BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED

INTRODUCTION
India, as a country, has been very lucky with regard to the introduction of telecom
products. The first telegraph link was commissioned between Calcutta and Diamond
Harbor in the year 1852, which was invented in 1876. first wireless communication
equipment were introduced in Indian Army in the year 1909 with the discovery of Radio
waves in 1887 by Hertz and demonstration of first wireless link in the year 1905 by
Marconi and Vacuum tube in 1906. Setting up of radio station for broadcast and other
telecom facilities almost immediately after their commercial introduction abroad followed
this. After the independence of India in 1947 and adoption of its constitution in 1950, the
government was seized with the plans to lay the foundations of a strong, self- sufficient
modern India. On the industrial front, Industrial Policy Resolution (IPR) was announced in
the year 1952. It was recognized that in certain core sectors infrastructure facilities require
huge investments, which cannot be met by private sector and as such the idea of Public
Sector Enterprise was mooted. With telecom and electronics recognized among the core
sectors, Indian Telephone Industry, now renamed as TI Limited, was formed in 1953 to
undertake local manufacture of telephone equipment, which were of electro-mechanical
nature at that stage. Hindustan Cable Limited was also started to take care of telecom
cables.

Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was established in 1954 as a Public Sector Enterprise
under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence as the fountain head to
manufacture and supply electronics components and equipment. BEL, with a noteworthy
history of pioneering achievements, has met the requirement of state-of-art professional
electronic equipment for Defence, broadcasting, civil Defence and telecommunications as
well as the component requirement of entertainment and medical X-ray industry. Over the
years, BEL has grown to a multi-product, multi-unit, and technology driven company with
track record of a profit earning PSU.

The company has a unique position in India of having dealt with all the
generations of electronic component and equipment. Having started with a HF receiver in
collaboration with T-CSF of France, the company's equipment designs have had a long
voyage through the hybrid, solid state discrete component to the state of art integrated
circuit technology. In the component arena also, the company established its own electron
valve manufacturing facility. It moved on to semiconductors with the manufacture of
germanium and silicon devices and then to the manufacture of Integrated circuits. To keep
in pace with the component and equipment technology, its manufacturing and product
assurance facilities have also undergone sea change. The design groups have CADDs
facility, the manufacturing has CNC machines and a Mass Manufacture Facility, and
Quality Control (QC) checks are preformed with multi-dimensional profile measurement
machines, Automatic testing machines, environmental labs to check extreme weather and
other operational conditions. All these facilities have been established to meet the stringent
requirements of MIL grade systems.

Today BEL's infrastructure is spread over nine locations with 29 production

divisions having ISO-9001/9002 accreditation. Product mix of the company is spread over
the entire Electro-magnetic (EM) spectrum ranging from tiny audio frequency
semiconductor to huge radar systems and X-ray tubes on the upper edge of the spectrum.
Its manufacturing units have special focus towards the product ranges like Defence
Communication, Radars, Optical & Opto-electronics, Telecommunications, Sound and
Vision Broadcasting, Electronic Components, etc.

Besides manufacturing and supply of a wide variety of products, BEL offers a

variety of services like Telecom and Radar Systems Consultancy, Contract Manufacturing,
Calibration of Test & Measuring Instruments, etc. At the moment, the company is
installing MSSR radar at important airports under the modernization of airports plan of
National Airport Authority (NAA).

BEL has nurtured and built a strong in-house R&D base by absorbing technologies
from more than 50 leading companies worldwide and DRDO Labs for a wide range of
products. A team of more than 800 engineers is working in R&D. Each unit has its own
R&D Division to bring out new products to the production lines. Central Research
Laboratory (CRL) at Bangalore and Ghaziabad works as independent agency to undertake
contemporary design work on state-of-art and futuristic technologies. About 70% of BEL's
products are of in-house design.

BEL was among the first Indian companies to manufacture computer parts and peripherals
under arrangement with International Computers India Limited (ICIL) in 1970s. BEL
assembled a limited number of 1901 systems under the arrangement with ICIL. However,
following Government's decision to restrict the computer manufacture to ECIL, BEL could
not progress in its computer manufacturing plans. As many of its equipment were
microprocessor based, the company continued to develop computers based application,
both hardware and software. Most of its software requirements are in real time. EMCCA,
software intensive naval ships control and command system is probably one of the first
projects of its nature in India and Asia.

BEL has won a number of national and international awards for Import Substitution,
Productivity, Quality, Safety Standardization etc. BEL was ranked no.1 in the field of
Electronics and 46th overall among the top 1000 private and public sector undertakings in
India by the Business Standard in its special supplement "The BS 1000 (1997-98)". BEL
was listed 3rd among the Mini Ratanas (category II) by the Government of India, 49 th
among Asia's top 100 Electronic Companies by the Electronic Business Asia and within the
top 100 worldwide Defence Companies by the Defence News, USA.
 MANUFACTURING UNITS
BANGALORE (KARNATAKA)
BEL started its production activities in Bangalore in 1954 with 400W high frequency (HF)
transmitter and communication receiver for the Army. Since then, the Bangalore Complex
has grown to specialize in communication and Radar/Sonar Systems for the Army, Navy
and Air Force. BEL's in-house R&D and successful tie-ups with foreign Defence
companies and Indian Defence Laboratories has seen the development and production of
over 300 products in Bangalore alone. The Unit has now diversified into manufacturing of
electronic products for the civilian customers such as D.O.T., V.S.N.L., A.I.R. and
Doordarshan, Meteorological Dept., I.S.R.O., Police, Civil Aviation, and Railways. As an
aid to Electorate, the unit has developed Electronic Voting Machines that are produced at
its Mass Manufacturing Facility (MMF).

GHAZIABAD (UTTAR PRADESH)

The second largest Unit at Ghaziabad was set up in 1974 to manufacture special types of
radar for the Air Defence Ground Environment Systems (Plan ADGES). The Unit provides
Communication Systems to the Defence Forces and Microwave Communication Links to
the various departments of the State and Central Govt. and other users. The Unit's product
range included Static and Mobile Radar, Tropo scatter equipment, professional grade
Antennae and Microwave components.

PUNE (MAHARASHTRA)
This Unit was started in 1979 to manufacture Image Converter Tubes. Subsequently,
Magnesium Manganese-dioxide Batteries, Lithium Sulphur Batteries and X-ray
Tubes/Cables were added to the product range. At the present the Unit manufactures Laser
Sub-unit for tank fire control systems and Laser Range Finders for the Defence services.

MACHILIPATNAM (ANDHRA PRADESH)

The Andhra Scientific Co. at Machilipatnam, manufacturing optics/Opto-electronic
equipment was integrated with BEL in 1983. The product line includes Passive Night
Vision Equipment, Binoculars, Binoculars and Goggles, Periscopes, Gun Sights, Surgical
Microscope and Optical Sights and Mussle Reference Systems for tank fire control
systems. The Unit has successfully diversified to making the Surgical Microscope with
zoom facilities.

PANCHKULA (HARYANA)
To cater the growing needs of Defence Communications, this Unit was established in 1985.
Professional grade Radio-communication Equipment in VHF and UHF ranges entirely
developed by BEL and required by the Defence services are being met from this Unit.

