TSSA01 5/12/06 8:41 Page i

T he Smart St ud y Guide
TSSA01 5/12/06 8:41 Page ii
TSSA01 5/12/06 8:41 Page iii

Louise Tamblin and Pat Ward

The
Smart
Study Guide
Psychological Techniques for Student Success
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© 2006 by Louise Tamblin and Pat Ward

BLACKWELL PUBLISHING
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9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK
550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia
The right of Louise Tamblin and Pat Ward to be identified as the Authors
of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the
UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted
by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without
the prior permission of the publisher.
First published 2006 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd
1 2006
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Tamblin, Louise.
The smart study guide: psychological techniques for student success /
Louise Tamblin and Pat Ward.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-2117-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-4051-2117-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Study skills. 2. Learning. 3. Multiple intelligences.
4. Cognitive styles. 5. Critical thinking. I. Ward, Pat. II. Title.
LB1049.T246 2006
371.3′0281—dc22
2005034216
A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
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TSSA01 5/9/06 8:36 Page v

Contents

Finding Your Way Around . . . vi

Introduction viii
1 Becoming an Effective Learner 1
2 Preparing for Study 13
3 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 36
4 Learning Preferences 62
5 Working with Others 85
6 Reading Techniques 108
7 How to Remember Everything You Need To! 131
8 Making Notes 153
9 Generating Ideas 171
10 Becoming a Critical Thinker 182
11 How to Write an Essay 210
12 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs 235
Next Steps 253
Appendix 1 Gardner’s Criteria for Intelligence 257
Appendix 2 Answers 259

References 265
Index 283
TSSA01 5/9/06 8:36 Page vi

Finding Your Way Around ...

Listed below are the special features included in the book, and where to find
them.

Danger! points

35, 48, 54, 55, 65, 70, 73, 80, 93, 96, 145, 155, 164, 178, 214, 227,
243, 246

Did You Know?

DID YOU KNOW THIS?
‘The presence of daylight in classrooms was
significantly and positively associated with faster
learning rates or higher test scores among a sample
of 8,000 students from different climates and
educational environments.’
Heschon & Knecht 2002

17, 45

How Can I Use This Right Now in My Study? Q

47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 54, 70, 77, 78, 79, 95–6, 127–8, 207

Interesting Fact/Findings
INTERESTING FINDING

2, 88, 92, 96, 100, 102, 133, 136, 220

TSSA01 5/9/06 8:36 Page vii

Finding Your Way Around . . . vii

It Worked for Me

14, 39, 51, 67, 99, 106, 117, 139, 142, 164, 166, 167, 168, 180,
203, 204, 208, 219, 231, 247

Looking Ahead (tips for the future)

7, 52, 60, 83, 101, 152, 157, 172, 176, 207, 231, 238, 245

Things to Think About

93, 154, 196, 243, 250

Top Tips

7, 34, 71, 72, 74, 75, 82, 90, 99, 104, 110, 123, 124, 125, 126, 140,
141, 142, 164, 168, 175, 178, 190, 193, 199, 203, 221, 228, 240

Try This (exercises/activities)

1, 4–6, 15, 21, 24, 27, 29, 43, 45, 68, 84, 87, 95, 97, 106, 109, 111–12,
124, 127, 134, 135, 140, 144, 146, 148, 151, 155, 157, 160, 161,
165, 177, 184, 186, 188, 189, 191, 196, 200, 212, 214–15, 217, 223,
228, 238, 245–6, 247, 248–9, 250
TSSA01 5/9/06 8:36 Page viii

INTRODUCTION

Welcome to The Smart Study Guide. Since you’re already looking through
this book, we guess you have an interest in learning. We want to help
you increase your repertoire of learning strategies, tools and techniques,
in order to make your studying easier, more effective and more enjoyable.
Does this surprise you?
Although we’ve all been to school and have many years’ learning
experience, typically our learning skills were gained through trial and
error. Imagine what would happen if we learnt to drive without
anyone to point out the brakes or explain the purpose of the clutch.
Some people might stumble across them, some might learn by watch-
ing other drivers, and others might get by without ever changing gear!
Do you think people’s driving performance would be a good reflection
of their potential? We don’t!
And yet this is what happens with learning. The learning equivalents
of a clutch or an accelerator do exist, and by using them appropriately
you can learn more effortlessly and efficiently. Just as a skilled driver
judges the correct pressure to apply to the accelerator or brake, so the
skilled learner will know which learning techniques to use and when.
We hope this book will help you to develop your learning skills, so your
learning experiences will be easier, faster and more enjoyable.
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1 Becoming an
Effective Learner

KEY POINTS

There is more pressure to learn than ever before

Many students do not receive advice on how to learn

It is good practice to consider how your personal circumstances may
affect your learning

Your current learning behaviours may not be the most effective

There are tools and techniques available to help you become an effective
and successful learner

THE LEARNING PARADOX

In this chapter we explore the learning paradox, and help you identify your
personal learning profile and your current learning behaviours.

TRY THIS

At this point, ask yourself if you have ever received any advice on how
to learn more effectively. Why was the advice given? How did you act
on it? What was the outcome?
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2 Becoming an Effective Learner

Increasing pressure Limited resources

There is a greater volume of information

available now than at any point in history
We can access information through ‘Study skills’ have historically been
more channels than ever before – viewed as ‘remediable’ or ‘basic’
media, e-mail and ‘traditional’ Learning strategies, tools and
Learning has been redefined as student- techniques are not always made
centred, indicating you should take available to all learners
responsibility for your own learning Learners may focus on the ‘subject’
Learning has been redefined as a life- not their ‘learning process’
long activity and not one that stops at Learners fall into ‘bad habits’
the end of full time education over the course of their education

Figure 1.1 The learning paradox

The need for a considered approach to learning is more pressing than ever
before. Figure 1.1 illustrates the paradox between the importance attached
to learning versus the lack of knowledge about learning strategies and
tools. Perhaps the biggest paradox is that students are often advised to ‘do
what works’, without any guidance on how to identify what that means for
them.

INTERESTING FINDING

The UK government is committed to increasing the number of under-

graduates to 50 per cent of 18-year-old school leavers. Yet the UK
non-completion rate for full-time students commencing in 2000–1 was
15 per cent and a greater proportion of mature students than younger
discontinued (HEFCE 2003).
TSSC01 5/9/06 8:34 Page 3

Becoming an Effective Learner 3

Table 1.1 Frequently expressed hopes and fears

I hope that I fear that

• The course is interesting and stimulating • The course is too difficult

• My learning will be useful for the future • I will find it boring
• I understand everything • I will be unsuccessful
• The course will challenge me • There will be too much to do
• The course is up to date • I won’t get on with tutors
• I will be successful/I will pass the • I won’t get on with the other
exams/course students
• I will stay to the end • I’ve made the wrong decision
• The tutors are helpful and knowledgeable
• The other students are friendly and
supportive
• I can find enough time after work

HOPES AND FEARS

Most learners commence a new learning programme with a mix of hopes

and fears. Table 1.1 (above) shows some that we’ve encountered in the
past. Do you identify with any? Are there others that you want to
include?
While you may share many of your hopes and fears with other students,
your personal circumstances are unique to you. They provide the context within
which learning will occur and so it is worth analysing how your own unique
circumstances may affect your learning.

YOUR LEARNING PROFILE

At every point in your life there are likely to be personal circumstances that
may facilitate, or impede, your learning progress. By identifying these factors
you can then devise strategies to enhance or reduce them. The activity on the
next page will help you to create your own learning profile.
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4 Becoming an Effective Learner

TRY THIS

Take time to consider your current personal situation. The questions here
are designed to help you do this, although feel free to add others that seem
appropriate. Then, write your answers on to the blank mindmap opposite
and consider the whole picture. What does your learning profile show?
How can you enhance the aspects likely to assist learning and lessen those
likely to hinder? Write your observations and intentions in the white boxes.

1. Why did I choose this course?

Subject interest?
My employer’s decision?
I didn’t know what else to do?
Parental pressure?
I followed friends?
Future career planning?

How might my reasons affect my learning?

2. What other time commitments do I have at present?

Family commitments?
Other study commitments?
Employment commitments?
Leisure/hobby commitments?

How can I best combine these commitments with my study?

3. Are there any potential barriers to effective learning?

Am I physically and mentally well?
Do I have recent study experience?
Is my partner/family supportive?
Financial issues?

To what extent will these barriers reduce my likelihood of success?

 What does your learning profile look like?

What are my beliefs about learning? Why did I choose this course?
TSSC01 5/9/06 8:34 Page 5

What learning experiences do I bring? What other commitments do I have?

My learning profile

What do I want to achieve? Are there any potential barriers?

Becoming an Effective Learner
5
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6 Becoming an Effective Learner

4. What do I want to achieve?

A qualification?
Top marks?
Parental approval?
Improved career prospects?
Personal fulfilment?
Time out of the office?

How might my goal(s) affect my motivation?

5. What learning experiences do I bring?

What have I previously studied?
What level have I studied at?
What mode of learning – attendance, on-line, distance, blended?
How successful was I?

What are the implications for this programme?

6. What are my beliefs about learning?

It is hard work?
It is enjoyable?
I am no good at it?
It requires self-discipline?
It is a chore?
It is time well spent?

How will such beliefs influence my learning behaviour?

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Becoming an Effective Learner 7

LOOKING AHEAD

Any aspect of your profile can change over time. Our

suggestion is to complete a learning profile at the begin-
ning of each new programme of study, when it is always
useful to evaluate ‘where you are’. Similarly, you might
review your profile during a longer programme of study, to
see if your profile is still valid or whether there are new
considerations.

TOP TIP

If you feel that your personal circumstances are working

against you, try to share this with your tutor or pro-
gramme leaders sooner rather than later. They may be able
to help, by offering extensions on course work, or information
on bursaries, for example. Battling on alone usually makes
it harder to alleviate problems.

CURRENT LEARNING BEHAVIOURS

As an adult learner you bring many years of experience to any new learning
programme. Some of the learning ‘habits’ collected along the way may be
more constructive than others! We’ll begin to appraise these habits here and
explore them and others in the remaining chapters.
Now take a look at table 1.2 on page 8. To what extent do you agree with
each statement?
How did you find these questions? Were they easy to answer? Have you
ever thought about the issues before?
Let’s consider what your answers mean and how this book might help
you.
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8 Becoming an Effective Learner

Table 1.2 Are you an effective learner?

1 2 3 4 5
(strongly (strongly
disagree) agree)

I usually pass exams through last-minute

cramming
I look at all the recommended reading





methodically and in depth
By the end of a programme of study





I have notebooks full of detailed
notes
My memory always seems to let me





down
I try to move on as soon as a topic is





completed
I find group work difficult – I never





feel my voice is heard
I use the same study skills that I used





at school
I like to play hard and work hard.





Sometimes after a long study day,
I’ll party all night.
I wish I could make my essays more





original – I tend to regurgitate
what I have read
I sometimes become so engrossed





in studying I don’t move for hours
People say ‘play to your strengths’





but I’m never certain what mine
are!
I find out about the best ways to





learn
TSSC01 5/9/06 8:34 Page 9

Becoming an Effective Learner 9

‘I usually pass exams through last minute cramming’

Did you agree strongly? Although this may have been an effective strat-
egy in the past, you are likely to find that it does not guarantee success
at more advanced levels of study. Few graduate level exams, for example,
seek rote learning only. Instead, you are expected to show your knowledge
and your understanding, and so you need to have thought through your stance
on controversial theories or research before entering the examination
room.
You may find it useful to read the section on planning your study (page 31),
together with chapter 7, on how to remember information, and chapter 10,
which explores how to evaluate information.

‘I look at all the recommended reading methodically and

in depth’

You may have thought ‘agree strongly’ was the desirable answer here, yet
this is not the case. Many people believe that reading all the recommended
reading is the sign of a conscientious student. Yet there is no need to work
through an entire reading list once you know and understand the material.
Not all reading needs to be in depth and the trick is to focus your efforts
where they are needed most.
There is no need to read everything in the same way, and you can learn
to adapt your reading strategy to fit your purpose. If you ‘agreed’ with this
statement, take a look at chapter 6 (reading techniques).

‘By the end of a programme of study I have notebooks full of

detailed notes’

Well done if you strongly disagreed! Just as ‘more’ reading need not equal
‘better’, so the same applies to note-taking. The notes that you make should
be clear and concise, rather than lengthy. This helps to avoid plagiarism and
increases the likelihood that you will read through your notes in the future.
See chapter 8 for more on effective note-taking.
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10 Becoming an Effective Learner

‘My memory always seems to let me down’

If you ‘strongly disagree’ you’ve probably already acquired a number of tools

to help you remember effectively. But if this is an area that you struggle
with, take a look at chapter 7. There you will see that memorisation involves
focus, encoding and retrieval and there are many tools to make this process
more efficient.

‘I try to move on as soon as a topic is completed’

If you strongly agreed then our advice is to try slowing down and taking stock.
Can you make links between the completed topic and those still to come?
Making associations between topics should lead to additional understanding.
And reflecting on the learning process itself (chapter 12) means you can adopt
even more successful strategies for the future.

‘I find group-work difficult – I never feel my voice is heard’

It can be difficult to make your voice heard in group-work. If you rated this
statement ‘strongly agree’ then see chapter 5 (working with others) for hints
on how to make group-work a success, both now as a learner and in the future.
If you strongly disagreed you might also want to read the chapter to check
that you are striking the right balance been listening and contributing.

‘I use the same study skills that I used at school’

Schools tend to emphasise verbal and logical learning. Why not learn about
a whole range of approaches and give yourself a chance to use different learn-
ing preferences? (See chapter 4, Learning Preferences.)
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Becoming an Effective Learner 11

‘I like to play hard and work hard. Sometimes after a long

study day, I’ll party all night’

If you rated this ‘strongly agree’ then don’t worry! We are certainly not advo-
cating ceaseless study; however, you do need a certain amount of sleep to
consolidate your learning after a day of study. Why not take a look at the
section on sleep (page 24).

‘I wish I could make my essays more original – I tend to

regurgitate what I have read’

We hope you rated this ‘strongly disagree’. The best essays are not about
regurgitation, they are about presenting an original argument in your own
words.
If you showed more agreement then you might benefit from ideas on how
to think about a topic in a new way or approach essay writing. Try chapters
9 and 10 for some hints and tips.

‘I sometimes become so engrossed in studying I don’t move

for hours’

This sounds a wonderful state to be in – perhaps an example of flow (see

page 29). But it’s worth remembering your physical needs too, by making
sure that you drink, eat and move! (See chapter 2.)

‘People say “play to your strengths” but I’m never certain

what mine are!’

Whether you agree or disagree it is work looking at chapter 3 on multiple

intelligences, which provides the opportunity to look at yourself in new ways.
Which of your intelligences are natural strengths? And where is there room
for improvement?
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12 Becoming an Effective Learner

‘I find out about the best ways to learn’

Well, as you’re reading this book, we suspect you ‘agree’ with this statement
and hope you want to find out more!
The book is designed to help you dip into individual chapters in your pre-
ferred order. We hope you find it useful.

SUMMARY

We hope this chapter has whetted your appetite. The main points to
remember are:

• Learners are not always well equipped to learn the masses of

information available to them
• Your personal circumstances can also affect your learning effectiveness
• You may already have acquired some poor or counterproductive
learning habits
• There are tools and techniques available to help you become an
effective learner.
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2 Preparing for Study

KEY POINTS

Your environment affects how well you learn

Physiological preferences and needs matter

Be aware of and manage your mental state: Aim for ‘Flow’!

Follow a ‘study plan’

Watch out for displacement activities

INTRODUCTION

This chapter will help you ensure every study session is as effective
as possible. We recommend your preparations address four distinct
aspects: your environment, your body, your mind, and your study plan.
Let’s look at each of these in turn.

1 PREPARE YOUR ENVIRONMENT

Did you know that your physical environment affects your cognitive perform-
ance? (US Department of Ed. 2000, Yong & McIntyre 1992). While there
probably isn’t a great deal you can do to modify or improve your classroom
or lecture theatre, you can take responsibility for your home study environment,
so why not make it as effective as possible for you?
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14 Preparing for Study

Follow a study plan

Environment

Mind Body

Figure 2.1 Preparing for study

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘All through school, my parents and I argued constantly about

my study habits. They insisted I couldn’t be learning unless
I was sitting at a desk, working in silence. I was never com-
fortable like this, and found it very difficult to concentrate.
Now I know more about my own preferences, and the research
around “best conditions”, I take them into account and find
I can concentrate better and for much longer periods. It’s great.’

There are many different aspects to the environment, which have been shown
to affect cognitive performance and test results. These include:

• temperature (Harner, 1974)

• light (Heschong & Knecht 2002)
• sound (Evans & Johnson 2000)
• aesthetics (Cheng 1994)
• design and formality (Nganwa-Bagumah & Mwamwenda 1991).

Where students have a strong preference, they perform significantly better in

situations where their environmental preferences are met. (Hathaway 1988,
Moore & Warner 1998.)
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Preparing for Study 15

TRY THIS

Can you think of a time when you walked into a room and immediately
felt inspired? What was it like? Jot down any specific details about the
room or place that you can remember.
Can you think of a room or place that you couldn’t ‘escape’ from
quickly enough? How was this different from the inspirational room or
place you’ve noted above?

Experiences like the ones you noted above are probably keying into some
of your stronger environmental preferences . . . and you should take note
of them. Among other things, they can help you improve your memory and
thinking skills.
Take a few moments to complete column A in table 2.1 (page 16). Now,
imagine you can design your own study area with an unlimited budget and no
physical constraints. How would it differ from your current space? Make a note
of your own ‘perfect study place’ in column B of table 2.1 and add your own
notes about the research findings as you read through the rest of the chapter.
Let’s look at each of these environmental and physical conditions in turn.
As you work through the following sections, reflect on how well your current
study environment a) meets your criteria for a ‘perfect’ study place and
b) matches the ideal conditions revealed by research. Then use column C of
table 2.1 to note any ideas you have for improving any aspects of your cur-
rent area, or other study places you might like to use.

