Linear Electronic Circuits

Snigdha Bhagat

Department of Electrical Engineering

VNIT,Nagpur

February 4, 2020

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 Course Policies

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Grading

Grading:
Minor 1 - 20
Minor 2 - 20
Quiz - 20
End Term - 40

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Course Content

Basic Operational Amplifier Circuits: Differential Amplifier Stages,

Current Source, Biasing, Level Shifting Techniques, Common Mode
and Difference Mode Gains and Impedance of a Differential Stage.
Overload Protection Circuits, Frequency Response and Compensation,
Characteristics of Ideal and Non-Ideal Operational Amplifier, Error
Measurement of Various Parameters
Simple Linear Circuits: Inverting, Non-Inverting Buffer Amplifiers,
Summer, Integrator, Differentiator, Log, Antilog, Multipliers, Divider
Circuits, Differential Amplifier Configuration, Bridge Amplifiers,
Instrumentation Amplifier, Grounding And Shielding Problem in
Instrumentation Amplifier

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Course Content

Precision Rectifier, RMS To DC Conversion, Constant Current And

Voltage Sources, Sinusoidal Oscillators With Frequency And
Amplitude Stabilization, Elementary Idea Of Active Filter With
ButterworthFilter Design Procedure
Applications of Operational Amplifier for Clipping Clamping,
Comparator Circuits With Nonlinear Components, Multiplexers,
De-multiplexers, Astable Monostable, Bistable Multi-vibrator Circuits
Using OA Sample/ Hold Circuits D/A and A/D Conversion Circuits
Phase Locked Loops. Study of Linear ICS like:LM741, LM555,
LM565 andLM723

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 Introduction

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Objective

Operational Amplifier
What is a differential amplifier?
Comparison of different amplifier configurations
Equivalent DC and AC circuits for any given differential amplifier
configuration
Determination of voltage gain,differential input resistance and output
resistance for any configuration
Common mode rejection ratio
Analysis and design of constant current bias circuit and current
mirror circuit
Analysis of cascaded amplifier stages and computation of their
voltage gain,input resistance and output resistance.

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Bipolar Junction Transistor
BJT(Bi-polar junction transistor) is a three terminal current
controlled device with 2 junctions; where EB(Emitter-Base) junction
is forward biased and BC(Base-Collector) is reverse biased.
It has three possible configurations based on which terminal is
common to the input and output circuits:
Common Base configuration
Common Emitter configuration
Common Collector configuration

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Bipolar Junction Transistor
KCL —— Ie = Ib + Ic
KVL —— VEC = VEB + VBC
The emitter in this setting acts as the source of mobile carriers and
the collector extracts the carriers to transport energy to the external
circuit.
The emitter layer is highly doped density since it as to serve as the
source of mobile carriers.
The collector region handles more power thus it is provided with a
larger area than that of the emitter.

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Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor
Since the B-E junction is forward biased, electrons from the emitter
are injected across the B-E junction into the base →
− IE
Once in the base region, the electrons are quickly accelerated through
the base due to the reverse-biased C-B region →− IC and not many
electrons combine with the holes in base region due to lightly doped
base layer.
Some electrons, in passing through the base region, recombine with
majority carrier holes in the base. This produces the current →
− IB .

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Operation of BJT

Imagine the marbles as electrons

A flat base region with gaps
where the marbles may
fall/trapped – recombine
A sloping collector region
represents high electric field in
the C-B region
Hence, when enough energy is
given to the marbles, they will
be accelerated towards to base
region with enough momentum
to pass the base and straight
‘fly’ to the collector

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Mathematical Modelling

Forward current transfer ratio : The ration of current that reaches

the collector from the source emitter. It is expressed as α = Ic /Ie .
The reverse bias current that flows from base to collector due to the
thermally generated electrons in the base region and holes in the
collector region is called the reverse saturation current ICBO .
α
The current gain or β defined as β = 1−α can also be expressed as
the ratio of collector current and the base current β = IIcb

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Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

The transistor performance can be evaluate by means of two characteris-

tics:
Emitter characteristics - Plot of IE vs VEB for the given VCB
Collector characteristics - Plot of IC vs VCB for the given IE

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Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

VCC − IC ∗ RC − VCE = 0
VC C
IC = |V =0
RC CE
IC = VC C|IC = 0

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Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

Regions of operation:
Active : The emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction
is reverse biased. This is also called as linear region. A transistor
while in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.
Cut - off : This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as an
open switch. The collector, emitter and base currents are all zero in
this mode of operation. Base-Emitter Junction reverse biased.
Collector-Base Junction reverse biased
Saturation : The amplifier is full on. There is little voltage but lots of
current. It acts like a closed switch. Both junctions are forward
biased.

