Lesson 3 THE NOTION OF CONSTRUCTED AUDIENCES herself both in a similar and different light.

herself both in a similar and different light. She may be a doting daughter, less of a church goer, may be
more studious in her studies, and devotes a great deal of time more than what you give to your academics.
We say that something is constructed when there is a deliberate attempt and effort to turn an idea into a She is certainly more of a loner who spends more time reading than socializing with friends or even family
material reality. The audience for a teleserye does not exist per se but the creators and producers build in members.
their minds what kinds of people will the teleserye most certainly attracts. It is to say that the group of
people defined as the audience of a particular television program could not have existed had it not been Consider now a fictional scenario: both of you were surfing on Internet, particularly the website of a teen
imagined and realized by a set of people. magazine called Tweens, a lifestyle magazine for young adults. A pop-up window emerges onscreen. It is a
survey form designed to know more about you-your television viewing preferences, the amount of time
Most media outfits operate this way, starting off with the question who is the target audience. The you spend in the malls, your cinema habits, the amount of free time you have, the number of cars your
construction of a target audience is a way of making the audience specific. By actually identifying why this family owns, your family's monthly income, etc.
product is relevant to a particular group of people and by bringing in that imagined group of people, the
media text actually constructs the audience for whom it is intended. A whitening soap released by the To Tweens magazine, you and your best friend could just be part of the 13-18 years old age group, a
pharmaceutical company is in need of consumers who will patronize the product. Intrinsic to the product female, a student, a member of a family that owns two cars, owns a townhouse in the metropolis, with
are some value propositions that give it an edge over other competitors in the market. It could be the parents earning 750,000 combined annual income, and someone who travels outside of your city at least
articulation of what the product can offer to its potential consumers, a way of saying "this is the answer to thrice a month. Tweens magazine's characterization of you is starkly different from how you see yourself,
your needs" or "the solution to your problem."A marketing plan is conceived and certainly a central part of or how you convey your identity to your peers and mentors. Magazine publishers like Tweens are not
it will be an advertisement. The potential consumers are now transmuted to be the target audience of the interested in your other hobbies, your spiritual life, or the depth of your relationships with your friends and
advertisements. family members. But they certainly care about how much do your parents earn, how many cars you have,
and how many out-of-town vacations you can afford as a family. They are interested in your mall-going
Remember too that media executives do not think of target audiences in the same way that the target habits and your preference for other media forms, such as television and cinema. Your status as a middle
audiences think of themselves. Let us take the case of Maribel, an 18-year old college student who is as class teenager is appealing to them for it illustrates how much purchasing power you have, even if you are
hardworking as anyone who wants to graduate with honors and land a successful and high-paying job. She not yet earning your own income.
is a daughter, sister, friend, and president of an academic organization in her campus. She defines herself
as a good student, a responsible campus leader, a loving sister, and an obedient daughter. However, the Tweens earns its revenue from both sales and advertising. Its publishers want to keep tab of their readers
media executives in the advertising company think of her in a different light. The characteristics that who are attractive to their advertisers. The information generated from the online surveys that pop out in
should properly describe Maribel are something that the advertising executive can use when they map out your computer screen are processed and consolidated and given to advertisers to attract them to buy
potential users of a whitening soap. They gathered the data about Maribel from a survey questionnaire advertising space in their magazine.
that she answered when she was in a mall. This survey questionnaire was secured by the advertising
company now bent on making a successful marketing campaign for a whitening soap. A target audience is best defined as a specific group of people identified and aggregated from selected
population segments who are the intended users. The information generated from them helps publishers
Now for the advertising company, Maribel belongs to the age bracket of 16-20 years old, a female, a and producers develop media messages that will attract this group or, in the case of advertisers, help them
student or a young professional, unmarried, with limited money. She is somebody who watches three to recommend products that will be potentially attractive and useful to this target audience. They speak to
four Filipino films a year, buys local celebrity magazines, subscribes to Instagram, and follows some local your interests, work around what will attract you, and avoid what might drive that away. In the case of
celebrities. Part of the characteristics that Maribel have which appeal to the advertising company is her most media, what is important is to keep a growing base of subscribers or viewers.
desire to have white and glowing skin because that seems to be the norm and the defining characteristic of
the local stars she follows on Instagram. To keep that steady base, audiences must be constructed. Creators and producers do not simply assume
that the target audience is there. It is constructed in them media producers. The imagined audience is
To both the pharmaceutical company and the advertising agency, Maribel and females like her are their translated in the actual creation of the media product.
target audience.
How Audiences are Constructed
Media institutions are run by executives who chart the strategies and tactics of interacting potential
audiences. You must at least have a general idea of how they think of you and how they mobilize their Shaun Moores (1993) asserts that the audience is not a homogeneous category and that it is best to see it
imagination to produce a media product that has you as a target audience. in its plurality-as audiences, in fact. They are disparate group categorized by how they receive the media
(in the privacy of their homes or out in the shopping malls) and other identity markers such as gender,
Think of yourself in a number of ways-as a student who devotes 35 hours a week in school, as a daughter race, ethnolinguistic group, class status, and other positions in society.
who assumes responsibilities in the house once you get home, as an older sister who tends to younger
siblings, as a regular churchgoer, or even as a reliable friend to your kabarkada. Your best friend might see
To the creators and producers of media and information texts, they are largely invisible. Ralway (1988) of people who will be the receiving end of media products and what they should be getting should appeal
thinks the word "audience" has indeed evolved from face-to-face interaction in one shared physical space to a complex traits which they possess. There are seven types of people and their core motivations are
to include now consumers of electronic media and information. She asserts that audiences have now what define each type.
become difficult to pin down their specific characteristics as audiences because they are widely dispersed
in different settings and contexts. Cross Cultural Consumer Characterization (4C's) : The Cross Cultural Consumer Characterization Model as
developed by Young and Rubicam LTD.
Yet it is worth noting that the word "audience" holds a firm place in media and information studies. This is
because creators and producers of media and information texts can actively construct audiences. What do  THE ASPIRER
we mean by this? Materialistic, acquisitive people, who are driven by others' perceptions of them rather than by
their own values As a result, they respond to what others perceive as being superficial" image,
As media organizations hold an inception meeting on a new media project, a brainstorming group is appearance, persona, charisma and fahion. An attractive pack is as important to them as its
huddled, and the first question pops out: "Who is our audience?" If the answer is "we do not have an contents. Their core need in life is for status.
audience," there is absolutely no point proceeding. But if there are answers that may seem disparate but
 THEREFORMER
can be pulled in together to create an identifiable set of target audience, then there is work to be done.
"Don't tell me what to do or what to think says the Reformer, valuing their own independent
judgment. Reformers are the most anti-materialistic of seven groups, and are often perceived as
Usually the attributes of the audience can be summed up by GEARS: .
Intellectual They are socially aware, and pride themselves on tolerance, Reformers seek out the
G- ender authentic and the harmonious, and are often at the leading edge of society. However, unlike
E-thnicity Explorers, they will not buy things just because they are new. Their core need in life is for
A-ge range enlightenment
R-egion or Nationality  THE EXPLORER
S-ocio-economic group These people are driven by a need for discovery, challenge and new frontiers Young in nature, if
not in reality, Explorer are often the first to try out new idea and experiences. They respond to
Since advertising peddles products or services, the Sor the socio-economic group is a priority concern. For brands that offer new sensations, indulgence and instant effects. In short, difference is what they
instance, the National Readership Survey in the United Kingdom adopts this traditional segmentation of seek out. Their core need in life is for discovery
audiences and it has been useful in terms of calibrating buying potential.  THE MAINSTREAM
These are the people who live in the world of the domestic and the everyday. A daily routine is
Traditional Segmentation Model fundamental to the way they live their lives. Their life choices are "we" rather than "me". As their
name implies, they are the mainstream of the society. They are the largest group of people within
Social Grade Social Status Occupation 4C's across the world. They respond to big established brands, to "family" brands and to offers of
A Upper middle class Highly managerial, allied with value for money. Their core need in life is for security.
huge firms, professionals with a  THE SUCCEEDER
steady base of income Succeeds possesses self-confidence, have a strong goal orientation and tend to be very organized.
B Middle class Middle management, As a result, they tend to occupy positions of responsibility in society. Their investment in the
administrative or professional status quo means they tend to support it. When it comes to brands, they seek reward and
C-1 Lower middle class Supervisory or clerical, junior prestige, and will often seek out the best , because that is what they feel they deserve. On the
managerial, administrative or other hand, they also seek caring and protective brands - their aggressive attitudes to life means
professional they need to relax occasionally Their core need in life is for control
C–2 Skilled working class Skilled manual workers  THE STRUGGLER
D Working class Semi and unskilled workers Struggles live for today, and make few plans for tomorrow. Others often see them as victims,
losers and wasters - aimless, disorganized people with few resources apart from their own
E Poorest of the poor Lowest grade workers physical skills. If they get on in life, it will depend more on a winning lottery ticket than anything
unemployed they do themselves. They are heavy consumers of alcohol and junk food. Visual impact and
physical sensation are an important element of their brand choices. In essence, they seek escape.
An advertising agency in the West, the Young and Rubicam LTD, has conceptualize what is now commonly
referred to as the 40s--the Cross Cultural consun Characterization Model. It sees the audience as a group  THE RESIGNED
 These are predominantly older people with constant, unchanging values built up over time. For The categories for demographics and psychographics are also useful for getting advertisers as well as for
them, the past is bathed in a warm nostalgic glow. They respect institutions and enjoy acting in determining the content of the media text. Discernment, mindful thought, and a very systematic way of
traditional role. Their brand choices is are driven by a need for safety and for economy. They calibrating risks are what make up the skills of media executives as they set out to lead the creation,
choose above all what is familiar to them. In life, their aim is basic: it is to survive. production, and dissemination of media products. Sometimes they refer to the success stories of the past
to determine the winning formula that would click with target audiences. Sometimes a national, or even
Audiences as Defined by Differences global, trend can reproduce itself. Take for instance the current hype concerning the horror genre which
has translated to the box office success of many Western movies shown over the local theaters. Local
By now, we should have realized that differences create the audience demographics. It is created by cinema executives were quick to appropriate horror as a genre in mainstream cinema and were successful
zeroing in to a particular sector of a population that is the intended audience of a media or information in generating huge ticket sales at the box office.
text. The term "demographic" also implies that a segment of the population share some common
characteristics that will make them gravitate toward or patronize a media or information text that has now Creating Content for Target Audiences
been marketed as a product. While there is the idea of common characteristics, in the end it is still the
segmentation of audiences based on differences-on what sets them apart from each other that is the Fiske (1987, 18) remarked that "television tries to construct an ideal subject position which it invites us to
defining feature of the process. occupy, and, if we do, rewards us with the pleasure of recognition."

