for a month. . . of any weld reinforcement.
•! Secret: Base metal thickness is not a variable
•! Code distinguishes between a Retest for welders.
and a New Test.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 40!

 QW -402.4 SMAW, GTAW, GMAW, PAW
•! Deletion of the backing in single-
welded groove welds. Double-
welded groove welds are considered
welding with backing is an essential
variable.

•! This was a nonessential variable for

procedure qualification

QW-403.16, Common Processes

•! A change in the pipe diameter
beyond the range qualified in
QW-452 is an essential variable.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 41!

 Position of
Electrode!
3/4” 3000 lb
Rotation of Coupling!
Electrode!

NPS 12, Extra-Strong

Seamless Pipe!

QW-403.18, All Processes

What QW-423 Really Says. . . .
•! A change from one P-Number to Start with this
any other P-Number or to a base column. . .
metal not listed in QW/ QB-422,
Base metals that you can Base metals that you need
except as permitted in QW -423, use to qualify a welder to weld in production
and in QW- 420. P-1 through P-15E, P-34, P-1 through P-15E, P-34,
or P-41 through P-49 and P-41 through P-49
Move to this
column

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 42!

 QW-423
QW-423 – Unassigned metals
The most common situation . . . .
Base metals that you can Base metals that you need •! When a base metal shown in the left
use to qualify a welder to weld in production column is used for welder qualification, the
welder is qualified to weld all combinations
P-1 P-1 through P-15E, of base metals shown in the right column,
P-34, and P-41 through
P-49 including unassigned metals of similar
chemical composition to these metals.
This table continues on, covering aluminum (P-21/25), •! Secret: This allows welders to weld on
titanium (P-51/54) and zirconium (P-61) metals
unassigned metals without testing on them

QW-404.15, All Processes

•! A change from one F-Number in QW-
432 to any other F-Number or to any
other filler metal, except as permitted in
QW-433. Secret: a welder
qualified to weld
using E7018 is
also qualified to
weld using
E9018

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 43!

 QW-433

QW-432 Steel and Steel Alloys that are F-6

QW-404.15, All Processes
Spec. Process AWS Classification
SFA-5.2 FGW, GTAW All classifications, CS
SFA-5.9 GMAW, GTAW All classifications, SS •! A change from one F-Number in QW-
SFA-5.18 GMAW, GTAW All classifications, CS 432 to any other F-Number or to any
SFA-5.20 GMAW-FC All classifications, CS
SFA-5.22 GMAW-FC All classifications, SS other filler metal, except as permitted in
SFA-5.28 GMAW, GTAW All classifications LAS QW-433.
SFA-5.29 GMAW-FC All classifications, LAS
•! Secret: Unassigned filler metals and
electrodes have to be separately
qualified.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 44!

 QW-404.30, Common Processes
•! A change in deposited weld metal
thickness beyond the range qualified in
QW-451 for procedure qualification or
QW -452 for performance qualification.

The Secret lives of Fillet Welds Weld Deposit Thickness

•! QW-303.1 Groove Welds -General. •! QW-306 Combination of Welding Processes
•! . . . welders and welding operators who •! A welder or welding operator may be qualified
pass the required tests for groove welds by making tests with each individual welding
process in separate test coupons, or with a
shall also be qualified to make fillet welds combination of welding processes in a single
in all thicknesses and pipe diameters of test coupon.
any size within the limits of the welding
variables of QW-350 or QW360, as
applicable.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 45!

 Weld Deposit Thickness Weld Deposit Thickness
•! QW-306 Combination of Welding •! QW-306 Combination of Welding Processes
Processes •! A welder or welding operator qualified in
•! For combination qualifications in a single combination on a single test coupon is
test coupon, the limits for thicknesses . . . qualified to weld in production using any
shall be considered individually for each of his processes individually or in
welder or welding operator for each different combinations, provided he
welding process or whenever there is a welds within his limits of qualification with
change in an essential variable. each specific process.
•! Secret: New “t” for Uphill – Downhill,
Transfer mode, F-number, etc.

QW-120 TEST POSITIONS FOR

GROOVE WELDS
•! “Groove welds may be made in test
coupons oriented in any of the positions
in figure QW-461.3 or figure
QW-461.4. . .

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 46!

