Sabre Global Distribution System, owned by Sabre Corporation,[1] is used by travel agents and

companies around the world to search, price, book, and ticket travel services provided by airlines,
hotels, car rental companies, rail providers and tour operators. Sabre aggregates airlines, hotels, online
and offline travel agents and travel buyers.

The company's history starts with SABRE (Semi-automated Business Research Environment),[1] a
computer reservation system which was developed to automate the way American Airlines booked
reservations.

In the 1950s, American Airlines was facing a serious challenge in its ability to quickly handle airline
reservations in an era that witnessed high growth in passenger volumes in the airline industry. Before
the introduction of SABRE, the airline's system for booking flights was entirely manual, having developed
from the techniques originally developed at its Little Rock, Arkansas reservations center in the 1920s. In
this manual system, a team of eight operators would sort through a rotating file with cards for every
flight. When a seat was booked, the operators would place a mark on the side of the card, and knew
visually whether it was full. This part of the process was not all that slow, at least when there were not
that many planes, but the entire end-to-end task of looking for a flight, reserving a seat and then writing
up the ticket could take up to three hours in some cases, and 90 minutes on average. The system also
had limited room to scale. It was limited to about eight operators because that was the maximum that
could fit around the file, so in order to handle more queries the only solution was to add more layers of
hierarchy to filter down requests into batches.[citation needed]

American Airlines had already attacked the problem to some degree, and was in the process of
introducing their new Magnetronic Reservisor, an electromechanical computer, in 1952 to replace the
card files. This computer consisted of a single magnetic drum, each memory location holding the
number of seats left on a particular flight. Using this system, a large number of operators could look up
information simultaneously, so the ticket agents could be told over the phone whether a seat was
available. On the downside, a staff member was still needed at each end of the phone line, and actually
handling the ticket still took considerable effort and filing. Something much more highly automated was
needed if American Airlines was going to enter the jet age, booking many times more seats.[2]:p.100

It was during the testing phase of the Reservisor that a high-ranking IBM salesman, Blair Smith, was
flying on an American Airlines flight from Los Angeles back to IBM in New York City in 1953.[3] He found
himself sitting next to American Airlines president C. R. Smith.[4] Noting that they shared a family name,
they began talking.[5]
Just prior to this chance meeting, IBM had been working with the United States Air Force on their Semi
Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) project. SAGE used a series of large computers to coordinate the
message flow from radar sites to interceptors, dramatically reducing the time needed to direct an attack
on an incoming bomber. The system used teleprinter machines located all around the world to feed
information into the system, which then sent orders back out to teleprinters located at the fighter
bases. It was one of the first online systems.[2]

It was not lost on either man that the basic idea of the SAGE system was perfectly suited to American
Airlines' booking needs. Teleprinters would be placed at American Airlines' ticketing offices to send in
requests and receive responses directly, without the need for anyone on the other end of the phone.
The number of available seats on the aircraft could be tracked automatically, and if a seat was available
the ticket agent could be notified instantly. Booking simply took one more command, updating the
availability and even printing out the ticket for them.[citation needed]

Only 30 days later IBM sent a research proposal to American Airlines, suggesting that they really study
the problem and see if an "electronic brain" could actually help. They set up a team consisting of IBM
engineers led by John Siegfried and a large number of American Airlines' staff led by Malcolm Perry,
taken from booking, reservations and ticket sales, calling the effort the Semi-Automated Business
Research Environment, or SABRE.[citation needed]

A formal development arrangement was signed in 1957, and the first experimental system went online
in 1960, based on two IBM 7090 mainframes in a new data center located in Briarcliff Manor, New York.
The system was a success. Up until this point, it had cost the astonishing sum of $40 million to develop
and install (about $350 million in 2000 dollars). The SABRE system by IBM in the 1960s was specified to
process a very large number of transactions, such as handling 83,000 daily phone calls.[6] The system
took over all booking functions in 1964, at which point the name had changed to the more familiar
SABRE.[7]

In 1972, the system was migrated to IBM System/360 systems in a new underground location in Tulsa,
Oklahoma. Max Hopper joined American Airlines in 1972 as director of Sabre, and pioneered its use.[8]
Originally used only by American Airlines, the system was expanded to travel agents in 1976.
With SABRE up and running, IBM offered its expertise to other airlines, and soon developed Deltamatic
for Delta Air Lines on the IBM 7074, and PANAMAC for Pan American World Airways using an IBM 7080.
In 1968, they generalized their work into the PARS (Programmed Airline Reservation System), which ran
on any member of the IBM System/360 family and thus could support any sized airline. The operating
system component of PARS evolved into ACP (Airlines Control Program), and later to TPF (Transaction
Processing Facility). Application programs were originally written in assembly language, later in
SabreTalk, a proprietary dialect of PL/I, and now in C and C++.