The identification of those characteristics is of critical importance since media executives will exploit those Creating content for target audiences may be a tricky business for media executives. It involves a lot of
to make their media products attractive to target audiences. research, a wide range of options, and management of risks should the initial formats would not work
quite well. Imagine television stations setting up a program schedule for a specific period of time, let us say
Psychographics is largely derived from the concept of demographics, but is focused on the psychological half a year.
traits. This category is often utilized to provide more substance to the profile of potential media audiences.
It covers attitudes, personality types, opinions, and motivations These are elements that are usually tied to Most of the time, they avoid risks and do not gamble. They hire creative people who have a proven track
income and age brackets. record in keeping up with what the target audiences prefer. They refer to past research to validate current
assumptions. The whole climate of media at a given point in time guides them to actually fine-tune their
Consider the producers of a Saturday afternoon teen show who would like to illustrate the current lifestyle choices.
habits of their viewing public. They build a research design to probe into the psychological habits of their
target market. The researchers find out certain elements about the target viewers that provide more Risk management is an exceptionally significant part of audience creation. The drive is to sustain the
information. For instance, the 13-16 age group is mostly apolitical while the 17-19 age group find delight in production and dissemination of a media text. Therefore, it has to be successful to generate audience
discussing social issues; 92% of the entire age range of 13-19 maintain at least two social media accounts; share, revenues, and a steady, if not, exponentially increasing rate of profit. Content creators are chosen
and most of them belong to at least one organization in the school, church, or community. very carefully, privileging those with track record. They may also choose to produce material that already
has a track record of success. This could explain the resilience of some genres like romantic comedy or
Furthermore, the research company, after the first season of the telecast, declared that their findings even the action movie in film.
indicate three types of viewers who are drawn into the television show: a) those who follow their favorite
teen stars; b) those who are drawn to the narrative; and 3) those who seek lifestyle representations. The research and development arm trains its sights on how innovation can be best handled with minimum
risk using the tools of audience research. These tools may include surveys, focus group discussions,
The television producers can refer to the result of the research to tailor their narratives to sustain a loyal participant observation, and, rarely, audience ethnographies.
base of followers. The choice of lead actors and actresses is first to be determined in the planning stage,
followed by what narratives will suit the chosen actors and actresses while at the same time addressing the However, that seemingly simplistic model subsumes under its general processes certain assumptions that
impulse to seek lifestyle representations. place an active role on their intended audiences. The purposive sender builds rapport, establishes trust,
and manages risks so that the intended audiences will internalize its development messages particularly
It is very important to understand that television producers learn about their target audiences through aimed at improving lives and livelihoods and other development goals associated with eradicating poverty,
research. As an area of work, research here is viewed as part of the total investment of media industries to injustice, and vulnerability.
boost the capacity of a media product in generating profits through constructing a solid base of audiences.
Thus, research is a tool for getting advertisers as well as determining content that will keep an audience
base loyal to the media product.
Lesson 4 AUDIENCE RESEARCH "Any concept that is improperly interpreted by children could mean a shift in their perspective, and any
incorrect inferences to what is 'real' and 'socially acceptable or correct' could lead to possible conflicts in a
Who is watching? Who is listening? Who is reading? Who is patronizing the media product? These seem child's development"
like basic questions but have profound consequences to the process of creation, production, and
dissemination of media and information. Certainly the creators and producers of media and information When it comes to genre, more children watch shows categorized as comedy and children's television,
would want a systematic and, more significantly, an accurate way of finding out about their audiences. followed by news, education, drama, and music.