CHENNAI (TAMIL NADU)

In 1985, BEL established another Unit at Chennai to facilitate manufacture of Gun Control
Equipment required for the integration and installation in the Vijayanta tanks. The Unit is
now manufacturing Stabilizer Systems for T-72 tanks, Infantry Combat Vehicles BMP-II;
Commander's Panoramic Sights & Tank Laser Sights are among others.

KOTDWAR (UTTAR PRADESH)

In 1986, BEL started a Unit at Kotdwara to manufacture Telecommunication Equipment
for both Defence and civilian customers. Focus is being given on the requirement of the
Department of Telecommunications to manufacture Transmission and Switching
Equipment.

TALOJA (MAHARASHTRA)
For the manufacture of B/W TV Glass bulbs, this plant was established in collaboration
with coming, France in 1986. The Unit is now fully mobilized to manufacture 20" glass
bulbs indigenously.

HYDERABAD (ANDHRA PRADESH)

To coordinate with the major Defence R&D Laboratories located in Hyderabad, DLRL,
DRDL and DMRL, BEL established a unit at Hyderabad in 1986. Force Multiplier Systems
are manufactured here for the Defence services.
 BEL GHAZIABAD UNIT
Formation

In the mid 60’s, while reviewing the defence requirement of the country, the
government focused its attention to strengthen the air defence system, in particular the
ground electronics system support, for the air defence network. This led to the formulation
of a very major plan ADGES with Prime Minister as the presiding officer of the apex
review committee on the development and production of electronic equipment. The
ministry of defence immediately realized the need to establish production capacity for
meeting the electronic equipment requirements for its plan ADGES.

BEL was then entrusted with the task of meeting the development and production
requirement for the plan ADGES and in view of the importance of the project it was
decided to create additional capacity at a second unit of the company.

In December 1970 the Govt. sanctioned an additional unit for BEL. In 1971 the industrial
license for manufacture of radar and microwave equipment was obtained; 1972 saw the
commencement of construction activities and production was launched in 1974.

Over the years, the unit has successfully manufactured a wide variety of equipment needed
for defence and civil use. It has also installed and commissioned a large number of systems
on turnkey basis. The unit enjoys a unique status as manufacturer of IFF systems needed to
match a variety of Primary Radars. More than 30 versions of IFF have already been
supplied traveling the path from vacuum technology to solid state to latest Microwave
Component based system.
 PRODUCT RANGE

The product ranges today of the company are:

Radar Systems
• 3-Dimensional High Power Static and Mobile Radar for the Air Force.
• Low Flying Detection Radar for both the Army and the Air force.
• Tactical Control Radar Systems for the Army
• Battlefield Surveillance Radar for the Army
• IFF Mk-X Radar systems for the Defence and Export
• ASR/MSSR systems for Civil Aviation.
• Radar & allied systems Data Processing Systems.
Communications
• Digital Static Tropo scatter Communication Systems for the Air Force.
• Digital Mobile Tropo scatter Communication System for the Air Force and
Army.
• VHF, UHF & Microwave Communication Equipment.
• Bulk Encryption Equipment.
• Turnkey Communication Systems Projects for defence & civil users.
• Static and Mobile Satellite Communication Systems for Defence
• Telemetry/Tele-control Systems.
Antennae
• Antennae for Radar, Terrestrial & Satellite Communication Systems.
• Antennae for TV Satellite Receive and Broadcast applications.
• Antennae for Line-of-sight Microwave Communication Systems.
Microwave Component
• Active Microwave components like LNAs, Synthesizer, Receivers etc.
• Passive Microwave components like Double Balanced Mixers, etc

Most of these products and systems are the result of a harmonious combination of
technology absorbed under ToT from abroad, Defence R&D Laboratories and BEL's own
design and development efforts.
 ORGANIZATION
The operations at BEL Ghaziabad are headed by General Manager with Additional /
Deputy General Manager heading various divisions as follows:

1. Design & Engineering Divisions

• Development and Engineering-R

• Development and Engineering-C
• Development and Engineering-Antenna.

2. Equipment Manufacturing Divisions

• Radar
• Communication
• Antenna
• Systems
• Microwave Components.

3. Support Divisions

• Material Management
• Marketing & Customer Co-ordination
• Quality Assurance & Torque
• Central Services
• PCB & Magnetics
• Information Systems
• Finance & Accounts
• Personnel & Administration
• Management Services.
 ROTATION PROGRAM
Under this students are introduced to th company by putting them under a rotation program
to various departments. The several departments where I had gone under my rotational
program are:

• Test Equipment and Automation

• P.C.B. Fabrication
• Quality Control Works – Radar
• Works Assembly – Communication
• Magnetics
• Microwave Lab

Rotation period was to give us a brief insight of the company’s functioning and knowledge
of the various departments. A brief idea of the jobs done at the particular departments was
given. The cooperative staff at the various departments made the learning process very
interesting, which allowed me to know about the company in a very short time.
 TEST EQUIPMENT AND
AUTOMATION :
This department deals with the various instruments used in BEL. There are 300
equipments and they are of 16 types.
Examples of some test equipments are:
 Oscilloscope(CRO)
 Multimeter
 Signal Analyzer
 Logical Pulsar
 Counter
 Function Generator etc.
Mainly the calibration of instruments is carried out here. They are
compared with the standard of National Physical Laboratory (NPL). So, it is said to
be one set down to NPL. As every instrument has a calibration period after which
the accuracy of the instrument falls from the required standards. So if any of the
instruments is not working properly, it is being sent here for its correct calibration.
To calibrate instruments software techniques are used which includes the program
written in any suitable programming language. So it is not the calibration but
programming that takes time .For any industry to get its instrument calibrated by
NPL is very costly, so it is the basic need for every industry to have its own
calibration unit if it can afford it.

Test equipment and automation lab mainly deals with the equipment that is used for
testing and calibration .The section calibrates and maintains the measuring instruments
mainly used for Defense purpose.

A calibration is basically testing of equipment with a standard parameter. It is

done with the help of standard equipment should be of some make, model and type.
 The national physical laboratory (NPL) ,New Delhi provides the standard values yearly.
BEL follows International Standard Organization (ISO) standard. The test equipments are
calibrated either half yearly or yearly.
After testing different tags are labeled on the equipment according to the observations.
• Green –O.K , Perfect
• Yellow – Satisfactory but some trouble is present.
• Red – Can’t be used, should be disposed off.

The standard for QC, which are followed by BEL are:

 WS 102
 WS 104
 PS 520
 PS 809
 PS 811
 PS 369

Where, WS = Workmanship & PS = Process Standard

After the inspection of cables, PCB’s and other things the defect found are given in
following codes.

 A --- Physical and Mechanical defects.

 B --- Wrong Writing
 C --- Wrong Component / Polarity
 D --- Wrong Component / Mounting
 E --- Bad Workmanship/ Finish
 F --- Bad Soldering
 G --- Alignment Problem
 H --- Stenciling
 I --- Others (Specify)
 J --- Design & Development
After finding the defect, the equipment is sent to responsible departmentwhich is rectified there.

P.C.B. FABRICATION
P.C.B. stands for Printed Circuits Board. It’s an integral part of the Electronics equipment
as well as all the components are mounted on it. It Consists of the fiberglass sheet having
a layer of copper on both sides.