Daylight

Q. What’s the best kind of light for studying?

A. Bright, diffused natural daylight is the best for learn-
ing. Avoid direct sunlight, as this can cause glare and
adjusting to high contrast areas not in direct sunlight can result in visual
discomfort (Heschong & Knecht 2002).
Table 2.1 Environmental and physical factors which affect learning
16

Environment Considerations A: My current study area B: My preferences C: Improvement I can make

1. Light Bright, gloomy, soft accent lighting, fluorescent

lights, natural light, candles
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 16

2. Temperature Warm, cool; stuffy or fresh air; window

Preparing for Study

open/closed, heater on/off

3. Sound Silence, birdsong, background ‘hum’ of traffic,
children, office noise, conversations
4. Décor Pleasant, inspiring or neglected
5. Posture Desk (large or small?), chair (hard or soft?),
floor, bed, couch, bean bags
6. Music None, Mozart, instrumental tracks, relaxation CDs
7. Workspace Large, open space, or small, private corner.
Organised or cluttered?
8. Odours Pleasant (flowers, perfume, food)
Unpleasant (car fumes)
9. Privacy Constant flow of interruptions, or privacy
10. Supplies Information sources (textbooks, articles, notes,
tapes), materials (paper, index cards, coloured pens)

Physical Considerations A: My current behaviour B: My preferences C: Improvement I can make

11. Mobility Sit still or move around

12. Food & drink Constant snacking and drinking
intake Only eat and drink during study breaks
13. Time of day/ Early morning, afternoon, late evenings
Biorhythms/ Daily routine or no routine
14. Sleep Well rested or tired
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 17

Preparing for Study 17

Q. Does it matter how bright the light is?
A. Yes. Higher illumination levels have been consistently shown to improve
performance on visual tasks (Heschong & Knecht 2002).

Q. Is daylight mentally stimulating?

A. It looks that way. Researchers believe daylight may stimulate the
production of seratonin, a neural transmitter which increases alertness
(Kuller and Lindsten 1992).

Q. Are there any other benefits to daylight?

A. Yes. Daylight has positive effects across a whole range of human per-
formances. A number of reports are available on the New Buildings Institute
Website.

DID YOU KNOW THIS?

‘The presence of daylight in classrooms was
significantly and positively associated with faster
learning rates or higher test scores among a sample
of 8,000 students from different climates and
educational environments.’
Heschon & Knecht 2002

Temperature

If you have spent any time in extreme temperature conditions,

it may be no surprise to learn that our ability to perform men-
tal tasks is affected by changes in temperature. (For a review of the litera-
ture, see Schnieder 2002.) The ideal temperature for optimum learning is
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18 Preparing for Study

between 68° and 74° Fahrenheit (20°–23°C) (Harner 1974). What steps can
you take to keep the temperature of your study area within this range?

Sound: Does background noise matter?

Yes. Unwanted and excessive noise can reduce your performance

on a range of cognitive tasks (for a thorough review, see Earthman 2002).
There is some evidence to suggest that even low-level noise may have a
detrimental effect.
In a study by Evans and Johnson (2000), 40 female clerical workers were
randomly assigned to either a quiet open office or one with standard low-
intensity office noise, which included background conversation. After three
hours, the workers in the noisy office experienced significantly higher levels
of stress (as measured by urinary epinephrine) and made significantly fewer
attempts to solve an unsolvable puzzle . . . though interestingly, they did not
report feeling stressed!
We know that elevated stress causes the brain to release excess levels of
epinephrine – a chemical that triggers changes in the hippocampus, which is
an area of the brain important to memory and learning.
While this is only a small study, and research is ongoing, it might be worth
paying attention to the level of background noise, and minimise it when you
can!

Décor

Several studies have shown a significant link between qual-

ity of décor and student performance. (For a comprehensive
literature review, see US Department of Ed. 2000.) Think
about how you can improve the décor where you study. Don’t choose a desk
with graffiti, or one in an area that badly needs redecorating.
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 19

Preparing for Study 19

‘Decaying environmental conditions such as

peeling paint, crumbling plaster, non functioning
toilets, poor lighting, inadequate ventilation, and
inoperative heating and cooling systems can affect
the learning as well as the health and the morale
of staff and students.’
US Department of Ed. 2000

Music: Will Mozart Make Me Smarter?

Have you heard that listening to Mozart makes you smarter? Well, in the
original experiment, published in Nature in 1993, Rauscher et al. gave head-
sets to a group of students and then played either white noise, relaxation music
or Mozart for 10 minutes. Following this, the students were given a series
of spatial tasks, and when the tests were given with less than a 10-minute
delay, the Mozart group significantly outperformed the other two groups! These
results caused great excitement in the media, and sparked a flurry of sim-
ilar experiments by other researchers.
However, opinions are divided on whether the so-called Mozart effect is
real, as some of the subsequent studies failed to find any significant effects.
(Bridgett & Cuevas 2000, Steele et al. 1999). Although experts don’t yet
know enough to understand exactly why, the contradictory findings suggest
the ‘Mozart effect’ may be dependent on the specific procedures and tests
involved. For example, in an experiment similar to Rauscher’s, Wilson and
Brown (1997) found an order effect: the group with the greatest improve-
ment in test scores listened to silence first, followed by relaxing music, and
finally, Mozart. The evidence of an order-specific effect does support the idea
that the details of the procedure affect the outcome, and may help to explain
the mixed evidence to date.
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20 Preparing for Study

Caution! Be careful about

drawing general conclusions
from individual experiments!

However, there are many studies which do support and expand the original
findings. For example, Cockerton et al. (1997) reported that students who
listened to stress-reducing instrumental music increased their results on a gen-
eral intelligence test. This experiment was ‘a repeated and reversed’ study
design: Both the music and nonmusic groups were tested twice, and then the
conditions were reversed, so that each group took the tests under both con-
ditions. This type of experimental design is generally regarded as more
robust than Rauscher’s original design, and adds weight to the pro-Mozart
camp.
In a more recent study, Parsons et al. (2001) found that exposure to any
auditory rhythm, not just the music of Mozart, enhanced both visualisation
and mental rotation, and more complex rhythmic sounds led to greater
enhancement than very simple rhythmic sounds.

So what’s the bottom line?

We think there is plenty of evidence to suggest that listening to certain types

of background music will improve your performance on certain tasks . . . and
there is lots of evidence that music has a powerful and very positive affect
on many aspects of our lives, including emotional and physical health . . .
and the long-term benefits of studying music or learning to play an
instrument are well documented (Campbell 1997, Jensen 2000 & Rauscher
2002).
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 21

Preparing for Study 21

TRY THIS

As part of your study preparations, why not track down the following
music?

Mozart

Baroque music e.g. Albinoni, Bach (Brandenberg Concertos),
Handel (Water Music), Vivaldi (Four Seasons)

Relaxation CDs (e.g. Waterfalls, Rain Forest, Ocean Sounds)

Although the evidence is still unfolding, try to select pieces which

meet the following criteria:

Orchestral not solo instruments or vocals

Adagio or andante movements

Major key rather than minor

Complex rhythmic sounds

Posture

How do you prefer to sit (or lie) when you’re studying? Is your
chair suitable? Is your table at a good height? It is important
to be comfortable while you study, but it is also worth trying to develop good
posture habits. The authors are not aware of any research linking postural
effects directly with learning, but the links between posture and physiology,
and the consequences of repetitive strain injury (RSI) are well established.
If you’re interested in learning more about posture, the ‘Alexander Tech-
nique’ has a good reputation and is widely used by musicians and performing
artists.
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 22

22 Preparing for Study

Workspace

Do you think better in a space that is neat and tidy, with

uncluttered surfaces? Or do you prefer to work in a disorganised space, with
piles of papers and books? Also consider whether you like open-plan spaces,
or cosy nooks. Choose a workspace where you feel comfortable and creative.

Odours

Smells can be very powerful memory anchors, and can affect your mental
state. Strong odours, even delicious food smells, can be very distracting. Try
experimenting with scented candles or air fresheners.

Privacy

Constant interruptions can have a devastating impact on the T

O NO
D B
effectiveness of your study time – so manage them well. If
I S TUR
you work in a shared space, make sure your friends and col- D
leagues know when you are studying, and ask them not to
interrupt you. Perhaps put a sign on your door, or have some
kind of signal at your desk so that other people know not to bother you. Turn
your phone off, and don’t log in to your online chat or instant messaging
service.

Supplies

Finally, think about any information sources (textbooks, arti-

cles, notes, tapes) and materials (paper, index cards, coloured pens) you
might need, and make sure you have them to hand before you settle down to
study.
Did you make a note of all your ideas for improvement in column C of
Table 2.1? If you like formal assessments, Price et al. (1991) offer an ana-
lysis for adults which includes environmental and physical preferences.
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 23

Preparing for Study 23

2 PREPARE YOUR BODY (MEETING YOUR PHYSICAL

NEEDS)

Mobility

In chapter 4 we discuss how some people prefer to be still when they learn,
and others prefer movement. Dunn et al. (1986) found that student’s results
on recognition and memory tasks improved significantly when their mobility
preferences were met. If you have a preference for mobility, then make sure
you find a place to study that allows you to move freely.

If you like to move when you study,

even a simple technique like pacing
can help you improve your memory.

Food intake and performance

Some people like to ‘snack’ and drink while they are

concentrating. Ballone and Czerniak (2001) cite evidence that matching dietary
intake preferences improves performance on a range of cognitive tasks. In
many libraries and study halls, eating and drinking is prohibited – so be aware
of your own preference and choose a place that works for you.
There are lots of magazine articles about the importance of water and the
risks of dehydration, and a frequent recommendation is that we need 8 × 8
fluid ounces of water a day. However, this is probably rather simplistic: a
report by the Institute of Medicine (February 2004) sets general recom-
mendations for total fluid intake at 2.7 litres (91 fl. oz) per day for women
and 3.7 litres (125 fl. oz daily) litres per day for men. These requirements
can be met through all fluid and food intakes, not just water, and the required
amounts are higher with prolonged physical activity or heat exposure.
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24 Preparing for Study

Time of day

We’ve known for over a century that our internal or circadian

rhythms influence both physiology and cognition. Our body tem-
perature fluctuates with these rhythms. Some people’s temperatures peak before
noon, some in the afternoon, and some in the evening, and these patterns fre-
quently change with age. What is particularly interesting from our point of
view is that recent studies have shown that students’ comprehension of mate-
rial and performance on tests are significantly better during their preferred
time of day (Biggers 1980, Callan 1998, Klavas 1994, Carskadon et al. 1998,
Holloway 1999).
While you may still have to attend lectures and practical sessions at set
times, you can select study times which are in tune with your own circadian
rhythms. Work with your body, not against it.

TRY THIS

If you’re not sure about your internal body clock, why not keep a diary
for a week, and note down how alert or tired you feel at different times
of the day?

Sleep: What’s it worth to you?

An interview with Dr M., a professional mnemonist:

Pat: It’s a real pleasure to meet you at last, Dr M.

Dr M.: Pleasure’s mine. What can I do for you and your readers?
Pat: Well, perhaps you could start by telling us how you prepare for your
record-breaking memory feats.
Dr M.: Well, if it’s an evening event, as most of them are, I always have
a nap in the afternoon.
Pat: Now that’s a surprise. I thought you would be busy rehearsing.
Dr M.: I need my brain in tip-top condition.
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 25

Preparing for Study 25

Pat: Hmmm. I’m wondering what would happen if I took a nap after a
study session. Do you think that would help me to learn?
Dr M.: Sara Mednick and her Harvard colleagues think so.1 They found that
a 60–90 minute nap improved learning.
Pat: I wish I’d known that a few years ago!
Dr M.: Well, that’s not all. I read something a few months ago that found
it only takes an average of 18.25 hours without sleep, before there
is a significant reduction in cognitive performance.2
Pat: You’re kidding, right?
Dr M.: No, I’m absolutely serious. As far as I’m aware, no-one else has
tried to repeat the results yet, but if it turns out to be a real effect,
it has quite strong implications for our sleep habits, doesn’t it?
Pat: Yes. I’m beginning to wonder how much of my struggle at college
was due to sleep deprivation!!
Dr M.: Well, you need to keep a sensible perspective on the issue, but I do
think sleep is way undervalued, at least in contemporary western
culture.
Pat: That’s fascinating. Is there anything else we should know?
Dr M.: Oh, yeah. This guy, Stickgold, taught a bunch of people some visual
discrimination tasks. He retested one group after they’d had a full
night’s sleep, and their scores showed a significant improvement. He
retested another group, this time only three hours after the origi-
nal test . . . and guess what? Their scores showed no improvement.
In other words, they hadn’t learned a thing.3
Pat: That’s not what I would have expected at all. So, is it fair to say
that sleeping helps you learn?
Dr M.: Yes, isn’t that great news? And, Stickgold kept a third group awake
all night after the study session, then allowed them to sleep as much
as they liked the following two nights . . . then retested them, and
guess what? There was absolutely no change in their scores.
Pat: So, not learning wasn’t just about being tired. What you’re saying
is that we need to sleep following study in order to consolidate our
learning. Is that it?

1
Mednick et al. 2003
2
Van Dongen et al. 2003
3
Stickgold et al. 2000
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 26

26 Preparing for Study

Dr M.: Well, it looks that way to me.

Pat: So how do you manage when you’re travelling?
Dr M.: It’s very difficult. Missing a night’s sleep reduces mental performance
in a whole range of areas, not just memory.4 So, I do whatever it
takes to maximise sleep the night before a competition or exhibi-
tion event.
Pat: Makes me wonder about the value of the all-nighters I pulled before
my final exams. . . . Mmmm.
Dr M.: I wouldn’t recommend it for anyone.
Pat: Well, it sounds like sleep is a key strategy for you. Can I ask how
much of your success you attribute to sleep?
Dr M.: (Laughs.) Well now, that would be telling!

4
Harrison & Young 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000

3 PREPARE YOUR MIND

Where’s your ‘Thinking Cap’?

As children, were you ever told to ‘put on your thinking cap’? If

so, we bet you understood intuitively that it was a metaphorical
hat, which had something to do with feelings, focus and readiness
to learn. We know that pre-school children are great at learning.
They don’t need to be told how to focus on something . . . have
you watched a young child who is totally absorbed in what they
are doing? That’s the kind of mental focus which makes for
great learning.
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 27

Preparing for Study 27

TRY THIS

How would you describe your current state right now? Rate yourself
on a scale of 1–10 on the following factors:

Curiosity
1 = I know this – and don’t want to hear anything else

10 = Wow, I feel curious and excited about new ideas

Alertness
1 = I’m exhausted and can hardly stay awake

10 = I feel fantastic and full of energy

Present (or focus)

1 = My mind is really elsewhere today

10 = I’m fully focused on what we are here to do
I’ve put all other things out of my mind

Now, calculate your Learning State. Multiply your three ‘CAP’ num-
bers together, and you should have a number between 0 and 1,000.
This number represents your current learning state.

Curiosity × Alertness × how ‘Present’ =

How close to 1,000 are you? Many people are surprised how low
their final number is. While there is nothing at all scientific about the
formula, it can serve as a useful reminder of just how inefficient it can
be to study in a less than optimal mental state.
(This idea was modified from a classroom exercise used by
Kimberley Hare from Kaïzen Training.)

Q. How can you improve your CAP score?

A. There are two main ways: physiology and focus. Let’s have a closer look
at these.
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28 Preparing for Study

Improving your CAP score: Physiology

Using physiology is as easy as moving. You can stretch, walk around, sit up
straight, make faces, put on some upbeat music and dance round the room,
or take some really deep breaths. Doing any of these may help you feel more
energetic, and probably more open to ideas. You’ll be in a better learning
state.
If you’re hungry or thirsty or too hot, it may be hard to concentrate
on anything other than your hunger or thirst or desire to cool down. You
can often improve your learning state by taking care of your biological and
physical needs.
Unfortunately, the most common strategy used in our culture is perhaps
the least healthy one . . . introduce some toxic substance into your nervous
system! The reason alcohol, cigarettes and other drugs are used so widely
are that they do change your state very quickly, . . . but we advise against
this for study purposes!!!

Improving your CAP score: Focus

Have you ever thought about the difference between excitement and fear?
If not, take a moment and think about one really scary event (perhaps a
job interview, exam or formal presentation) and one exciting event (perhaps
a first date). How would you describe your physical state during each of these
experiences? Did you have:

• rapid heart beat

• sweaty hands
• butterflies in your stomach
• loss of appetite.

Did you notice any similarities in your physiology for both events? It seems
to us that the difference between fear and excitement is one of interpreta-
tion . . . or focus.
And the good thing is that your focus is under your control. You can’t always
change a situation, but you can control what you think, and that affects how
you feel about that situation.
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 29

Preparing for Study 29

‘Whether you think you can
or
think you can’t
. . . you’re right.’
Henry Ford

TRY THIS

Take a few moments and try and remember the last time you were com-
pletely absorbed in an activity. It doesn’t matter what type of activity
– it could be reading, playing computer games, rock climbing or chess,
but whatever it was, you were so engrossed by it that you probably ‘lost
track of time’, and the outside world ceased to exist. People sometimes
call these ‘optimal experiences’, or being in a ‘flow’ state. How would
you describe that experience? Was it enjoyable?
Now, imagine if your work and study tasks could be more like these
‘optimal’ experiences – so interesting and inherently enjoyable that
you become absolutely absorbed in the moment, and feel the deepest
sense of satisfaction while engaged in the task. It is much more satis-
fying and effective to learn because a task is enjoyable as opposed to
useful.