Audience research is traditionally about 1) gaining an insight on audience preferences, however fluid and "Majority of children prefer watching teleseryes or adult-oriented television shows like comedy, drama,
ever-changing these could be in the present period; and 2) calibrating audiences sizes and reach. However, news, and foreign television series dubbed in Filipino." the report read.
there can be other directions for audience research that may be relevant to cite. For instance, research can
be conducted so technological advances that the media industry will undertake can be based on sound But the study could not determine whether this trend is because of "the lack of child-oriented shows,
empirical data. The web-based platforms like iwantv.com.ph for delayed television viewing is an example marred by the inability of television networks to follow the 15% child-friendly programs policy under the
of a technological innovation that is based on a study of viewing preferences in a time of shifting provision of the Republic Act 8370."
contexts—more time is spent traveling on the road due to intensifying traffic or work hours attuned to
global clocks, like those in the BPO industries, that prevent audiences from tuning in to their favorite RA 8370 or the Children's Television Act of 1997 requires every broadcast network to allot 15% of their
television programs. Formulation of social policy can also be a trigger for a research undertaking. In the daily total airtime for education and child-friendly shows.
news article below, the research findings of how children are affected by the violence of teleseryes are
credibly tackled using very specific research tools that were aligned to the research objectives. As stated in Favorite teleserye
the article, the research findings will yield recommendations for new television standards that will favor
Filipino children. Since the study was conducted early 2015, the ABS-CBN teleserye Forevermore, starring the popular love
team of Enrique Gil and Liza Soberano, topped the list of Filipino children's most favorite local television
Good or Bad? Most Filipino Children Glued to Teleseryes MANILA, show. The show was still airing then.

Philippines - A recent study shows most Filipino children still prefer watching television when they get For the most favorite foreign television program, the top choice was the Korean drama My Love From The
home after a long day of school, and they like watching teleseryes (television series) or adult-oriented Star which aired in GMA Network.
shows.
Top 15 most favorite local shows Top 15 favorite foreign shows
Most Filipino children watch television for close to 3 hours during weekdays, and 6 hours during weekends, 1 Forevermore My Love From The Star
the same study showed. Both are beyond the internationally-prescribed daily exposure to television which 2 Showtime Fated to Love You
is only 1 to 2 hours. 3 Dream Dad NBA
4 Once Upon A Kiss The Heirs
The study, conducted by the National Council for Children's Television (NCCT) late February to March 2015, 5 TV Patrol Empress Ki
surveyed 4,395 children below 18 years old from Grades 3 to 10 enrolled in 209 public and private 6 Matanglawin Meteor Garden
elementary and high schools all over the country. 7 Eat Bulaga Discovery Channel
8 Wansapanataym SpongeBob
Time Slots Weekday Weekend
9 Inday Bote Star Movies Shows
6 am to 9 am 13.7% 29.5%
10 Bagito Phineas and Ferb
9 am to 12 nn 6.3% 43.2%
11 Got To Believe The Voice
12 nn to 1 pm 12.50% 31.5%
12 ABS-CBN shows Sofia The First
1 pm to 5 pm 8% 36.6%
13 Gandang Gabi Vice Hunger Games
5 pm to 7 pm 51.8% 37%
14 Oh My G! Cartoon Network Shows
7 pm to 1 pm 48.4% 49.6%
15 PBA Master Chief

"Several studies pointed out how television programs, which are not specifically created for children, may
not be beneficial toward their growth, even without the existence of vulgarity and violence in its content,"
the study read.
Most of the respondents (48.7%) have access to only one television in their household, but a significant Historically, it is the radio and television that have relied much on audience research because they are
number has access to more than one unit: mass media platforms that cannot accurately count their audiences. The manner of dissemination
transmission via the airwaves —is like it is given free to audiences and there is no way of measuring how
 2 television units - 30.9% many are actually patronizing the program. Audience research is the only way to get an estimate of
 3 television units - 11.2% . audience sizes.
 4 television units - 3.9% -
 5 or more television units - 2.6% Today, beyond television and radio, even print and the Internet has ventured into audience research.