TYPES OF PCBs
1. Single Sided Board : Circuits on one side.
2. Double Sided Board : Circuit on Both side.
3. Muti-layer Board : Several layers are interconnected through hole
metalization.

 Raw material for PCB’s

Most common raw material used for manufacturing of PCBs is copper cladded glass
epoxy resin sheet. The thickness of the sheet may vary as 1.2, 2.4 and 3.2mm and the
standard size of the board is 610mm to 675mm.

 Operation in process
Following steps are there for PCB manufacturing :-
 CNC Drilling
 Drill Location
 Through Hole Plating
 Clean Scrub and Laminate
 Photo Print
 Develop
 Cu electroplate
 Tin electroplate
 Strip
 Etching and cleaning
 Tin Stripping
 Gold plating
 Liquid Photo Imageable Solder Masking (LPISM)
 Photo print
 Develop
 Thermal Baking
 Hot Air leaving
 Non Plated Hole Drilling
 Reverse Marking
 Sharing & Routing
 Debarring & Packing
P.C.B. is a non-conducting board on which a conductive board is made. The base
material, which is used for PCB plate are Glass Epoxy, Bakelite and Teflon etc.

 Procedure for through hole metallization

Loading-Cleaner-Water Rinse-Spray Water-Rinse-Mild Etch-Spray Water-Rinse-
Hydrochloric Acid-Actuator-Water Rinse-Spray Water-Rinse-Accelerator Dip-Spray
Water- Rinse- Electrolyses Copper-Plating-Plating- Spray water-Rinse-Anti Tarnish Dip-
Hot Air Drying- Unloading.

After through hole metallization, photo tool generation is done which is followed by
photo printing. In this the PCB is kept b/w two blue sheets and the ckt. is printed on it. A
negative and a positive of a ckt. are developed. To identify b/w the negative and positive,
following observation is done. If the ckt. is black and the rest of the sheet is white, it is
positive otherwise negative.
 Next, pattern plating is done. The procedure for pattern plating follows :

Loading- Cleaner- Water rings- Mild etch- Spray- Water Rinse-Electrolytic- Copper
plating- Water rinse- Sulfuric acid-Tin plating- Water rinse- Antitarnic dip- Hot air dry-
Unloading. To give strength to the wires so that they can not break. This is done before
molding. Varnishing is done as anti fungus prevention for against environmental hazard.

After completion of manufacturing proceeds it is sent for testing. This is followed

by resist striping and copper etching. The unwanted copper i.e. off the tracks is etched by
any of the following chemicals. After this, tin is stripped out from the tracks.

After this solder marking is done. Solder marking is done to mark the tracks to get
oxidized & finally etch. To prevent the copper from getting etched & making the whole
circuit functionally done.

There are three types of solder marking done in BEL:

Wet solder mask: Due to some demerits this method is totally ruled out. The demerit
was

non- alignment, which was due to wrong method applied or wrong machine.

Dry pin solder mask: Due to wastage of films about 30% this method is also not used
now.

Liquid photo imaginable solder mask (LPISM): In this first presoaking is at 80 degree
Celsius for 10 to 20 minutes. Next, screen preparation is done. The board is covered by a
silk cloth whose mesh is T-48. The angle to tilt of the board is 15 degree to 22.5 degree.

The next is ink preparation:

Ink + Hardener

71 % : 29 %
 (150 gms.) : (300gms.)

Butyrate solo solve 50gms/kg.

Ink preparation-
It uses :-

Ink-----100gm

Catalyst----10% of total weight

Reducer-----10% of total weight

The catalyst is used as binder and prevents the following, while reducer is used as
thinner. The three things are then fully mixed.

For wash out, following procedure takes place.

Water-Lactic acid-Water-Bleaching power-Water-caustic Soda-Water-Air dry-TCE.

After wash out, final baking for one hour at the temt. of 20degree C is done. After this
shearing or routing is done which is followed by debarring and packing.
 QUALITY CONTROL
(WORK ASSEMBLY)
According to some laid down standards, the quality control department ensures the
quality of the product. The raw materials and components etc. purchased and
inspected according to the specifications by IG department. Similarly QC work
department inspects all the items manufactured in the factory. The fabrication
department checks all the fabricated parts and ensures that these are made
according to the part drawing, painting , plating and stenciling etc are done as per
BEL standards.

The assembly inspection departments inspects all the assembled parts such as PCB ,
cable assembly ,cable form , modules , racks and shelters as per latest documents
and BEL standards .

The mistakes in the PCB can be categorized as:

1. D & E mistakes
2. Shop mistakes
3. Inspection mistakes

The process card is attached to each PCB under inspection. Any error in the PC is
entered in the process card by certain code specified for each error or defect.

After a mistake is detected following actions are taken:

1. Observation is made.
2. Object code is given.
3. Division code is given.
4. Change code is prepared.
5. Recommendation action is taken

WORK ASSEMBLY
This department plays an important role in the production. Its main function is to
assemble various components, equipments and instruments in a particular
procedure.

It has been broadly classified as:

 WORK ASSEMBLY RADAR e.g. INDRA –II, REPORTER.

 WORK ASSEMBLY COMMUNICATION e.g. EMCCA, MSSR, MFC.
 EMCCA: EQUIPMENT MODULAR FOR COMMAND CONTROL
APPLICATION.
 MSSR: MONOPULSE SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR.
 MFC: MULTI FUNCTIONAL CONSOLE.

The stepwise procedure followed by work assembly department is:

1. Preparation of part list that is to be assembled.
2. Preparation of general assembly.
3. Schematic diagram to depict all connections to be made and brief idea about all
components.
4. Writing lists of all components.

In work assembly following things are done :

Material Receive:
Preparation- This is done before mounting and under takes two procedures.

Tinning- The resistors ,capacitors and other components are tinned with the help of
tinned lead solution .The wire coming out from the components is of copper and it is
tinned nicely by applying flux on it so that it does not tarnished and soldering becomes
easy.

Bending- Preparation is done by getting the entire documents , part list drawing and
bringing all the components before doing the work.
Mounting- It means soldering the components of the PCB plate with the help of
soldering tools. The soldering irons are generally of 25 W and are of variable
temperature, one of the wires of the component is soldered so that they don’t move from
their respective places on the PCB plate. On the other hand of the component is also
adjusted so that the PCB does not burn.

Wave Soldering- This is done in a machine and solder stick on the entire path, which are
tinned.
Touch Up- This is done by hand after the finishing is done.

Cleaning:
Inspection- This comes under quality work.

Heat Ageing- This is done in environmental lab at temperature of 40 degree C for 4 hrs
and three cycles.

Testing:
Lacquering- This is only done on components which are not variable.

Storing- After this variable components are sleeved with Teflon. Before Lacquering
mounted plate is cleaned with isopropyl alcohol. The product is then sent to store.
 MAGNETICS
In this department different types of transformers and coils are manufactured ,
which are used in the various defense equipments i.e. radar , communication
equipments.

This department basically consists of three sections :

1.) PRODUCTION CONTROL :- Basic function of production control is to plan

the production of transformer and coils as per the requirement of respective
division (Radar and Communication). This department divided into two groups :
(a) Planning and (b) Planning store .