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Differential Amplifier
Differential amplifier is the basic building block of operational
amplifier and are used to amplify the difference between two input
signals.
Consider the below given emitter biased circuit:

Figure: Differential amplifier

The two transistors Q1 and Q2 have same characteristics such that RC1 =
RC2 ,RE1 = RE2 and | − VEE | = | + VCC |
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Comparison of different amplifier configurations

A differential amplifier can be build by any two matched

semiconductors of the same type example BJTs or FETs.
Differential amplifiers are classified on the basis of number of inputs
and the mode of measurement of output as given below:
Dual-input, balanced-output differential amplifier
Dual-input, unbalanced-output differential amplifier
Single-input, balanced-output differential amplifier
Single-input, unbalanced-output differential amplifier
Several multi-stage amplifiers can be obtained by establishing a direct
connection between several stages of differential amplifier.
It can be used to amplify both ac as well as dc signals.

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Comparison of different amplifier configurations

Figure: Configurations of differential amplifier

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DC analysis

When doing DC analysis, all AC voltage sources are taken out of the
circuit because they’re AC sources.
All capacitors are also removed since they function as open circuits.
For this reason, everything before and after capacitors are removed.

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Dual Input Balanced Output amplifier- DC analysis
In order to determine the operating point values VCEQ and ICQ we need
to obtain the DC equivalent circuit i.e. V1 = V2 = 0. Since both the cir-
cuits have similar configuration we are interested in finding the VCEQ and
ICQ of Q2 .

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DC analysis

−Rs ∗IB −VBE −2∗IE ∗RE +VEE = 0

Since IC ≈ IE we have IB = IE /βdc

Thus we would have
VEE − VBE
IE = IC =
2 ∗ RE + βRdcs

Since RS is the input source resis-

tance: βRdcS  2 ∗ RE

VEE − VBE
IE = IC =
(2 ∗ RE )

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DC analysis

Let us now try to obtain the collec-

tor to emitter voltage VCE .The volt-
age at the emitter VE = −VBE since
the drop across the internal source
resistance is very low.

VC = VCC − IC ∗ RC
VCE = VC − VE
= VCC − IC ∗ RC + VBE

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Transistor Amplifiers dc and ac Analysis – Two Step
Analysis

DC analysis:
Find dc equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by open circuits
and inductors by short circuits.
Find Q-point from dc equivalent circuit by using appropriate
large-signal transistor model.
AC analysis
Find ac equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by short circuits,
inductors by open circuits, dc voltage sources by ground connections
and dc current sources by open circuits.
Replace transistor by its small-signal model
Use small-signal ac equivalent to analyze ac characteristics of
amplifier.
Combine end results of dc and ac analysis to yield total voltages and
currents in the network.

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Small Signal Models

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AC analysis

To find the voltage gain Ad and the

input resistance Ri of the differential
amplifier, the ac equivalent circuit is
drawn such that all voltage sources are
equal to 0.
Applying KVL in two loops 1 and 2.

V1 = RS1 ib1 + ie1 re1 + (ie1 + ie2 )RE

V2 = RS2 ib2 + ie2 re1 + (ie1 + ie2 )RE

Substituting current relations,
ie1 ie2
ib1 = ( ), ib2 = ( )
β β

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AC analysis

RS1
V1 = ie1 + re1 ie1 + (ie1 + ie2 )RE
β
RS2
V2 = ie2 + re1 ie2 + (ie1 + ie2 )RE
β
Again, assuming RβS1 and RβS2 are very
small in comparison with RE and re1
and therefore neglecting these terms,

V1 = (re1 + RE )ie1 + RE ie2

V2 = (re1 + RE )ie2 + RE ie1

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AC analysis

Solving these two equations, ie1 and

ie2 can be calculated.

(re1 + RE )V1 − RE V2
ie1 = 2
(re1 + RE )2 − RE

(re1 + RE )V2 − RE V1
ie2 = 2
(re1 + RE )2 − RE
The output voltage VO is given by

VO = VC2 − VC1
= −RC iC2 − (−RC iC1 )
= RC (iC1 − iC2 )

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AC analysis
Substituting ie1 , ie2 in the above ex-
pression:

(re + RE )V1 − RE V2
VO = Rc 2 −
(re1 + RE )2 − RE
(re + RE )V2 − RE V1
Rc 2
(re1 + RE )2 − RE

since RE  re1

RC (v1 − v2 ) 1
VO = (r + 2Re )
re1 (re1 + 2Re ) e
RC
VO = 1 (v1 − v2 ) = Ad ∗ vd
re

Thus the voltage gain can be given as

Ad = Rr1C
e

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AC analysis

Differential Input Resistance : Dif-

ferential input resistance is defined as
the equivalent resistance that would
be measured at either input termi-
nal with the other terminal grounded.
This means that the input resistance
Ri1 seen from the input signal source
v1 is determined with the signal source
V2 set at zero. Resistance RS1 and
RS2 are ignored because they are very
small.

