14.

GRAPH AND GRAPH MODELSiscrete Mathematics

The previous part brought forth the different tools for reasoning, proofing and problem
solving. In this part, we will study the discrete structures that form the basis of
formulating many a real-life problem.

The two discrete structures that we will cover are graphs and trees. A graph is a set of
points, called nodes or vertices, which are interconnected by a set of lines called edges.
The study of graphs, or graph theory is an important part of a number of disciplines in
the fields of mathematics, engineering and computer science.

What is a Graph?
Definition: A graph (denoted as G = (V, E)) consists of a non-empty set of vertices or
nodes V and a set of edges E.

Example: Let us consider, a Graph is G = (V, E) where V = {a, b, c, d} and E = {{a,

b}, {a, c}, {b, c},{c, d}}

a c

d
b

Figure: A graph with four vertices and four edges

Even and Odd Vertex: If the degree of a vertex is even, the vertex is called an even
vertex and if the degree of a vertex is odd, the vertex is called an odd vertex.

Degree of a Vertex: The degree of a vertex V of a graph G (denoted by deg (V)) is the
number of edges incident with the vertex V.

Vertex Degree Even / Odd

a 2 even
b 2 even
c 3 odd
d 1 odd

Degree of a Graph: The degree of a graph is the largest vertex degree of that graph.
For the above graph the degree of the graph is 3.

The Handshaking Lemma: In a graph, the sum of all the degrees of vertices is equal
to twice the number of edges.

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 Discrete Mathematics

Types of Graphs
There are different types of graphs, which we will learn in the following section.

Null Graph

A null graph has no edges. The null graph of n vertices is denoted by N n

a c

b
Null graph of 3 vertices

Simple Graph
A graph is called simple graph/strict graph if the graph is undirected and does not
contain any loops or multiple edges.
a c

b
Simple graph

Multi-Graph
If in a graph multiple edges between the same set of vertices are allowed, it is called
Multi-graph.

a c

b
Multi-graph

Directed and Undirected Graph

A graph G = (V, E) is called a directed graph if the edge set is made of ordered vertex
pair and a graph is called undirected if the edge set is made of unordered vertex pair.

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a c

b
Undirected graph

a c

b
Directed graph

Connected and Disconnected Graph

A graph is connected if any two vertices of the graph are connected by a path and a
graph is disconnected if at least two vertices of the graph are not connected by a path. If
a graph G is unconnected, then every maximal connected subgraph of G is called a
connected component of the graph G.

a c

d
b
Connected graph

a c

d
b
Unconnected graph

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 Discrete Mathematics

Regular Graph
A graph is regular if all the vertices of the graph have the same degree. In a regular
graph G of degree r, the degree of each vertex of G is r.
a c

Regular graph of degree 3

Complete Graph

A graph is called complete graph if every two vertices pair are joined by exactly
one edge. The complete graph with n vertices is denoted by Kn

a c

b
Complete graph K3

Cycle Graph
If a graph consists of a single cycle, it is called cycle graph. The cycle graph with n
vertices is denoted by Cn

a c

b
Cyclic graph C3

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Bipartite Graph
If the vertex-set of a graph G can be split into two sets in such a way that each edge of
the graph joins a vertex in first set to a vertex in second set, then the graph G is called a
bipartite graph. A graph G is bipartite if and only if all closed walks in G are of even
length or all cycles in G are of even length.

a c

b d

Bipartite graph

Complete Bipartite Graph

A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph in which each vertex in the first set is joined to
every single vertex in the second set. The complete bipartite graph is denoted by K r,s where
the graph G contains x vertices in the first set and y vertices in the second set.

a c

b
d
Complete bipartite graph K2,2

Representation of Graphs
There are mainly two ways to represent a graph:
  Adjacency Matrix

 
Adjacency List

Adjacency Matrix
An Adjacency Matrix A[V][V] is a 2D array of size V×V where V is the number of vertices in a
undirected graph. If there is an edge between Vx to Vy then the value of A[Vx][ Vy]=1 and
A[Vy][ Vx]=1, otherwise the value will be zero. And for a directed graph, if there is an edge
between Vx to Vy, then the value of A[Vx][ Vy]=1, otherwise the value will be zero.