2.) WORKS (PRODUCTION) :- Production of transformers and coils are being

carried out by the works departments.

3.) QUALITY CONTROL :- After manufacturing the transformer/coils the item is

offered to the inspection department to check the electrical parameters(DCR , No
load current , full load current , dielectric strength , inductance , insulation resistance
and mechanical dimension as mentioned in the GA drawing of the product.

The D&E department provides all the information about manufacturing a coil and
the transformer.
The various types of transformers are as follows :
i) Air cored transformers
ii) Oil filled transformers
iii) Moulding type transformers
iv) P.C.B Mounting transformers :-
(a) Impedance matching transformers
(b) RF transformers
(c) IF transformers
The various types of cores are as follows :

i) E type
ii) C type
iii) Lamination
iv) Ferrite core
v) Toroidal core

Steps involved in the process of manufacturing of transformer/coils:

a.) Preparation of former : Former is made of plastic bakelite comprising a

male and female plates assembled and glued alternately to form a hollow
rectangular box on which winding is done.

b.) Winding : It is done with different material and thickness of wire. The
winding has specified number of layers with each layer’s having a specified
number of turns. The distance between the two turns should be maintained
constantly that is there should be no overlapping. The plasatic layer is inserted
between two consecutive layers.

The various types of windings are as follows :

i) Layer Winding
ii) Wave Winding
iii) Bank Winding
c.) Insulation : For inter-winding and inter layer , various types of insulation
sheets viz. Craft paper , paper , leather , oil paper , polyester film are being used.

d.) Protection : To protect the transformer from the external hazards , moisture ,
dust and to provide high insulation resistance , they are impregnated.

MICROWAVE LABORATORY
Microwave lab deals with very high frequency measurements or very short wavelength
measurements. The testing of microwave components is done with the help of various
radio and communication devices. Phase and magnitude measurements are done in this
section. Power measurements are done for microwave components because current and
voltage are very high at such frequencies.
Different type of waveguides is tested in this department like rectangular waveguides,
circular waveguides. These waveguides can be used to transmit TE mode or TM mode.
This depends on the users requirements. A good waveguide should have fewer loses and
its walls should be perfect conductors.
In rectangular waveguide there is min. distortion. Circular waveguides are used where the
antenna is rotating. The power measurements being done in microwave lab are in terms
of S- parameters. Mainly the testing is done on coupler and isolators and parameters are
tested here.
There are two methods of testing:
1. Acceptance Test Procedure (ATP)
2. Production Test Procedure (PTP)
Drawing of various equipments that are to be tested is obtained and testing is
performed on manufactured part. In the antenna section as well as SOHNA site
various parameters such as gain ,bandwidth ,VSWR , phase ,return loss, reflection
etc. are checked. The instruments used for this purpose are as follow:
1. Filters
2. Isolators
 3. Reflectors
4. Network Analyzers
5. Spectrum Analyzers
6. Amplifiers and Accessories

RADAR
(RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING)

INTRODUCTION
Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects such
as aircrafts, ships, spacecraft, vehicles, peoples and the natural environment. It operates by
radiating energy into space and detecting the reflected echo signal from an object or target.
The reflected energy to the radar not only indicates the presence of a target, but by
comparing the received echo signal with the signal that was transmitted, its location can be
determined along with other target related information. Radar can perform its function at
long or short distances and under conditions impervious to optical and infrared sensors. It
can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain and snow. Its ability to measure the distance with
high accuracy and in all weather is one of its most important attributes. Although most of
the radar units use microwave frequencies, the principle of radar is not confine to any
particular frequency range. There are some radar units that operate on frequencies well
below 100 MHz and others operate in the infrared range and above.

RADAR DEVELOPMENT
Although the development of radar as a full-fledged technology did not occur until World
War-II, the basic principle of radar detection is almost as old as the subject of
electromagnetism itself. Heinrich Hertz, in 1886, experimentally tested the theories of
Maxwell and demonstrated the similarity between radio and light waves. Hertz showed that
radio waves could be reflected by metallic and dielectric bodies. It is interesting to know
that although Hertz’s experiments were performed with relatively short wavelength ration
(66 cm), later work in radio engineering was almost entirely at longer wavelengths. The
shorter wavelengths were not actively used to any extent until the late thirties. One of the
biggest advocators of radar technology was Robert Watson-Watt, a British scientist.

Several inventors, scientists, and engineers contributed to the development of radar. The
use of radio waves to detect "the presence of distant metallic objects via radio waves" was
first implemented in 1904 by Christian Hülsmeyer, who demonstrated the feasibility of
detecting the presence of ships in dense fog and received a patent for radar as Reichspatent
Nr. 165546. Another of the first working models was produced by Hungarian Zoltán Bay in
1936 at the Tungsram laboratory.

While radar development was pushed because of wartime concerns, the idea first came
about as an anti-collision system. After the Titanic ran into an iceberg and sank in 1912,
people were interested in ways to make such happenings avoidable.
The term RADAR was coined in 1941 as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging.
The name reflects the importance placed by the workers in this field on the need for a
device to detect the presence of a target and to measure its range. This acronym of
American origin replaced the previously used British abbreviation RDF (Radio Direction
Finding).

Although modern radar can extract more information from a target’s echo signal
than its range, the measurement of range is still one of its most important functions. There
are no competitive techniques that can accurately measure long ranges in both clear and
adverse weather as well as can radar.

BASIC PRINCIPLE

An elementary form of radar consists of a transmitting antenna emitting

electromagnetic radiation generated by an oscillator of some sort, a receiving antenna, and
an energy detecting device or receiver. A transmitter generates an electromagnetic signal
(such as a short pulse of sine wave) that is radiated into space by an antenna. A portion of
the transmitted signal is intercepted by a reflecting object (target) and is re-radiated in
many directions. The reradiation directed back towards the radar is collected by the radar
antenna, which delivers it to a receiver. There it is processed to detect the presence of the
target and determine its location. A single antenna is usually used on a time shared basis for
both transmitting and receiving when the radar waveform is a repetitive series of pulses.
The range, or distance, to a target is found by measuring the time it takes for the radar
signal to travel to the target and return back to the radar (Radar engineers use the term
range to mean distance). The target’s location in angle can be found from the direction the
narrow-beamwidth radar antenna points when the received echo signal is of maximum
amplitude. If the target is in motion, there is a shift in the frequency of the echo signal due
to Doppler Effect. This frequency shift is proportional to the velocity of the target relative
to the radar (also called the radial velocity). The Doppler frequency shift is widely used in
radar as the basis for separating desired moving targets from fixed (unwanted) “clutter”
echoes reflected from the natural environment such as land, sea, or rain. Radar can also
provide information about the nature of the target being observed.