On why they like watching television, many children cited the following reasons: Audience research is also allied to market research and social research. Market research is convenient to
know about how markets thrive, consumer habits, and how consumers leverage their consumption
 to gather information for their homework/academic requirement or just to learn new and preferences. It is mostly aligned with increasing revenue or addressing issues that seem to constrain
interesting things revenue growths. Social research is learning about social groups without having to anchor research
 to tune in to the programs that they like objectives to social groups or sectors of societies.
 to serve as a pass-time activity
 to do school or academic requirements Not all information gathering can be considered research. Here are some of the qualities of research that
should underpin apply to audience research, market research, or social research.
Role of parents
a) Systematic: The whole research undertaking should be structured with steps that should be
The study also stressed the role of parents in curbing the negative effects of television on children. followed according to the design.
b) Logical: Research should be guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of
While most of the children watch television with their parents most of the time, a significant number still induction and deduction.
watch without guidance from adults. c) Empirical: Research is underpinned by data that is systematically gathered and forms the basis of
all analyses and conclusions that will be arrived at.
Parents/guardian's guidance while watching Percentage d) Replicable: Research findings are verifiable by replicating the study and achieving the same
television results.
Always 26.80%
Often 37.60% Methods of Audience Research
Seldom 28.00%
Never 7.70% Survey is the most common method of audience research. Surveys are conducted mostly through
questionnaires, a through questionnaires, administered to a select group of people where they are ed the
"The intervention of adults in television-viewing habits creates the difference between learning something same questions, and their answers consolidated and tabulated. Along with surveys, observation, focused
valuable or picking up a negative attitude from the programs that a child is exposed to," the study read. group discussions, and audience meters are employed to in the valuable data that the creators and
producers need to shape media content and make programs thrive.
The NCCT urged media companies to produce more television programs that are "sensitive to the
developmental needs of a child." Observation can be both formal and informal. A small notebook and pen will make informal observation
when done with live audiences of noontime shows or in market centers where consumer behavior can be
The study also advised television networks to "create a more child-friendly viewing experience" during the actually closely observed. Informal observation is a good starting ground from where more elaborate
5 pm to 10 pm time slot, since many children are tuned in. (READ: Childhood TV addicts more likely to research methods can be applied. For instance, a network producer of a noontime show would like to
commit crime: study) reformat the program and he/she may start by observing live audiences in the studio, how they behave,
and at what points do they lose or regain their interests. Formal observation may entail more structure
Results of this study will be used by the council in drafting new children’s television standards. - and design. For instance, specific forms of behavior are looked into and observed such as when do they
Rappler.com start looking for the remote control or when do they start to lose interest. One particular study looked into
the listening habits of housewives on radio dramas.
Source: Geronimo, Jee Y. "Good or Bad? Most Filipino Children Glued to Teleseryes." Last modified
Focused Group Discussions (FGD) are conducted with a small group of six to ten people led through the
August 19, 2015. http://www.rappler.com/nation/115437-filipino-children-watchteleseryes. structured discussion by a skilled facilitator. The goal is to generate a maximum number of different ideas
and opinions regarding a particular topic centered around a media or information text. A set of carefully Schedule a community viewing of the outputs generated from the exercise.
crafted questions are cascaded to the participants to trigger responses that will generate opinions,
insights, and perspectives. Thus, it is a good way of gaining an insight on how they receive or how they are Lesson 1 MAKING SENSE OF MEDIA-MAKING: FRAMES OF A STORY
able to generate their own meanings from a media or literary text.
Let us take the case of news as an example. It is important to give weight to news because it is our main
Not all researches are tuned to serve the interests of media organizations, specifically to address revenue source of information about our community, our country, and the world. The news organizations are also
generating functions. Scholars of media, even teachers of media and information literacy, undertake considered authoritative bodies responsible for overseeing the political and social order aside from
audience research to shed light on notions and themes such as audience agency, which is the capacity of marshaling public opinion. In this section, we hope to unpack this common assumption and see through
audiences for their own meaning-making when they engage with media and information texts. Sometimes the many implications of media and information texts emerging from news organizations.
researches can delve into how television viewers interpret meanings in everyday context.
We have already established that all media and information texts are constructed. In the process of
Targeting Audiences for Community Reforms planning, producing, and creating these texts, choices have to be made. The producers and creators make
the choices. Their choices reflect their values, opinions, and points-of-view.
Divide the class into small groups of six to eight people. As a group, decide on a community problem that
you want to address. Be very specific about the problem and be very concrete about what you want to Integral and vital to the process of creation and production is the selection of what to include and what to
achieve. exclude. The selection of a news source, such as the presidential sister in the case of the news story,
implies that there will also be other sources that will either corroborate or invalidate the opinions stated
For instance, the problem is that the campus or the barangay households do not practice waste
by the news source.
segregation. You may like to introduce waste segregation in one area of the school or the barangay
through the use of differentiated trash bins.
The process of inclusion and exclusion is best illustrated by the way we frame an event or a scene before
It could also be that you want each family in the barangay to prepare disaster kits so they will be prepared we click the shutter of our cameras. Some do it with a deliberate choice, most of the time guided by the
in the event of any natural calamity. conventions of composition in photography. Others simply zero in to a central image and may even take
the option of blurring the background so that the foreground image may assume more prominence. In this
Perhaps you want to eradicate the use of plastic bags in the entire school campus. case, the frame is used literally-as a structure that surrounds something. In the case of a picture, these are
the imaginary four lines that form a square and border a scene that will be rendered in a shot.
These are all doable projects. However, it will need community mobilization. You will need to make the
concerned community members act for change to happen. In media production, frames are tools utilized by media creators and producers to tell their story. The use
of frames gets more complicated for more complex media messages and formats. For news stories, the
You will need to create and produce media texts and will be targeting specific audiences-the community journalist provides an angle by which to tell the story or a platform by which to launch the story. In the
members who need to act-to achieve your goal. earlier example, the angle from which we viewed the story was the presidential sister, and her point-of-
view on poverty and its causes were foregrounded. The exclusion of contrary points-of-view had some
Think of these community members as your target audience. Narrow down as much as possible. Ask effect on the way the story cuts across to the public and that is the one-sidedness of the opinion.
yourselves the right questions: What are they like? What is their economic status? What are the beliefs
they hold? Who do they listen to? Make a long list of questions to ask about your target audience? In other forms of media, like the feature story or the investigative report, the frame can be a powerful
organizing tool for telling stories. For one thing, they will have to frame media stories so their content and
As a group, seek answers to the questions you have posed. Brainstorm and deliberate as a group what will
form as well as their meanings, can be shared by a huge segment of society. That shared experience is
most likely appeal to your target audience.
dependent on shared narratives, metaphors, phrases, cultural memories, even allusions to pop culture and
history, and basically a shared social context
After you have consolidated your thoughts about your target audience, it is now time to brainstorm on a
