EE8403- MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT I INTRODUCTION

MEASUREMENTS:
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between the
quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) & a predefined standard. Since two quantities are
compared, the result is expressed in numerical values.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF MEASUREMENT:
i) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined & should be commonly
accepted
ii) The apparatus used & the method adopted must be provable.
MEASURING INSTRUMENT:
It may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
1.1 FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT:
Most of the measurement systems contain three main functional elements. They are:
i) Primary sensing element
ii) Variable conversion element &
iii) Data presentation element.

Primary sensing element:

The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system. i.e., the measurand- (the unknown quantity which is to be measured) is first
detected by primary sensor which gives the output in a different analogous form This output is then
converted into an e electrical signal by a transducer - (which converts energy from one form to
another). The first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage’.
Variable conversion element:
The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form; it may be voltage, a
frequency or some other electrical parameter
For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output to
some other suitable form.
Variable manipulation element:
The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the original nature
of the signal. It is not necessary that a variable manipulation element should follow the variable
conversion element Some non -linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling , filtering,
chopping etc.,are performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form to be accepted by the next
stage of measurement system This process of conversion is called μ signal conditioning’
The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in addition to Variable conversion &
Variable manipulation In fact the element that follows the primary sensing element in any
instrument or measurement system is called conditioning element’
NOTE: When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, it becomes
necessary to transmit data from one to another. The element that performs this function i s called a
data transmission element’.
Data presentation element:
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel
handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes. This function is
done by data presentation element In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed
these devices may be analog or digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc. In case
data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera & TV equipment, CRT,
printers may be used. For control & analysis is purpose microprocessor or computers may be used.
The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage’

STATIC & DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two categories:
i) Static characteristics
ii) Dynamic characteristics
Static characteristics:
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are
slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time, is called ‘static
characteristics’.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Accuracy ii) Precision
iii) Sensitivity
iv) Linearity
v) Reproducibility vi) Repeatability
vii) Resolution
viii) Threshold ix) Drift
x) Stability
xi) Tolerance
xii) Range or span
Accuracy:
It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be
measured. The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:
a) Point accuracy:
Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any information
about the accuracy at any other point on the scale.
b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span:
When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
c) Accuracy as percentage of true value:
The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true value of the
quantity being measured.
Precision:
It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of
the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The precision is composed of two
characteristics:
a) Conformity:
Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being measured by an ohmmeter. But
the reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the nonavailability of proper scale. The
error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error.
b) Number of significant figures:
The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the
reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude &
the measurement precision of the quantity.
The precision can be mathematically expressed as: P=1- Xn-Xn(bar)/ Xn
Where, P = precision
Xn = Value of nth measurement
Xn(bar) = Average value the set of measurement values
Sensitivity:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument
responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the
output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured.
Mathematically it is expressed as,

if the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of the
calibration curve. If the calibration c urve is not linear as shown, then the sensitivity varies with the
input.
Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity.
Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity
Linearity:
ǻqi
=
ǻqo
The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically &
linearly.
The curve shows the actual calibration curve & idealized straight line.

Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in
terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
Repeatability:
It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature.
Drift:
Drift may be classified into three categories:
a) zero drift:
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue warming up
of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
b) span drift or sensitivity drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is called span
drift or sensitivity drift.
c) Zonal drift:
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that output
does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution.
Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum value
below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the
instrument.
Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified operating life.
Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value which is called
tolerance.
Range or span:
The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is
called its range or span.
Dynamic characteristics:
The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called
‘dynamic characteristics’.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Speed of response ii) Measuring lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
Speed of response:
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
Measuring lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the measured
quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:
a) Retardation type:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change in measured
quantity has occurred.
b) Time delay lag:
In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the application of
the input.
Fidelity:
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measurand
quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic error:
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the value indicated by
the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
The types of errors are follows
i) Gross errors
ii) Systematic errors
iii) Random errors
Gross Errors:
The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a human begin
These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
These errors cannot be treated mathematically
These errors are also called personal errors’.
Ways to minimize gross errors:
The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible but one can minimize them by the following
ways: Taking great care while taking the reading, recording the reading &
calculating the result Without depending on only one reading, at least three or more readings must be
taken * preferably by different persons.
Systematic errors:
A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a Systematic error
The Systematic errors are mainly due to the short comings of the instrument & the characteristics of
the material use d in the instrument, such a s defective or worn parts, ageing effects, env iron metal
effects, etc.
Types of Systematic errors:
There are three types of Systematic errors as:
i) Instrumental errors
ii) Environmental errors iii) Observational errors
Instrumental errors:
These errors can be mainly due to the following three reasons:
a) Short comings of instruments:
These are because of the mechanical structure of the instruments. For example friction in the bearings
of various moving parts; irregular spring tensions, reductions in due to improper handling ,
hysteresis, gear backlash, stretching of spring, variations in air gap, etc .,
Ways to minimize this error:
These errors can be avoided by the following methods:
Selecting a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure for the measurement recognizing the
effect of such errors and applying the proper correction factors calibrating the instrument carefully
against a standard
b) Misuse of instruments:
A good instrument if used in abnormal way gives misleading results. Poor initial adjustment,
Improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance etc., are the examples of misusing a good
instrument. Such things do not cause the permanent damage to the instruments but definitely cause
the serious errors.
C) Loading effects
Loading effects due to im proper way of using the instrument cause the serious errors. The best ex
ample of such loading effect error is connecting a w ell calibrated volt meter across the two points of
high resistance circuit. The same volt meter connected in a low resistance circuit gives accurate
reading..
to minimize this error:
Thus the err ors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument intelligently and
correctly.
Environmental errors:
These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument. The various factors
resulting these environmental errors are temperature changes, pressure changes, thermal emf, and
ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
Ways to minimize this error:
The various methods which can be used to reduce these errors are:
i) Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the manufacturer of the
instrument
ii) Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding conditions
Constant
iii) Reducing the effect of dust ,humidity on the components by hermetically sealing the components
in the instruments
iv) The effects of external fields can be minimized by using the magnetic or electro
static shields or screens
v) Using the equipment which is immune to such environmental effects.
Observational errors:
These are the errors introduced by the observer.
These are many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter, wrong
scale selection, etc.
Ways to minimize this error
To eliminate such errors one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edged pointers, etc.,
The systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic errors. The static errors are caused by
the limitations of the measuring device while the dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not
responding fast enough to follow the changes in the variable to be measured.
Random errors:
Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or at least
accounted for. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are called random errors.
Ways to minimize this error The only way to reduce these errors is by increasing the number of
observations and using the statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading.

STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF MEASUREMENT DATA

Out of the various possible errors, the random errors cannot be determined in the ordinary process of
measurements. Such errors are treated mathematically
The mathematical analysis of the various measurements is called
statistical analysis of the data’.
For such statistical analysis, the same reading is taken number of times, g generally u sing different
observers, different instruments & by different ways of measurement. The statistical analysis helps to
determine analytically t he uncertainty of the final test results.
Arithmetic mean & median:
When the n umber of readings of the same measurement are taken, the most likely value from the set
of measured value is the arithmetic mean of the number of readings taken.
The arithmetic mean value can be mathematically obtained as,

This mean is very close to true value, if number of readings is very large.
But when the number of readings is large, calculation of mean value is complicated. In such a case, a
median value is obtained which is obtained which is a close approximation to the arithmetic mean
value. For a set of μ Q¶ measurements X1, X2, X3.Xn written down in the ascending order of
magnitudes, the median value is given by,
Xmedian=X (n+1)/2
Average deviation:
The deviation tells us about the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the data set

Where
di=xi- X
di = deviation of ith reading
Xi= value of ith reading
X = arithmetic mean
The average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations divided by the
number of readings. This is also called mean deviation