Adjacency Matrix of an Undirected Graph

Let us consider the following undirected graph and construct the adjacency matrix:

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a c

b d

An undirected graph

Adjacency matrix of the above undirected graph will be:

a b c d
a 0 1 1 0
b 1 0 1 0
c 1 1 0 1
d 0 0 1 0

Adjacency Matrix of a Directed Graph

Let us consider the following directed graph and construct its adjacency matrix:

a c

d
b
A directed graph

Adjacency matrix of the above directed graph will be:

a b c d
a 0 1 1 0

b 0 0 1 0

c 0 0 0 1
d 0 0 0 0

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Adjacency List
In adjacency list, an array (A[V]) of linked lists is used to represent the graph G with V
number of vertices. An entry A[Vx] represents the linked list of vertices adjacent to the
Vx-th vertex. The adjacency list of the graph is as shown in the figure below:

a b c

b a c

c a b d

d c

Planar vs. Non-planar graph

Planar graph: A graph G is called a planar graph if it can be drawn in a plane without
any edges crossed. If we draw graph in the plane without edge crossing, it is called
embedding the graph in the plane.

a c

b d

Planar graph

Non-planar graph: A graph is non-planar if it cannot be drawn in a plane without graph

edges crossing.

a c

b d

Non-planar graph

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Isomorphism
If two graphs G and H contain the same number of vertices connected in the same way, they are called isomorphic graphs (denoted by G≅H).

It is easier to check non-isomorphism than isomorphism. If any of these following

conditions occurs, then two graphs are non-isomorphic:
  
The number of connected components are different
  
Vertex-set cardinalities are different
  
Edge-set cardinalities are different
Degree sequences are different

Example
The following graphs are isomorphic:

a
c
a c

b d b d a d c b

Three isomorphic graphs

Homomorphism
 
A homomorphism from a graph G to a graph H is a mapping (May not be a bijective mapping) h: G H such that: (x, y) ∈ E(G) (h(x), h(y)) ∈ E(H)
. It maps adjacent vertices of graph G to the adjacent vertices of the graph H.

A homomorphism is an isomorphism if it is a bijective mapping. Homomorphism always

preserves edges and connectedness of a graph. The compositions of homomorphisms
are also homomorphisms. To find out if there exists any homomorphic graph of another
graph is a NP-complete problem.

Euler Graphs
A connected graph G is called an Euler graph, if there is a closed trail which includes
every edge of the graph G. An Euler path is a path that uses every edge of a graph
exactly once. An Euler path starts and ends at different vertices.

An Euler circuit is a circuit that uses every edge of a graph exactly once. An Euler circuit
always starts and ends at the same vertex. A connected graph G is an Euler graph if and
only if all vertices of G are of even degree, and a connected graph G is Eulerian if and
only if its edge set can be decomposed into cycles.

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a b d
1

3
2 4
7

6 c 5 e
f

Euler graph

The above graph is an Euler graph as “a 1 b 2 c 3 d 4 e 5 c 6 f 7 g” covers all the edges

of the graph.
a b
1

4
5 2

3 c
d

Non-Euler graph

Hamiltonian Graphs
A connected graph G is called Hamiltonian graph if there is a cycle which includes every
vertex of G and the cycle is called Hamiltonian cycle. Hamiltonian walk in graph G is a
walk that passes through each vertex exactly once.

If G is a simple graph with n vertices, where n ≥ 3 If deg(v) ≥ 1/2 n for each vertex v,
then the graph G is Hamiltonian graph. This is called Dirac's Theorem.

If G is a simple graph with n vertices, where n ≥ 2 if deg(x) + deg(y) ≥ n for each pair
of non-adjacent vertices x and y, then the graph G is Hamiltonian graph. This is called
Ore's theorem.

a b
1

5
6
8 2
e 4
7

3 c
d

Hamiltonian graph

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a b
1

5
f
6
8 2
e 4
9
7

3 c
d

Non-Hamiltonian graph

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 15. TREES Discrete Mathematics

TRODUCTION TO TR
Tree is a discrete structure that represents hierarchical relationships between individual
elements or nodes. A tree in which a parent has no more than two children is called a
binary tree.

Tree and its Properties

Definition: A Tree is a connected acyclic graph. There is a unique path between every
pair of vertices in G. A tree with N number of vertices contains (N-1) number of edges.
The vertex which is of 0 degree is called root of the tree. The vertex which is of 1 degree
is called leaf node of the tree and the degree of an internal node is at least 2.