 QW-120 TEST POSITIONS FOR QW-120 TEST POSITIONS FOR
GROOVE WELDS GROOVE WELDS - 1G
•! “except that an angular deviation of ±15 ±15°!
deg from the specified horizontal and
vertical planes, and an angular deviation
of ±5 deg from the specified inclined
plane are permitted during welding.”

°!
±15

QW-120 TEST POSITIONS FOR QW-120 TEST POSITIONS FOR

GROOVE WELDS - 2G GROOVE WELDS – 6G
What is position is
Between 1G and 2G?

±15°!

°!
±15

45°±5°!

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 47!

 Positions Positions
•! QW-110 WELD ORIENTATION
•! The orientations of welds are illustrated
in figure QW-461.1 or figure QW-461.2.

Welding
Positions are!
contiguous. . .!
SECRET:!
1G " Flat !

Extensive
Powerpoint
presentation on
“position” at
Sperkoengineering.
com

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 48!

 QW-409.2, GMAW QW-404.32, GMAW
•! A change from spray arc, globular arc, or •! For the low voltage short-circuiting type of gas
spray pulsating arc to short circuiting arc, metal-arc process when the deposited weld
or vice versa. metal thickness is less than 1/2 in. (13 mm), an
increase in deposited weld metal thickness
beyond 1.1 times that of the qualification test
deposited weld metal thickness. For weld
metal thicknesses of 1/2 in. (13 mm) and
greater, use QW-451.1, QW-451.2, or
QW-452.1, as applicable.

Welding Operators Welding Operators

•! QW -361 General •! QW-361.1 Essential Variables -
•! A welding operator shall be requalified Automatic Welding
whenever a change is made in one of the •! (a) A change from automatic to machine
following essential variables. There may welding.
be exceptions or additional requirements •! (b) A change in the welding process.
for the processes of QW-362 (EB),
QW-363 (SW), and the special The rest are for EBW, LBW, FW
processes of QW-380 (overlay).

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 49!

 Welding Operators Welding Operators
•! QW-361.2 Essential Variables -Machine Welding
•! QW-361.2 Essential Variables -Machine (continued)
Welding •! ( e ) The addition of welding positions other than
•! (a) A change in the welding process. those already qualified
•! (b) A change from direct visual control •! (f) The deletion of consumable inserts, except that
to remote visual control and vice-versa. qualification with consumable inserts shall also
qualify for fillet welds and welds with backing.
•! (c) The deletion of an automatic arc
•! (g) The deletion of backing. Double-welded groove
voltage control system for GTAW. welds are considered welding with backing.
•! (d) The deletion of automatic joint •! (h) A change from single pass per side to multiple
tracking passes per side but not the reverse.

Inquiry BC 78-662 Continuity (Prolongation)

•! Question: Are separate performance •! When do Welder Qualifications Expire?
qualifications required for one person acting
•! QW-322.1 Expiration of Qualification.
as both welder and welding operator, using
•! The performance qualification of a welder or
the same process within the same essential welding operator shall be affected when one of the
variables? following conditions occurs:
•! Reply: Yes. Section IX considers welders •! (a) When he has not welded with a process during
and welding operators to be distinct from a period of 6 months or more, his qualifications for
one another for performance qualification that process shall expire. . .
purposes.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 50!

 Maintaining Qualifications Inquiry BC 78-662
•! Question: Must performance
Name_________________Process_________Type_______! qualifications for welders and welding
Date Job No. Date Job No. Date Job No. operators be mainteined and renewed
separately?
12-25-96 Original 4-15-98 Test
Test piece •! Reply: Yes
6-13-97 2756 9-9-98 4988

11-15-97 3354

Continuity Continuity
•! QW-322.2 Renewal of Qualification •! QW-322.2 Renewal of Qualification
•! (a) Renewal of qualification expired •! That successful test renews the welder or
under QW322.1(a) above may be made welding operator's previous qualifications
for any process by welding a single test for that process for those materials,
coupon of either plate or pipe, of any thicknesses, diameters, positions, and
material, thickness or diameter, in any other variables for which he was
position, and by testing of that coupon as previously qualified.
required by QW-301 and QW -302.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 51!

 Testing the Test Coupon
QW-462 Test Specimens
The purpose of the QW-462 figures is to
give the manufacturer or contractor
guidance in dimensioning test specimens
for tests required for procedure and
performance qualifications. Unless a
minimum, maximum, or tolerance is given,
the (secret) dimensions are to be
considered approximate.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 52!