STANDARD & CALIBRATION

CALIBRATION
Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so that the readings of an
instrument agree with the accepted & the certified standard.
In other words, it is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison
with the measured or standard ones. The calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument
that it is operating with required accuracy, under stipulated environmental conditions.
The calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspection for various defects, installation
according to the specifications, zero adjustment etc.
The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with
standard ones. The standard of device with which comparison is made is called a standard
instrument. The instrument which is unknown & is to be calibrated is called test instrument. Thus
in calibration, test instrument is compared with standard instrument.
Types of calibration methodologies:
There are two methodologies for obtaining the comparison between test instrument & standard
instrument. These methodologies are
i) Direct comparisons
ii) Indirect comparisons
Direct comparisons:
In a direct comparison, a source or generator applies a known input to the meter under test.
The ratio of what meter is indicating & the known generator values gives the meter¶ s error.
In such case the meter is the test instrument while the generator is the standard instrument.
The deviation of meter from the standard value is compared with the allowable performance limit.
With the help of direct comparison a generator or source also can be calibrated.
Indirect comparisons:
In the indirect comparison, the test instrument is compared with the response standard instrument of
same type i .e., if test instrument is meter, standard instrument is also meter, if test instrument is
generator; the standard instrument is also generator & so on.
If the test instrument is a meter then the same input is applied to the test meter as well a standard
meter. In case of generator calibration, the output of the generator tester as well as standard, or set to
same nominal levels. Then the transfer meter is used which measures the outputs of both standard
and test generator.
Standard
All the instruments are calibrated at the time of manufacturer against measurement standards.
A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement.
A standard means known accurate measure of physical quantity.
The different size of standards of measurement is classified as i) International standards
ii) Primary standards
iii) Secondary standards IV) Working standards
International standards
International standards are defined as the international agreement. These standards, as mentioned
above are maintained at the international bureau of weights an d measures and are periodically
evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in term s of fundamental units of physics.
These international standards are not available to the ordinary users for the calibration purpose.
For the improvements in the accuracy of absolute measurements the international units are replaced
by the absolute units in 1948. Absolute units are more accurate than the international units.
Primary standards
These are highly accurate absolute standards, which can be used as ultimate reference standards.
These primary standards are maintained at national standard laboratories in different countries.
These standards representing fundamental units as well as some electrical and mechanical derived
units are calibrated independently by absolute measurements at each of the national laboratories.
These are not available for use, outside the national laboratories. The main function of the primary
standards is the calibration and verification of secondary standards.
Secondary standards
As mentioned above, the primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories.
The various industries need some reference standards. So, to protect highly accurate primary
standards the secondary standards are maintained, which are designed and constructed from the
absolute standards. These are used by the measurement and calibration laboratories in industries and
are maintained by the particular industry to which they belong. Each industry has its own standards.
Working standards
These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory and are used to check an d calibrate the
instruments used in laboratory for accuracy and the performance.

Principle and Types of Analog and Digital Voltmeters

Ø Basically an electrical indicating instrument is divided into two types. They are i) Analog
instruments
ii) Digital Instruments.
Ø Analog instruments are nothing but its output is the deflection of pointer, which is proportional to
its input.
Ø Digital Instruments are its output is in decimal form.
Ø Analog ammeters and voltmeters are classed together as there are no fundamental differences in
their operating principles.
Ø The action of all ammeters and voltmeters, with the exception of electrostatic type of instruments,
depends upon a deflecting torque
Produced by an electric current.
Ø In an ammeter this torque is produced by a current to be measured or by a definite fraction of it.
Ø In a voltmeter this torque is produced by a current which is proportional to the voltage to be
measured.
Ø Thus all analog voltmeters and ammeters are essentially current measuring devices.
The essential requirements of a measuring instrument are
(i) That its introduction into the circuit, where measurements are to be made, does not alter the circuit
conditions;
(ii) The power consumed by them for their operation is small.
Ammeters & Multimeters
Ammeters are connected in series
In the circuit whose current is to be measured. The power loss in an ammeter is I2Ra where I am the
current to be measured and R is the resistance of ammeter. Therefore, ammeters should have a low
electrical resistance so that they cause a small voltage drop and consequently absorb small power.
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be measured. The power
loss in voltmeters is V where V is the voltage U) be measured and R is the resistance of voltmeter.
The voltmeters should have a high electrical resistance, in order that the current drawn by them is
small and consequently the power consumed is small.
Types of instruments
The main types of instruments used as an ammeters and voltmeters are
(i) Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
(ii) Moving iron
(iii) Electro-dynamometer
(iv) Hot wire
(iv) Thermocouple
(vi) Induction
(vii) Electrostatic
viii) Rectifier.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument (PMMC)