Example: The following is an example of a tree:

A tree

Centers and Bi-Centers of a Tree

The center of a tree is a vertex with minimal eccentricity. The eccentricity of a vertex X
in a tree G is the maximum distance between the vertex X and any other vertex of the
tree. The maximum eccentricity is the tree diameter. If a tree has only one center, it is
called Central Tree and if a tree has only more than one centers, it is called Bi-central
Tree. Every tree is either central or bi-central.

Algorithm to find centers and bi-centers of a tree

Step 1: Remove all the vertices of degree 1 from the given tree and also remove their
incident edges.

Step 2: Repeat step 1 until either a single vertex or two vertices joined by an edge is
left. If a single vertex is left then it is the center of the tree and if two vertices joined by
an edge is left then it is the bi-center of the tree.

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Problem 1
Find out the center/bi-center of the following tree:

a b c d e

Tree T1

Solution
At first, we will remove all vertices of degree 1 and also remove their incident edges and
get the following tree:

b c d

Tree after removing vertices of degree 1 from T1

Again, we will remove all vertices of degree 1 and also remove their incident edges and
get the following tree:

Tree after again removing vertices of degree 1

Finally we got a single vertex ‘c’ and we stop the algorithm. As there is single vertex,
this tree has one center ‘c’ and the tree is a central tree.

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Problem 2
Find out the center/bi-center of the following tree:

e f
a b c d

A tree T2

Solution
At first, we will remove all vertices of degree 1 and also remove their incident edges and
get the following tree:

b c d e

Tree after removing vertices of degree 1 from T2

Again, we will remove all vertices of degree 1 and also remove their incident edges and
get the following tree:

c d

Tree after again removing vertices of degree 1

Finally, we got two vertices ‘c’ and ‘d’ left, hence we stop the algorithm. As two vertices
joined by an edge is left, this tree has bi-center ‘cd’ and the tree is bi-central.

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Labeled Trees
Definition: A labeled tree is a tree the vertices of which are assigned unique numbers
from 1 to n. We can count such trees for small values of n by hand so as to conjecture a
n-2
general formula. The number of labeled trees of n number of vertices is n . Two
labelled trees are isomorphic if their graphs are isomorphic and the corresponding points
of the two trees have the same labels.

Example

1 2

A labeled tree with two vertices

1 2 3 1 3 2

2 1 3

Three possible labeled tree with three vertices

Unlabeled trees
Definition: An unlabeled tree is a tree the vertices of which are not assigned any
numbers. The number of labeled trees of n number of vertices is (2n)! / (n+1)!n!

Example

An unlabeled tree with two vertices

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An unlabeled tree with three vertices

Two possible unlabeled trees with four vertices

Rooted Tree
A rooted tree G is a connected acyclic graph with a special node that is called the root of
the tree and every edge directly or indirectly originates from the root. An ordered rooted
tree is a rooted tree where the children of each internal vertex are ordered. If every
internal vertex of a rooted tree has not more than m children, it is called an m-ary tree.
If every internal vertex of a rooted tree has exactly m children, it is called a full m-ary
tree. If m = 2, the rooted tree is called a binary tree.

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Root Node

Internal Internal
Node Internal Node
Node

Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf

Node Node Node Node Node Node

A Rooted Tree

Binary Search Tree

Binary Search tree is a binary tree which satisfies the following property:
  X in left sub-tree of vertex V, Value(X)  Value (V)

 
Y in right sub-tree of vertex V, Value(Y)  Value (V)

So, the value of all the vertices of the left sub-tree of an internal node V are less than or
equal to V and the value of all the vertices of the right sub-tree of the internal node V
are greater than or equal to V. The number of links from the root node to the deepest
node is the height of the Binary Search Tree.

Example

50

40 70

30 45 60

A Binary Search Tree

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Algorithm to search for a key in BST

BST_Search(x, k)
if ( x = NIL or k = Value[x] )
return x;
if ( k < Value[x])
return BST_Search (left[x], k);
else
return BST_Search (right[x], k)

Complexity of Binary search tree

Average Worst
Case case
Space Complexity O(n) O(n)
Search Complexity O(log n) O(n)
Insertion O(log n) O(n)
Complexity
Deletion O(log n) O(n)
Complexity

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 17. SPANNING TREES Discrete Mathematics

A spanning tree of a connected undirected graph G is a tree that minimally includes all of
the vertices of G. A graph may have many spanning trees.