Q. I hate studying. Is there any way I can make it more enjoyable?

A. Well, Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi has spent his life researching enjoy-
ment and happiness, which he calls ‘flow’. He believes we have the
capacity to turn any activity into a flow
Y activity. The key is to focus on an
I ET
X aspect of the task that appropriately
AN
Degree of
challenge O W matches the difficulty, or level of
FL M
E DO challenge, to your skill level. As illus-
R
BO
trated in figure 2.2, too much challenge
Personal skill
results in anxiety and stress, and too
Figure 2.2 Achieving flow little leads to boredom.
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 30

30 Preparing for Study

According to Csikszentmihalyi (2002), you can transform any activ-

ity into a ‘flow’ one by following these five steps:

1 Set an overall goal, and as many sub-goals as are realistically

feasible.
2 Find ways of measuring progress in terms of the goals chosen.
3 To maintain concentration, make finer and finer distinctions in the
challenges involved in the activity.
4 Develop the skills necessary to interact with the opportunities available.
5 Keep raising the stakes if the activity becomes boring.
(Adapted from Csikszentmihalyi (2002), p. 97.)

Find the fun

So, let’s take an example and see how this might work. Suppose you’re
studying anatomy and need to learn the names and location of all the bones,
muscles and nerves in the body. If you look forward to memorising the infor-
mation, this may seem like a natural ‘flow’ activity for you – and that’s great.
If not, what can you do to make task interesting and engaging, using the
model above?

1. Set a goal: That’s easy. You need to learn the names of all the bones,
muscles and nerves in the human body, and their location.
2. Find a way of measuring your progress: How about turning it into a
card game? You could use a pack of index cards, displaying the name
for each bone, muscle or nerve, and the ‘suit’ or ‘group’ to which it belongs
on the ‘face’ of each card. You can then invent a speed trial. For ex-
ample, see how quickly you can locate all the cards for a particular group
(e.g. facial nerves).
3. Make fine distinctions in the challenge: Here you need to introduce
refinements to the original challenge. Why not time how long it takes
to sequence the cards from the top of the skull down through the body
to the toes? Or put the ‘bone cards’ in one deck, shuffle them, turn
over the top card, and then sort through the other deck to find all the
nerves and muscles which are attached to that bone. There are endless
possibilities.
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 31

Preparing for Study 31

4. Develop the skills necessary to interact with the opportunities
available: How easily can you devise different ways of testing yourself,
either working alone or with a partner?
5. Keep raising the stakes if the activity becomes boring: For each act-
ivity, set yourself a target e.g. by Friday, I’ll be able to pick out all the
muscles and nerves which are attached to any five randomly selected bones
within three minutes. And why not set yourself a reward for com-
pleting each challenge successfully?

If the idea of playing cards leaves you cold, perhaps you could challenge
yourself to come up with a metaphor or visual image that captures the infor-
mation you need to learn. So for example, if you need to remember the atomic
number of the element Xenon, you could use the fact that the name, Xenon,
comes from the Greek word meaning stranger. As
it is a Noble gas, you might imagine a very noble-
looking stranger (alien), perhaps with 54 eyes on
long stalks coming out of his head to remind you
that the atomic number is 54. You can sustain the
challenge level by increasing the number of facts
you include.
Now go back to the Thinking Cap exercise, and re-evaluate how you
feel. ‘Getting into flow’ is about modifying your state by changing your
focus.

4 FOLLOW A STUDY PLAN

With a clear focus on your ‘big picture’ goals, you can begin to design a study
plan. There are lots of ways you can do this. We like the abc approach out-
lined below.

a) Study activities: Identify the different types

The first step is to identify all the different types of study activities that are
involved in your course. We’ve shown some examples in figure 2.3 (overleaf).
Can you think of any others?
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 32

32 Preparing for Study

Required reading

Information
search Assignments
Activity

Exam revision Consolidation

Catching up
on missed work

Figure 2.3 Types of study activities

b) Break down the tasks into sensible-sized chunks

The next step is to break down each activity into discrete tasks, with specific
outcomes. For this, you need to decide:

• the best way of chunking each task

• what you want as an output.

For example, you could ‘chunk’ a textbook by chapters, and produce a set
of index notes or construct a mindmap of key words as an output for each
chapter. (See figure 2.4.)

c) Schedule tasks

Once you have manageable-sized tasks, plan when to do them. Use any method
that works for you, e.g. journal, diary, calendar, mindmaps or spreadsheets.
Whatever the method, paper-based or electronic, make sure you can use it
to track your progress.
Be realistic in your expectations. Make sure you understand the scope of
each activity. Estimate how much time you have available, and remember to
allow for breaks.
 Assignments and projects
Textbooks
Interest
Research articles
Extension work Information search Required reading
Handouts and pamphlets
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 33

Pre-requisites

Essay
Read revision guides
Project work
Attend revision sessions
Breakdown Critique
Practice timed essays Exam revision Assignments
Presentation
Work through past exam papers
Portfolio

Lecture

Reading Lectures

Practical session Seminars

Catching up on missed work Consolidation
Fieldwork Practical sessions

Seminar
Preparing for Study

Figure 2.4 Breakdown of study tasks

33
TSSC02 5/9/06 8:38 Page 34

34 Preparing for Study

• If you need to take time off for an important event near the time an assign-
ment is due, try and spread your workload evenly over the couple of weeks
leading up to the event.
• If an essay or project is due during an exam period, plan so you have
time for both! Avoid an overload situation, where you end up writing your
project at the expense of revision.

And of course, planning is only the first step. You will need to follow
through!

TOP TIP

When you’ve had a really successful study session, con-

gratulate yourself . . . and then reflect on why it was so pro-
ductive. Likewise, if you have a session and don’t really feel
you’ve achieved very much, think about why. Consider the
environment you were in, your physical state, your mental
state and whether you were following a study plan . . . and
notice whether a pattern emerges.

SUMMARY

To help you get the most out of every study session, prepare properly.
Pay attention to your:

• environment
• body
• mind
• study plan.
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Preparing for Study 35

DANGER!

Have you ever noticed that sometimes, just as you’re about

to begin a study session, you feel a sudden urgency to spring-
clean or sort through piles of stuff (clothes, bills, letters)
which may have been lying around for ages? Your need to
address this task before you study can be quite profound,
and is frequently out of proportion to the task’s actual impor-
tance. If this has a familiar ring to it, take comfort from
the fact that it’s a common way of delaying a task we don’t
particularly want to do (e.g. study). Pat’s friend, Sue, ded-
icated three whole days to scrubbing all the woodwork in
her flat with only two weeks to go before her final exams.

“Watch Out! . . . .
there’s a displacement
activity about!”

These are called ‘displacement activities’, and some of

us are experts in finding them just before we start to study.
Recognising a desire for what it is can make it easier to
resist side-tracking temptations.
And remember that even your study plan can become a
displacement activity. Don’t spend hours developing elab-
orate plans – allocate only the time needed to be productive.
TSSC03 5/9/06 15:01 Page 36

3 Multiple Intelligences:
Using All Your Strengths

KEY POINTS

If you have self-doubt, you are almost certainly more capable than you
think

It is increasingly accepted that there are eight different kinds of
intelligence

We all have different combinations of strengths and weaknesses

Understanding your natural strengths will help you make better use of them

You can develop each of your intelligences, even those which are weak

INTRODUCTION

Have you ever wondered how smart you have to be to succeed?

Imagine, just for a moment, what it would be like if you could learn
to do anything and that the process of learning was both enjoyable and
effortless. What would you learn? How would your life be different?
Well, you almost certainly have more potential and natural ability than
you previously thought. Many people have been amazed by the hidden
talents of ‘ordinary people’ revealed in the television series ‘Faking It’.
Historically, IQ has been regarded as very important, perhaps even
the defining attribute in our education system. Educators widely
accepted the notion that intelligence could be quantified by a single IQ
TSSC03 5/9/06 15:01 Page 37

Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 37

IQ

Success

Figure 3.1 Relationship between IQ and success

measurement. The problem with this approach is that there is no evid-

ence to suggest that IQ and success are correlated (see figure 3.1).
There are many examples of individuals who struggled with their for-
mal education, yet went on to make outstanding contributions in their
field. Thomas Edison didn’t learn to read until he was nine years old,
and was considered delinquent. Wernher Von Braun, the father of rock-
etry, failed 9th grade algebra. Einstein didn’t speak until he was four,
and had early difficulties with arithmetic (Moore 1981, pp. 2–3). Gandhi,
one of the world’s greatest leaders, acknowledged he was not a par-
ticularly good student, claiming ‘I am an average man with less than
average ability. I admit that I am not sharp intellectually.’ (Quoted in
Nanda 1985, p. 133.)
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (1983) is changing
the way we think about intelligence. It has expanded our horizon of
available learning tools beyond the conventional linguistic and logical
methods used by most students (e.g. textbooks, essays, formulas). There
are now eight recognized intelligences (figure 3.2 overleaf) and it appears
that each of them map to specific areas of the brain. Appreciating your
own unique profile of strengths and weaknesses can help you apply dif-
ferent techniques and strategies to learn more effectively.
There are two ways you can apply the insights from this chapter:
 38

Mathematical/logical
Musical
The ability to calculate, quantify,
Sensitivity to pitch, rhythm, tempo,
consider hypotheses and propositions,
harmony, timbre melody and dynamics
and understand causation
TSSC03 5/9/06 15:01 Page 38

Spatial Naturalist
The ability to think in three The ability to discriminate among
dimensions, and perceive internal living things and a sensitivity to other
and external imagery features of the natural world

Multiple Intelligences
Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

Kinaesthetic/bodily Verbal/linguistic
The ability to use the whole The ability to use language to express
or part of your body yourself and understand others

Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
The ability to understand oneself:
The ability to understand other people
strengths, weaknesses, purpose etc.

Figure 3.2 Eight multiple intelligences

TSSC03 5/9/06 15:01 Page 39

Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 39

1. Learn to use your current strengths in more circumstances and in

more ways (see ‘using your strengths’ pages 56–8).
2. Work on your weaknesses, developing them into strengths (see fig-
ure 3.3 for a summary of ideas). Most of us have capacities in all
of the intelligences, and can develop proficiency in each of them
with appropriate encouragement, enrichment, and instruction.

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I used to type with two fingers, but it was very slow. So I

learned to touch type. Now I use all my fingers I can type
much faster and more accurately. It’s the same with
Multiple Intelligences. I used to use only two intelligences
for my study, but now I use all eight. I find studying much
easier, more fun, and my exam results have really improved.’

BEFORE YOU START

Make a list of 12–16 things you learned to do. These can be things you
learned as an adult, but often you’ll get a clearer insight by using examples
from childhood. Here are some suggestions, but you should generate your
own list: reading, riding a bike, singing songs, telling the time, cooking, typ-
ing, driving, playing guitar, canoeing, orienteering, salsa dancing, fossil
collecting . . .
Now think about how the process of learning them felt to you, and make
a note in figure 3.4. If you can’t recall, perhaps ask an older family member
if they remember.
Do you have anything in the fourth quadrant? These are your natural
strengths. If they were in the school curriculum, you would probably get an
‘A’ for achievement and ‘D’ for effort. Our children (and their friends) regard
these as the ‘coolest’ grades. However, sometimes when you can’t remember
how you learned to do something (because the process was so effortless) you
might assume that everyone finds it easy. Many people often undervalue their
 40

Here are some ideas to develop your intelligence

Mathematical/ Join a choir
Do logic puzzles (there are lots of websites with great puzzles) logical Musical
Learn to play a musical instrument
Learn to write computer code using a programming language
Join a Samba band
TSSC03 5/9/06 15:01 Page 40

Play chess, draughts, Mah Jongh, Go, backgammon, bridge

Start a collection of anything. Notice
differences and similarities. Devise a way to
classify them
Draw route maps to familiar places from memory Naturalist
Spatial
Learn to notice things with greater acuity. Draw familiar Learn to identify trees, birds, mushrooms,
things from memory e.g. your watch, one side of a coin. breeds of dogs, types of cloud

Play the classic computer game, Tetris Take an interest in gardening and plant care
Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

Play word games like scrabble, hangman,

Multiple Intelligences
ghost, boggle and call my bluff
Dancing or yoga
Keep a journal and write about
A craft e.g. woodwork, pottery anything and everything

Magic tricks, unicycling or juggling Verbal/linguistic Make up collaborative stories,

Kinaesthetic/bodily taking turns, continuing the story
Sign language
Learn to do
something new Find a coach or take courses

Engage in in reflective practice (see chapter 12) Read leaders’ autobiographies

Learn how to meditate and practise daily Notice people who have good interpersonal
Intrapersonal Interpersonal skills: watch them, ask questions, listen to
Find a good personal coach Develop self-awareness Develop awareness them

Figure 3.3 Developing your multiple intelligences

TSSC03 5/9/06 15:01 Page 41

Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 41

Hard to do Hard to do
Hard to learn Easy to learn

1 2

3 4

Easy to do Easy to do
Hard to learn Easy to learn

Figure 3.4 My learning process

strengths in category 4. Once you’ve explored the concept of MI, come

back to your list, and see what, if anything, your category 4 items have in
common.
Now let’s take a look at each of the eight intelligences (figure 3.2).
If you’re interested in the criteria used to decide whether a dimension or
attribute qualifies as an intelligence, see Appendix 1. There are eight widely
accepted intelligences and some people believe there may be a ninth,
Existential intelligence. In the following sections, we’ll look at each of
the eight intelligences in turn, and suggest some ways to use and develop
them.

1. MATHEMATICAL/LOGICAL INTELLIGENCE

Core abilities: See figure 3.5 (overleaf) for mathematical/logical intelligence

core abilities.

Mathematical/logical intelligence is highly valued in our education system,

yet many adults considerably underestimate their talents in this area. If you
profess to be ‘hopeless’ at maths, it’s more likely you’ve not had the
appropriate encouragement and help to develop your intelligence in this area.
TSSC03 5/9/06 15:01 Page 42

42 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

Reasoning Number work

Predicting Patterns

Relationships Categorisation

Figure 3.5 Mathematical/logical intelligence core abilities

We know much more now about how children learn maths, and how for many
people early classroom experiences were in conflict with their natural learning
style – sometimes with disastrous consequences.
You may use your mathematical/logical intelligence more than you realise.
Do you do any of the following?

• Plan the sequence of jobs when redecorating a room e.g. painting the
ceiling, walls, woodwork, replace the carpet etc.
• Plan journeys, using timetables.
• Budget your accounts/manage your finances.
• Estimate quantities.
• Gamble or play games of chance.
• Make risk assessments or predictions based on information.
• Make comparisons when you shop.

If you do any of the above, then you use your mathematical/logical intel-
ligence. There are lots of ways you can use your mathematical intelligence
in non-mathematical subjects. In many disciplines the ability to recognise
patterns is extremely important, for example, with dates, plots, motives,
themes, results, places, timings, and sentence structure. The ability to con-
struct logical arguments (see chapter 10) and sequence steps or rank ideas
is also extremely important.
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 43

‘Although virtually all students enter

school mathematically healthy and enjoying
mathematics as they solve problems in ways
that make sense to them, most exit school
apprehensive and unsure about doing all
but the most trivial mathematical tasks.’
Michael T. Battista (1999)

TRY THIS

Here’s a thought. If you like formalising the structure or pattern in rela-

tionships, next time you come across a non-mathematical concept, why
not try making up your own formula to explore some of the relation-
ships between the elements. For example:

I = (2EI × BL) + SF2

Where:

I = Impact of writing BL = Beauty of language

EI = Emotional impact SF = Shock factor

Remember that it is not the accuracy of the formula itself that

matters. What is important is that you find ways of processing informa-
tion in the most helpful way for you.
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44 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

2. VERBAL/LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE

Core abilities:

a) Using words effectively either orally or in writing.

b) The ability to manipulate:

• syntax or structure of language

• phonology or sounds of language
• semantics or meanings of language
• pragmatic dimensions or practical uses of language, including
rhetoric, mnemonics, explanation, and meta-language.

1 2 3
M S P
4
E E R H
T M H O
A A E N
5
E X P L A N A T I O N
A T O L
N I R O
G C I G
U S C Y
6
S Y N T A X
G
E

You use your verbal linguistic intelligence every time you read, write, tell or
listen to a story. People with a highly developed verbal intelligence may enjoy
playing with words, puns, mnemonics, and the sounds and structure of language.
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 45

DID YOU KNOW?

Our brains love metaphor. We are designed to learn about one thing in
terms of another.

‘The essence of metaphor is

understanding and experiencing
one kind of thing in terms of another.’
Lakoff & Johnson (1980)

TRY THIS
Choose a topic you are currently studying. Ask a friend to listen to you
for 5–10 minutes while you complete the following sentence . . .
The most important thing about this topic is. . . . x
Now answer the following question and go with the image that pops into
your head, even if you have no idea how or why the two things are related.
And x is like. . . .
Your brain will have made non-verbal connections, which it can express
in images.
If you trust it, and explore the images you will probably gain new
insights about the topic. . . .
Go on and tell the story of how ‘your picture’ came to be. . . . what
happened.
e.g. if x is like a book/flower, describe the pages/seed and how it came
to be. Pay attention to the small details, the colour and texture of the
cover/leaves, the setting, who wrote/watered it – as these can be very
meaningful.
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46 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

Q. I’m a science student. How will linguistic intelligence be useful to me?

A. Developing your linguistic intelligence will help you write up your notes
as essays/book chapters/articles. From your notes, you can create your
own crossword puzzles and use them to revise. Why not try some of the
crossword construction packages which turn the solutions to your clues
into a crossword? To help you remember factual information, why not
make up your own creative stories containing key information, and
embroider the story with rich detail. (See page 144, chapter 6.) You
could share your stories with a ‘study partner’ as a revision strategy. And
why not use metaphors to help you to understand in a richer, more com-
plete way.

‘One day my teacher insisted on changing the

words I wrote because they “didn’t make sense”.
To me they had been exactly right, but now
I can’t remember my original understanding. . . .
I only remember that it is lost.’
Kimberly De Vries

3. BODILY/KINAESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE

Core abilities:

a) Control of one’s own body

b) Control handling objects.

There are probably three distinct elements to this intelligence (Seitz

1989):
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 47

• the motor logic or neuromuscular skill that is involved in the syntax or
ordering of movement
• kinaesthetic memory or the ability to mentally reconstruct muscular
effort, movement, and position in space
• kinaesthetic awareness or awareness of posture, position, resistance, and
the extent, direction and weight of movement.