The permanent magnet moving coil instrument is the most accurate type for d.c. measur ements.
The working principle of these instruments i s the same as that of the d’ Arsonval type of
galvanometers, the difference being that a direct reading instrument is provided with a pointer and a
scale.

Construction of PMMC Instruments

Ø The constructional features of this instrument are shown in Fig.
Ø The moving coil is wound with m any turns of enameled or silk covered copper wire.
Ø The coil is mounted on a rectangular aluminium former which is pivoted on jeweled bearings.
Ø The coils move freely in the field of a permanent magnet.
Ø Most voltmeter coils are wound on metal frames to provide the required electro-magnetic damping.
Ø Most ammeter coils, however, are wound on non -magnetic formers, because coil turns are
effectively shorted by the ammeter shunt.
Ø The coil itself, therefore, provides electromagnetic damping.

Magnet Systems
Ø Old style magnet system consisted of relatively long U shaped permanent magnets having soft iron
pole pieces.
Ø Owing to development of materials like Alcomax and Alnico, which have a high co -ercive force, i
t is possible to use smaller magnet
lengths and high field intensities.
Ø The flux densities used in PMIMC instruments vary from 0.1 W b/m to 1 Wb/m.
Control
Ø When the coil is supported between two jewel bearings the control torque is provided by two
phosphor bronze hair springs.
Ø These springs also serve to lead current in and out of the coil. The control torque is provided by the
ribbon suspension as shown. Ø This method i s comparatively new and is claimed to be
advantageous as it eliminates earing friction.
. Damping
Ø Damping torque is produced by movement of the aluminium former moving in the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet.
Pointer and Scale
Ø The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a graduate d scale.
Ø The pointer is of light-weight construction and, apart from those used i n some inexpensive
instruments has the section over the scale twisted to form a fine blade.
Ø This helps to reduce parallax err ors i n the reading of the scale.
When the coil is supported between two jewel bearings the control torque is provided by two
phosphor bronze hair springs.
Ø These springs also serve to lead current in and out of the coil.
Torque Equation.
The torque equation of a moving coil instrument is given by

and G being constants) we get a uniform (linear) scale for the instrument.
Errors in PMMC Instruments
The main sources of errors in moving coil instruments are due to
Ø Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing at temperature effects.
Ø Weakening of springs due to ageing and temperature effects.
Ø Change of resistance of the moving coil with temperature.
Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
The main advantages of PMMC instruments are
Ø The scale is uniformly divided.
Ø The power consumption is very low
Ø The torque-weight ratio is high which gives a high accuracy. The accuracy is of the order of
generally 2 percent of full scale deflection.
Ø A single instrument may be used for many different current and voltage ranges by using
different values for shunts and multipliers.
Ø Since the operating forces are large on account of large flux densities which may be as high as
0.5 Wb/m the errors due to stray magnetic fields are small.
Ø Self-shielding magnets make the core magnet mechanism particularly useful in aircraft and
aerospace applications.
The chief disadvantages are
Ø These instruments are useful only for d.c. The torque reverses if the current reverses. If the
instrument is connected to a.c., the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals and the deflection
corresponds to mean torque, which is zero. Hence these instruments cannot be used for a.c.
Ø The cost of these instruments is higher than that of moving iron instruments.
Moving Iron Instruments
Classification of Moving Iron Instruments
Moving iron instruments are of two types
(i) Attraction type. (ii) Repulsion type.
Attraction Type

The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like opening.