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AC analysis
v1 v1
Ri1 = |v =0 = ie1 |v2 =0
ib1 2 β

Substituting ie1 from below equation

we obtain:
(re + RE )V1 − RE V2
ie1 = 2
(re1 + RE )2 − RE

βre1 (re1 + 2RE )

Ri1 =
re1 + RE
since RE  re1

re1 + 2RE  2RE

Thus we have Ri1 = 2βre1 and simi-

larly we have Ri2 = 2βre1
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AC analysis

Differential Output Resistance

:Output resistance is defined as the
equivalent resistance that would be
measured at output terminal with
respect to ground. Therefore, the
output resistance RO1 measured
between collector C1 and ground
is equal to that of the collector
resistance RC . Similarly the output
resistance RO2 measured at C2 with
respect to ground is equal to that of
the collector resistor RC .

R01 = R02 = RC

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Inverting and Non-inverting inputs
In differential amplifier the output
voltage vO is given by

v0 = Ad ∗ (v1–v2)

v2 = 0, v0 = Ad ∗ v1
v1 = 0, v0 = −Ad ∗ v2
Therefore the input voltage v1 is
called the non inventing input be-
cause a positive voltage v1 acting
alone produces a positive output
voltage vO . Similarly, the positive
voltage v2 acting alone produces a
negative output voltage hence v2 is
called inverting input. Thus B1 is
called non-inverting and vice versa.
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Dual Input, Unbalanced Output Differential Amplifier

DC analysis is exactly same as that

of first case.
VEE − VBE
IEQ = IC =
2 ∗ RE + βRdcs

VCEQ = VCC − IC ∗ RC + VBE

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Dual Input, Unbalanced Output Differential Amplifier

To find the voltage gain Ad and the

input resistance Ri of the differential
amplifier, the ac equivalent circuit is
drawn such that all voltage sources are
equal to 0.
Applying KVL in two loops 1 and 2.

V1 = RS1 ib1 + ie1 re1 + (ie1 + ie2 )RE

V2 = RS2 ib2 + ie2 re1 + (ie1 + ie2 )RE

Substituting current relations,
ie1 ie2
ib1 = ( ), ib2 = ( )
β β

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AC analysis

RS1
V1 = ie1 + re1 ie1 + (ie1 + ie2 )RE
β
RS2
V2 = ie2 + re1 ie2 + (ie1 + ie2 )RE
β
Again, assuming RβS1 and RβS2 are very
small in comparison with RE and re1
and therefore neglecting these terms,

V1 = (re1 + RE )ie1 + RE ie2

V2 = (re1 + RE )ie2 + RE ie1

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AC analysis

Solving these two equations, ie1 and

ie2 can be calculated.

(re1 + RE )V1 − RE V2
ie1 = 2
(re1 + RE )2 − RE

(re1 + RE )V2 − RE V1
ie2 = 2
(re1 + RE )2 − RE
The output voltage VO is given by

VO = VC2
= −RC iC2

Since ic ≈ ie substituting the value of

ie1 .

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AC analysis
Substituting ie2 in the above expres-
sion:
(re1 + RE )V2 − RE V1
VO = −Rc 2
(re1 + RE )2 − RE

since RE  re1

RC (v1 − v2 ) 1
VO = (r + Re )
re1 (re1 + 2Re ) e
RC
VO = 1 (v1 − v2 ) = Ad ∗ vd
2re

Thus the voltage gain can be given as

Ad = R C
2r1 e

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Dual Input Unbalanced Output(Differential Input
Resistance)

Differential Input Resistance : ‘The

only difference between the circuits is
the way output voltage is measured.
The input resistance seen from either
input source does not depend on the
way the output voltage is measured.
Thus we have Ri1 = 2βre1 and simi-
larly we have Ri2 = 2βre1
Differential Output Resistance :
The output resistance R0 measured at
collector C2 with respect to ground is
equal to the collector resistor RC .

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Common Mode Rejection Ratio
A common mode signal is one that drives both inputs of a differential
amplifier equally. The common mode signal is interference, static and
other kinds of undesirable pickup etc.
The connecting wires on the input bases act like small antennas. If a
differential amplifier is operating in an environment with lot of
electromagnetic interference, each base picks up an unwanted
interference voltage. If both the transistors were matched in all
respects then the balanced output would be theoretically zero. This
is the important characteristic of a differential amplifier. It
discriminates against common mode input signals. In other words, it
refuses to amplify the common mode signals.
The practical effectiveness of rejecting the common signal depends
on the degree of matching between the two CE stages forming the
differential amplifier. In other words, more closely are the currents in
the input transistors, the better is the common mode signal rejection
ratio.
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Common Mode Rejection Ratio

The ability of a differential amplifier to reject a common mode signal is

given by the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).