Not all cultures value proficiency in all the intelligences equally. The !Kung
bushmen of the Kalahari desert believe their intricate and complex medicine
dance protects them from dark forces and so bodily kinaesthetic intelligence
is highly valued. ‘People learn the songs and dances when they are children
and work for perfection in skill and timing all their lives.’ (Thomas 1989,
p. 125).

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

• Writing and drawing are physical processes, so write up your notes and
thoughts or capture them in drawings. If you use index cards, you can
sort them physically. For more ideas, see chapter 8 on note-taking.
• Use your body as a metaphor, and use movement to capture information
etc.
• Act out or dance the steps in a process.
• Use role play.
• Make up hand signs to represent facts or concepts.

4. SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE

Core abilities: Accurate mental visualisation and mental transformation of

images.

We use our spatial intelligence to perceive and interpret shapes and images
in 3D. When you think about the best route to get somewhere, you are using
your spatial intelligence. The images in figure 3.6 (overleaf) are displaying
the same data but in different ways. How easily can you mentally map the
data from one image onto the others?
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48 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

200
150
100
100
50 3
50
0 0 1
A B C D A B C D

Figure 3.6 Spatial intelligence

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

• Convert your notes into graphs and mindmaps. (There are a number of
software packages available which make it very easy to create mindmaps.
We like Mindjet’s MindManager©).
• Explore relationships graphically, either in your mind or on paper.
• Imagine a way of physically navigating through a process or system, e.g.
to learn about the circulation system, you could imagine navigating your
way through the major veins, arteries and heart.
• Use the back of a jigsaw and write keywords or steps of a process on
each piece, linking them in a meaningful way.
• Use a ‘visual route’ memory peg system (see chapter 7).

DANGER!

Spatial intelligence encompasses more than just visual

images. There is widespread confusion between visual
learning style and spatial intelligence. For example, many
blind people display a high level of spatial ability. They can
identify 2D and 3D shapes by touching them. Our blind
friend, Cliff, has been known to provide the commentary
on sightseeing coaches around his native city. Even with-
out sight, he knows exactly where he is – demonstrating
an impressive level of spatial intelligence.
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 49

‘Multiple intelligences claims that we respond individually,

in different ways to different kinds of content, such as
language or music or other people. This is very different
from the notion of learning style.* You can say that a child
is a visual learner, but that’s not a multiple intelligences
way of talking about things. What I would say is, “Here
is a child who very easily represents things spatially, and
we can draw upon that strength if need be when we want
to teach the child something new.” ’
Howard Gardner 1997 in Checkley, 1997
* See chapter 4

5. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

Core abilities: Awareness of own emotions, goals, feelings and motivation.

Intrapersonal intelligence is our cognitive ability to understand and sense our

‘self’: who we are, what feelings we have, why we are this way. It is not often
recognised from the outside, unless perhaps it is expressed tangibly in some
artistic form. Such people are likely to be realistic in what they can achieve
and as such, are often valued colleagues and collaborators.
You can usually tell if you have a well-developed intrapersonal intelligence
because you:

• are aware of your underlying anxieties, desires and motivations

• act on the basis of self-knowledge, creating environments, guiding behaviour,
and making decisions based on an accurate picture of yourself
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50 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

• possess a strong sense of identity and purpose, and make decisions based
on what is right for you, not what is expected.

QUESTIONS FOR YOU

• What are your dreams? What is stopping you from achieving them?
Does your ‘list’ include any of your personal attributes or limiting
beliefs? If not, this might be a good place to start to develop your
self-awareness.
• When was the last time you directed your anger to an ‘innocent’
person, who just happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong
time? Self-awareness requires us to be honest with ourselves, about
our underlying motivations and needs.

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

You are already using this intelligence by reading this chapter. Learning about
how you learn (sometimes called metalearning) is a great way to improve
your effectiveness as a student.
Another tip is to ask yourself ‘Why does this topic matter to me?’ If the answer
is not obvious, try and find a way of reframing a subject so that it becomes
important to you. Learning is most effective when we have a connection with
the subject.

6. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

Core abilities: Awareness of emotions, goals, feelings and motivations of other

people.

Many people with a well-developed interpersonal intelligence are good at resolv-

ing conflicts. They tend to be comfortable in the company of others, and are
often natural leaders. The traits in Figure 3.7 are commonly associated with
good interpersonal skills.
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 51

Are you sensitive to other people’s Are you able to inspire

facial expressions and voice? others?

Are you able to discriminate between Are you able to dispel other
different interpersonal cues, and people’s negative emotions and
respond to them effectively? create positive energy?

Figure 3.7 Traits associated with well-developed interpersonal intelligence

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I used to think that studying meant sitting in my room

by myself staring at piles of books. Then I found a study
partner. We work really well together. We ask each other
questions and test each other’s knowledge. It is much more
fun and the great thing is that I can remember the work we
do together very easily.’

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

• Teach what you have learned. Trying to explain something to someone
really helps to clarify your own thinking . . . and getting stuck indicates
where you haven’t fully grasped something.
• Arrange team competitions and write your own questions.
• Organise co-coaching groups or pairs.
• Role play with groups of two, three or four.
• Find a ‘study friend’ and compare notes – you may be surprised by
the different points you pick up and miss out. (This needs to be an active
process.)
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52 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

LOOKING AHEAD

Being ‘people smart’ is an increasingly valued asset in the

workplace. Developing your interpersonal intelligence will
help you with many skills including:

❄ Influencing ❄ Coaching
❄ Negotiating ❄ Leading
❄ Communicating ❄ Managing
❄ Motivating ❄ Encouraging
❄ Collaborating

7. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE

Core abilities: see figure 3.8.

Infants as young as two months old are able to match pitch, melodic counter
and loudness of their mother’s voice. It seems that infants are predisposed
to these aspects of music, even more than the core properties of speech –
and musical intelligence may influence the emotional, spiritual and cultural
development more than the other intelligences. (Gardner quoted in Black 1997.)

Core abilities

Dynamics Tempo Timbre Pitch Melody Harmony Rhythm

Figure 3.8 Musical intelligence core abilities

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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 53

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?
• Make up your own songs and rhythmical poetry to summarise what you
have learned.
• Associate different music with different topics.

At age 6, Pat remembers the day her music teacher gathered the class around
the piano. She went round the children in turn, playing two notes and asking
each child to sing the notes they had just heard. On the basis of this extensive
assessment, Pat was told she couldn’t join the school choir. This was common
practice in the UK – and Pat, like thousands of other children, grew up with
the firm belief that she ‘couldn’t sing’. As a teenager, she studied classical
guitar and even won a music festival competition, but never had the courage
to take any of the formal music exams because of her firm belief that she
would fail the aural part.
We now know that letting any child believe they have no singing ability is
misguided. The research suggests you can learn music at any age, though if
you start later in life, it might take more time for you to reach proficiency
(Jensen 2000).

And the good news is. . . .

There is significant evidence that developing your musical intelligence

has benefits for some of the other intelligences, particularly the spatial and
logical/mathematical intelligences.

8. NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE

Core abilities: see figure 3.9 (overleaf).

More recently, Gardner (1995) has added an eighth intelligence, the natu-
ralist intelligence, to the original list of seven, though there is still some debate
about how well this meets the requisite criteria outlined in appendix 1 (page
257). According to Gardner, individuals with highly developed naturalist intel-
ligence are able ‘to recognise flora and fauna, to make other consequential
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54 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

Recognition and classification

of objects in the environment

Figure 3.9 Naturalist intelligence core abilities

distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively.’

Gardner speculates that this intelligence is used by suburban children when
they sort and organise their collections of trading cards and the like.

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

• Classify concepts/themes/facts/procedures/principles in as many ways as
possible.
• Look for similarities and differences at lots of levels.
• Use matrix notes (see page 159).

DANGER!

There is a lot of misinformation about this intelligence. You

may come across the notion that you engage your natural
intelligence simply by going outside, having plants and fresh
flowers in your work area, or displaying pictures of nature
scenes. Well these things may impact on your emotional
state, and as such they can play an important role in your
learning effectiveness. But being outside does not, by itself,
engage or develop your natural intelligence, any more than
putting pictures of the number 7 around the room helps you
engage or develop your mathematical logical intelligence.
To develop your abilities in any area, you need to actively
process information.
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 55

HOW DO I FIND OUT MY MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

PROFILE?

The only Gardner-approved MI assessment at the time of writing is the Multiple

Intelligence Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS) developed by Branton
Shearer at Kent State University. According to Gardner, MIDAS was devel-
oped and validated in accordance with standard psychometric procedures,
and includes careful guidelines about how to interpret and use the results.
However, unlike a standard IQ test, the MI results don’t tell you how your
intelligence level compares with the rest of the population – they are not
norm-referenced. The results indicate where your strengths lie, but it would
be misguided to try and rank yourself in comparison to other people.
Also, it’s worth remembering that there are no standard attributes you must
have to be considered intelligent in a specific area. There are several ways
you can be intelligent within each category. So, for example, a highly lin-
guistic person may be able to tell wonderful stories, but might not be able
to read. Or a person with exceptional bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence may be
a superb craftsman, but be unable to walk.

DANGER!

There are countless free inventories, quizzes and checklists

on the web, which are of variable quality. Many are sim-
ply too short to be meaningful. As there are several ways
you can be intelligent within each category, asking only two
or three questions about each intelligence could easily
produce misleading results. Many of the checklists confuse
learning styles with multiple intelligences. Others seem to
confuse ‘liking’ with ‘proficiency’. Enjoying something is
not the same as being good at it (Sternberg 1997). You
may gain some useful insights into your individual MI profile
by taking a few different quizzes, but be mindful of their
potential limitations.
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56 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

USING YOUR STRENGTHS

So, how can you use your natural strengths to help you? For most assign-
ments and projects, there are many possible approaches, which draw on dif-
ferent intelligences. When tasked with an assignment or project, before you
begin work, and even before you choose your option, think through all the
possibilities in MI terms.
On pages 57 and 58 there are three examples for you to think about.

TAKE HEART

Why did the world celebrate the Jamaican bobsled team and Eddie ‘the Eagle’
Edwards in the 1988 Winter Olympics, and Eric ‘the Eel’ Moussambani in
the 2000 Olympics? We suspect people were responding to the context of
these athlete’s achievements. In other words, intelligence is contextualised,
which means that you need the right environment or context for intelligence
to develop. You probably have potential in one or more of the intelligences
that you have not had the opportunity to develop – either at all, or only par-
tially. Once you recognise you have unmet potential, you can become more
proactive in finding opportunities to develop that potential.

‘Bobby Fischer might inherently have had

the potential to be a great chess player, but
if he had lived in a culture without chess,
that potential would never have been
manifested, let alone actualized.’
Gardner 1991

Cultures value intelligences differently, often creating different opportunities

for intelligences to flourish. For example, canoeing and swimming skills are
highly valued by the Manus children of New Guinea. The seafaring Puluwat
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 57

Example 1: Economics

Suppose you are studying the law of supply and demand in economics. What
would be the best way for you to utilise your natural strengths?

Approach Intelligence

Explore the principles graphically Spatial

Explore the mathematical formulae that express Mathematical/logical
the relationship
Reflect on what this means for each party involved Interpersonal
Analyze your own probable reactions as a consumer Intrapersonal
and supplier
Find parallels in the natural world e.g. Naturalist
Predator/prey relationships
Read about the subject and/or give a presentation Verbal/linguistic
Act out the principles of the law Bodily/kinaesthetic
Write a song to express the principles of the law Musical

Example 2: History

Suppose you are asked to write an essay/report/project about a particular

historical battle.

Approach Intelligence

Relevance of the landscape/geography/space Spatial

Importance of sequencing of events or Logical
provision of other clues
Relationships between the key historical figures Interpersonal
Analysis of how you, as one or more of the key Intrapersonal
players, might have felt and why you might
have taken certain actions
Significance of season, weather, availability Naturalist
of food supplies
An analysis of the communication: clarity or Verbal & interpersonal
confusion
An account of your experience in a battle Kinaesthetic & intrapersonal
re-enactment
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58 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

Example 3: English or Performing Arts

Suppose you are asked to write an essay/report/project about a film/play. The

crossword clues below suggest some of the different approaches you might
take to the assignment.

Across
5. An analysis of your emotional response to the work
6. A review of the staging/use of space
7. A review of the similarities and differences of the sub-plots/settings etc.
8. An analysis of the changing relationships between the characters

Down
1. A critique of the musical score
2. An analysis of the acting techniques and movement
3. The impact of the language and/or use of metaphor
4. An analysis of the sequence of events

(The answer is the multiple intelligence engaged by each approach. See

page 259 for the answer.)

2 3 4

8
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 59

of the Caroline Islands are exceptional navigators, and place great empha-
sis on the development of spatial intelligence. Gambian mediators have
excellent interpersonal intelligence, which they use to successfully negotiate,
arbitrate or adjudicate disputes (Sheehan 1996).

MAKE IT EASY

According to Gardner, an essential insight is that not all intelligence is in

the head. In other words, intelligence is distributed. Productive individuals
rely heavily on the intelligence of other humans and non-human resources such
as books, computers and websites. How efficiently do you use the ‘human’
resources available to you (colleagues, tutors, friends and family)? See chap-
ter 5 for more information.
We suspect a huge amount of energy is wasted at all educational levels
trying to teach things in a way that doesn’t make sense to the learner.

‘From an early age she loved pictures, especially in books

that were visually busy, like those by Richard Scarry . . . .
She grew to think of words as captions, as handles with
which to grab bulky trunks of reality. She never did learn
to sound out words, as she usually learned the whole word
all together, but she learned to fake it for school.’
Kimberly De Vries

The author of the quote above talks about ‘faking phonics’. This child learned
to read by recognising whole words, relating to their overall shapes rather
than breaking them down into composite parts. It appears that the teacher
required her to use phonics, even though they didn’t make sense to her.
In MI terms, the child in the above quote probably had a highly developed
spatial intelligence. If this had been recognised, her natural abilities to think
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60 Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths

spatially could have been harnessed in a variety of subjects, resulting in much

more meaningful and easier learning. The pressure to conform may mean we
are sometimes tempted to ‘fake’ the required response.
Why not discuss multiple intelligences with your tutor? A great deal has been
written for teachers and educators about using multiple intelligences in the class-
room. You may find some of your classes and projects are designed to address
all intelligences. If so, look out for new ideas and approaches you can use.

LOOKING AHEAD

When you come to choosing your career, you may find it

useful to consider whether your multiple intelligence
profile matches the requirements of the job. Many adults
are in jobs they don’t particularly like. In many cases
they’ve drifted into their careers because they were good at
a particular subject at school. Take a look at the jobs listed
in table 3.1. Which intelligences do you think they rely on?
Go back to figure 3.4 and look at your natural strengths. If
you can find a job that interests you and relies on your MI
strengths, there is a better chance that you will achieve both
success and fulfilment.

Table 3.1 Applying Multiple Intelligences to career choices

Job Intelligences used

Accountant
Actor
Administrator
Architect
Fireman
Journalist
Lawyer
Mechanic
Sales manager
Sculptor
Taxonomist
Translator
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Multiple Intelligences: Using All Your Strengths 61

SUMMARY

Competent students use their Multiple Intelligences wisely:

hs to
rengt
e y o ur st ly:
Us se
se wi
choo ignments ues
Ass chniq
ory te
Mem ter 7)
(chap ter 8)
(chap
taking s
Note- ice
r cho
ngths Caree
r stre
entify you sses
Id e
eakn .4
and w ure 3
it fig our
R e v i s lop y
IDAS Deve nesses: e
the M wea k of th .3
Take ssment ome 3
asse Use s in figure
ideas

Figure 3.10 Competent students use their multiple intelligences wisely

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4 Learning Preferences

KEY POINTS

We all have different preferences in the way we like to take in, store
and retrieve information

Learning about your own learning style preferences has many benefits

There are lots of ways to approach any task, and different tasks may
benefit from different approaches

No learning style preference is better than any other

Looking ahead, you can apply your knowledge of learning styles at work

WHAT ARE LEARNING STYLES?

There is a lot of confusion in the literature about what exactly a learning

style is and isn’t. Learning styles are concerned with how you prefer to learn,
and we don’t all have the same approach. While we don’t yet have ‘the’ answer
to ‘How do people learn’, we do know that ‘learning’ is ‘learnable’.
Have you ever set up a gadget (new DVD player
or video recorder perhaps) with someone who has
a completely different approach? If your friend or
partner needs to read the manual from cover to
cover before doing anything, and you just want to
press the buttons to see what happens, you might
find things get a bit tetchy. This may simply reflect the fact that you and
your partner have different learning styles.
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Learning Preferences 63
Although the evidence is not conclusive, it seems that some of our learn-
ing style preferences may be relatively stable over time and across situations,
while others seem to be shaped by our experiences and the particular
circumstances of the moment.
Sometimes we fall into the trap of believing our own approach is ‘the best
way’, when what we really mean is that it’s the best way for us! In reality, many
different approaches can work. Ultimately, we hope this chapter will help you
recognise that you have choices in the way that you approach any task.
If you want to know why it’s important to understand your learning style
preferences and the range of ways other people learn, here are eight good
reasons:

1. Awareness of different learning styles can help you improve your grades
or results, and the good news is that simply reading this chapter can help
you! Reflecting on the ideas presented here, and trying to see how they
apply in different situations will help you even more.
2. You can use your knowledge of your preferred learning styles to decide
on the suitability of distance learning or an e-learning course. As with
classroom-based courses, you’re likely to do better when the material is
presented in a style that matches your preference.
3. There is some evidence to suggest you may do better on courses where
there is a match between your learning style and that of your teacher.
You may not do so well if your learning styles are mismatched, and the
material is not presented in ways that accommodate different learning
styles. So, if you’re not doing very well in a subject you love, and are
tempted to drop the subject, bear in mind that you may be suffering from
a mismatch of styles, not a lack of ability or potential!
4. You can apply learning-style theory to group-work: you can select roles
which provide the best ‘fit’ for your strengths and preferences, and an
understanding of individual differences can lead to greater tolerance,
decreased conflict, improved teamwork and greater productivity.
5. Awareness of what ‘works for you’ and ‘why it works’ can help you make
the best use of existing support (in tutorials, coaching or mentoring sessions)
and help you clarify any need for additional support or information.
6. How you do in tests and assessments may depend on your learning-style
preference and the type of assessment given, as well as your knowledge
and ability.
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64 Learning Preferences

7. You can improve the effectiveness of your communication. We tend to

present information in the way we prefer to receive it. If you learn what
this means for people who have learning styles that are different from
yours, and accommodate them, your communication is likely to be more
effective. So learning styles are relevant to all kinds of projects and assign-
ments – both as a student and later in the workplace.
8. Some jobs and working environments are more suited to certain learning
styles, so you can make your working life more productive by choosing
work environments where there is a natural fit with your learning styles.