Ø The moving iron is a flat disc or a sector eccentrically mounted.
Ø When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced and the moving iron
moves from the weaker field outside the coil to the
Stronger field inside it or in other words the moving iron is attracted in.
Ø The controlling torque is provide by springs hut gravity control can be used for panel type of
instruments which are vertically mounted.
Ø Damping is provided by air friction with the help of a light aluminium piston (attached to the
moving system) which move in a fixed chamber closed at one end as shown in Fig. or with the
help of a vane (attached to the moving system) which moves in a fixed sector shaped chamber a
shown.
Repulsion Type
In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil one fixed and other movable. These are
similarly magnetized when the current flows through the coil and there is a force of repulsion
between the two vane s resulting in the movement of the moving vane. Two different designs are
in common use
(I) Radial Vane Type
In this type, the vanes are radial strips of iron.
The strips are placed within the coil as shown in Fig.
The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one to the spindle of the instrument.
(a) Radial vane type. (b) Co-axial vane type
ii) Co-axial Vane Type
Ø In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of co axial cylinders as
shown in Fig.
Ø The controlling torque is provided by springs. Gravity control can also be used in vertically
mounted instruments.
Ø The damping torque is produced by air friction as in attraction type instruments.
Ø The operating magnetic field in moving iron instruments is very weak and therefore eddy
current damping is not used in them as introduction
of a permanent magnet required for eddy current damping would
destroy the operating magnetic field.
Ø It is clear that whatever may be the direction of the current in the coil of the instrument, the
iron vanes are so magnetized that there is always a force of attraction in the attraction type and
repulsion in the repulsion type of instruments.
Ø Thus moving iron instruments are unpolarised instruments i.e., they are independent of the
direction in which the current passes.
Ø Therefore, these instruments can be used on both ac. and d.c.
Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instrument:
An expression for the torque moving iron instrument may be derived by considering the energy
relations when there is a small increment in current supplied to the instrument. When this
happens there will be a small deflection dș a mechanical work will be done. Let Td be the
deflecting torque.
Mechanical work done = Td. d ș
Alongside there will be a change in the energy stored in the magnetic field owing to change in
inductance.
Suppose the initial current is I, the instrument inductance L and the deflection ș. If the current is
increased by di then the deflection changes by d ș and the inductance by dL. In order to affect a n
increment the current there must be an increase in the applied voltage given by
operating current. The deflecting torque is, therefore, uni- directional ( acts in the same direction)
whatever may be the polarity of the current.
Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion Types of Instruments
In general it may be said that attraction-type instruments possess the same advantages, and are
subject to the limitations, described for the repulsion type.
An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance than the corresponding
repulsion type instrument, and voltmeters will therefore be accurate over a wider range of
frequency and there is a greater possibility of using shunts with ammeters.
On the other hand, repulsion instruments are more suitable for economical production in
manufacture, and a nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained; they are, therefore, much more
common than the attraction type.
Errors in Moving Iron Instruments
There are two types of errors which occur in moving iron instruments — errors which occur with
both a.c. and d.c. and the other which occur only with ac. only.
Errors with both D.C. and A.C
i) Hysteresis Error
ii) Temperature error
iii) Stray magnetic field
Errors with only A.C
Frequency errors
Advantages & Disadvantages
1) Universal use
(2) Less Friction Errors
(3) Cheapness
(4) Robustness (5) Accuracy
(6) Scale
(7) Errors
(8) Waveform errors.
Electrodynamometer (Eelectrodynamic) Type Instruments
The necessity for the a.c. calibration of moving iron instruments as well as other types of
instruments which cannot be correctly calibrated requires the use of a transfer type of instrument.
A transfer instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c. source and then used without
modification to measure a.c. This requires the transfer type instrument to have same accuracy for
both d.c. and a.c., which the electrodynamometer instruments have. These standards are
precision resistors and the Weston standard cell (which is a d.c. cell).It is obvious, therefore, that
it would be impossible to calibrate an a.c. instrument directly against the fundamental standards.
The calibration of an a.c. instrument may be performed as follows. The transfer instrument is
first calibrated on d.c.This calibration is then transferred to the a.c. instrument on alternating
current, using operating conditions under which the latter operates properly. Electrodynamic
instruments are capable of service as transfer instruments. Indeed, their principal use as
ammeters and voltmeters in laboratory and measurement work is for the transfer calibration of
working instruments and as standards for calibration of other instruments as their accuracy is
very high. Electrodynamometer types of instruments are used as a.c. voltmeters and ammeters
both in the range of power frequencies and lower part of the audio power frequency range. They
are used as watt-meters, and with some modification as power factor meters and frequency
meters