 3/4 in (40 1/2 in (25
mm) = 2T mm) = 2T

3/8 in (10
mm) = T 1/4 in (6
mm) = T

Secret: the most common test lab error is to

use the wrong bend radius when testing thin
sections

Aluminum Bend Test Specimen!

6-2/3t

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 53!

 One last point. . . •!What does Section IX cover?
•!When do you have to use Section IX?
•!The purpose and function of Section IX
•! The Code is not a handbook.
•!Relationship of Section IX to other Code Sections
•! The code is not a substitute for •!How to read Section IX – Organization and Structure
education, experience, or sound •!WPS life expectancy
engineering judgment. •!How to read Section IX – reading variables
•!Commonly misread procedure qualification variables
•!The biggest lie in the wonderful world of welding
•!Commonly misread performance qualification
variables
•!This seminar did not make you a welding engineer.

The Secrets to Using ASME Section IX! 54!

Illustrations of QW-451.1 with test coupons welded with single process and filler metal
Maximum Weld
PQR Test coupon Base Metal Thickness Range Test Coupon Weld Metal Deposit Thickness
No. thickness (T) (T) qualified Thickness (t) (t) Qualified

1 3/8 in (10 mm) 1/16 to 3/4 in. (1.5 to 20 mm) SMAW t=3/8 in. (20 mm) 3/4 (in. 20 mm)
2 1/2 in. (12 mm) 3/16 to 1.0 in (5 to 24 mm) GTAW, t=1/2 in. (12 mm) 1 in (24 mm)
3 1 in (25 mm) 3/16 to 2 in. (5 to 50 mm) GMAW-FC, t=1 in. (25 mm) 2 in. (50 mm)
4 2 in (50 mm) 3/16 to 8 in (5 to 200 mm) SAW. t=2 in. (50 mm) 8 in (200 mm)
5 10 in (250 mm) 3/16 to 13.3 in (5 to 332 mm) SAW, t = 10 in (250 mm) 13.33 (333 mm)

Illustrations of QW-451.1 with test coupons welded with more than one process or filler metal
PQR Test coupon Base Metal Thickness Range Test Coupon Weld Metal Maximum Weld Deposit
No. thickness (T) (T) qualified Thickness (t) Thickness (t) Qualified

6 3/8 in (10 mm) 1/16 to 3/4 in. (1.5 to 20 mm) GTAW, t=1/8 in. (3 mm) GTAW, 1/4 in (6 mm)
SMAW t=1/4 in. (7 mm) SMAW, 1/2 in. (14 mm)
7 1/2 in. (12 mm) 3/16 to 1.0 in (5 to 24 mm) E6010 t=1/8 in. (3 mm) E6010, 1/4 in. (6 mm)
E7018 t=3/8 in (9 mm) E7018, 3/4 in. (18 mm)
8 1 in (25 mm) 3/16 to 2 in. (5 to 50 mm) GTAW t= 1/2 in. (12.5 mm) GTAW, 1 in. (25 mm)
GMAW-FC, t=1/2 in. (12.5 mm) GMAW-FC, 1 in. (25 mm)
9 1 in (25 mm) 3/16 to 2 in. (5 to 50 mm) GTAW t= 1/4 in. (6 mm) GTAW, 1/2 in. (12 mm)
GMAW-FC, t=3/4 in. (19 mm) GMAW-FC, 2 in. (50 mm)
10 1.5 in (38 mm) 3/16 to 8 in (5 to 200 mm) SAW. t=3/4 in. (19 mm) SAW, 8 in (200 mm)
GMAW-FC t=3/4 in. (19 mm) GMAW-FC, 8 in (200 mm)
11 2 in (50 mm) 3/16 to 8 in (5 to 200 mm) GTAW t=1/2 in. (12 mm) GTAW, 1 in. (24 mm)
SAW. t=3/4 in. (19 mm) SAW, 8 in (200 mm)
GMAW-FC t=3/4 in. (19 mm) GMAW-FC, 8 in (200 mm)
12 10 in (250 mm) 3/16 to 13.3 in (5 to 333 mm) GTAW t= 1/4 in. (6 mm) GTAW, 1/2 in. (12 mm)
GMAW-FC, t=3/4 in. (19 mm) GMAW-FC, 13.3 in. (333 mm)
SAW, t = 9 in (225 mm) SAW, 13.3 (333 mm)

© Sperko Engineering Services, Inc, March, 2009. Reproduction without written permission is prohibited.