‘I propose that the single most important and

yet simple thing a teacher or parent can do for
students is to give them the knowledge of what
their learning style is and how to use it . . . When
individuals understand more about themselves,
they are able to produce at higher levels.’
Dr Lynn O’Brien

Because we all have a unique combination of talents, intelligences, learning

styles and experiences, we bring slightly different perspectives to a situation or
problem . . . so, as you read through this chapter, do keep in mind that each of
these frameworks are only useful to the extent that they help you. And for
each framework, we believe that the greater your natural bias towards one
style, the more valuable it will be for you to learn about the other styles, and
the greater the potential benefits from developing your less preferred styles.

LEARNING-STYLE FRAMEWORKS

Learning styles is a pretty big topic, and not surprisingly, lots of people have
come up with their own models, which can get a bit confusing. Smith (1984)
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Learning Preferences 65

DANGER!

Avoid the temptation to regard the result of any learning

style assessment as definitive. Resist the temptation to latch
on to any one model, and be aware of the limitations of
each model/framework. Remember, there is no one frame-
work or model that adequately covers all the different ways
we learn. Regard this chapter as a starting point to think-
ing about how you learn, rather than an end point.

tabulated at least 17 learning-style inventories! Coffield et al. (2004a and

2004b) have just finished an 18-month project researching learning-style frame-
works: they uncovered over 50 different frameworks in current use, and inves-
tigated 13 of the most influential models in detail. The quality of research
underpinning the models is variable, and there are still large gaps in what
we know. We’ve chosen four of the better known frameworks to discuss here,
and they are outlined in Figure 4.1.

Visual

Auditory Dilts Pask Top down/Holists/Global/Big picture

Kinaesthetic Bottum up/Serialists/Sequential/Detail

Tactile (Prashnig)
Learning Styles
Diverger Activist
Honey &
Assimilator Kolb Mumford Reflector

Converger Theorist

Accommodator Pragmatist

Figure 4.1 Learning-style frameworks

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66 Learning Preferences

‘TOP DOWN’ OR ‘BOTTOM UP’?

‘Top Down’ learners, sometimes referred

to as Holist or Global learners, like to
establish higher-ordered relationships and
conceptualise the overall picture, rather
than concentrate on the detail at any
level. Holists may appear to have a ‘scat-
tergun’ or ‘globetrotting’ approach to
information and they like to make multi-
discipline and multi-layered connections.
‘Bottom up’ learners are sometimes
referred to as Serialist or Sequential
learners. They like well-defined, ordered
chunks of information presented in a
linear sequence. They prefer to work
through a framework step-by-step, concentrating on the details before con-
ceptualizing the overall picture.

What’s your preference?

What sort of approach have you taken with this book?

• Are you reading each page in sequence, each chapter in turn (a bottom-up
approach), or have you dipped in and out, looking for snippets that help
you build and expand your ideas in a range of related areas (a top-down
approach)?
• Did you look at the mindmaps to understand the ‘big picture’ before you
began reading, or would you prefer to study them more closely once you’ve
read the text?
• Do you prefer to write essays that are full of detail (a bottom-up approach)
or that explore connections, relationships and ideas (a top-down approach)?
• Do you prefer courses where the information is presented lesson by lesson
in a well-structured hierarchy, with lots of detail (a bottom-up approach)
or do you prefer ‘big picture’ overviews, with high-level information and
anecdotes relating to other fields (a top-down approach)?
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Learning Preferences 67

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘Economics was my favourite subject at school, and I always

found it very easy. I was quite shocked when I didn’t do very
well on my introductory course at Uni, and almost changed my
major. I realise now that I’m a bottom-up, detail-person, and
my tutor is definitely a top-down person, who finds all the detail
quite irritating. Now I understand this, I structure my essays
and assignments differently, and I always do a final edit to pare
down the level of detail. My grades are much better, and my self-
confidence has returned. I’m so relieved I didn’t change my major!’

How can I use this information?

Because we tend to present information in the way that we like to learn our-
selves, the majority of science, maths and computer courses are taught in a
sequential, bottom-up – manner which can be difficult if you’re a ‘top-down’
or global learner. You could try asking lots of ‘What if’ questions as the answers
may help you to build a broader picture of the subject matter, relating the
detail to other wider concepts.
If you’re a bottom-up learner being presented with information in a
top-down way, you could try asking for a variety of very specific, detailed
examples to illustrate the broader concepts.

‘To deal with any situation successfully,

you need to know yourself and how to handle
your weaknesses; You also need to know
your style and how to utilise your strengths.’
B. Prashnig
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68 Learning Preferences

What’s next

As we’ve already said, this is only one of a number of learning style frame-
works and this distinction may not resonate with everyone: learners who
flex effortlessly between top-down and bottom-up approaches may not find
this particular distinction very helpful. So let’s look at some of the other
frameworks. . . .

HONEY & MUMFORD’S LEARNING STYLES

Honey and Mumford (1982) suggested there are four different learning styles,
which they call activist, reflector, theorist, and pragmatist.

TRY THIS

To give you a very general idea of your preferences, answer the

questions below. If you answer yes to three or four of the questions in
any one section, you probably prefer that learning style (at least some
of the time).

Theorist

Do you learn well: Yes No

• from situations where you need to think


things through?
• from complex situations (e.g. business


games) that last a long time?
• from models and theories?


• in interesting situations, even if they’re


not directly relevant?
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Learning Preferences 69

Activist

Do you learn well: Yes No

• from new experiences and hands-on


activities?
• through role play and business games?


• in situations which are exciting and full


of drama?
• when you’re ‘thrown in at the deep end’?

Pragmatist

Do you learn well: Yes No

• from exercises with an explicit or


obvious link to your work?
• from practical, relevant activities?


• in situations when implementing the


learning is important?
• by drawing up ‘action plans’?

Reflector

Do you learn well: Yes No

• from activities where you can observe


other people first?
• when you’ve sufficient time to think


things through?
• from activities where you’re not told


exactly what to do?
• by discussing ideas with other people?


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70 Learning Preferences

DANGER!

In any team or project, the Theorists and Reflectors (or

assimilators) are likely to take more time at every stage
than the Activists or Pragmatists are happy with. Unless
this is acknowledged and managed in a supportive way, it
can lead to increasing conflict as the project progresses.

Practical application: Information-searching skills

There is no published research supporting this model. However, it has been

used extensively over the years, and anecdotally, a lot of learners have found
it useful. Sheila O’Flynn (2003) worked with hundreds of scientists at
Unilever, helping them to improve their information-searching skills. She
observed a strong correlation between the way they approached (and con-
ducted) their information searches and their preferred learning styles. And
once the scientists become aware of their own learning styles, their search-
ing skills improved.
For most students, finding information efficiently is crucially important,
e.g. when making literature reviews, searching for material for term papers,
or simply for background reading. Broadly speaking, there are four stages
to any information search:

1. Question formulation or clarification of the information need.

2. The search itself.
3. The analysis of the search results.
4. The communication of findings.

So, let’s take a closer look at how you can apply Honey & Mumford’s learn-
ing styles to your information-searching skills.
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Learning Preferences 71

Do you recognise yourself in any of these descriptions?

The theorist

• Conducts very thorough literature searches, and likes to

re-read findings . . . just to be sure
• Enjoys deconstructing the question and analyses related
aspects and concepts
• Likes the detail about exactly how the syntax works in each database,
and often uses sophisticated syntax for searching, e.g. uses truncations
and wildcards
• Enjoys searching primary sources
• May be regarded by others as information experts, but once recognised
as such, may not be able to see their own gaps
• Analyses and assimilates lots of information and produces useful
generalisations
• May be reluctant to write up findings, especially if the analysis is not
completely finished
• Is sometimes inclined to communicate data rather than insights.

TOP TIPS FOR THEORISTS

• Recognise your tendency to delay coming to a conclu-

sion, and ‘keep on searching’. Avoid endlessly collect-
ing references.
• Learn to set clear deadlines for yourself about when to
stop searching – and stick to them!
• Practise submitting your results within tight deadlines,
even if the analysis isn’t as complete as you would like.
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72 Learning Preferences

The activist

• Prefers informal approaches to information-gathering

e.g. talks to the person down the hall, or by the cof-
fee machine. Adopts a ‘Phone a friend’ approach in
preference to a structured search methodology
• Tends to have excellent networks. Is sometimes
referred to as the ‘information gateway’
• Is likely to discuss the ‘problem’ with colleagues as a way of understanding it
• Is likely to dip into the most easily available relevant source (Google’s
‘Feeling Lucky’ button was developed for activists)
• Tends to avoid detail, and rarely reads documentation e.g. ‘Help’ or ‘FAQ’
• Is reluctant to search multiple sources
• Prefers simple models that capture key ideas in an accessible form
• Is often impatient with conflicting data
• Is excellent at communicating progress and findings through their networks
• Often postpones writing up a report, and when they finally get round to
it, they often have a minimalist approach to detail and documentation e.g.
references and data.

TOP TIPS FOR ACTIVISTS

• Learn how to clarify your information need when there is

no-one to talk to (for example, playing with synonyms, and
spend more time identifying key words for the search).
• Don’t read a broad overview and accept it as definite.
• Avoid one-stop shopping: Make sure you search multiple
sources.
• Learn how to search key databases effectively: do the
online training session, read the ‘Help’ and ‘FAQ’, or
ask a librarian or information expert to show you.
• When communicating the results of your search, pay
attention to the context and provide detail in the way
of references and data.
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Learning Preferences 73

DANGER!

Activists can talk very convincingly about how thorough

their search was . . . which is true by their standards. They
are often unaware of the limitations of their searching meth-
ods. This is a potential danger for ‘activist journalists’, for
example.

The pragmatist

• Tends to be very focused on ‘getting something done’, is

very keen to get started and will probably pick the keywords
very quickly, with minimal thought
• Is likely to eliminate extraneous concepts or aspects to keep
the question manageable
• Will focus on solving a problem rather than developing or complicating it
• Likes to have a master set of search terms to be used across all sources
rather than develop a search for each source separately
• Adopts a very pragmatic approach e.g. uses databases which are readily
available rather than those which may be most suitable
• Tends to focus on secondary sources (summaries and encapsulations of
knowledge), and is often reluctant to delve into primary literature to confirm
or question ‘perceived wisdom’
• Isn’t usually concerned with the detail underlying search syntax
• Is likely to finish the write-up, but the reports tend to be very short and
to the point. Often reports are not contextualised and may not have a very
full list of references.
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74 Learning Preferences

TOP TIPS FOR PRAGMATISTS

• Recognise your tendency to ‘speed’ through each stage

of the search process, and consider whether more time
might enhance the quality of results.
• Spend more time defining your information need, and
exploring alternative search words.
• Consider developing and complicating a problem before
you move into ‘solution’ mode.
• Learn to recognise when primary sources are appro-
priate and learn to use them.
• Avoid drawing conclusions based on insufficient
information.
• When you are presenting the results of your search, think
about what might be relevant in the future – not just
what’s relevant now.

The reflector

• Is likely to analyse the question thoroughly and is

usually able to ‘distil the essence’ of the problem into
a well-formulated question
• Doesn’t rush to start a search. Usually takes time to
assimilate what is known first
• Easily resists the temptation to use a source just
because it’s convenient. Usually tries to understand the
resources being used
• Uses secondary sources effectively to establish what is known, and then
uses primary sources to complete the picture
• Is usually very good at structuring the results of the search
• Will not rush the analysis
• Is usually happy to write up a detailed analysis and report, but may resist
producing simple or generalised versions.
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Learning Preferences 75

TOP TIPS FOR REFLECTORS

• You may have difficulty meeting deadlines, because

of your preference for thoroughness. Consider whether
reducing the time spent will really impact on the
quality of the results.
• Recognise when it is sufficient to review secondary
sources and avoid the temptation to delve into primary
sources unless the ‘problem’ specifically warrants it.
• Practise producing simplified or generalised summaries
e.g. ‘executive reports’ – even if they seem over-simplified
to you!

VAKT (VISUAL, AUDITORY, KINAESTHETIC, TACTILE)

LEARNING-STYLE FRAMEWORK

Robert Dilts developed another approach to learning styles, which evolved from
the observation that we have different sensory preferences for receiving,
processing and using information. Dilt’s original model (and the one most
often referred to), suggests people differ in their preferences for visual (V),
auditory (A) and/or kinaethestic (K) information. More recently, Prashnig
has argued for a distinction between kinaesthetic (K) and tactile (T) learn-
ers, because, although frequently the preferences for ‘whole-body learning’
and ‘touch learning’ are linked, they can be completely independent.
To give you an idea of your sensory preferences, answer the following ques-
tions and add up the number of V, A, K and T ‘preferences.’
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76 Learning Preferences

VAKT
Yes preference

1. I can clearly picture things in my head. V

2. My notes have lots of pictures, graphs etc. in them. V
3. In a test, I can ‘see’ the textbook page and the correct V
answer on it.
4. When reading, I listen to the words in my head or read aloud. A
5. I’d rather listen to a tape than have to read it in a book. A
6. I talk to myself when I’m problem-solving or writing. A
7. I can concentrate better when music is playing K
8. My desk and cupboards look disorganized. K
9. I like to move around when I’m studying; it helps me think. K
10. Doodling helps me to concentrate. T/V
11. I like to play with pens and other objects when I’m thinking. T
12. When choosing clothes, the ‘feel’ of the fabric is most T
important.

We know that babies rely very heavily on touch to explore their world, and
a significant proportion of primary school children have a ‘kinaesthetic’
preference. In most primary schools, the teaching methods accommodate
kinaesthetic and touch-dependent learners. By contrast, many secondary
schools rely almost exclusively on visual and auditory methods, and tertiary
institutions rely predominantly on auditory teaching methods. The situation
is changing, but it is still true that in general, kinaesthetic and tactile learn-
ers are disadvantaged in traditional higher education.
You may come across the widely quoted figures that 65 per cent of the
population are visual learners, 30 per cent are auditory and 5 per cent are
kinaesthetic. However, the situation is more complex than these figures
suggest. For example, published figures indicate that the proportion of
adults and secondary school children with K/T preferences in New Zealand
is much higher than in the US (Prashnig 1998). It is interesting to reflect
on whether our ‘don’t touch’ cultures might result in adults repressing their
tactile learning-style preference for more acceptable visual and auditory
ones, and, if this is happening, what effect might this have on overall learn-
ing effectiveness.
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Learning Preferences 77

Visual learners

Visual learners relate most effectively to written information,

notes, diagrams and pictures. Typically they will be unhappy
with a presentation where they are unable to take detailed notes
– to an extent information does not exist for a visual learner unless it has
been seen written down. This is why some visual learners will take notes even
when they have printed course notes on the desk in front of them. Visual learn-
ers will tend to be most effective in written communication, symbol manip-
ulation, and so on.

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

• In lectures and presentations, try sitting furthest from the door and
window and toward the front of the class, if possible. Look at the person
while he or she is talking, to help you to stay focused. Ask a teacher to
explain something again when you don’t understand a point being made.
Ask to borrow the tutor’s notes to fill in any gaps in your own notes.
• When you’re taking notes and revising, write things down, even if you
are given handouts, because you remember them better that way (quotes,
lists, dates, etc.). Use colour to highlight the main ideas in your notes,
textbooks, handouts, etc. Experiment with mindmaps, picture notes and
symbols (see chapter 8). Many visual learners study better by themselves,
in a quiet place. However, you might want to experiment with music,
especially if you’re studying maths, or mathematically related topics.

Auditory learners

Auditory learners relate most effectively to the spoken word. They

will tend to listen to a lecture, and then take notes afterwards,
or rely on printed notes. Often information written down will have
little meaning until it has been heard – it may help auditory
learners to read written information out loud. Auditory learners
may be sophisticated speakers, and may specialise effectively in subjects like
law or politics.
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78 Learning Preferences

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

Try studying with a friend so you can talk to each other and hear the infor-
mation. Recite things you want to remember out loud (quotes, lists, dates,
etc.). Ask your lecturers if you can give an oral report instead of written work.
Make tape cassettes of classroom lectures, or read class notes onto a tape,
and then listen to the tape to revise. Read aloud whenever possible.

Kinaesthetic learners

Kinaesthetic learners learn effectively through whole-body

movement, and learn skills by imitation and practice. Adult
kinaesthetic learners are frequently forced to deal with infor-
mation that is not presented in a manner that suits them.

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

You learn best by doing, moving, or hands-on experiences, and may find it
difficult to concentrate when sitting still. In some formal lectures, it may be
possible to stand at the back, and perhaps pace a few steps. It may be help-
ful to explain to your tutor that this will help you to concentrate. If it is not
possible to stand or move around, you could try crossing your legs and bounce
or jiggle the foot that is off the floor.
When memorising information, try writing the information in the air or on
a desk or carpet with your finger. Picture the words in your head as you do
this. Later, when trying to recall this information, close your eyes and recall
how you wrote the word in the air. Try pacing or walking around while recit-
ing to yourself or looking at a list or index card. Or mentally review con-
cepts while cycling/running. Find a ‘study partner’ who also likes being active
when reviewing material. e.g. throw/kick a ball to each other, the thrower
asks a question for the recipient to answer. If you have a stationary bicycle,
try reading while pedalling. Some bicycle shops sell reading racks that will
attach to the handlebars and hold your book.
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Learning Preferences 79

Tactile learners

Touch-dominant learners find that tactile sensations help

them to concentrate. They find it difficult to keep their hands
still and have a strong desire to explore shapes and tex-
tures, for example by touching sculptures. The way something feels is more
important that how it looks.