Ad
CM RR = (1)
Acm
Where Acm the common mode gain can be expressed as:
vocm
Ac m = (2)
vcm
Where vocm is defined as the output of the differential amplifier when in-
put is vcm

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Differential Amplifier with swamping resistors
The gain of an differential
amplifier can be given by
Ad = Rr0c .
e
0
re is called the dynamic emitter
resistance and can be expressed
0
as re = ηV T
IE and
VT = kT ≈ 25mV at the room
temperature.
In order to remove the
dependence of voltage gain on
0 0
re an external resistance (RE ) is
used in series with the emitter
resistance.
0
The value of RE is usually large
enough to swamp the effect of
0
re .
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Differential Amplifier with swamping resistors

0
−Rs IB −VBE −RE IE − 2IE RE + VEE = 0

Since IC ≈ IE we have IB = IE /βdc

Thus we would have
VEE − VBE
IE = IC = 0 Rs
2 ∗ RE + RE + βdc

Since RS is the input source resistance:

RS
βdc  2 ∗ RE

VEE − VBE
IE = IC = 0
(2 ∗ RE + RE )

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Differential Amplifier with swamping resistors

There will be no impact on the voltage

between collector and emitter i.e.
VC = VCC − IC ∗ RC
VCE = VC − VE
= VCC − IC ∗ RC + VBE

The new value of voltage gain,input

and output resistances can be given
as :
RC
Ad = 0
re0 + RE
0 0
Rin = 2β(re + RE )
Ro1 = Ro2 = Rc

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Constant current Bias

As seen from the DC analysis of

dual input balanced output the
emitter current (IE ) is a
function of VEE and RE .
In order to obtain constant
current stabilisation and achieve
a stable operating point a
resistive constant current bias is
introduced.
The resistance RE is replace by
constant current transistor Q3 .
The dc collector current in Q3 is
established by R1 , R2 , RE .

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Constant current Bias

Let us calculate the voltage at the

base of transistor Q3 .
−VEE − VB3 VB3 − 0
=
R1 R2
R2
VB3 = (−VEE )
R1 + R2

VE3 = VB3 − VBE3

R2
VE3 = (−VEE ) − VBE3
R1 + R2

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Constant current Bias

Evaluating the value of IE and IC

we obtain:

IE3 ≈ IC3

VE3 − (−VEE )
IC3 =
RE
VEE − R1R+R
2
2
(VEE ) − VBE3
IC3 =
RE
Since both the halves of the differ-
ential amplifier are symmetrical thus
IC3 = 2IE1 = 2IE2 .
IC3
IE1 = IE2 =
2

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Constant current Bias

R2
VEE − R1 +R2 (VEE ) − VBE3
IE1 =
2RE
Thus the transistor Q3 serves as a
constant emitter current for transis-
tor Q1 and Q2 .Further we require
that the emitter resistance RE  re
and the AC equivalent of dc current
source is ideally an open circuit and
would provide large resistance.Thus
the rest of analysis remains same.

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Constant current Bias

As seen in IE expressions, the

current depends upon VBE3 . If
temperature changes, VBE
changes and current IE also
changes. To improve thermal
stability, a diode is placed in
series with resistance R1 as
shown.
This helps to hold the current
IE3 constant even though the
temperature changes. Applying
KVL to the base circuit of Q3 .

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Constant current Bias

R1
(VEE − VD ) + VD = VBE3 + IE3 RE
R1 + R2
VD is the diode voltage

(VEE ) R1R+R
1
2
+ (VD ) R1R+R
2
2
− VBE3
IE3 =
RE
Thus R1 and R2 are so chosen that
R2
VD = VBE3
R1 + R2
VEE R1
IE3 =
RE (R1 + R2 )

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Constant current Bias

VEE R1
IE3 =
RE (R1 + R2 )
Therefore, the current IE3 is constant and
independent of temperature because of
the added diode D. Without D the current
would vary with temperature because VBE3
decreases approximately by 2mV/ C. The
diode has same temperature dependence
and hence the two variations cancel each
other and IE3 does not vary appreciably
with temperature.

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Current Mirror

The circuit in which the output

current is forced to equal the
input current is said to be a
current mirror circuit. Thus in a
current mirror circuit, the
output current is a mirror image
of the input current.
Once the current I2 is set up,
the current IC3 is automatically
established to be nearly equal to
I2 .

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Current Mirror
Given transistor Q3 and Q4 are per-
fectly matched the currents and volt-
ages will be same as well.

VBE3 = VBE4
IC3 = IC4
IB3 = IB4

Summing the currents at node VC4

we obtain:
I2 = IC4 + I
I2 = IC4 + 2IB4
I2 = IC3 + 2IB3
IC3
I2 = IC3 + 2
βDC
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Current Mirror

IC3
I2 = IC3 + 2
βDC
2
= IC3 (1 + )
βDC
Since βDC is a large quantity we
would have

I2 ≈ IC3

The value of I2 can be obtained by

applying KVL at the base emitter
loop for Q3

−R2 I2 − VBE3 − RE I2 + VEE = 0

VEE − VBE3
I2 =
R2 + RE
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Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain amplifier
consisting of one or more differential amplifiers and followed by a
level translator and an output stage.
The input stage is a dual input balanced output differential amplifier.
This stage provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also
establishes the input resistance.
The intermediate stage of OPAMP is another differential amplifier
which is driven by the output of the first stage. This is usually dual
input unbalanced output.

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Operational Amplifier

Because direct coupling is used, the dc voltage level at the output of

intermediate stage is well above ground potential. Therefore level
shifting circuit is used to shift the dc level at the output downward to
zero with respect to ground.
The output stage is generally a push pull complementary amplifier.
The output stage increases the output voltage swing and raises the
current supplying capability of the OP-AMP. It also provides low
output resistance.