Example

b c d

A Graph G

b c d

A Spanning Tree of Graph G

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Minimum Spanning Tree

A spanning tree with assigned weight less than or equal to the weight of every possible
spanning tree of a weighted, connected and undirected graph G, it is called minimum
spanning tree (MST). The weight of a spanning tree is the sum of all the weights
assigned to each edge of the spanning tree.

Example

f
f
1 7
2 1
2
5 3
b c d 3
b c d
1 14
9
4
e e

Weighted Graph G A Minimum Spanning Tree of Graph G

Kruskal's Algorithm
Kruskal's algorithm is a greedy algorithm that finds a minimum spanning tree for a
connected weighted graph. It finds a tree of that graph which includes every vertex and
the total weight of all the edges in the tree is less than or equal to every possible
spanning tree.

Algorithm
Step 1: Arrange all the edges of the given graph G (V,E) in non-decreasing order as per
their edge weight.

Step 2: Choose the smallest weighted edge from the graph and check if it forms a cycle
with the spanning tree formed so far.

Step 3: If there is no cycle, include this edge to the spanning tree else discard it.

Step 4: Repeat Step 2 and Step 3 until (V-1) number of edges are left in the spanning
tree.

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Problem
Suppose we want to find minimum spanning tree for the following graph G using
Kruskal’s algorithm.

20 13
9

1 2

b e d
4 3

5
14
f

Weighted Graph G

Solution
From the above graph we construct the following table:

Edge Vertex Edge

No. Pair Weight
E1 (a, b) 20
E2 (a, c) 9
E3 (a, d) 13
E4 (b, c) 1
E5 (b, e) 4
E6 (b, f) 5
E7 (c, d) 2
E8 (d, e) 3
E9 (d, f) 14

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Now we will rearrange the table in ascending order with respect to Edge weight:

Edge Vertex Edge

No. Pair Weight
E4 (b, c) 1
E7 (c, d) 2
E8 (d, e) 3
E5 (b, e) 4
E6 (b, f) 5
E2 (a, c) 9
E3 (a, d) 13
E9 (d, f) 14
E1 (a, b) 20

a
a

c
c
1

b e d
b e d

f f

After adding vertices After adding edge E4

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a a

c c
1 1
2 2

3
b e d b e d

f f

After adding edge E7 After adding edge E8

a a

c c
1 1
2 2

3 3
b e d b e d

5 5

f f

After adding edge E6 After adding edge E2

Since we got all the 5 edges in the last figure, we stop the algorithm and this is the
minimal spanning tree and its total weight is (1+2+3+5+9) = 20.

Prim's Algorithm
Prim's algorithm, discovered in 1930 by mathematicians, Vojtech Jarnik and Robert C.
Prim, is a greedy algorithm that finds a minimum spanning tree for a connected
weighted graph. It finds a tree of that graph which includes every vertex and the total
weight of all the edges in the tree is less than or equal to every possible spanning tree.
Prim’s algorithm is faster on dense graphs.
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Algorithm

1. Create a vertex set V that keeps track of vertices already included in MST.

2. Assign a key value to all vertices in the graph. Initialize all key values as infinite.
Assign key value as 0 for the first vertex so that it is picked first.

3. Pick a vertex ‘x’ that has minimum key value and is not in V.

4. Include the vertex U to the vertex set V.

5. Update the value of all adjacent vertices of x.

6. Repeat step 3 to step 5 until the vertex set V includes all the vertices of the graph.

Problem
Suppose we want to find minimum spanning tree for the following graph G using Prim’s
algorithm.

20 13
9

1 2

b e d
4 3

5
14
f

Weighted Graph G

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Solution
Here we start with the vertex ‘a’ and proceed.

a a

c c

b e d b e d

f f

No vertices added After adding vertex ‘a’

a
a
9
9
c
c
1

b e d
b e d

f
f

After adding vertex ‘c’ After adding vertex ‘b’

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 Discrete Mathematics

a a

9 9

c c
1 1
2
2

b e D b e d
3

f f

After adding vertex ‘d’ After adding vertex ‘e’

c
1 2

b e d
3

After adding vertex ‘f’

This is the minimal spanning tree and its total weight is (1+2+3+5+9) = 20.

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