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

• If you are asked to watch a demonstration, or slide show, volunteer to
‘help’ with the set-up. Perhaps you could explain to your tutor that you
are a ‘touch-dependent’ learner, and ask them to help identify appro-
priate hands-on opportunities for you.
• If you use index cards for notes and revision, perhaps try ways of mak-
ing them ‘feel’ different, for example using pinking shears, or embossing
tools. You can also try and link information mentally to the feel of
different materials.
• If you are in a formal classroom setting, try keeping a stress ball, or ‘bean
bag’ toy in your pocket to ‘play with’ unobtrusively.

‘We might lose any of one or more of

the other senses – sight, hearing, smell,
for instance – but to lose an ability to feel,
that is, touch, is to lose all sense of being
in a world, and fundamentally of being
at all.’
Paul Rodaway
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80 Learning Preferences

DANGER!

Be aware that for some people this type of ‘tactile play’ is dis-
tracting and reduces their concentration. If you’re not sure about
your preference, try it and see . . . but be honest with yourself
if you find tactile toys simply provide relief when you’re bored!

KOLB’S LEARNING STYLES

Kolb’s (1984) theory of experiential learning is widely used today, and is

based on the premise that learning is a cyclical process, with four phases,
colloquially known as watching, thinking, doing and feeling. These phases are
based on two dimensions: a) active versus reflective information-processing,
and b) concrete or abstract perceptions. These two dimensions are divided
into quadrants, which form Kolb’s learning styles (accomodator, diverger,
assimilator and converger), as shown in figure 4.2.

Concrete Experience
Feeling

Accommodator
Diverger

Converger
Active Experimentation Assimilator Reflective Observation
Doing Watching

Abstract Conceptualisation
Thinking

Figure 4.2 Kolb’s learning styles

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Learning Preferences 81
The take-home message is that if you become proficient at learning
throughout the cycle, and can flex between all four learning styles, you will
be a much more effective ‘learner’ – which is obviously a good thing! Like
all models, this is probably over-simplified, and it is debatable whether all
learning goes through the full cycle – and indeed, all learning may not
be cyclical – but the framework is widely used because many people find it
helpful.
See if you recognise yourself based on these descriptions of the learning
styles.

• Divergers tend to conceptualize things in concrete terms and process in-

formation reflectively. They enjoy situations that call for generating a wide
range of ideas e.g. brainstorming sessions, tend to have broad cultural
interests and like to gather information, are able to view concrete sit-
uations from a variety of viewpoints and generally observe situations first
before taking action.
In terms of instructional situations, these learners prefer situations
that allow them to observe, such as lectures or reading, and that provide
concrete examples.
• Assimilators rely on abstract concepts and use reflective processing. They
are able to take a wide range of information and put it into concise,
logical form, are often less focused on people and more interested in abstract
ideas and concepts and generally find it more important that a theory has
logical soundness than practical value.
In an instructional situation, they prefer instruction that is organised and
structured; they enjoy reading and developing theories, and probably enjoy
keeping a learning log or journal.
• Accommodators rely on the concrete concepts, but are active processors.
In solving problems, they tend to act on ‘gut’ feelings rather than on
logical analysis, and usually rely more heavily on people for information
than on their own technical skills.
In instructional situations, these learners enjoy fieldwork and prefer
learning from ‘hands-on’ experiences.
• Convergers also use abstractions, but are active processors of the infor-
mation. These individuals are able to find practical uses for ideas and
theories. They tend to be problem-solvers and make decisions based
on finding solutions to questions or problems, and would rather deal with
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82 Learning Preferences

technical tasks and problems than with the social and interpersonal
issues.
They prefer instructional settings that have practical application and
allow them to solve problems.

TOP TIP

Students who can flex between all of the learning styles will
have a definite advantage. Anecdotally, we know it is hard
to change your learning style preferences, but awareness
and practice are the key ingredients!
Think about how you typically go about learning some-
thing, for example, how to use a new piece of software. Make
a note of your learning style preference(s) for this task, and
decide to try a different approach next time (see figure 4.3).

earning a new software package

Accommodator Diverger
Have a go – trust your instincts Read the manual thoroughly

Converger Assimilator
Try and break the software – Work through the functionality
then figure out how to fix it! logically and keep notes

Figure 4.3 Learning a new software package

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Learning Preferences 83

LOOKING AHEAD

Cook (in press) discusses that although the research

suggests that the natural science curriculum (medicine,
biology, physical science and mathematics) favours convergers
and assimilators, half the students in these majors are
pursuing disciplines where their learning style is not pre-
ferred . . . and goes on to suggests that:

‘perhaps the large proportion of students who drop out of

biology and premed/dental programs are mismatched with
the desired learning styles of the professions they are
entering.’

Loo (2002) used the Kolb framework to look at learn-

ing styles of several hundred hard and soft business
majors. He found that the 4 styles were equally represented
among the ‘soft’ majors, but among the hard majors, there
was a significantly higher proportion of ‘assimilators’, and
lower proportion of accomodators and divergers.
So, this suggests that there may be a ‘fit’ between cer-
tain learning styles and some disciplines and professions . . .
and you might want to use this to inform your career choices!

Q. How are learning styles different from intelligences?

A. People often confuse learning styles and intelligences. A useful indication
of whether something is a style or an intelligence, is to ask yourself whether
‘more is always better’. If it is, then it is probably an intelligence. If it
depends, then it is probably a learning style, because each learning style
has advantages in certain situations, and there isn’t one style which is
‘better’ overall or ‘more desirable’ than the others.
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84 Learning Preferences

TRY THIS

Can you see any overlap between the different frameworks we’ve
presented here?
Which ones make the most intuitive sense to you?
Jot down your ideas here:

SUMMARY

• People prefer to receive and process information in many different

ways
• Unlike intelligences, learning styles are about ‘fit’. Each style has
advantages in different settings
• Finding out about your own learning-style preferences can help
to use your natural strengths to improve your performance
• Understanding learning styles can help you to respect individual
differences and capitalise on the strengths of each learning style
• You can apply your knowledge of learning styles in the workplace.
TSSC05 5/9/06 8:40 Page 85

5 Working with others

KEY POINTS

Working successfully with others is an increasingly important student skill

Group-work presents different challenges from those of individual study

At least four areas contribute to successful group-work: goal focus, roles,
processes and interactions

On-line group activities raise some different issues than face-to-face
activities

Others can help you to become a successful learner

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we consider some benefits and challenges of working

as a team before exploring five areas that contribute to project
success. These are shown in figure 5.1 (overleaf).
After this we look at some of the unique challenges that online groups
face, and we’ll finish by exploring some of the ways others can help
you to learn successfully.
In recent years the purpose of further and higher education has been
increasingly under the spotlight. One outcome of this scrutiny has been
the introduction of terms such as ‘key skills’, and ‘employability skills’.
The UK Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) has
identified ‘working with others’ as a key ‘employability skill’ and if we
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86 Working with others

3
Development
s Page 95 In
2 role te 4
p 1 Pa rac
ou e 9 ge tio
Gr Pag 98 ns

As ag
88 s
ge ocu

se e 1
Go 1

5 men 1
P
ss 0
Pa al f

t
Figure 5.1 Five factors that contribute to project success

combine this concept with the continued drive for student-centred

learning, rather than teacher-centred, then we reach:

Transferable people skills + Student-centred learning = Group-work

One differentiation between groups and teams is that teams are

supposed to have shared goals, whereas members of a group may have
different and sometimes conflicting goals.
Successful project work requires working as a team and is our focus
in this chapter. By group project we mean an assignment typically under-
taken by 6–10 students and usually extending over a period of several
weeks.
As a student you may encounter several other forms of group activity,
which vary in size, formality and duration, including:

• tutorials
• seminars
• classroom-based practical exercises, e.g. laboratory experiments, music
groups
• classroom-based small-group work, e.g. brainstorming exercises
• support groups.

Many of the issues we raise in the following sections apply to each

of these, even though in tutorials or seminars, for example, individuals
may have different goals.
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Working with others 87

How do you feel about group-work?

How do you feel about working with others on joint projects? Does it gen-
erate feelings of excitement and enthusiasm or does it make you feel uneasy
and wish for an opportunity to work alone? In our experience, many students
are quite negative about group projects. Working alone means you have sole
responsibility for your learning and sometimes it may seem less efficient to
work with others. However, when group-work goes well, there are additional
rewards (Bourner et al. 2001, Mills 2003).

TRY THIS

Take some time now to identify the possible benefits and drawbacks of
undertaking a group project (see Table 5.1, overleaf).

Our list in Table 5.1 (overleaf) is pretty evenly balanced. What does your
list look like? With such a fine balance, what can you do to promote the benefits
and lessen the disadvantages? Let’s take a closer look at the five aspects of
group work that we referred to earlier.

1. GOAL FOCUS

The transformation from loose groups of individuals to effective teams takes

both time and skill (Sheard and Kakabadse 2002). In project work, every-
one must work together as an effective team. Drawing up a project plan or
management checklist near the start of the project helps to ensure that the
team:

• clarifies the team goal

• clarifies the amount of time and effort required
• clarifies and allocates specific responsibilities and tasks.
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88 Working with others

INTERESTING FINDING

McGuire and Edmondson (2001) analysed the evaluations of more

than 50 students who had participated in small group projects. 36
stated they would choose to work in a group for their next project, if the
choice was available. The main reason for opting out of group-work
was the desire to take individual responsibility for the grade achieved.
Only one student did not want to be involved in more group-work in
the future.

Table 5.1 Benefits and drawbacks of group assignments

Benefits of group assignments Drawbacks of group assignments

• Others can contribute different • There is a loss of personal control

knowledge and perspectives • Reliance on others who you may not
• You can allocate tasks according know or like
to the skills within the group • Group members may have different
• Working with others can increase standards, expectations and abilities
motivation • There is a danger of under-achieving
• You learn through the discussion unless everyone pulls their weight
and debate • Grading the project is more difficult
• Working with others can be • Project management is more difficult
a positive and fun experience • Not knowing everyone may preclude
• You can be more adventurous in how skill optimisation
you choose to tackle the assignment • Consensus decisions may be difficult
than you might be by yourself and time-consuming to reach
• Working in groups is a ‘real-life’ • Project management can become
skill! slow and unwieldy
• Group assignments provide an • Groups tend to make more ‘risky’
apportunity for socialising and for decisions than individuals
friendships to develop • There may be personality clashes
• Working with others can decrease
motivation
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Working with others 89

A well-designed project plan helps to keep everyone focused on the goal
and it provides a benchmark against which you can monitor progress.
A project plan typically involves a number of stages (see figure 5.2).
A project management checklist is a rational plan of action. Try to treat it
as a living document – refer to it often and be prepared to modify it as the
project develops.

Considerations
Agree the project How flexible are the project guidelines?
aims and objectives Does everyone agree the aims and objectives?
Are the outcomes SMART – see chapter 00?

Agree the work/tasks What activities will the project involve?

involved What is essential? Are any ‘nice to have’?

What skills and resources are needed? Who can offer these?
Allocate work – who Is the work fairly allocated?
does what? Are the boundaries between activities clearly defined
and non-overlapping?

Should the activities follow a specific order?

Task timings
How long will each activity take?

How often do you need to meet to review progress?

On-going monitoring Where and when?
How will you keep in touch between meetings?

How long should you allow to ‘pull it all together’?

Final review and report
What part will each person play in the written report
writing/presentation
or presentation?

Figure 5.2 Project management checklist

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90 Working with others

TOP TIP

Successful group work requires a balance between ‘good

people skills’ and ‘good project management’ skills. When
the two are brought together effectively, the experience is
likely to be enjoyable and productive. Are you and your group
considering both?

2. GROUP ROLES

Most people, if asked to form groups, will gravitate towards their friends. Is
that what you do? By doing this you remain within your ‘comfort zone’ – you
know and like the people you work with and you are aware of their skills.
Yet working with friends also brings some potential disadvantages, including:

• You may not have the best mix of people for the job – particularly if we
choose friends who are similar to ourselves
• As a group you may become too relaxed, easy going or uncritical
• You may waste time through chitchat and socialising rather than getting
on with the task
• There are fewer opportunities to develop your own people skills if you
always work with the same people
• Choosing your own team does not mimic many ‘real-life’ situations.

Student project teams tend to be either friendship groups, randomly allocated

teams (e.g. by allocating numbers in the classroom) or teacher allocated.
Belbin (2003) observed groups of managers attempting to solve specific
business problems and suggested that the most effective teams contain
people who, between them, are able to occupy nine different roles. Although
there may be a danger of over-emphasising the importance of roles, our
suggestion is to try and work with members’ role preferences whenever you
can. People tend to be more motivated when they are occupying a role they
enjoy, and it can be helpful to explore this during the planning stage when
the responsibilities are being assigned.
Each Belbin role has been associated with some distinct skills that con-
tribute positively to the group functioning and also some potential weaknesses
Table 5.2 Belbin’s nine roles

The nine identified roles and associated skills The nine identified roles and potential weaknesses

Plant: An imaginative problem-solver, the creative thinker who Plant: May disregard detail and not consider the practical
TSSC05 5/9/06 8:40 Page 91

looks at topics in a new way implications of new ideas

Co-ordinator: Clarifies issues, keeps everyone on target, confident Co-ordinator: May be seen as lazy, avoiding work or manipulating
and delegates the workload others, which may result in group tension
Monitor-evaluator: Considers all options, is pragmatic and shows Monitor-evaluator: May not be able to motivate others: appears
good judgment, evaluative and analytical dull and unexciting
Implementer: Practical – makes things happen. Organised and Implementer: Inflexible and may be resistant to new approaches or
efficient new ideas
Completer-finisher: Attends to detail, is conscientious and delivers Completer-finisher: May be anxious, ‘nagging’, nit-picking and
on time unwilling to delegate
Resource investigator: Enthusiastic, follows up new ideas and is Resource investigator: Liable to become bored and so lose interest
good at networking quickly
Teamworker: Perceptive, averts friction, listens, and manages Teamworker: Finds it difficult to make decisions, especially when
the emotional state of the team under pressure
Specialist: Single minded, provides scarce knowledge and is a Specialist: Contributes narrowly and may not be that interested in
self-starter team success
Shaper: Challenges ideas, works well under pressure, overcomes Shaper: Can be overbearing, bossy and impatient! May upset others
obstacles, and is good at prioritising
Working with others
91
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92 Working with others

(see table 5.2). In a well-performing team, individual members can moderate

their behaviours to prevent these weaknesses occurring. The table summarises
the best and worst of each role so it is really quite an ‘extreme’ summary.
Even so, can you see yourself in any of these simplified descriptions?
Groups with a concentration of mainly one role may experience problems
working together. How do you imagine a group of mainly plants would behave,
for example? It is likely to generate novel and imaginative ideas but the group
may struggle to evaluate them or implement actions!

INTERESTING FINDING

A study comparing the effectiveness of ‘mixed’ versus ‘shaper’ groups

found that although the shapers had more group interaction, they were
less likely to identity either the key objectives or the details that needed
to be addressed, or reach a consensus (Prichard & Stanton 1999).

These nine roles can be grouped together in different ways. Figure 5.3 shows
one way of doing this:

Mixing Acting
Resource- Implementer
investigator Completer-
Teamworker finisher

Thinking
Leading Plant
Co-ordinator Monitor-
Shaper evaluator
Specialist

Figure 5.3 Role groupings

They can also be grouped in other ways. For example, using Kolb’s Learning
Style Preferences (see page 80), you could group the roles into: Thinking (plant,
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Working with others 93

specialist, monitor-evaluator), Feeling (teamworker, and resource-investigator),
Watching (co-ordinator) and Doing (implementer and completer-finisher). The
important point is to consider role mix and balance when forming a group.
If you are interested in finding out your own preferred role(s) you could
ask whether your college or workplace has purchased rights to administer
the Belbin questionnaire – many have! There is also an official Belbin web-
site that you might want to look at.

DANGER!

A natural preference for a given role(s) is no guarantee

that the role will be performed well. Mental ability, values
and social skills also matter. The ideas generated by a plant,
for example, may not all be good ideas!

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

You can be comfortable in

more than one of the Belbin-
defined group roles – or you may have a strong tendency to occupy
just one of the roles.
You can improve your performance in roles that do not fit your
strongest tendencies through experience and effort.
You may feel unfulfilled if you are continually allocated to roles
that are not a natural fit.
A group is more than the sum of the parts. Some roles may sound
sexier than others, but without role balance then things are more
likely to go wrong.

Leadership

Leadership involves influencing the behaviours of others in order to reach a

mutual goal and is important to the success of any project. Two of the Belbin
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94 Working with others

roles are defined as ‘leadership roles’, and they complement each other: The
shaper leads through ‘direction and vision’ while the co-ordinator leads
through ‘guiding and delegation’. Other approaches to leadership have been
identified outside Belbin’s work (Adair 1989, Kouzes and Posner 2003).
How do you think the role of leader is best achieved? Do you think there
is a difference between leading and managing? Do you identify anyone as a
leader in your project groups? If so, what is their leadership style? What type
of leader would you be? Thinking about these issues now is useful not only
for your project work but also in the workplace. Did you know that many
organisations identify leadership training as their highest training priority?

3. GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Tuckman (1965) reviewed the empirical evidence and proposed that groups
typically pass through four different developmental stages. These are:

Stage 1 Forming

At this stage group members have just come together and are typically feel-
ing uncertain and anxious. They are probably seeking direction and clarity
about what is expected and conversation tends to be polite and neutral. Typically,
not much is achieved at this stage towards the project objectives.