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Applications of Op-Amp

Amplification of DC as well as AC signals

Mathematical operataions such as addition,subtraction,multiplication
and integration.
With the addition of suitable feedback components it can also be
used as Active filters,oscillators,comparators,regulators etc.

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Operational Amplifier Circuit

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Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage am-

plifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this
configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential that is typically
hundreds of thousands of times larger than the potential difference be-
tween its input terminals.

Coupling is the transfer of energy between two mediums by means of

physical contact. For example, transferring electrical energy from a metal-
lic wire to a terminal.
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Coupling

Coupling is the transfer of energy between two mediums by means of

physical contact. For example, transferring electrical energy from a metal-
lic wire to a terminal.
AC (alternating coupling) allows only AC signals to pass through a
connection. AC coupling removes the DC offset by making use of a
DC-blocking capacitor in series with the signal. AC coupling
effectively rejects the DC component of the signal normalizing the
signal to a mean of zero.
DC (direct coupling) allows both AC and DC signals to pass through
a connection. The DC component is a 0 Hz signal which acts as an
offset about which the AC component of the signal fluctuates.

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Parameters of operational Amplifier
Input offset voltage is defined
as the voltage that must be
applied between the two input
terminals of an operational
amplifier to null or zero the
output.

Vio = Vdc1 − Vdc2

Vio can be positive or

negative.In case of IC 741
maximum value of Vio is 6mV
i.e a input of ±6mV is required
to one of the input to reduce
the output offset voltage to
zero.

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Parameters of operational Amplifier

Input offset current Iio is the

difference between the currents
into inverting and non-inverting
terminals of a balanced
amplifier.

Iio = |IB1 − IB2 |

The Iio for the 741C is 200nA

maximum. As the matching
between two input terminals is
improved, the difference
between IB1 and IB2 becomes
smaller, i.e. the Iio value
decreases further.

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Parameters of operational Amplifier

Input bias current The input

bias current IB is the average of
the current entering the input
terminals of a balanced
amplifier i.e.

IB = (IB1 + IB2 )/2

For 741C IB(max) = 700 nA

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Parameters of operational Amplifier

Differential Input Resistance:

Ri is the equivalent resistance
that can be measured at either
the inverting or non-inverting
input terminal with the other
terminal grounded. For the
741C the input resistance is
relatively high 2 MΩ.
Input Capacitance: Ci is the
equivalent capacitance that can
be measured at either the
inverting and non-inverting
terminal with the other terminal
connected to ground. A typical
value of Ci is 1.4 pf for 741C.

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Parameters of operational Amplifier

Offset Voltage Adjustment

Range: 741 OPAMP have off-
set voltage null capability. Pins
1 and 5 are marked offset null
for this purpose.It can be done
by connecting 10 K Ω pot be-
tween 1 and 5 and the viper is
connected to the negative supply
−VEE . By varying the poten-
tiometer, output offset voltage
(with inputs grounded) can be re-
duced to zero volts. Thus the
offset voltage adjustment range
is the range through which the
input offset voltage can be ad-
justed by varying 10 K pot.
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Parameters of operational Amplifier

Input Voltage Range:When a common voltage is applied to both

the terminals it is called the common mode voltage Vcm .In the case
of IC 741 the range of common mode voltage is ±13V without
disturbing the normal functioning of the op-amp.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio:CMRR is defined as the ratio of
the differential voltage gain Ad to the common mode voltage gain
Acm
CM RR = Ad /Acm .
For the 741C, CMRR is 90 dB typically. The higher the value of
CMRR the better is the matching between two input terminals and
the smaller is the output common mode voltage.

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Parameters of operational Amplifier

Supply voltage Rejection Ratio(SVRR):SVRR is the ratio of the

change in the input offset voltage due to variation in power supply
voltages.These terms are expressed in microvolts per volt or in
decibels.
SV RR = ∆Vio /∆V.
Large Signal Voltage Gain:Since the OPAMP amplifies difference
voltage between two input terminals, the voltage gain of the amplifier
is defined as
Ad = Vo /Vid
Because output signal amplitude is much large than the input signal
the voltage gain is commonly called large signal voltage gain. For
741C is voltage gain is 200,000 typically.

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Parameters of operational Amplifier

Output Resistance:R0 is the equivalent resistance that can be

measured between the output terminal of the OPAMP and the
ground. It is 75 ohm for the 741C OPAMP.
Output Short-circuit current: In case the output terminal of an
OPAMP is short to ground a high value of current would flow in that
would be much higher than Iio and IB .Thus an OPAMP needs an
short-circuit protection circuitry.Thus an OPAMP can withstand upto
25mA current for protection.
Supply current:Is is the current drawn by the OPAMP from the
supply. For the 741C OPAMP the supply current is 2.8 mA.
Power Consumption:Power consumption (Pc ) is the amount of
quiescent power (vin = 0V ) that must be consumed by the OPAMP
in order to operate properly. The amount of power consumed by the
741C is 85 mW.