media text that you think can appeal to them and can make them act. What form of media text will you
make? Something that is doable and scalable. Perhaps, a set of posters or a 3-minute video shot using your Frames can be both enabling and constraining to audiences. Teleseryes, for instance, frame the long
point-and-shoot 'digital cameras. These examples are cited because they use materials that are within your narratives around familiar themes that have resonated with audiences since the advent of this format. Add
reach. to the framing a re-contextualized love story that incorporates contemporary elements-highly altered
courtship practices, the fast-changing power dynamics between men and women, and the influences of
popular culture and social media.
Your media text should be able to encapsulate two significant questions: What is the problem? How do we
act to solve the problem?
It can be constraining, too, because that frame may, more often than not, deliberately stereotyped Values and Attitudes
characters such as women and homosexuals. It can be constraining use the audience is hooked to
formulaic impulses of storytelling. Thus, framing is a cess of putting together the elements to create or Values are commonly held beliefs, views, and attitudes about what is important and what is right. Values
produce a media text. The reverse is co true-it is also a process of excluding some elements in the creation can be prescriptive and serve as a guide for desirable behavior.
and production of a media text.
Values are principles that we use to judge the worth of an idea or a practice. It also underpins the criteria
Choices inevitably bear the values, opinions, and points-of-view of the media creators and producers. by which we judge what is good or bad, what is right or wrong, and what is acceptable or not. Personal
Every decision they make-lifestyles to portray, opinions expressed by major characters, and the actions in values are those that guide or drive our individual behavior. When you declare that you will spend an
the plot-are enfolded in the media texts. The executives running the newsroom make decisions about the inordinate amount of time finishing your term paper for a subject to make sure it is a well-researched and
chronology of the program-what news should make up the headline portion and therefore should come well written piece, then
first and what should come last. Based on shared cultural experiences, those that come first are of national
importance, and those that come last, bear the least significance. The political and economic situation is Value systems, on the other hand, are a coherent and harmoniously aligned set of values from where you
constitutive of national concerns, implicates nation-building processes, and bears an impact on the derive you sense of identity and integrity. Diligence, industry, respect for others, empathy, and compassion
citizens. Lifestyle and entertainment stories are niche concerns, the reason why they are called soft news. align to provide you with a sense of how it is to be good person given your particular circumstances.
Let us interrogate the news genre in television.
Attitudes are the expressions of our response to particular ideas, events, circumstances, or people. In
Media and the Status Quo cognitive psychology, attitude may be described as a predisposition to react favorably or unfavorably to a
situation, event, or a person.
We all possess values or points-of-views and exercise lifestyle choices and attitudes toward other people
and situations. What we are after in this section are the values, attitudes, and points-of-view that media Lifestyles
today reflect to support, perpetuate, and affirm the existing status quo. It is a Latin term that means
"existing state of affairs." Lifestyles are ways of living and denote the interests, hobbies, behavior, opinions of an individual, family,
group, or even a community. Both tangible and intangible elements combine to render the kind of lifestyle
When we say the status quo, we refer to prevailing state of affairs in society--the social institutions and the that an individual is predisposed to lead. Tangible elements could be the social class, largely determined by
relationships that exist between institutions and social classes. Most existing state of affairs is always income and other material possessions, as well as the spaces inhabited. Intangible elements could come
powerful relationships that are favored to a small segment of society which holds economic and political with the values and attitudes a person or a group is predisposed to.
power. If we narrow down to specifics, these are the resilient ideas that make discrimination, exclusion,
and marginalization that are well tolerated in our society. For instance, a fairly good amount of income allows a person to live in a gated village, where privacy,
family leisure, and expensive hobbies are valued practices. Combine these with a person's attitude favoring
Does media serve the status quo? Does media enable changes so that reforms can be d and the status quo leisure over work and we can actually describe what lifestyle this person is predisposed to live. Spaces and
a bit altered to serve the interests and well-being of the less privilrged? places influence the kind of lifestyle a group would most likely possess. For instance, it is said that
residents of Northern Luzon are more prone to live a frugal lifestyle because the land is difficult to till and
Mainstream media and how it supports and perpetuates the status quo has been the se of many yields very little thus constraining their buying capacities.
reservations and resentments about the institution's role in society. The rise of independent" outfits doing
equally independent endeavors has also been largely reaction or a resistance to the dominant role Media exposes its viewers to lifestyles that may be different from what they know. Local television
mainstream media institutions play in our society. Using limited capital resources but capitalizing on the programming has always favored the lifestyles of the rich and powerful classes engendering aspirations of
mileage provided by social networks, independent producers of indie films, for example, embarks on a a new lifestyle for its viewers. Mass advertising encourages people to patronize products that promote
creative journey to allow themselves to determine both content and form without having to go acquiesce certain lifestyles. Social media today has privileged the sharing of information which also includes those
to the demands of big industries. that can positively affect one's lifestyle, such as media texts encouraging healthy lifestyle and eating habits,
and the prevention of lifestyle diseases through the advocacy of exercise, dieting, and other wellness
Public criticism against the media ranges from its bias in favor of mainstream ideas (defined as the popular, practices.
acceptable, unchallenged, and favored by powerful institutions) to the propagation and reinforcement of
stereotypes. These limited perspectives circumscribe our understanding and appreciation of the world and
makes us even blind to more expansive possibilities of being a media user, of being a citizen exercising and
experiencing the spirit of democracy through responsible media use.
Propaganda and Persuasion images; the ones who are assigned to do this are called "spin doctors." Public relations firms are usually
very adept in handling crisis situations and generating spins to alter public perception.
The term "propaganda" was first introduced in the national consciousness when a group of illustradors
launched the Propaganda Movement in Europe in 1868. When the three Filipino priests Gomez, Burgos, Jowett and O'Donnell (2012, 6) offer a more elaborate and comprehensive definition of propaganda that
and Zamora were sentenced to death because of their alleged participation in the uprising in the Cavite focuses on the communication process: "Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape
Naval Yard, feelings of anger were stoked. In Europe, a group led by Marcelo H. Del Pilar organized upper- perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior that furthers the desire of the propagandist. The
class Filipinos to "awaken the sleeping intellect of the Spaniard to the needs of our country" and to create definition carries more weight than the earlier definition stated since this one underscores the willful and
a closer, more equal association of the islands and the motherland. They aimed to seek reforms from the strategized move to "shape perceptions" and even, "manipulate", with the sole intention of furthering the
Spanish colonial government right in the heart of their homeland and the most notable were the following: objective of the propagandist." Persuasion, on the other hand, is defined as:
representation of the Philippines in the Cortes or Spanish parliament; secularization of the clergy;
legalization of Spanish and Filipino equality; creation of a public school system independent of the friars; "... a complex, continuing, interactive process in which a sender and a receiver are linked by symbols,
abolition of the polo (labor service) and vandala (forced sale of local products to the government); verbal and non-verbal, through which a persuader attempts to persuade the persuadee to adopt a change
guarantee of basic freedoms of speech and association; and equal opportunity for Filipinos and Spanish to in a given attitude or behavior because the persuadee has had perceptions enlarged or changed" (Dowell
enter government service. and Kable, quoted by Jowett and O'Donnell 2012, 32).