ECHO AND DOPPLER SHIFT

Echo is something you experience all the time. If you shout into a well or a canyon, the
echo comes back a moment later. The echo occurs because some of the sound waves in
your shout reflect off of a surface (either the water at the bottom of the well or the canyon
wall on the far side) and travel back to your ears. The length of time between the moments
you shout and the distance between you and the surface that creates the echo determines the
moment that you hear the echo.
Doppler shift is also common. You probably experience it daily (often without
realizing it). Doppler shift occurs when sound is generated by, or reflected off of, a moving
object. Doppler shift in the extreme creates sonic booms. Here’s how to understand
Doppler shift – Let’s say there is a car coming toward you at 60 miles per hour (mph) and
its horn is blaring. You will hear the horn playing one “note” as the car approaches, but
when the car passes you the sound of the horn will suddenly shift to a lower note. It’s the
same horn making the same sound the whole time. The change you hear is caused by
Doppler shift.
 TYPES OF RADAR

Based on its functions, RADAR can be divided into two types:

• PRIMARY OR SIMPLE RADAR
• SECONDARY RADAR

Primary radar or the simple radar locates a target by procedure described in section. But in
cases as controlling of aircrafts, the controller must be able to identify the air craft and find
whether it is a friend or a foe. It is also desired to know the height of the aircraft, so that on
the same source but flying at different levels can be kept apart.

To give the controller this information, second radar called a ‘SECONDARY

SURVEILLANCE RADAR’ (SSR) is used. This works differently and needs the help of
the target aircraft. It senses out the sequence of pulses to an electronic black box, called a
transponder fitted on the aircraft. The transponder is connected to the aircrafts altimeter
(the device which measures the plane’s altitude) to transmit back the coded message to the
radar about its status and altitude. Military aircrafts uses a similar kind of radar system with
secret code to transmit back to the ground station for the corresponding receiver code.

IFF UNIT
IFF is basically radar bacon system employed for the purpose of general identification of
military targets. The bacon system when used for the control of civil air traffic is called
SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR).

Primary radar locates an object by transmitting a signal and detecting the

reflected echo. A Secondary radar system is basically very similar in operation to
primary radar except that the return signal is radiated from a transmitter on board
the target rather than by reflection. In other words, secondary radar operates with a
co-operative “active target” while the primary radar operates with a “passive target”.

Secondary radar system consists of an INTERROGATOR and a

TRANSPONDER. The interrogator transmitter in the ground station interrogates
 transponder equipped aircraft, providing a two way data link to separate transmit and
receive frequencies. The transponder, on board the aircraft, on receipt of a chain of pulses
from the ground interrogator, automatically transmits a reply. The reply, coded for
purposes of Identification is received back at the ground interrogator where it is decoded
and displayed on a radar type presentation.

ADVANTAGES OF SSR OVER PRIMARY RADAR

1. Reply pulses are stronger than the echo signals of primary radar.
2. Separate transmitting and receiving frequencies eliminate ground clutter and
weather return problems.
3. Reply signal is independent of target cross section.
4. Interrogation and reply path coding provide discrete target identification and
altitude data.
The interrogator transmitter operates in L Band at 1030 MHz and the airborne transponder
operates at 1090 MHz.
The SSR operates in the same frequency channel for both military and civil air traffic
control by using compatible airborne devices in the aircraft.
 Basic Radar System

A basic radar system is spilt up into a transmitter, switch, antenna, receiver, data
recorder, processor and some sort of output display. Everything starts with the transmitter
as it transmits a high power pulse to a switch, which then directs the pulse to be transmitted
out an antenna. Just after the antenna is finished transmitting the pulse, the switch switches
control to the receiver, which allows the antenna to receive echoed signals. Once the
signals are received the switch then transfers control back to the transmitter to transmit
another signal. The switch may toggle control between the transmitter and the receiver as
much as 1000 times per second.

Any received signals from the receiver are then sent to a data recorder for storage
on a disk or tape. Later the data must be processed to be interpreted into something useful,
which would go on a Pulse Width and Bandwidth.
 Some radar transmitters do not transmit constant, uninterrupted electromagnetic
waves. Instead, they transmit rhythmic pulses of EM waves with a set amount of time in
between each pulse. The pulse itself would consist of an EM wave of several wavelengths
with some dead time after it in which there are no transmissions. The time between each
pulse is called the pulse repetition time (PRT) and the number of pulses transmitted in one
second is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). The time taken for each pulse to be
transmitted is called the pulse width (PW) or pulse duration. Typically they can be around
0.1 microseconds long for penetrating radars or 10-50 microseconds long for imaging
radars (a display). Microsecond is a millionth of a second.
Mathematically,
PRT = 1 / PRF
Or
PRF = 1 / PRT

WORKING OF A SIMPLE RADAR

A simple RADAR system, as found on many merchant ships, has three main parts. These
are:-
 The antenna unit or the scanner.
 The transmitter/receiver or transceiver and
 The visual display unit.

The antenna is about 2 or 3 meters wide and focuses pulses of very high frequency
radio energy into a narrow vertical beam. The frequency of the radio waves is usually about
10,000 MHz. the antenna is rotated at the speed of 10 to 25 revolutions per minute so that
the radar beam sweeps through 300 degrees all around the ship out to a range of about 90
kilometers.

In all RADARS it is vital that the transmitting and receiving in the transceiver are in
close harmony. Everything depends on accurate measurement of the time which passes
between the transmission of the pulse and the return of the ECHO about 1,000 pulses per
second are transmitted. Though it is varied to suit requirements. Short pulses are best for
short-range work, longer pulses are better for long range.

An important part of the transceiver is the modulator circuit. This keys the
transmitter so that it can oscillate, or pulses, for exactly the right length of time. The pulses
so generated are video pulses. These pulses are short range pulses and hence cannot serve
out purpose of long-distance communication. In order to modify these pulses into radio
frequency pulses or RF pulses, we need to generate power. The transmitted power is
generated in a device called ‘magnetron’, which can handle these very short pulses and
very high oscillations.

Between each pulse, the transmitter is switched off and isolated. The weak echoes
from the target are picked up by the antenna and fed into the receiver. To avoid overlapping
of these echoes with the next transmitted pulse, another device called duplexer is used.
Thus, by means of a duplexer, undisturbed, two-way communication is established. The RF
echoes emerging from the duplexer are now fed into the mixer where they are mixed with
pulses of RF energy. These pulses are generated by means of a local oscillator. Once the
two are mixed, a signal is produced in the output witch is of intermediate frequency range
or IF range. The IF signals is received by a receiver where it is demodulated to video
frequency range, amplified, and then passed to the display unit.

The display unit usually carried all the controls necessary for the operation of the
whole radar. It has a cathode ray tube, which consist of an electron gun in its neck. The gun
shoots a beam of electron at a phosphorescent screen at the far end. The phosphorescent
screen glows when hit by the electrons and, the resulting spot of light can be seen through a
glass surface. The screen is circular and is calibrated in degrees around its edge. The
electron beam travels out from the center to the edge. This random motion of the electron
beam, known as the trace, is matched with the rotation of the antenna. So, when the trace is
at zero degrees on the tube calibration, the antenna is pointing dead ahead. The beginning
of each trace corresponds exactly which the moment at which the radar energy is
transmitted.
 When an echo is received it brightens up the trace for a moment. This is a blip,
and its distance from the center of the tube corresponds exactly with the time taken for the
radar pulse to travel to the target and return. So that blip on the screen gives the range and
bearing of the target. As the trace rotates, a complete picture is built up from the coating of
the tube. This type of display is called a PPI (plane position indicator) and is the most
common form of presenting radar information.