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Parameters of operational Amplifier
Gain Bandwidth Product:The gain bandwidth product is the
bandwidth of the OPAMP when the open loop voltage gain is
reduced to 1.This gain bandwidth product can be found from the
open loop voltage gain vs frequency graph as given below and is
approximately 1 MHz.Equivalent terms for gain bandwidth product
are closed loop bandwidth,unity gain bandwidth and small signal
bandwidth.

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Parameters of operational Amplifier

Slew Rate:Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of

output voltage per unit of time and is expressed in volts/µs.

dV0
SR = |maximum V /µs (3)
dt
Slew rate indicates how rapidly can the output of an OPAMP change
in response to change in input frequency.The slew rate changes with
change in voltage gain and is normally found out at unity voltage
gain.

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Parameters of an Ideal OPAMP
The ideal OPAMP:
An ideal OPAMP would exhibit the following electrical characteristic.
Infinite voltage gain Ad
Infinite input resistance Ri , so that almost any signal source can
drive it and there is no loading of the input source.
Zero output resistance RO , so that output can drive an infinite
number of other devices.
Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.
Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signal from 0 to infinite Hz
can be amplified without attenuation.
Infinite common mode rejection ratio so that the output common
mode noise voltage is zero.
Infinite slew rate, so that output voltage changes occur
simultaneously with input voltage changes.
There are practical OPAMP that can be made to approximate some of
these characters using a negative feedback arrangement.
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Equivalent Circuit of OPAMP
In the equivalent circuit of an OPAMP there is an Thevenins equivalent
voltage source Avid and the equivalent resistance given by R0 looking
back into the output terminals of an op-amp. Thus we can express the
output voltage by the below stated equation:
v0 = Avid = A(v1 − v2 )

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Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve
The graphic representation of the output equation in which the output
voltage vO is plotted against differential input voltage vd , keeping gain Ad
constant.

The output voltage cannot exceed the positive and negative saturation
voltages. These saturation voltages are specified for given values of supply
voltages.
Thus curve is called an ideal voltage transfer curve, ideal because output
offset voltage is assumed to be zero. If the curve is drawn to scale, the
curve would be almost vertical because of very large values of Ad .
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Open Loop OPAMP configurations

In case of amplifiers open loop indicates no connection either direct or via

another network exists between the output and the input terminal.In this
configuration an op amp functions as a high gain amplifier.There are three
open loop OPAMP configurations:
Differential Amplifier
Inverting Amplifier
Non Inverting Amplifier

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Differential Amplifier
An open loop differential amplifier in which input signals vin1 and vin2
are applied to the positive and negative input terminals.Since the OPAMP
amplifies the difference the between the two input signals, this configura-
tion is called the differential amplifier. The OPAMP amplifies both ac and
dc input signals. The source resistance Rin1 and Rin2 are normally neg-
ligible.Therefore voltage drop across these resistances can be assumed to
be zero.
v0 = A(vin1 − vin2 )

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Inverting Amplifier

If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting termi-

nal is grounded then it is called inverting amplifier.The negative sign indi-
cates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input 180◦ or
is of opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted.

v0 = −Ad vin

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Non Inverting Amplifier
In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting termi-
nals and inverting terminal is grounded.In all there configurations any in-
put signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to saturation level.
This is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the
output of the OPAMP is either negative or positive saturation or switches
between positive and negative saturation levels. Therefore open loop op-
amp is not used in linear applications.

v0 = Ad vin

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OPAMP with negative feedback

Open loop configurations suffer from issues like

Large Gain
Low frequency range
Ability to amplify smaller signals only(of the order of microvolts or
lesser) and such signals are affected by noise.
Open loop gain is not constant and varies with temperature and
power supply.
Irregularly small bandwidth thus it cannot be used for AC
applications.
Thus it cannot be used for linear applications where output varies linearly
as input.A control over the gain can be achieved by use of a feedback.If
the signal fedback is of opposite or out phase by 180 with respect to the
input signal, the feedback is called negative fedback.

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Types of feedback

An amplifier with negative feedback has a self-correcting ability of

change in output voltage caused by changes in environmental
conditions. It is also known as degenerative feedback because it
reduces the output voltage and,in tern,reduces the voltage
gain.Negative feedback would stabilise the voltage gain,increases the
bandwidth and changes, the input and output resistances. Other
benefits are reduced distortion and reduced offset output voltage. It
also reduces the effect of temperature and supply voltage variation on
the output of an op-amp.
If the signal is feedback in phase with the input signal, the feedback
is called positive feedback. In positive feedback the feedback signal
aids the input signal. It is also known as regenerative feedback.
Positive feedback is necessary in oscillator circuits.