Most of them used the power of the written and spoken word to advance their causes. Lopez Jaena was an From the definition, we can sense that persuasion has a transactional quality. There is a relationship
excellent orator. Marcelo H. del Pilar put up the newspaper Diariong Tagalog and used it as a platform to between the persuader and the one being persuaded. Persuasion happens because there is an imperative
speak about the abuses of the friars. Jose Rizal wrote treatises and his two famous novels were largely to be addressed, a need that has to be filled up. It can also be an interactive process—the two parties
responsible for stoking resistance to colonial authorities, ushering the Philippine Revolution in 1896. agree on a process and suggest a mutually agreed upon message that results from exchange of opinions.
The one who is the object of persuasion is an active audience negotiating meaning in the hope that it will
Today, starting from the invention of the radio, the means of disseminating propaganda have evolved into benefit them.
more technologically advanced channels. The advent of the moving image, first in cinemas and later on in
television, gave propaganda an even greater mileage. Electioneering during national and local elections can be a persuasive act—the voter can be scouting
around for candidates, actively engaging the political advertisements he/ she is witnessing, and perhaps
However, the rise of the Internet transformed propaganda immensely, beyond those tasked with finding some reason for him/her to cast his vote in favor of this candidate.
dispensing it have ever imagined. In fact, it is almost a truism that with the rise of social media, every
netizen has been given access to advance his or her personal opinion, thus making him or her a bit of a It is said that persuasion in communication is a necessary feature of a democracy,
propagandist.