RADAR EQUATION
The amount of power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

where,
 Pt = transmitter power
 Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna
 Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna
 σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target
 F = pattern propagation factor
 Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target
 Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.
In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt = Rr
and the term Rt2 Rr2 can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yield:

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which
means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small.
The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without interference.
The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and depends on
the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, pathloss effects should also be
considered.
 APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

Radar has been employed on the ground, in the air, on the sea and in space. Ground –
based radar has been applied chiefly to the detection, location, and tracking of the aircraft
or space target. Shipboard radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device to locate
buoys, shorelines and other ships as well as for observing aircraft. Airborne radar may be
used to detect other aircraft, ships, or land vehicles or it may be used for mapping of land,
storm avoidance, terrain avoidance and navigation. In space, radar has assist in the
guidance of spacecraft and for remote sensing of the land and sea.
The major use of radar, and contributor of the cost of almost all of its
development, has been the military; although there has has been increasingly important
civil application, chiefly for marine and air navigation. The major areas of radar application
are briefly described below:

 Air Traffic Control (ATC): Radar is employed throughout the world for
the purpose of safely controlling air traffic route and in the vicinity of Airport. Aircraft and ground vehicular
traffic at large airport are monitored by means of high - resolution radar. Radar has been used with GCA
(ground control approach) system to guide aircraft to a safe landing in bad weather.

 Ship Safety: Radar is used for enhancing the safety of ship travel by warning of
ship potential collision with other ships, and for detecting navigation buoys, especially in poor visibility.
Automatic detection and tracking equipment are commercially available for use with radar for the purpose of
collision avoidance. Shore – based radar of moderately high resolution is also used for the surveillance of
harbors as an aid to navigation.

 Space: Space vehicles have used radar for rendezvous and docking and for
landing on the moon. Some of the largest ground based radar is for the detection and tracking of satellite.

 Remote Sensing: All radar is a remote sensor. Radar has been used as a
remote sensor of the weather. It is also used to probe the moon and planets. The ionospheric sounder, an
important adjunct for HF (short wave) communications, is radar. Remote sensing with radar is also concerned
with earth resources, which include the measurement and mapping of sea condition, water resources, ice cover,
agriculture, forestry condition, geological information and environmental pollution.
 Law Enforcement: In addition to the wide use of radar to measure the speed
of automobile traffic by highway police, radar has also been employed as a means for the detection of intruders.

 Military: Many of the civilian application of the radar are also employed by the
military. The traditional role of radar for military application has been for surveillance, navigation and for the
control and guidance of weapon.

IFF (MK-XI) UNIT

PURPOSE

The Identification Friend or Foe Mk-XI (IFF - Mk XI) Ground Equipment is used to
interrogate and identify the ship/aircraft (target) fitted with compatible transponder. The
coded replies from the interrogated target are received back, processed and displayed on a
PPI in a convenient form to the operator.

EQUIPMENT DESIGN

The IFF Mk-XI Ground Equipment - GRL 541 (Here in after called only IFF Mk-XI) has
been designed for operation in association with `FREGAT-M2EM’ Primary Radar and
 PODBEREZOVIK-ET1 on board GORSHKOV ships to give a range coverage
compatible to Primary Radar which is approximately 180 Km. However IFF System
GRL541 is designed to provide range coverage of 280 KM.

MAJOR SUBSYSTEMS
IFF Mk-XI has following major subsystems:-

a) 3.5 m IFF Mono Pulse Antenna 1 Nos.

b) RF Switch Unit 1Nos.
c) Interrogator - Decoder 1 Nos.
d) Remote Control Panel 1 Nos.
e) Control Units 2 Nos.
f) Voltage Stabiliser 1 Nos.

COMPOSITION
IFF MK-XI Interrogator Equipment (only IFF MK-XI hereafter) has a Selective
Address Interrogation Mode called Mode `S', in addition to all standard operating
modes and features of a IFF MK-X System. Therefore IFF MK-XI has two parts as
follows:

a) IFF MK-X System

b) Selective Address Interrogation (Mode `S') Feature
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
The SSR interrogate transponder equipped aircraft with coded pulses train whose spacing
denotes whether identity or altitude replies are being requested. The elicited reply comprises up
to 15 pulses, spaced at multiples of 1.45 microseconds. Two pulses in this code train define the
pulse train and the other pulses contain the code data these positions provide up to 4096
discrete identify codes including the altitude.

The position of the scanning antenna and the elapsed time between the interrogation and
receipt of the transponder reply give the azimuth and range. Thus range, azimuth and altitude
are derived. Special code provisions enable to declare an emergency or communication failure,
special identification of a particular aircraft when the same identify code has been used by two
or more aircraft.

OPERATION
The SSR system can operate in association with both static and mobile primary radar or
independently with its own monitor display. The transmitter can be triggered either internally
or externally. Interrogations are pre-triggered with respect to the primary radar pulse
transmission (external triggering) to provide for a timing match between radar echoes and SSR
replies at the PPI display. The PRF of the interrogation transmission is either the same as the
primary radar or counted down to maintain a nominal value as the case may be. The
interrogation modes provide for separation of replies by function. For e.g., mode C is the
automatic altitude mode. Interlacing of two modes is done to update identity and altitude data
on each scan of the ground based antenna.

IFF Mk-X SYSTEM

BASIC PRINCIPLE
IFF Mk-X system basically operates on the principle of a Secondary Radar as per
recommendations of Annexure 10 of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
advisory circular on SSRs. The Ship borne Ground Interrogator together with an Air/Ship
borne transponder, constitute the IFF system. The Interrogator sends out RF pulses, called
mode pulses with suitable spacing as per the desired mode of interrogation. The
transponder receives these pulses and sends out suitable replies. The RF reply pulses from
transponder are received, amplified and detected in ground receiver chain. The detected
reply code and corresponding mode information are then `Passed on' to the MK-X Decoder
unit for further decoding and establishing the identity of the aircraft. This is done by
looking for a match between the received replyREPLY PULSE (1090
code MHz)
and the preset expected codes. Such
targets whose codes are matched are displayed
F1 on the PPI near the F2
respective primary radar
echo in the form of two slashes. The expected codes can be preset from the front panel of
the Control
IFF Unit supplied as part of IFF equipment. Special codes like Emergency,
ANTENNA
Communication Failure and Hijack are decoded automatically whenever targets are
interrogated on mode
P1, 3/A irrespective of setting for active decoding and(1030
passive decoding
P2
P3 MHz)
(code match) and are indicated on Control unit.
P1 P2 P3
RF SWITCH (INTERROGATION
UNIT PULSES)
OPERATIONAL DESCRIPTION (Refer Figure 2.1)
P1, P2,
P3 output
The of the IFF Interrogator consists of three RF pulses P1, P2 and P3 at 1030 MHz.
TheTRANSMITT
R.F. output is applied to an IFF Antenna through a RF switch unit. The transmitted
ER
pulses P1 & P3 are received by the transponder fitted in the aircraft/ship. The coded replies
at 1090 MHz from the transponderREMOTE
are received, amplified, detected and fed to Mk-X
CONTROL
Decoder. The Decoder decodes the PANEL
RECEIVER replies for identity and its output is fed to the display
unit of primary radar for displaying the IFF responses. The system also includes Mode `S’
drawer.
MK-X
DECODER CONTROL
UNIT

MODE `S’
PROCESSOR

(INTERROGATOR –
DECODER) PPI

GROUND/SHIP FIG. No. 2-1

INTERROGATOR
IFF MK-XI SYSTEM
BASIC PRINCIPLE
IFF INTEROGATION SIGNAL
The interrogation signal of the IFF ground equipment consists of a signal consisting of 3
pulses are designated as P1, P2 and P3 as shown in the figure above. The P1 and P3 pulses
are known as the INTERROGATE PULSES and pulse P2 is known as the CONTROL
PULSE.