Operating Principle of Electrodynamometer Type Instrument

It would have a torque in one direction during one half of the cycle and an equal effect in the
opposite direction during the other half of the cycle. If the frequency were very low, the pointer
would swing back and forth around the zero point. However, for an ordinary meter, the inertia is
so great that on power frequencies the pointer does not go very far in either direction but merely
stays (vibrates slightly) around zero. If, however, we were to reverse the direction of the flux
each time the current through the movable coil reverses, a unidirectional torque would be
produced for both positive and negative halves of the cycle.
In electrodynamometer instruments the field can be made to reverse simultaneously with the
current in the movable coil if the field (fixed) coil is connected in series with the movable coil.
Construction of Electrodynamometer type instrument
Fixed Coils
The field is produced by a fixed coil.
This coil is divided into two sections to give a more uniform field near the centre and to allow
passage of the instrument shaft.
Moving Coil
A single element instrument has one moving coil.
The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil or else on a non- metallic former.
A metallic former cannot be used as eddy current would be induced in it by the alternating field.
Light but rigid construction is used for the moving coil. It should be noted that both fixed and
moving coils are air cored.
Control
The controlling torque is provided by two control springs. These springs act as leads to the
moving coil.
Moving System
The moving coil is mounted on an aluminum spindle.
The moving system also carries the counter weights and truss type pointer.
Sometimes a suspension may be used in case a high sensitivity is desired.
Damping
Air friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided by a pair of aluminum
vanes, attached to the spindle at the bottom.
These vanes move in sector shaped chambers.
Eddy current damping cannot be used in these instruments as the operating field is very weak (on
account of the fact that the coils are air cored) and any introduction of a permanent magnet
required for eddy current damping would distort the operating magnetic field of the instrument.
Shielding
The field produced by the fixed coils is somewhat weaker than in other types of instruments
It is nearly 0.005 to 0.006 Wb/m
In d.c. measurements even the earth magnetic field may affect the readings.
Thus it is necessary to shield an electrodynamometer type instrument from the effect of stray
magnetic fields.
Air cored electrodynamometer type instruments are protected against external magnetic fields by
enclosing them in a casing of high permeability alloy.
This shunts external magnetic fields around the instrument mechanism and minimizes their
effects on the indication.
Cases and Scales
Laboratory standard instruments are usually contained in highly polished wooden cases.
These cases are so constructed as to remain dimensionally stable over long periods of time.
The glass is coated with some conducting material to completely remove the electrostatic effects.
The case is supported by adjustable leveling screws.
A spirit level is also provided to ensure proper leveling.
The scales are hand drawn, using machine sub-dividing equipment. Diagonal lines for fine sub-
division are usually drawn for main markings on the scale.
Most of the high-precision instruments have a 300 mr scale with 100, 120 or 150 divisions.
Torque Equation
Let i1 = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coils: A.
i2 = instantaneous value of current in the moving coil: A. L1 = self-inductance of fixed coils: H.
L2 = self-inductance of moving coils H,
M = mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils: Flux linkages of coil 1, ȥ1 = L1 i1 +
Mi2
Flux linkages f coil 2, ȥ2 = L2 i2 + Mi1
Electrical input energy = e1i1dt+e2i2dt
Now the self-inductances L and L are constant and therefore dL
and dL are both equal to zero. Thus we have

Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments

i) Frequency error
ii) Eddy current error
iii) External magnetic field iv) Temperature changes
Advantages
i) These instruments can be used on both a.c & d.c
ii) Accurate rms value
Disadvantages
(i) They have a low torque/weight ratio and hence have a low sensitivity. (ii) Low torque/weight
ratio gives increased frictional losses.
(iii) They are more expensive than either the PMMC or the moving iron type instruments.
(iv) These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts. Therefore, they must
be handled with great care.
(v) The operating current of these instruments is large owing to the fact that they have weak
magnetic field. The flux density is about 0.006 Wb/m as against 0.1 to 0.5 Wb/m in PMCC
instruments
(vi) They have a non-uniform scale.
Digital Voltmeter
A digital voltmeter (DVM) displays the value of a.c. or d.c. voltage being measured directly as
discrete numerals in the decimal number system. Numerical readout of DVMs is advantageous
since it eliminates observational errors committed by operators.
The errors on account of parallax and approximations are entirely eliminated.
The use of digital voltmeters increases tile speed with which readings can be taken.
A digital voltmeter is a versatile and accurate voltmeter which has many laboratory applications.
On account of developments in the integrated circuit (IC) technology, it has been possible to
reduce the size, power requirements and cost of digital voltmeters.
In fact, for the same accuracy, a digital voltmeter now is less costly than its analog counterpart.
The decrease in size of DVMs on account of use of ICs, the portability of the instruments has
increased.
Types of DVMs
The increasing popularity of DVMs has brought forth a wide number of types employing
different circuits. The various types of DVMs in general use are
(i) Ramp type DVM
(ii) Integrating type DVM
(iii) Potentiometric type DVM
(iv) Successive approximation type DVM (v) Continuous balance type DVM
Ramp type Digital Voltmeter
The operating principle of a ramp type digital voltmeter is to measure the time that a linear ramp
voltage takes to change from level of input voltage to zero voltage (or vice versa).This time
interval is measured with an electronic time interval counter and the count is displayed as a
number of digits on electronic indicating tubes of the output readout of the voltmeter. The
conversion of a voltage value of a time interval is shown in the timing diagram .A negative going
ramp is shown in Fig. but a positive going ramp may also be used. The ramp voltage value is
continuously compared with the voltage being measured (unknown voltage).At the instant the
value of ramp voltage is equal to that of unknown voltage.The ramp voltage continues to
decrease till it reaches ground level (zero voltage).At this instant another comparator called
ground comparator generates. a pulse and closes the gate. The time elapsed between opening and
closing of the gate is t as indicated in Fig. During this time interval pulses from a clock pulse
generator pass through the gate and are counted and displayed. The decimal number as indicated
by the readout is a measure of the value of input voltage.The sample rate multivibrator
determines the rate at which the measurement cycles are initiated. The sample rate circuit
provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its next ramp voltage. At the same
time it sends a pulse to the counters which set all of them to 0. This momentarily removes the
digital display of the readout.
Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter
The voltmeter measures the true average value of the input voltage over a fixed measuring
period. In contrast the ramp type DVM samples the voltage at the end of the measuring period.
This voltmeter employs an integration technique which uses a voltage to frequency conversion.
The voltage to frequency (VIF) converter functions as a feedback control system which governs
the rate of pulse generation in proportion to the magnitude of input voltage.
Actually when we employ the voltage to frequency conversion techniques, a train of pulses,
whose frequency depends upon the voltage being measured, is generated.
Then the number of pulses appearing in a definite interval of time is counted.
Since the frequency of these pulses is a function of unknown voltage, the number of pulses
counted in that period of time is an indication of the input (unknown) voltage.
The heart of this technique is the operational amplifier acting as an Integrator.
Output voltage of integrator E = -Ei / RC*t
Thus if a constant input voltage E is applied, an output voltage E is produced which rises at a
uniform rate and has a polarity opposite to that input voltage. In other words, it is clear from the
above relationship that for a constant input voltage the integrator produces a ramp output voltage
of opposite polarity. The basic block diagram of a typical integrating type of DVM is shown in