By the 1980s, SABRE offered airline reservations through the CompuServe Information Service, and the
Prodigy Internet Service GEnie under the Eaasy SABRE brand.[9][10] This service was extended to
America Online in the 1990s.

American and Sabre separated on March 15, 2000.[1] Sabre had been a publicly traded corporation,
Sabre Holdings, stock symbol TSG on the New York Stock Exchange until taken private in March 2007.
The corporation introduced the new logo and changed from the all-caps acronym "SABRE" to the mixed-
case "Sabre Holdings", when the new corporation was formed. The Travelocity website, introduced in
1996, was owned by Sabre Holdings.[11] Travelocity was acquired by Expedia in January 2015.[12] Sabre
Holdings' three remaining business units, Sabre Travel Network, Sabre Airline Solutions and Sabre
Hospitality, today serves as a global travel technology company.

Other airline systems

In 1982 Advertising Age reported that "United Air Lines operates a similar system, Apollo, while Eastern
operates Mars and Delta operates Datas."[13] Braniff International's Cowboy system was considered by
Electronic Data Systems for building an airline-neutral system.[13]

Controversy

A 1982 study[14] by American Airlines found that travel agents selected the flight appearing on the first
line more than half the time. Ninety-two percent of the time, the selected flight was on the first screen.
This provided a huge incentive for American to manipulate its ranking formula, or even corrupt the
search algorithm outright, to favor American flights.

At first this was limited to juggling the relative importance of factors such as the length of the flight, how
close the actual departure time was to the desired time, and whether the flight had a connection, but
with each success American became bolder. In late 1981, New York Air added a flight from La Guardia to
Detroit, challenging American in an important market. Before long, the new flights suddenly started
appearing at the bottom of the screen.[15] Its reservations dried up, and it was forced to cut back from
eight Detroit flights a day to none.

On one occasion, Sabre deliberately withheld Continental's discount fares on 49 routes where American
competed.[16] A Sabre staffer had been directed to work on a program that would automatically
suppress any discount fares loaded into the computer system.

Congress investigated these practices and in 1983 Bob Crandall, president of American, was the most
vocal supporter of the systems. "The preferential display of our flights, and the corresponding increase
in our market share, is the competitive raison d'être for having created the system in the first place," he
told them. Unimpressed, in 1984 the United States government outlawed screen bias.[17]

Even after biases were eliminated, travel agents using the system leased and serviced by American were
significantly more likely to choose American over other airlines. The same was true of United and its
Apollo system.[citation needed] The airlines referred to this phenomenon as the "halo" effect.[18]

The fairness rules were eliminated or allowed to expire in 2010. By then, none of the major distribution
systems was majority owned by the airlines.[19]

In 1987 Sabre's success of selling to European travel agents was inhibited by the refusal of big European
carriers led by British Airways to grant the system ticketing authority for their flights even though Sabre
had obtained IATA Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP) clearance for the UK in 1986. American brought
High Court action which alleged that after the arrival of Sabre on its doorstep British Airways
immediately offered financial incentives to travel agents who continued to use Travicom and would tie
any override commissions to it.[20] Travicom was created by Videcom, British Airways and British
Caledonian and launched in 1976 as the world's first multi-access reservations system based on Videcom
technology which eventually became part of Galileo UK. It connected 49 subscribing international
airlines (including British Airways, British Caledonian, TWA, Pan American World Airways, Qantas,
Singapore Airlines, Air France, Lufthansa, SAS, Air Canada, KLM, Alitalia, Cathay Pacific and JAL) to
thousands of travel agents in the UK. It allowed agents and airlines to communicate via a common
distribution language and network, handling 97% of UK airline business trade bookings by 1987.
British Airways eventually bought out the stakes in Travicom held by Videcom and British Caledonian, to
become the sole owner. Although Sabre's vice-president in London, David Schwarte, made
representations to the U.S. Department of Transportation and the British Monopolies Commission,
British Airways defended the use of Travicom as a truly non-discriminatory system in flight selection
because an agent had access to some 50 carriers worldwide, including Sabre, for flight information

Computer reservation systems, or central reservation systems (CRS), are computerized systems used to
store and retrieve information and conduct transactions related to air travel, hotels, car rental, or other
activities. Originally designed and operated by airlines, CRSs were later extended for use by travel
agencies. global distribution systems (GDS) to book and sell tickets for multiple airlines. Most airlines
have outsourced their CRSs to GDS companies,[1] which also enable consumer access through Internet
gateways. Modern GDSs typically also allow users to book hotel rooms, rental cars, airline tickets as well
as other activities and tours. They also provide access to railway reservations and bus reservations in
some markets, although these are not always integrated with the main system. These are also used to
relay computerized information for users in the hotel industry, making reservation and ensuring that the
hotel is not overbooked.

Airline reservations systems may be integrated into a larger passenger service system, which also
includes an airline inventory system and a departure control system.