Stage 2 Storming

During this stage members are clarifying roles and protocol within the group.
This may involve challenge, debate and discussion. Sub-groups may form and
there may be attempts to develop a ‘hierarchy’ within the group or to chal-
lenge the leader or leadership style. Typically this period involves a period
of tension or discomfort.

Stage 3 Norming

At this point all group members start to model the ‘agreed’ behaviours, which
paves the way for productive work. Accepted ways of working are established,
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Working with others 95

work gets under way and members begin to feel that they share a common
bond.

Stage 4 Performing

The group now focuses on the task in hand. Energy is directed at the goal
and not at internal disputes. Accepted but non-rigid patterns of working develop
and this is the most productive and industrious stage.

Sometimes people include a fifth stage, at the end of the task or when the
goal has been completed. It is called ‘Adjourning’ and is characterised by
emotion stemming from the sense of ‘moving on’.

TRY THIS

Think about some of the groups that you are involved with through
your study.

1. Do you recognise any of the processes described here?

2. What stage do you think each group is currently in?

Although other models of group development exist, the Tuckman model

has been widely utilised across a range of settings and types of research (Gersick
1988, Whelan 2003, Mackenzie 1997). It considers developmental stages
(rather than group functions) but has been criticised for not considering the
dimension of time. How well does this model match your own experiences
with groups?

How can I use this model?

Being alert to possible developmental stages may help your group pass
through them smoothly. For example:
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96 Working with others

• During the forming stage you can facilitate introductions, ice-breakers,

opportunities for social exchanges, goal clarification and ground rules (see
page 98).
• During the storming stage you might need to refer to the ‘ground rules’
to highlight acceptable behaviour and prevent personal attack.
• You might encourage everyone to take on an individual responsibility in
the norming stage, to help foster commitment and group cohesion.
• At the performing stage you can help maintain moti-
vation through regular contact with others, recog-
nition of effort and praise.
• At the adjourning stage you might suggest a group
celebration to mark successful completion or an
evaluation of the project in order to learn for the
future.

DANGER!

Be aware that the time spent at each stage can vary enor-
mously and that groups can return to earlier stages. For exam-
ple, if individuals leave or join the group the dynamics may
change, and the group may revert to storming or norming.
Real life is frequently messier than the model might suggest!

INTERESTING FINDING

It’s been suggested that just as individuals can participate in either ‘sur-
face’ or ‘deep’ level learning so the same applies to group work. Yan and
Kember (2004) found that some student groups tended to adopt the
strategy of ‘task’ focused surface learning (motivated by wanting an ‘easy
life’) while others used deeper learning (motivated by the desire for greater
understanding). ‘Surface’ groups copied material, swapped notes and tended
to revise together, while ‘deep’ groups discussed and shared ideas.
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Working with others 97

4. INTERACTIONS

The one thing that happens in all groups is that people interact with each
other, and as sections 2 and 3 demonstrate, there is plenty of potential
for misunderstandings and resentment in any group! The way that individual
members interact and express themselves is influenced by previous group
experiences, beliefs about group-work, cultural background and current
personal circumstances in addition to role preferences.

TRY THIS

What are some of the things you can do to help ensure that interac-
tions between individuals remain positive and constructive throughout
a group project?

Our suggestions include:

Ground rules

Draw up a set of ground rules at the beginning of a group project. These will
be rules that all members agree to adhere to and which might cover attitudes
and values as well as actual behaviours. For example:

• Attend all meetings, and be on time.

• Contribute to the overall project, in the way agreed.
• Listen to each other’s point of view.
• Respect each other’s point of view.
• Offer positive feedback and focus on ideas not personalities.
• Raise any dissatisfaction in the group, before reporting it to outsiders.

This may sound very formal, and group members sometimes view this as a
waste of time. So why take the time to do this? Agreed ground rules provide
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98 Working with others

a ‘safe’ way of moderating behaviour, as negative behaviours can be raised and

discussed in relation to the ground rules. They can save time in the long run.

Monitor behaviours

Give your ‘teamworker’ a break by monitoring:

Attendance issues

Are there any attendance behaviours that suggest the group is not functioning
effectively? Does anyone consistently fail to turn up for group meetings or con-
sistently fail to arrive on time? These may indicate that these people are, for
whatever reason, not committed to the group. It is usually better to discuss such
issues (respectfully) as they arise rather than risk unvoiced resentment.

Participation imbalance

Does everyone in the group participate in the discussion and decision-

making? Not everyone needs to say the same amount, but if one member is
dominating while another is staring out of the window, then the group may
be experiencing problems. Kline (1998) emphasises that the quality of think-
ing within groups will reflect how members treat each other. She stresses the
importance of listening with respect, treating everyone equally, honouring
boundaries and giving everyone time to speak free from interruption.

Energy levels

Does the group appear energetic and motivated or are people slumped and
looking bored? Is it time for a break? Is it time for a change of topic or a
new discussion? Is it time to call it a day and set a new meeting date?

Group factions

Is there one cohesive group or several subgroups? Successful groups demon-

strate interdependence, positive regard for all members and commitment to
the shared goal.
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Working with others 99

Group discomfort

Try listening not only to what is being said but also to what is not. Are there
any problems that everyone is aware of but nobody openly acknowledges?
Group discomfort may be the result of one person not performing or not
co-operating. Once again, the ground rules may help you raise this issue
safely.

TOP TIP

When considering how well your group is working, try

thinking about interactions at three different levels.

1. Firstly, consider the personal level. How are you inter-

acting with the group? What are you contributing and
offering?
2. Next, consider the interpersonal level. How do indi-
viduals within the group interact? Are there cliques or
factions?
3. Then consider the whole-group level. Is everyone
needed and is everyone playing a part in ensuring
group success?

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘The course I’m on involves a lot of group-work. At first

it really annoyed me but then I realised that my negativity
was making others feel uncomfortable. These days I make
more effort to feel enthusiastic and I think more about the
impact that I’m having on others in the group. Although I’d
still prefer to work by myself, I actually quite enjoy project
work now!’
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100 Working with others

5. ASSESSMENT

One of the challenges raised by project work is assessment. Some group pro-
jects may require you to rate your own performance, your peers’ performance
or both. Sometimes tutors award individual grades. Although each approach
raises different considerations, all require unambiguous assessment guidelines
that are applied consistently by everyone involved.

Self-assessment

Self-assessment removes you from the traditional ‘learner’ role and requires
you to appraise your own performance objectively. Some advantages of self-
assessed group work include:

• Knowing that you will subsequently be asked to assess your own con-
tribution may increase your commitment to the project.
• It can enhance the dialogue between students and tutors and foster more
productive meetings.
• Accurate self-assessment requires you to work out for yourself where you
have performed well and where further improvements can be made.
• It provides an introduction to the type of appraisal procedures that are
used in many work environments.

Effective self-assessment depends on high levels of self-awareness. Review

the section on intrapersonal intelligence (page 49) and see chapter 12 for
more on this.

INTERESTING FINDING

Contrary to what you might expect there is evidence that students can
be accurate self-assessors, awarding grades that correlate with tutor
grades (McDonald & Boud 2003, Stefani 1994).
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Working with others 101

Peer assessment

Peer assessment is frequently used in group situations, partly because

students are considered better placed than tutors to evaluate individual con-
tributions. Peer assessment may involve single or multiple assessors who
may or may not be anonymous.
The perceived benefits of peer appraisal are that it promotes personal account-
ability and encourages each team member to participate. On the down side
lies the danger that learners might use anonymous end-of-project appraisal
to punish any slackers (even though this tactic does not bode well for future
group experiences) or give overly generous face-to-face feedback (Brooks &
Ammons 2003, Norcini 2003). Try doing the following in order to maximise
the benefits of peer appraisal:

1. Don’t wait until the end of a project before giving feedback to others. If
there is a slacker in the group try to raise and discuss this problem early
on. And never use ‘anonymous’ feedback at the end of the project as an
excuse to ‘get even’.
2. Check that there is a common understanding across your team members
on how to apply the assessment criteria. Does this understanding match
your tutor’s expectations?
3. Consider carefully the language you use and how it might be interpreted.
4. Try to be fair and unbiased.
5. Do not do any ‘deals’ with fellow students!
6. Do not ignore areas where there could be improvement. Consider the words
of Solon: ‘In giving advice, seek to help, not please, your friend.’

LOOKING AHEAD

The ability to give and receive feedback without causing

distress, and to listen and react objectively is a hugely valu-
able skill. Many people don’t enjoy giving feedback
because it makes them feel uncomfortable and a common
workplace complaint is that managers don’t provide
enough feedback. As a group learner you have the oppor-
tunity to practise both giving and receiving feedback!
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102 Working with others

Tutor assessment

Individual assignments are entirely your own work

or at least they should be! In project assignments
individual contributions may not be identifiable –
even though every member is expected to have con-
tributed. Tutor assessment raises questions about
whether each person in the group receives the same grade or, if not, how are
individual grades calculated?
Individually graded projects often include an element of ‘built in’ self-
assessment such as:

• a reflective account of the project work and your own contributions

• a personal ‘interview’ to explore the project process and findings.

These are taken into account by the tutor when assessing.

INTERESTING FINDING

In a sample of 80 students Brindley and Scoffield (1998) found that

over half viewed assessment as solely a tutor role.
What’s your position? Why?

6. ONLINE GROUPS

We’ve discussed some issues that arise in face-to-face groups, yet this is not
the only way of undertaking group work. Today many students and employees
are involved with online or virtual groups and these pose some different benefits
and challenges. What would you say these are?
Here are some of the benefits of working in an online group:

• There is time to consider carefully your response to postings or queries

and because of this words can be selected more carefully than in speech.
• The physical appearance of team members cannot distract from the
content of the postings.
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Working with others 103

• All postings and dialogue can be saved for later reference.
• People can work when it suits them and accommodate their own bio-rhythms.
• No travel issues (transport availability, travel time or costs).
• May better suit students with physical disabilities than more traditional
modes of delivery.
• If well-facilitated, we have found that online environments encourage
greater honesty, both in terms of self-disclosure and providing feedback
to others.
• Online group work provides good preparation for many workplace
environments.

And here are some of the challenges of online group work:

• Members of online groups may need IT skills and technical confidence.

• Projects intended for face-to-face groups may not have been well-adapted
for online use.
• Communication can be particularly slow/frustrating if there are ‘laggards’
in the group.
• It is very easy to misinterpret the tone and intention of postings.
• Technology can fail!
• It takes longer to type than to talk, which may prevent full exposition of
ideas.
• Students and tutors are not always adequately prepared for this style of
working.
• There can be resistance if students are not used to this approach.
• Participants may feel isolated.

(Reed & Mitchell 2001, Hron & Friedrich 2003, Lockyer et al. 2001, Oliver
& Omari 2001, McFadzean & McKenzie 2001.)

So what are the implications of these benefits and challenges?

Much of what we’ve said about group-work so far still applies but you
need to consider these points in the context of virtual groups. Setting ground
rules, for example, remains good practice, although you may want to include
‘netiquette’ or the ‘online etiquette guide to good behaviour’.
Project sequencing, timings and individual activities must still be agreed
but now you need to take into account the lack of face-to-face contact and
possible asynchronous communications.
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104 Working with others

Group interactions should still be monitored. For example, is everyone in

the group contributing? If not does this signal disinterest in the topic, a refusal
to engage with the group, a period of considered thinking or something else entirely?
Salmon (2002) developed a five-stage model of online group development
and believes that virtual groups progress through the five stages: initial access,
early socialisation, information exchange, knowledge construction and broader
knowledge application. The moderator’s role is to facilitate this progression.

TOP TIP

If you are involved with an online group project our

advice is:

• Embrace the technology and ask for technical support

if you need it.
• Spend time on introductions and ‘getting to know you’
activities.
• Select your words very carefully – they may be all you have!
• If you write a response in a highly emotional state, always
wait a while before you post it!
• Ask yourself whether the project raises any additional
practical challenges that would not be found in a
face-to-face setting.
• Let group members know in advance if you will be
off-line for any period of time.
• Enjoy the opportunity it presents rather than grumbling
that it is different!

7. INVOLVING OTHERS

In this chapter we’ve focused on how to work successfully in groups towards

a common assignment. Yet there are probably many other people that you
can involve in your study both formally and informally. Who else could
contribute to your own learning success?
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Working with others 105

• parents?
• friends and siblings?
• partner?
• tutor or programme leader?
• employer?

How could they help you? Here are some of our ideas.

Parents/friends/partner/siblings could:
• proofread
• act as sounding boards for ideas
• critically appraise your work
• provide information
• provide emotional support
• offer practical help, e.g. cooking meals!
• act as role models
• pass on their experiences
• prevent interruptions, e.g. take phone messages.

Tutor/programme leader could:

• provide formal academic feedback
• help assess your strengths/weaknesses
• assist with topics that you are finding particularly tough
• provide additional academic support
• give advice on study skills/revision/examination technique
• provide information
• offer guidance on future options and how to fulfil them.

Employer could:
• provide feedback on your strengths/weaknesses in the workplace
• provide a character/work reference
• offer long-term career advice
• provide contacts and networking opportunities.

Success is rarely due to the efforts of one individual. Most successful

people recognise the contribution of others around them – those in their
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106 Working with others

direct team but also those in the wider groups. You probably have many
people willing to support and help you. Why not let them?

TRY THIS

Draw up a list of six people and brainstorm the ways that they might
help you with your learning.
What do you need to do to make this happen?
Are there also people that you can help?

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘When my employer gave me the opportunity to study for an

MBA I was determined to do well. I set the spare bedroom
up as an office and set aside four evenings a week for study.
The problem was that as soon as I shut the office door I shut
my wife out. She felt increasingly excluded. It took us a while,
but we finally found ways to share the experience, and our
relationship is much stronger.
She now reads all my essays – I’ve realised that you don’t
have to be a subject expert to spot grammatical errors or an
argument that doesn’t make sense – and she also helps with
my revision. I graduate in three months’ time and we like to
joke that it will be our MBA.’

SUMMARY

The mindmap on page 107 summarises the key terms in each section
of the chapter. Take a look and see if you can recall the points that
were raised by each.
 Let others help Involving others Clarify objectives

Give help Goal focus Agree management plan

New challenges Online groups Agree roles and responsibilities

TSSC05 5/9/06 8:40 Page 107

Previous areas still apply Agree meetings and review process

Self-assessed Co-ordinator
Assessments
Peer-assessed Working with others Shaper

Tutor assessed Team worker

Resource-investigator
Set ground rules Group roles
Interactions
Plant
Monitor behaviours Belbin’s 9 roles
Development
Implementer
Raise issues sooner Forming
rather than later
Monitor-evaluator
Storming
Completer-finisher
Norming
Specialist
Performing

Figure 5.4 Working with others

Working with others
107
TSSC06 5/9/06 15:03 Page 108

6 Reading Techniques

KEY POINTS

Effective readers clarify their purpose before beginning to read

There are lots of different reading techniques

This chapter looks at scanning, skimming, focussed reading, speed read-
ing and quantum reading

Effective readers can use a range of techniques

Effective readers choose the most appropriate technique for their purpose

INTRODUCTION

Before you read the next paragraph, consider the following statement
carefully, and decide whether you agree with it. (Hint: this could be a
trick question – so don’t take it too seriously).

Reading is an
important study skill.

We hope that you agree with the sentiment of the statement. (We believe
it is overwhelmingly true that being able to read is important for most
students on most courses. Pritchard et al., 1999). However, we asked
the question in this way to see whether you picked up on the idea that
reading is a single skill. We prefer to think of ‘reading’ as a generic
description that includes many different kinds of reading activities.
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Reading Techniques 109

Imagine someone told you that ‘moving’ is a single skill. Would you
agree the same skills are needed for both running and dancing? We
don’t! If you want to be good at both running and dancing you need
to develop both skill sets. The same is true for reading.
We believe that there is no such thing as a single optimal reading
strategy. Winograd and Johnson (1987) suggested that most of the
research around reading comprehension strategies was based on the false
assumption that there is a single optimal reading strategy. The evidence
supporting the value of different reading strategies is growing
(Magliano et al. 1999, McCutchen et al. 1997, Lorch et al. 1993).
To be an effective and efficient reader, you’ll need to master several
different reading techniques and learn when to apply them. We’ve divided
this chapter into six sections. The first section (below) helps you
to clarify your purpose. The next three sections explore the three
key reading techniques (scanning, page 111, skimming, page 113, and
focused reading, page 114). The fifth section (page 117) covers speed
reading and quantum reading, and the final section (page 126) looks
at choosing the right technique for your purpose.

1. CLARIFY YOUR PURPOSE

Step 1. Before you do anything else, think about exactly what you’re trying
to do – in other words, clarify your purpose. This is an essential first step be-
fore deciding what you need to read and which type of reading strategy to employ.
There is a list of general questions in the activity below which you can use
to help you to clarify your purpose for most reading assignments:

TRY THIS:
PRE-READING ACTIVITY
1. What do I need to know?
• What do I already know about the topic?
• Why do I want more information?
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110 Reading Techniques

• How do I want to extend my knowledge?

• Where are my information gaps?

2. Where can I find the information?

• Is the information source readily available (e.g. reading list)
• Do I need to select a book from several choices?
• Do I need to do a literature search?
• Do I need primary or secondary sources?
• Are my Information Literacy skills up to the task? (see ‘Top
Tip’ below).

3. What, exactly, do I want from this material?

• Find a specific fact or figure
• Identify a person’s point of view on a particular subject
• To clarify a particular concept
• Evaluate the evidence for a particular point of view.

4. How quickly can I find what I need?

• How important is the task?
• How much time do I have?
• How much time do I want to give?

5. Will I need to recall the information in future?

• If so – what actions will I take to help my recall?
(See also chapters on note-taking and memory.)