The three pulses viz P1, P2, P3 are produced to achieve the 3 pulse side lobe suppression.
The pulses P1, P2 and P3 are of same width viz 0.8 microseconds each.

The P1 and P3 pulses occur at discrete pulse intervals and the P1, P3 combination is known
as MODE. The aircraft transponder on receipt of the mode pulses P1and P3 recognizes the
mode and responds with its suitable reply code.

The pulse P2, control pulse, is always positioned at 2 microseconds from P1 and is used for
achieving the 3 pulse side lobe suppression. The P2 pulse determines whether the
interrogation is true or false. If the interrogation is false, the aircraft transponder uses side
lobe suppression technique to inhibit the reply. In this technique, P1, P2 and P3 are
transmitted in succession in different directions in such a manner that amplitude of P1 and
P3 are greater than that of P2 only along the direction of the main beam of the signal. In all
other directions, amplitude of P2 is greater than that of the other pulses. The target is
required to respond only when it finds the amplitude of the P1 and P3 greater than that of
P2.

INTERROGATION SIGNAL
P1 P2 P3

2µ
s PRT depends on
working mode

MODES OF INTERROGATION

The IFF Mk-X Interrogator has four types of interrogation modes to accommodate its
various uses. Each mode of interrogation consists of a pair of pulses P1 and P3. An
 additional pulse P2 is transmitted 2 microseconds after initial P1 pulse. This pulse is
used for achieving Interrogation Side Lobe Suppression (ISLS). Each pulse is of 0.8
microsecond duration.

The mode is designated by the P1-P3 inter pulse interval. The intervals for each mode are
shown in Fig. 2.2. P1 P2 P3

• Modes 1 and 2 are used for Military Interrogations.

MODE 1
2µS
• Mode 3/A is common to both Military and civil3µS
systems, and

• Mode C is used for eliciting the digitally

P1 encoded
P2 altitude from
P3 the airborne
transponder.

MODE 2
2µS

5µS

P1 P2 P3

MODE 3/A
2µS

8µS

P1 P2 P3

MODE C
2µS

21µS

P1 P2 PS1

MODE `S’
2µS
24 µS TO 1023 µS

IN STEP 1 µS

MODES OF INTERROGATION
TRANSPONDER REPLY
 The transponder reply normally consists of a sequence of upto 14 pulses on 1090
MHz each of duration 0.45 µs. The basic reply format showing the spacing between
the pulses and their designations is illustrated in Fig. 2.3 & Fig. 2.4. Every reply includes
two brackets or framing pulses F1 and F2 spaced at 20.3 µs. Twelve pulses with their
positions defined can be selected for transmission by means of switches in the control
unit of the transponder.
F1 C1 A1 C2 A2 C4 A4 B1 D1 B2 D2 B4 D4 F2

Special codes are allotted to recognise situations such as emergency,

1.45
communication failure, hijack etc. The special codes sent by transponder in such
ｵS 2.0 ｵ S
situations are:- 0.45
2.0 ｵ S ｵS

a) Hijack : Code X1 on Mode

20.33/A
ｵS

b) Communication Failure : Code X2 on Mode 3/A

c) Emergency (Military):
. Mode 1 and Mode 2: Repetition of three frame pulse pairs in addition to
the first frame. The first frame carries the normal code on Mode 1 and 2.
F2
. F1 C1 C2
Mode 3: Same C4
asA2above A4
except that theB1first D1 contains code X3.D4
frameB2
d) Special Position Identification (SPI):

The SPI reply is transmitted on instructions from the interrogating station and consists of
additional frame pulse pair, transmitted at 4.35 µ s from F2 of first frame pulse pair
(Special pulse).

F1 A4 A2 A1 B4 B2 B1 C4 C2 C1 D4 D2 D1 E4 E2 E1 F2

0.5 ｵS 0.5 ｵS

8.0 ｵS

EXAMPLE 1 :CODE 7777

REPLY CODE FORMAT

NORMAL REPLY PULSES
EXAMPLE 2 :CODE 6375

MODE `S’ REPLY

SIDE LOBE SUPPRESSION

A three pulse side lobe suppression technique during interrogation (ISLS) is employed to
avoid false responses through side lobes when the responding air-craft is in close vicinity
to RADAR. This is achieved by the use of a RF Switch unit and special IFF antenna with
distinct patterns namely interrogate and control patterns. When target is in position `A',
the amplitude of P1 & P3 pulses is more than the level of P2 pulse, the interrogated
target will respond. When the target is in position `B', the amplitude of P2 pulse is more
than that of P1 & P3 pulses and the target will not respond.

PASSIVE DECODING AND DISPLAY

The coded replies from the transponder after detection and amplification are fed along
with the mode information to the Decoder Unit which identifies the mode of interrogation
& coded replies and feeds the output to the primary radar displays. The Control Units of
Decoder are located near the primary radar displays. Whenever a standard bracket pulse
pair F1-F2 is detected a single slash known as "All Aircraft" or "AA" slash is generated
on the PPI coincident with the primary radar target echo.

For passive decoding the operator sets the mode and code combination on the thumb
wheel switches (code match) provided in the Control Units. Whenever an incoming IFF
reply matches with the mode and code combination set on any one of these passive
channels, two slashes are generated on the PPI. Three slashes are generated whenever a
SPI pulse is received and four slashes indicate a situation of emergency or
communication failure report from the target. The `slash' patterns for different situations
are shown in Fig.

DISPLAY OF IFF SYMBOLS ON PPI

 Primary All Aircraft
Radar Echo Signal (AA)

Passive Code
Match

Emergency and
Communication
Failure
Special Position
Mode ‘S’ Identification
match

ACTIVE DECODING

With the help of a designation pulse generated from Primary Radar Display the actual
code of the designated target can be read out on Control Unit by means of active
decoding. The mode for active decoding can be selected with the help of a thumbwheel
switch provided in the Control Units. The code is displayed on a 4 digit numeric
indicator. 5th digit displays the validity of the incoming code. Altitude of Aircraft also
can be displayed on Control Unit when IFF is operated in Mode `C'.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTIVE DECODING & PASSIVE DECODING

In case of active decoding the code received from the target is displayed on control unit.
If the mode of active decoding is one out of the three modes of interrogation (set on
RCP). In case mode `S’ the active decoding is not applicable.In case of passive decoding
the code received from the target is compared with preset code on thumbwheel switches
of channel 1, channel 2 and channel 3 and two slashes are generated on PPI.
INTERROGATOR - DECODER
 The Interrogator Decoder Rack is made of high grade Aluminum extruded profiles. For
ease of maintenance all RF and digital hardware has been placed in four drawers which
slide on the rails inside the rack. Major RF modules and digital PCBs are again plug-in
type within the drawers. This modular concept reduces the down time to minimum since
all plug-in type modules and PCBs are given as carried spares.