Propaganda means to disseminate or promote particular ideas. In Latin, it means "to propagate" or "to
sow." It has been used extensively in history to advance religion and even justify conquest. In 1622, the Lesson 2 MEDIA AND IDEOLOGY
Vatican established the Sacre Congregetio de Propagande Fide or the sacred congregation for propagating
the faith of the Roman Catholic Church. It was ostensibly an act that should circumvent the growth and Today the word "ideology is associated with rigid political beliefs or with social movements espousing
spread of Protestantism. This is why the term lost its neutrality and has come to be associated with deceit, radical ideas about reform and revolution. When someone is referred to as "being too ideological" it only
manipulation, and even lies. means that he/she subscribes to some political ideology and is unyielding to other beliefs.

Essentially, propaganda is about communicating ideas designed to persuade people to think and behave in It is said that the word first made its appearance during the French Revolution (17871799) when it was
a desired way. When you write your status update, when you express an opinion about a social issue, or introduced by Antoine Destutt de Tracy as an encompassing concept for what he called "the science of
when you share, re-tweet, and circulate information, you are attempting to influence how people think ideas."
about matters and issues. You are marshaling resources to change or reinforce their opinions.
Karl Marx believed that ideologies were systems of thought perpetuated by the ruling classes to preserve
In the traditional arena, terms that are associated with propaganda are spin, news management and public an existing social order that only serves the interests of the ruling classes. For instance, the ruling class can
relations. These are all forms of syncopated actions and tactics with the aim of minimizing negative perpetuate religiosity through the church institutions which they support. In turn, this practice is seen as
information and packaging in a positive light that can be a story, an advocacy, or even a public personality. perpetuating an ideology that sustains fatalism and an abiding belief in the supernatural.
Spin is often used with reference to manipulating information so it can be angled to generate positive
But ideology really is more expansive than the above definitions. It actually means a more coherent system Gramsci and Althusser negate including the state and their and Althusser negated Marx's view that social
of concepts and beliefs held by an individual or a group. Most of one's ideological beliefs touch on the and political institution ng the state and their interactions, as well as the ideas, values, and beliefs of a
dynamics of power.. society rely determined by the economic structures and activities of society. They both arque
superstructure of society enjoys a degree of autonomy from its economic base and relationship between
In this chapter, we assert that media is a purveyor of ideology. We want to learn how to unpack the ideas and economic and class interests is not always linear. The ultural institutions like media, religion, and
ideology of media and information texts. That means, ideology becomes the system of meaning that the cultural system, and structures in charge of imparting ideology, operate independent of the economic
defines and explains the world to its audiences. The active process of unpacking media and information structure and this is the reason they enjoy popular acceptance.
texts means seeing through the values, attitudes lifestyles, points-of-view, and even worldviews.
Althusser proceeded further by theorizing how the media and other ideological state apparatuses work to
Let us look at how theories see media and ideology. Invariably, all of these view the reading and creation reproduce the dominant ideology. He was interested in understanding the means by which the ruling class
of meaning. The extent of contestation over meaning is what characterizes the spectrum that these ruled as well as how the dominant ideology shaped people's perceptions of the world.
theories present.
For Althusser, the media manufacture an imaginary picture of the real conditions of capitalism for their
On one side of the spectrum, the theories describe how media texts dominate its audiences and users. For audiences and in the process hide the true nature of their exploitation. For instance, take a look at our
Marxists, the discussion of ideology is always attached to the idea of false consciousness; Ideology is a narrative fiction, particularly the soap operas, and see how most of the protagonists are stakeholders of
powerful mechanism that exerts control over the people specifically the oppressed classes who are forced huge companies involved in businesses and even conglomerates. The boardroom scenes are a typical in
to accept the ideology of the ruling class. The use of the word "false" is actually to state that what they almost all local soap operas-there are feuding camps conniving against the protagonist who could be heir
receive is not the ideology of their own class but the ideology of the powerful classes in society which is apparent to the leadership of the company. Regular audiences of teleserye become too engrossed
with the travails of the protagonist and turn oblivious to the other implications of the scene, such as how
The Marxist analysis asserts that media is an instrument of the ruling classes. It is a purveyor of ideas that profit rules over the motivations of both protagonists and antagonists which is enough to implicate
represent the interests of the ruling elite and the powerful media institutions are actually equated to be collusion and conspiracy with the villains of the narrative. The frequency of such representations of board
the representative of the ruling elite. meetings make it an acceptable practice and conceal the true nature of capitalist interactions in an
environment governed by desires for profit and power
There have been some revisions to the idea of classical Marxism that talks about false consciousness.
Antonio Gramsci (1977) favored the idea of hegemony over the idea of false consciousness, and posited it Althusser dismisses the claims of Marx about false consciousness. Instead, he sees consciousness as
as the intersection of power, culture, and ideology. In other words, the ruling classes willfully combine something that structures people's lived experiences. The ideological state apparatus, previously labeled as
persuasion and power to enforce its ideology over the masses. Persuasion enforces consent and it is superstructure in classical Marxist theory, is now the ideological state apparatus. Coercion passes through
media's cultural leadership that enforces this, as they produce and reproduce ways of thinking. Think of a repressive state apparatuses (e.g., the army and the police) to maintain the power of the ruling class but it
more subtle process where tools and techniques for attracting and convincing audiences and users are is the ideological state apparatuses that are more resilient in the exercise of their functions to ensure that
ked. By deploying common sense, media constructs a world that implicitly says this is norm, the power remains in the hands of the ruling class.
acceptable, and the socially appropriate.
The way that media behaves as part of the ideological state apparatus is through their messages on how
Stuart Hall, sociologist and cultural theorist, offers a very compelling analysis of how media institutions they produce particular forms of consciousness on how people should act, behave, and think because of
exercise the hegemony we are now trying to understand. He says media messages do not reflect the world dominant representations of groups and behaviors in media. Media normalize practices, behaviors, and
as it is, rather they represent it. It is tied to the idea of construction as we discussed in an earlier chapter representations in a variety of ways.
where there is the active work of selecting, structuring, shaping, and infusing new meaning, As Barker
(2004, 177) asserts: Aside from the boardroom representation in soap operas, what are the ways in which the ruling class
ideology is portrayed in media?
"...representations are not innocent reflections of the real but are cultural constructions, they could be
otherwise than they appear to us. Here representation is intrinsically bound up with questions of power
through the process of selection and organization that must inevitably be a part of the formation of
representations." Media as Purveyor of Dominant Ideology

Ideological State Apparatus In the previous section, we introduced the idea of media texts as carrier of ideological messages,
specifically those that favor the ruling class. Today, there seems to be a debate: there are those who argue
that media promote the interests of the ruling classes, the most powerful segments of society, thereby
carrying the dominant ideology; on the other hand, there are those who assert that media texts can also both for the Visayans and for house helpers as an occupation. Some media scholars argue that these
contain the messages that challenge existing worldviews other than that of the powerful classes. It is a stereotyping practices stigmatize marginalized groups. There is an enormous possibility that it will
matter of how the media texts were created negatively typify the Visayan as household helper-making her act as a clumsy, unthinking workhorse
around the house and will degrade a work that has significantly contributed to the smooth functioning of
Take the case of soap operas as we discussed in the previous section. While some have viewed it as the household.
displaying the rich and lavish lifestyles of the ruling classes, others see its emancipatory potential,
especially recently that the lives of the oppressed and dispossessed are represented, they who face off Stereotyping then is never neutral or value-free. In most cases, forms of stereotyping in the media
with the powerful and chart an alternative course for what could have otherwise been marginalized lives. reinforce the marginalized status of certain sectors, and impose a double marginalization on those whose
freedoms and dignity are traditionally degraded because of poverty and exclusion. Some stereotypes are
We propose to think of media texts as sites where no one single reading should be considered as attacked because they do not really convey the glaring realities faced by a particular group of people.
definitive. The context of the viewer plays a significant part in how he or she formulate and articulate the When media present the followers of the Islamic faith as "terrorists," they are missing out on how the
meanings that he or she makes of the media texts. It is also dependent on the media infrastructures that Islamic faith preaches peace and cultural acceptance, and that the majority of Muslims are themselves
undergird the creation, production, and dissemination of media texts. Some ideological perspectives are caught in the crossfire and are also desirous of peace.
packaged more attractively, and are disseminated using effective channels and thus gain more mileage and
prominence. Other ideological perspectives lag behind because their packaging lack the mileage or that the However, stereotypes are not always negative. In fact, some are rather positive representations worthy of
dissemination is limited or the resources expended for effective dissemination are also limited. In effect, emulation (e.g., the stereotype that Ilokanos are really hardworking and diligent people or the notion that
these ideological messages are lurking and designated to stay in the margins until such time that they are nerds are naturally studious and diligent with their studies). However, current practices point us to the
discovered. Media remain to be a site of negotiation and contestation. reality that more often than not, the media help perpetuate the ascription of negative traits because it
generates drama, comedy, or simply spectacle. Stereotyping can become too rigid and constraining,
One thing is clear: all sectors of society are engaged in the promotion of certain ideological viewpoints. Big limiting the roles, responsibilities, and potentials individuals can play in their everyday lives.
businesses, religious organizations, civil society organizations, activists, scientists, and artists-all of them
seek to further the promotion of the ideological views they hold and seek media as a platform to Activity
disseminate it.
View an episode of a gag show in television (e.g., "Banana Split" or "Bubble Gang.') Be mindful of how
Let us try to contextualize this in the local setting. For instance, in the realm of the family the culture wars stereotypes are generated in these sequences. Mostly, these programs rely on the physical traits of one
manifest themselves on how the reproductive health bill, otherwise known as Republic Act 10354, was particular group of people as platforms whereby laughter can be generated.
played out in the public sphere with two competing ideas-one that favored its legislation, mostly women's
groups and civil society organizations pushing for reform; and second, the pro-life movement which the Segue in to gender stereotyping. Gender stereotypes are generated because society has ascribed gender
Catholic Church has routinely taught that family planning is against the teachings of the Church. Both took roles. For example, men are more likely to be perceived as work-oriented and with stable personalities,
the battle to the media to inform the public about their positions, hoping to generate support. and women are likely to be viewed as passive and emotionally unstable. While men are traditionally
viewed as providers, women are traditionally viewed as caretakers.
Ideology in Stereotyping
"Stereotypes can become too rigid and when there is no room for growth the label becomes stifling, both
Stereotyping is an overarching belief about the characteristics of a certain group in society. Members of a for the individuals who are labeled and for the category itself. The challenge is to keep an open mind even
group are attributed certain characteristics. Most of the time these characteristics are widely held as true for the most solid 'givens. Absolutism is not a virtue in our constantly changing society" (Center for Media
and is an oversimplified image of a group or a person belonging to a certain group. Literacy, 1995).