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Negative feedback

vout = A0 vid
vid−new = Vid − βvout
Thus the output voltage can now be evalu-
ated as:

vout = A0 (Vid − βvout )

vout (1 + A0 β) = A0 vid
vout A0
=
vid 1 + A0 β
Further since A0 β  1
vout 1
=
vid β

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Types of feedback Configurations
On the basis of connection between the feedback circuit and the OPAMP
circuit and whether voltage or current is fed back in series or parallel a
closed loop amplifier can be classified as below:

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Voltage Series feedback

It is also called non-inverting voltage feedback circuit. With this type of

feedback, the input signal drives the non-inverting input of an amplifier; a
fraction of the output voltage is then fed back to the inverting input. The
op-amp is represented by its symbol including its large signal voltage gain
Ad or A, and the feedback circuit is composed of two resistors R1 and
Rf .

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Voltage Series feedback
Open Loop Voltage Gain
vo
A=
vid
Closed Loop Voltage Gain
vo
AF =
vin
Gain of feedback circuit
vf
B=
vo

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Voltage Series feedback

Applying KVL in the input loop

vid = vin − vf

The feedback voltage always opposes the

input voltage and has a degenerate effect
hence such kind of feedback is called nega-
tive feedback.
Let us try to find the Closed Loop Voltage
Gain
vo
AF =
vin
Thus the output voltage can now be evalu-
ated as:
vo = A(v1 − v2 )

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Voltage Series feedback
v1 = vin
R1 vo
v2 = vf =
R1 + Rf
R1 vo
vo = A(vin − )
R1 + Rf
Rearranging we would get

A(R1 + Rf )vin
vo =
R1 + Rf + AR1

Thus the closed loop gain can be given as:

vo
AF =
vin
A(R1 + Rf )
AF =
R1 + Rf + AR1
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Voltage Series feedback

Generally the value of A is very large and

hence the gain can be approximated as:

A(R1 + Rf )
AF =
R1 + Rf + AR1

(R1 + Rf )
AF =
R1
RF
AF = 1 +
R1
Thus the gain of an voltage series amplifier
can solely be controlled by the values of R1
and RF .
Let us now try to find the Gain of feed-
back circuit

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Voltage Series feedback

vf
B=
vo
R1
B=
R1 + Rf
1
B=
AF
Let us now try to find the expression for
Closed loop voltage gain

A(R1 + Rf )
AF =
R1 + Rf + AR1
A
AF =
1 + AB

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Voltage Series feedback

The product A and B is called loop gain.

The gain loop gain is very large such that
AB  1
vo RF
AF = =1+
vin R1
This shows that overall voltage gain of the
circuit equals the reciprocal of B, the feed-
back gain. It means that closed loop gain
is no longer dependent on the gain of the
op-amp, but depends on the feedback of the
voltage divider. The feedback gain B can be
precisely controlled and it is independent of
the amplifier.

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Voltage Series feedback

Physically, what is happening in the cir-

cuit? The gain is approximately constant,
even though differential voltage gain may
change. Suppose A increases for some rea-
sons (temperature change). Then the out-
put voltage will try to increase. This means
that more voltage is fedback to the invert-
ing input, causing vd voltage to decrease.
This almost completely offset the attempted
increases in output voltage.
Similarly, if A decreases, The output voltage
decreases. It reduces the feedback voltage
vf and hence, vd voltage increases. Thus
the output voltage increases almost to same
level.

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Voltage Series feedback(Input Resistance)
Now let us try to calculate the input resis-
tance of a voltage series feedback configura-
tion:
vin
RiF =
iin
vin
RiF =
vid /Ri
vo
vid =
A
A
vo = vin
1 + AB
vin
RiF = Ri
vo /A
vin
RiF = ARi Av
in
1+AB
RiF = Ri (1 + AB)
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Voltage Series feedback(Output Resistance)
Now let us try to calculate the output resis-
tance of a voltage series feedback configura-
tion.
Output resistance is the resistance deter-
mined looking back into the feedback am-
plifier from the output terminal. To find
output resistance with feedback Rf , input
vin is reduced to zero, an external voltage
Vo is applied as shown.
Applying KCL at the output terminal we can
obtain:
vo
RoF =
io
io = ia + ib

Since (RF + R1 )||Ri >> Ro

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Voltage Series feedback(Output Resistance)

Thus the output resistance

1
with feedback is 1+AB times
lesser than in open loop con-
dition.
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Voltage Series feedback(Bandwidth with feedback)
The bandwidth of an amplifier is
defined as the band of
frequencies for which the gain
remains constant.From this
curve for a gain of 2 ∗ 105 the
bandwidth is approximately 5Hz.
On the other hand, the
bandwidth is approximately
1MHz when the gain is
unity.Thus the Gain Bandwidth
Product remains constant.
Break frequency(fo ) It is the
frequency at which the gain in
3dB down from its value at
0Hz.(Typically 5 Hz)

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Voltage Series feedback(Bandwidth with feedback)
The frequency at which gain equals 1 is
known as the unity gain bandwidth.
Since the gain bandwidth product is
constant obviously the higher the gain
the smaller the bandwidth and vice
versa. If negative feedback is used gain
A
decrease from A to (1+AB) .