The Interrogator-Decoder rack consists mainly of four drawers, namely:-

a) TX-Rx drawer
b) MK-X decoder drawer
c) Mode `S' Processor drawer
d) Blower Drawer

MODE `S' PROCESSOR

 The concept of Mode ‘S’ was introduced because of the drawbacks encountered in the
Mk-X system. The major drawbacks are:

a) Whenever the ground system asks a question from an aircraft, the answer comes
from that aircraft as well as from the other aircrafts also which are there within that region. It was not able to
interact with a single (or a particular/ selected) aircraft with whom interaction is required.
b) It did not prove to be a full-proof system, as the unknown (or enemy) aircrafts were
able to decode the reply sent by the friend aircrafts to the IFF ground systems and then by sending the same
code to the ground systems and therefore able to escape easily.
c) It was not able to counteract the jamming being introduced by the enemy aircrafts.

Mode ‘S’ processor was then invented to avoid the abovementioned drawbacks in the Mk-
X decoder system and then came the advance version of the IFF system which was a
modification over the Mk-X system as it comprises both the Mk-X system as well as the
Mode ‘S’ processor which was given the name Mk-XI SYSTEM.

In the Mode ‘S’ system the concept of POLY COEFFICIENT called POLY and KEY
was introduced to achieve (or generate) VARIABLE REPLY CODE to avoid spoofing.

BASIC CONCEPT OF WORKING

As in MK-X for interrogation P1, P2, P3 are generated in Mode `S' P3 pulse is generated
at varying distance depending on the address of target which are set in storage card. In this
four targets addresses can be selected according to which generated pulses called as PS1,
PS2, PS3, PS4. These address, are stored in the storage card through Mode `S’ Local
Control Panel. The pulses P1, P2, PS1, PS2, PS3, PS4 are generated with respect to a
pulse which is generated after a random delay between 1 µs to 1023 µs after pretrigger.

P1 P2 PS1 PS2 PS3 PS4

 At the Transponder Reply the frame consist of 15 bit varying code which is generated by
ExoRing the 15 bit varying code (dependent on poly coefficient called poly) with key code.

From reply frame defruited AA is generated in Decoder & Defruiter Card and code is
decoded. Time of Arrival (TOA), range are also latched in latch register in the decoder card
at arrival of AA pulse. The range of incoming frame is compared with previous range
stored in RAM of processor card. If ranges are same then incoming code is compared with
code generated from previous code with help of poly and key combination stored at first
address. If these codes are matched then a video match pulse is generated otherwise
comparison of incoming code with code generated from previous code with help of poly
and key combination stored at second address is compared. Then third and fourth are
compared respectively and when a match of code is there matched video pulse is generated.
Matched address is decremented from the range and at new range which is delay of AA
pulse with PS1 or PS2 or PS3 or PS4 depending on the matched address is given for
display of PPI.

GENERATION OF THE VARIABLE REPLY

At the Transponder the reply codes are generated by ANDing a 15-bit initially set data
called Poly coefficient and then this data is sent to a odd parity generator which generates a
parity bit a 1 or 0, according to the no. of 1’s in the data is even or odd, and then this parity
bit is inserted in the Poly coefficient from left such that the initial data is shifted to right
with the 15th bit being the parity bit. So, by continuing in this manner a variable Poly has
been generated at a rate of 500 KHz (or 2 µ sec) for the generation of the reply code. Now,
as mentioned earlier the reply code is generated by XORing the 15-bit variable poly code
with KEY.
SUBMITTED BY
NAME : ANKUR GARG (06102331)
UPT NO. : UPT/192/B.TECH/2009
COLLEGE : JAYPEE INSTITUTE OF
INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY
NOIDA (U.P.)
COURSE OF STUDY : B.TECH(ELECTRONICS
AND
COMM
UNICATION)
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, Mr.ANKUR GARG student of B.TECH

(ECE) from J.I.I.T.U NOIDA, in BHARAT ELECTRONICS
LIMITED, GHAZIABAD from 01.06.09 to 11.07.09. During this
training period he was assigned PRODUCT ASSURANCE
RADAR – IFF TESTING.

He was involved in Studying and Testing of DIGITAL PCB’s

cards, Sub System of IFF RADAR System. In addition he also
gained the knowledge and operation of other latest
testing/measuring equipments.

His performance during the Training was found

I wish him all the success in his life.

PROJECT GUIDE MANAGER

(PA-C/IFF) (PA-C/IFF)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I would like to thank Mr. TAPASH BOSE, (D.G.M-Human

Resource Development Department) for granting me the permission to work
as a Trainee in this esteemed company & for providing me all the facilities.

I also remain grateful to Mr. S.ERANDE (D.G.M), who granted us the

permission to take this project. The aim at the project was testing of
flycatcher radar and study & analysis of Tx module, Rx Module & RF
Switch Unit. This could be accomplished in the time span of weeks only due
to the kind co-operation of Mr. K.T.S MURTY(Manager). I am thankful to
him and his colleagues.

I pay my special thanks to Mr. JYOTI PRAKASH who guided us on our

project and with whom help I am able to complete my report. I am also
thankful to other BEL staff who helped us during the summer training.
 PREFACE

This six weeks training is a part our 4-year degree course. Practical
industrial training mainly aims at making one aware of industrial
environment, which means that gets to know the limitation, constraint and
freedom under which an engineer works. One also gets opportunity to see
from close quarter that indicate management relation. This training mainly
involve industrial and complete knowledge about designing, assembling and
manufacturing of equipments.

With the ongoing revolution in electronics where innovations are taking

place at the blink of an eye, it is impossible to keep the pace with the
emerging trends.

Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born

with. It is the environment that makes sure that whether the result of this
attitude is visible or otherwise. A well planned, properly executed and
evaluated industrial training helps a lot in inculcating a professional attitude.
It provides a linkage between the student and industry to develop an
awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad
understanding of process and mode of operation of organization.

During this period, the students get the real experience for working in
the actual environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been
gained during the course of their studies is put to test here. Apart from this,
the students get an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which
immensely helps them in building their career.

I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures,

which increased my sphere of knowledge to a great extent. I got a chance to
learn many new technologies and was also interfaced to many new
instruments And all the credit goes to organization BHARAT
ELECTRONICS LTD.
 CONTENTS
• PREFACE.
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
• CERTIFICATE.
• BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED.
 AN OVERVIEW.
 MANUFACTURING UNITS.
 FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE.
 BEL PRODUCT RANGE.
• BEL GHAZIABAD UNIT.
• ROTATION PROGRAMME.
 PCB FABRICATION.
 TEST EQUIPMENT AND AUTOMATION.
 WORK ASSEMBLY
 Q.C.WORKS.
 MAGNETICS.
 MICROWAVE LABORATORY.
• AN INTRODUTION TO BASIC RADAR.
• THE IFF UNIT - MK XI.
• BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF IFF UNIT MK XI.
• BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR SUB-SYSTEMS OF IFF MK XI.
• MK-X TRANSMITER AND RECIEVER UNIT.