It was a journalist in the United States, Walter Lippman, who first used the term "stereotype" in 1922. He In narrative television programming, the most dominant format is the soap opera. Television executives
referred to stereotypes as "pictures in our heads" which we use to organize our perceptions of the world and creatives continue to embellish its more prominent conventions by drawing from contemporary socio-
and those people in our world. It is actually a very assistive device in building expectations of others, how political issues as its thematic inspirations and deploying imaginative storytelling techniques.
they should behave, and how groups actually represent itself in a bigger society.
Indeed, so much has changed between today's soap opera from those that came out in the earlier
Stereotypes are forms of characterization that are also memorable and widely patronized by many. The decades.
Visayan house helper, for instance, is a recognizable type in movies and television. Most of the time the
house helper is a woman, talks with the characteristic inflection, and is presented as someone sloppy and However, some features of contemporary teleseryes remain resilient. It is said that a hero is only good as
clumsy with her work. The production and reproduction of the stereotypes has important implications, his enemies. A good story has to have a well-written villain and teleseryes subscribe to this. We shall use
the character template of the villainous woman, locally known as the kontrabida, as an example of how examples of the use of force, such as the dismantling of workers' picket lines when they turn to strike to
gender stereotyping operates and is made resilient in television narrative programming. articulate their demands or the use of war to suppress communist insurgency or Moro separatism. These
examples are glaring because they are not the everyday course of action of those in power. The routine
Pick a contemporary teleserye, one that is being aired on television now. Allow yourself to watch an option is still the more insidious practice of using the ideological state apparatus to rule. The force and
adequate number of episodes so that you can get a good grip of the plot and the characters, as well as the extent of media makes it a profoundly powerful vehicle for public consent.
motivations that push the characters. One week of sustained viewing with note-taking will address this
information requirement Thus, consent is the operative word if we truly want to appreciate the concept of Gramsci's hegemony.
Consent is gained through subtle negotiation, won through more astute ways of gaining cultural leadership
Single out the villain and what s/he does that runs contrary to the goals and motivations of the character. over the members of society. The media is one of the more powerful sites, perhaps alongside the Church
Questions you may answer: and the educational system, because it is one of the sites where ideas about society and the nation is
produced and reproduced.
1. What are the character traits of the villain? You can enumerate these according to physical traits,
psychological traits, and sociological traits. Interpellation

2. How does the villain impede in the achievement of the goals or desires of the main character/s? You will Althusser does not believe that the individual is a self-acting and self-conscious being acting autonomously,
present your answers in class. Now, compare notes as a class. It would be good if you have a variety of and guided by his set of beliefs, intentions, preferences, and value systems. Rather, he sees individuals as
villainous characters and you can have a comparative review of the presentations. beings created subjected to the structures that govern their lives.

The only way we can direct our investigation on stereotypes is to find commonalities. By tracing and He referred to it as interpellation-a process by which individuals are constituted subjects. In other words,
lumping together the common observations you have noted about the various villainous characters, can individuals are interpellated through the ideological state apparatus which operate in society. Althusser
you actually see the common threads that run through the stereotyping of villains. believes that we cannot resist the process interpellation. Individuals will always be determined by the
history, language, values systems, kinship relations, traditions, and other social and cultural forces.
Lesson 3 HEGEMONY
In short, interpellation is the process by which the ideology embedded in media texts is passed on to the
It is Gramsci's concept of hegemony that has come to exert more force in theorizing about the relationship audiences wherein they are turned into new subjects. Cultural theorists like Theodor Adorno insisted that
of media and ideology. This is because his interpretation sees the operations of ideology as something the persistence of some tropes turn the audience into passive subjects. The resilience of tropes on the
covert and appears as something consensual between media producers and consumers or audiences. heroic sufferings of women in soap opera turns women into docile subjects. Advertising can be what
Adorno and Horkheimer (1979, 8) laments about when they said that "capitalist production so confines
Gramsci distinguishes between coercion and consensus. Coercion uses direct force and deploys institutions them, body and soul, that they fall helpless victim to what is offered them."
that are legitimately tasked to exercise instruments that exhibit and implements force. Consensus, on the
other hand, is also a form of control and arises 'when individuals 'willingly' or 'voluntarily' assimilate the David Gauntlett (2002, 27) remarks how "interpellation occurs when a person connects with a media text:
world-view or hegemony of the dominant group; an assimilation which allows that group to be when we enjoy a magazine or TV show, for example, this uncritical consumption means that the text has
hegemonic." interpellated us into a certain set of assumptions, and caused us to tacitly accept a particular approach to
the world."
Gramsci asserts that the ruling class uses consensus rather than naked coercion (Williams 2003, 150). We
have heard of the phrase "winning hearts and minds." It originated during the Vietnam War to express the
strategy of the United States in gaining popular support to defeat the communist insurgency led by the
troops of the Viet Cong.

It was designed to complement the naked use of force and attrition by the military American forces.
Winning hearts and minds mobilized the structures associated with the ideological state apparatus.
Without naked force to control their bodies, there are cultural forms that can carry messages that will
make them accept that the ruling class wields power

In short, Gramsci argues that while ruling classes can acquire and maintain power through both coercion
and consent, the latter is still the more effective and judicious option. In the country, we do not lack