U GB = A(fo )
U GB = Af (ff )
A
Af =
1 + AB
A(fo )
ff = A = fo (1 + AB)
1+AB

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Voltage follower
The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-
inverting amplifier with feedback is 1. When the
non-inverting amplifier gives unity gain, it is called
voltage follower because the output voltage is equal
to the input voltage and in phase with the input volt-
age. In other words the output voltage follows the
input voltage.

vo = A(v1 − v2 )
v1 = vin
v2 = vo
vo = A(vin − vo )
vo (1 + A) = Avin
vo (A) = Avin
vo
=1
vin
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Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier
The input voltage drives the inverting terminal, and the amplified as well
as inverted output signal is also applied to the inverting input via the
feedback resistor Rf . This arrangement forms a negative feedback because
any increase in the output signal results in a feedback signal into the
inverting input signal causing a decrease in the output signal. The
non-inverting terminal is grounded. Resistor R1 is connected in series with
the source.

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Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier
Let us start by calculating the value
of closed loop,open loop and feed-
back loop gain.The closed loop volt-
age gain can be obtained by, writing
Kirchhoff’s current equation at the
negative input node.

i1 = if + ib

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Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier

vo
vin + −vo − vAo
A
=
R1 RF
vo ARF
AF = =−
vin R1 + RF + AR1
The input and output are 180◦ out
of phase with each other. Since A
is very large thus we would have
AR1  Rf + R1 .Thus we would
have
RF
AF = −
R1
Since the gain can be controlled by
the values of resistances R1 and RF
this feedback configuration can be
used in several different applications.
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Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier(Inverting Input at
Virtual Ground)

The noninverting terminal is

grounded and the-input signal is ap-
plied to the inverting terminal via re-
sistor R1 . The difference input volt-
age vd is ideally zero, vd = vA0 is the
voltage at the inverting terminals v2
is approximately equal to that of the
noninverting terminal v1 . In other
words, the inverting terminal voltage
v1 is approximately at ground po-
tential. Therefore, it is said to be at
virtual ground.

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Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier(Inverting Input at
Virtual Ground)

iin ≈ iF
vin − v2 v2 − vo
=
R1 RF
However v1 = v2 = 0
vin vo
=−
R1 RF
vo RF
AF = =−
vin R1

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Miller Equivalent of an OPAMP

Snigdha Bhagat (VNIT Nagpur) Linear Electronic Circuits February 4, 2020 100 / 112
Input Resistance with Feedback

Let us try to find the input resis-

tance:
RF
RiF = R1 + ||Ri
1+A
Since Ri and A are very large
RF
||Ri = 0
1+A
RiF = R1

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Output Resistance with Feedback

The output resistance with feedback

Rof is the resistance measured at
the output terminal of the feedback
amplifier. The output resistance can
be obtained using Thevenin’s equiva-
lent circuit.

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Output Resistance with Feedback

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Linear Circuits using OPAMP
Summing Scaling and Averaging amplifiers:
There are 3 configurations of summing amplifiers:
Inverting Configuration
Non Inverting Configuration
Differential Configuration
Inverting Configuration:

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Inverting Summing Amplifier
Since A and Ri are too large IB ≈
0.Furthermore due to virtual ground
V1 = V2 ≈ 0

I1 + I2 = IF + IB
IB ≈ 0
V2 V1 Vo
+ =−
R2 R1 Rf
RF RF
Vo = −( Va + Vb )
Ra Rb
Thus the output voltage is equal to
negative sum of all input voltages
multiplied by the gain.Similarly a
weighted amplifier can be obtained
as well by modulating the ratio of
the resistances.
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Non Inverting Summing Amplifier

Snigdha Bhagat (VNIT Nagpur) Linear Electronic Circuits February 4, 2020 106 / 112
Non Inverting Summing Amplifier

Vo
Find the ratio of Vin for the given
configuration.

Snigdha Bhagat (VNIT Nagpur) Linear Electronic Circuits February 4, 2020 107 / 112
Non Inverting Summing Amplifier

Substituting for Vn in the second

equation from the first (noting Vp =
Vn ):

1 + Rf /Rs V1 V2
Vo = ( + )
1/R1 + 1/R2 R1 R2

So, this circuit also signal adds

(sums) two signals. It does not,
however, inverts the signals.

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Differential Configuration

Vo
Find the ratio of Vin for the given
configuration.

Snigdha Bhagat (VNIT Nagpur) Linear Electronic Circuits February 4, 2020 109 / 112
Differential Configuration

Substituting for Vn in the second

equation from the first (noting
Vp = Vn ):

Rf Rf R3
Vo = − V1 +(1+ )( )V2
R1 R1 R2 + R3
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Differential Configuration

Rf Rf R3
Vo = − V1 +(1+ )( )V2
R1 R1 R2 + R3
R3 Rf
Thus if R2 = R1 then we have

Rf
Vo = (V2 − V1 )
R1
Thus this circuit works as a subtrac-
tor circuitry.

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Active Filters, Integrators Differentiators

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