The unknown voltage is applied to the input of the integrator, and the output voltage starts to
rise. The slope of output voltage is determined by the value of input voltage This voltage is fed a
level detector, and when voltage reaches a certain reference level, the detector sends a pulse to
the pulse generator gate. The level detector is a device similar to a voltage comparator. The
output voltage from integrator is compared with the fixed voltage of an internal reference source,
and, when voltage reaches that level, the detector produces an output pulse.
It is evident that greater then value of input voltage the sharper will be the slope of output
voltage and quicker the output voltage will reach its reference level. The output pulse of the
level detector opens the pulse level gate, permitting pulses from a fixed frequency clock
oscillator to pass through pulse generator.
The generator is a device such as a Schmitt trigger that produces an output pulse of fixed
amplitude and width for every pulse it receives. This output pulse, whose polarity is opposite to
that of and has greater amplitude, is fedback of the input of the integrator. Thus no more pulses
from the clock oscillator can pass through to trigger the pulse generator.When the output voltage
pulse from the pulse generator has passed, is restored to its original value and starts its rise
again.When it reaches the level of reference voltage again, the pulse generator gate is
opened.The pulse generator is trigger by a pulse from the clock generator and the entire cycle is
repeated again. Thus, the waveform of is a saw tooth wave whose rise time is dependent upon
the value of output voltage and the fail time is determined by the width of the output pulse from
the pulse generator.Thus the frequency of the saw tooth wave is a function of the value of the
voltage being measured.Since one pulse from the pulse generator is produced for each cycle of
the saw tooth wave, the number of pulses produced in a given time interval and hence the
frequency of saw tooth wave is an indication of the voltage being measured.
Potentiometric Type Digital Voltmeter
A potentiometric type of DVM employs voltage comparison technique. In this DVM the
unknown voltage is compared with reference voltage whose value is fixed by the setting of the
calibrated potentiometer. The potentiometer setting is changed to obtain balance (i.e. null
conditions). When null conditions are obtained the value of the unknown voltage, is indicated by
the dial setting of the potentiometer. In potentiometric type DVMs, the balance is not obtained
manually but is arrived at automatically. Thus, this DVM is in fact a self- balancing
potentiometer. The potentiometric DVM is provided with a readout which displays the voltage
being measured.

The block diagram of basic circuit of a potentiometric DVM is shown. The unknown voltage is
filtered and attenuated to suitable level. This input voltage is applied to a comparator (also
known as error detector).This error detector may be chopper.The reference voltage is obtained
from a fixed voltage source. This voltage is applied to a potentiometer.The value of the feedback
voltage depends up the position of the sliding contact.The feedback voltage is also applied to the
comparator.The unknown voltage and the feedback voltages are compared in the comparator.The
output voltage of the comparator is the difference of the above two voltages.The difference of
voltage is called the error signal.The error signal is amplified and is fed to a potentiometer
adjustment device which moves the sliding contact of the potentiometer. This magnitude by
which the sliding contact moves depends upon the magnitude of the error signal.
The direction of movement of slider depends upon whether the feedback voltage is larger or the
input voltage is larger. The sliding contact moves to such a place where the feedback voltage
equals the unknown voltage. In that case, there will not be any error voltage and hence there will
be no input to the device adjusting the position of the sliding cont act and therefore it (sliding
contact) will come to rest. The position of the potentiometer adjustment device at this point is
indicated in numerical form on the digital readout device associated with it.