TOP TIP

We recommend that you learn how to conduct effective

literature searches. It’s a key skill which we touched on in
chapter 3. Most colleges and universities offer courses and
tutorials for developing online searching skills. Why not
have a word with your tutors or librarian and see what’s
available?
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Reading Techniques 111

2. SCANNING

When you don’t have a lot of time, and you need to find a specific piece of
information fast, try ‘scanning’. Usually, you’ll have a clear sense of purpose
and can identify the key word or words very easily.
When you begin your scan, rather than reading every word, simply move
your eyes over the content very quickly, trying to locate keywords. Once you
find a keyword, stop and read the sentence or paragraph around it. If this
meets your needs, don’t read or scan any more. If it doesn’t meet your needs,
continue to scan the rest of the content.
We ‘filter out’ most of our incoming sensory information, so most of it never
enters our consciousness. But when something is important, we tend to notice
it. Have you ever noticed how you can suddenly hear your name in a crowded
room, even though there might be dozens of conversations going on at the same
time? Because our name is important to us, our filtering system lets this through.
Scanning for information works well when you know what it is you’re
looking for. In other words, you need to have a clear focus. This may be a
person’s name, or a number or date, or even a location. The clearer your
focus, the more successful your scan is likely to be.

TRY THESE ABC ACTIVITIES NOW

A Focus: We receive a lot of sensory information, and our ‘focus’ helps

us decide what to pay attention to. This is equally true when we’re
driving, shopping and skim reading. We tend to notice information that
is relevant. So it’s really helpful to take a few moments and be explicit
about your focus before you start to skim read.
Give yourself three minutes to look around the room now and notice
all the red items in the room. Once your time is up, turn to the end of
this chapter for your next instructions (page 129).

B Scanning: Now turn to pages 24–6, and see how quickly you can
find how many hours it takes without sleep before there’s a significant
reduction in cognitive performance.
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112 Reading Techniques

Think about and reflect on your experience (if you’re not a natural
reflector, see chapter 3):
• Were you surprised by your time?
• How easy did you find it to ‘scan’ the material without reading for
content?
• When you found the figure (18.25 hours) did you read the whole
sentence for meaning?
• Did you stop as soon as you found the information, or did you con-
tinue to scan?
C Scanning for dates: Now, try scanning this nonsense text below. There
are three dates (month and year). See how quickly you can locate them.
Ghst bnretiu tthxucp thref ffghfgh mkiul se wdartvcx os pqqmwk
xosle mn m daoo yej dilc dishtenavy hio awia nuct dc, zi jcm-
skdiokmcd nj. Th slkd co dksk Nov 1997 sdf mkoi ploi ju
mxmxnc. E asi uw sdm. Lpoti thso SHDH bnbi jsbr upi yjpihjy
ehst, ohjy nr dsuomh? Mpy s htrsy vpfr.
Nfmspof iio Slitzer Nizel w djka ewpll aqw. Lospd e djdiusd
thjid oikjasd nxjzo mwnaq, maksp djdjj wewpqilr. Pod sdn bhfj
thjd ejlakjsdn nvifcpidf sadenflkzjxc, ekfjhksdilklwesdf jkdk sa a
kdiof wmwopd klwwpef.
iio Slitzer Nizel Nfmspof w djka ewpll aqw. Lospd e thjid oik-
jasd mwnaq, maksp djdjj wewpqilr. Pod sdn bhfj thjd ejlakjsdn
nvifcpidf, ekfjhksdilklwesdf jkdk sa a kdiof wmwopd. w djka
ewpll aqw. Lospd e djdiusd thjid oikjasd nxjzo mwnaq, maksp djdjj
wewpqilr. Podfg Feb 2004 sdn bhfj thjd ejlakjsdn nvifcpidf
sadenflkzjxc, ekfjhksdilklwesdf jkdk sa a kdiof wmwopd klwwpef.
Bndh sioam etho mkji stad jfuic bnwiao shmkru thsoppd hehhweid
thklpoi iloi s kk k sldofdu nd iuhe gs. Xnzenuj nej n qwodsi thaos,
wnkjo mksiau ensmd. O jduisut njdu asy egwiudh ghajks koodld:
Dfnrmfk mkopfdivo ythjrlef m dnj mskl. Ndkosidsd md as pl
dp asmkwed huiuiu. Mosidkosd May 1899, Msdae ea, e as,
lpoeouqq bbeuy nu as oi zxm kO
Did you find this easier or harder then the previous example? Why
do you think that was so? Usually people find that if the information
they are looking for contrasts with most of the information surround-
ing it, then it’s quicker and easier to pick out.
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Reading Techniques 113

You may realise that you’re already an accomplished scanner, and
scan for all types of information without thinking about it. If you don’t,
it’s easy to practice. Why not try scanning nutrition labels for infor-
mation on salt content, or newspaper articles for references to global
warming.

3. SKIMMING

When you want to gain a high-level overview of the reading material,

try ‘skimming’. This technique is helpful to give you a feel for the overall
content. It’s not about collecting in-depth information.
To use your study time effectively, you need to learn how to choose what
to read as well as what not to read. Given that you can sometimes ‘skim’ a
book in 10–15 minutes, this can save you a lot of time compared to reading
every word.
If you’re not already a ‘skilled skimmer’, think of it as a two-step
process.

Step 1. Preparation
Step 2. Preview

Step 1 Preparation

What are you going to focus on? You may use keywords, just as you would
for ‘scanning’, but usually when you’re skimming, your focus will be slightly
broader. For example, rather than using the author’s name, your focus may
be to uncover another perspective around a particular issue, or you may want
to see how extensively a particular topic is covered.

Step 2 Preview

Think back to before you began reading this book. Did you skim through it?
If you picked it from a bookshelf, did you ‘flick’ through the pages?
With a bit of practice, you can ‘skim’ many books in 10–15 minutes, and
you can ‘gut’ a book in less than an hour. ‘Gutting’ usually involves reading
the first and last sentences in addition to the list below.
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114 Reading Techniques

• foreword
• table of contents
• headings and sub-headings
• first and last paragraphs in each chapter
• tables and graphics.

As you skim, take a note of any sections you might want to revisit with a
more focused approach (see next section).

Have you noticed how long

the titles are in scientific
research papers?

Yes. Most are 10–20 words!

Sometimes I only read the title
before deciding whether or not
to read the rest of the article.

4. FOCUSED READING

The best way to gain an in-depth understanding of most written material is

to follow the four steps in the ‘Reading Staircase’, shown in figure 6.1 (pages
115 and 116). The first step applies to all the reading techniques, the second
step applies to ‘skimming’, and the third and fourth steps are specifically
important for focused reading.
The two most important points to take away are:

1 You need to ‘actively process’ the text in some way.

2 You need to read the text several times (Maloney 2003).

Asking lots of questions (see Table 6.2) is probably the most common way to
engage in ‘active processing’, but there are other methods. Note that many of
the note-taking tips from chapter 8 also apply here! If the text is very dull, try
bringing a little humour to it. If you like to visualise, imagine attending a lecture
. . . how could the presenter make the key point in a way you would never forget?
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Reading Techniques 115

Table 6.2 Different types of questions

Fact /Opinion
Prediction
Relevance

Challenge

Associate

Explain
How can I apply this to x?

Where’s the author going with this?

How do we know this is true?

What are the other possible explanations?

What do we know since this was published?

What is the author going to conclude?

How reliable is the evidence?

What evidence supports the claim?

Where else was this presented?

How would I explain this to x?

HHHH Level of understanding

4. Maintain focus and process activity

HHH
Level of understanding
3. Find the key points

HH
Level of understanding
2. Preview

Level of H
understanding
1. Select relevant material and clarify purpose

Figure 6.1 The focused reading staircase

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116 Reading Techniques

Step 1: Select relevant material and clarify purpose

Selecting the relevant material and clarifying your pur- What information do
pose is important for all of the reading techniques and I need?
strategies covered in this chapter – but as focused read-
ing takes a lot time, make sure you get this step right!

Step 2: Preview
In the previous section we discussed how to skim or pre- Is this the best source
view material. This second step in the ‘focused reading of information?
staircase’ is important for two reasons: a) it helps you
make sure that the content is relevant and is worth an
investment of your time and b) previewing helps to build
context, and this has been shown to be important for
improving recall and comprehension. (McWhorter
1998, Taylor et al. 1995).

Step 3: Find the key points

The third step, finding the key points, can be a bit tricky What is the author
sometimes. You need to be able to ‘pull out’ and sum- actually saying?
marise the key messages.
You may have noticed that we start each of our chap-
ters with a list of key points. Do you find them helpful?
Do you agree with the ones we’ve chosen? (it’s OK if you
choose different points – it’s your reading experience J)
Many academic texts are very dense, written in the
passive tense with long words. In other words, they
make the reader work hard for the information. Often
the key points turn out to be relatively straightforward,
but sometimes they may be implied, rather than stated
explicitly, and then you need to read between the lines
and ask yourself ‘What is the author implying by this?’
A good comprehension test is to see how easily you can
explain the key points to someone else.

Step 4: Maintain focus and process actively

Having identified the key points, you now need to ‘drill What do I think
down’ and actively process the information at a more about . . . ?
detailed level. The best way of doing this is by asking
yourself lots of questions.
In Table 6.2 we’ve listed some of our favourite questions
for active processing. They fall into a number of differ-
ent categories, for example predicting what will come next,
distinguishing between fact and opinion, and challeng-
ing assumptions.
See if you can complete Table 6.2. Note that some
questions fall under more than one category. (Answers
on page 260).

Figure 6.1 (cont’d)

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Reading Techniques 117

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I used to find most text books very boring to read, and

spent hours staring blankly at the pages, hoping the infor-
mation would somehow go into my brain. Then I read about
using metaphors. So now when my concentration lapses,
I try to come up with a metaphor that works in context.
It’s really fun. My inner dialogue might go something like
this:

The author’s argument is like. . . . a football game. Before

you make the team selection you need to look at everyone’s
form and gather the evidence. The team captain is like xxx,
which stands out as high profile and different from the rest
of the team. There are lots of different training strategies
which represent the such-and-such schools of thought . . .

I really like thinking in metaphors and I use the technique

to liven up all kinds of reading material.’

5. SPEED READING

The promise of being able to read a complete book in 20 minutes may capture
our imagination, but the reality of many speed-reading techniques leaves many
of us disappointed. Do you think the problem lies with the techniques, or could
it be the way we execute them?
Anne Jones, five times winner of the World Speed Reading Championships
and winner of six gold medals at the Mind Sports Olympiad, reads more than
2,000 words a minute and remembers enough information to answer detailed
questions with remarkable accuracy. In contrast, it is alleged that Woody Allen,
after taking a speed-reading class and reading Tolstoy’s War and Peace, was
asked what the book was about and replied ‘Russia.’ And there lies the dilemma
for most of us – how can we increase our reading speed without reducing our
comprehension and recall?
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118 Reading Techniques

Surprisingly, there is very little reliable evidence around reading speeds in

relation to comprehension. The good news is that speed readers (800–1,800
words per minute) seem able to summarise the main points just as accurately
as ‘normal readers’ (250–320 words per minute), but their detailed com-
prehension and recall is not quite as good (Just & Carpenter, 1987).
We think there are some interesting questions that may challenge some of
our assumptions about reading. If you’re curious about your own reading speed,
why not time how long it takes you to read the following story, and we’ll help
you estimate your reading speed at the end. If you want an accurate assess-
ment, don’t stop to try the exercises – but do come back to them after you’ve
finished the story.
So . . . when you’re sitting comfortably, we’ll
begin. . . . Many years from now, in a galaxy far
away, over 800 hot orderly bodies filed into a vast audi-
torium. Outwardly, their physical shapes were cosmi-
cally varied, but their earnest faces and pristine uniforms (issued only the
night before) easily identified them as the new academy recruits.
Xenoky, a young man of noble origins, twitched his many stalked eyes to
search for a friendly face. Yarine, a slightly built Sivapithicine caught his
primary eyes. They exchanged a warm smile, took their seats together and
waited attentively.
Once everyone was seated, the presentation began. Most of it was good
inspirational stuff. Pretty much the same stuff that had been presented at
the beginning of every year since the academy opened. And after an hour the
same weighty manual was handed out for the delegates to read. Everyone
was given 15 minutes to read through it.
Nervously, Xenoky leaned over to Yarine, seeking confirmation that he
had indeed mis-heard the instructions. In hushed tones he whispered to his
colleague: “Was that 15 or 50 minutes we have?” Yarine smiled. “15,” he
said, and deftly opened the heavily bound manuscript.
For Xenoky the next 15 minutes evaporated. He had just finished the first
chapter when they called time. Up until that moment, he had regarded
himself as an excellent reader. How was it that the other students had been
able to read the entire manual in such a short time?
Yarine sensed his companion’s discomfort, and invited him for an Earth
Latte after the presentation. It didn’t take long before the conversation turned
to reading speeds.
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Reading Techniques 119

“So, tell me, Xenoky, how did you learn to read?”
“Hmm, that’s an interesting question. Well, I knew my alphabet from
a young age, and was taught how to ‘sound out’ each word phonetically.
Then really it was just a matter of practice. Of course, as I improved I
recognised whole words instantly . . . but basically it was a phonetic
approach.”
“How, exactly, did you make the transition to silent reading?”
“Mmmm. I’m not sure it was really a transition. From what I recall, once
my teacher was happy with my reading accuracy, she encouraged me to ‘read
in my head’ . . . using the same process, but just not saying the words out
loud. What about you?”
“Well, my experience started off much the same as yours. But my people
regard reading alone in your head, or subvocalising, as a pre-requisite for
the next level of reading. If you say the words silently in your head, it really
slows down your processing speed. I understand that for most sentient
beings, this is limited to about 350 words per minute. That’s probably why
you didn’t make it to the end of the first chapter of the manual. For me,
I was taught to trust my eyes before reading with my ears became a habit.”
“Wow. That’s amazing. Do you think you could teach me to read like you
do?”
“Sure. The thing to remember is that sometimes I still read like you do.
What’s important is to be able to match your reading strategy to the context.”
“How do you mean?”
“Well, sometimes you need to subvocalise, or read the words in your head.
Poetry is a classic example. A small percentage of our children lose the abil-
ity to hear the words in their head, and they can’t ever appreciate the full
richness or beauty of the classical poets. It’s very sad.”
Yarine paused, looking very distant for that split moment. Then his
expression changed, and he continued, “It’s very important to consider how
you’re going to use the information you’re reading. If I need to follow com-
plex or subtle arguments, I use your reading method. But if I just need to
store information, like in a manual, then speed reading is great. Let me show
you something.”
Yarine opened a lazer pen and scribbled on one of the drink mats. When
he’d finished he handed the mat over to Xenoky. “Here. See how many words
you can read on either side of the plus while keeping your reading eye focused
in the middle.”
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120 Reading Techniques

Eagerly, Xenoky took the mat from his friend.

It read:

recruit + star fleet academy

find safe + always trust
departure time + canteen tray
and everywhere + include nonsense
random span + enjoy being
when you + design a

After a few moments, Xenoky burst out laughing. “Gosh, that’s harder than
it looks. How would this help my reading speed?”
“Well,” replied Yarine, “using the ‘trusting your eyes’ approach, you need
a broad peripheral field of vision. So, with each moment of focus, you take
in as much information around it as you can. Doing exercises like this one
for a few minutes each day can really help you improve your peripheral focus.
Aim to take in a whole line of information, keeping your eye focused in the
centre of the line. I’m able to read three lines at a time now.”
“I’m impressed,” conceded Xenoky generously. “Any other tips?”
“Sure. Here’s another basic drill we use at school. Let’s use the security codes
listed in chapter 7.” Yarine reached over to retrieve Xenoky’s drink mat and
began scribbling intently. As he handed the mat back, he explained “This time
you cover up the codes, then flash the first code to yourself for half a second
or so, then write down what you remember. This doesn’t give you time to say
the words to yourself, so you have to rely on your visual memory. It’s a great
way to break the subvocalising habit. I usually remember 10 digits with a
0.25 second exposure. Go on, give it a go!”
Xenoky flashed the first code to himself,
and frowned as he wrote down ‘47p’. He also
remembered the 4-digit codes, but struggled
with some of the longer ones. His friend
encouraged him, “It’s hard at first, but
again if you practise a few minutes each day,
you’ll be surprised how quickly you improve.’
“Yes, I can see how this will help. It’s fan-
tastic. Thanks Yarine. I’ll soon be speed reading like you.”
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Reading Techniques 121

“Well, this is only the next step for us. When our children can speed read
at 1,000 words per minute, we teach them ‘quantum reading’. It’s a funda-
mentally different approach which allows us to absorb written material at
speeds of 20,000 to 30,000 words per minute.”
“Are you kidding?”
“Absolutely not. It’s a core skill for all our secondary students. It’s not
really reading in the way that you think of it, as you don’t focus on the words
at all. Its more about letting the unconscious aspects of our brain download
all the ‘visual input’ without filtering, and then accessing the information with-
out being consciously aware of having learned the material.”
“Do you think it will work for me?”
“Should do, if your brain functions are similar enough to mine. Do
you agree that we are constantly bombarded with huge amounts of sensory
information, mostly visual and auditory?”
“I guess so.”
“. . . and because there is a limit to how much stuff we can pay attention
to at any one time, our subconscious filters out most of this sensory input,
so only a small amount of the information is ever processed consciously. Have
you noticed that once you’ve decided to buy a new auto-spacer, you suddenly
‘see’ them all over the place?”
“Yes, it happened when I bought my Telstar V8. They’re quite unusual,
but I saw at least a dozen others like it in the following week.”
“Well, they were there before, its just that your subconscious filtered them
out. If you’ve experienced the phenomenon, it suggests to me that your brain
is similar enough to mine in that it only processes a small amount of the
available sensory input in a conscious way. Which is great, because that means
the ‘quantum reading’ techniques probably will work for you. Would you like
to try a short experiment to find out?”
“Absolutely.”
“Well, if you have time now, come back to my room and we can try one
of the diagnostic tests we use to check the readiness of our students for this
technique. I need to find a suitable book. We find it works best using one of
the antique paperback dictionaries.”
“So what do I have to do?”
“Well, I’ll ask you to hold the book 12–15 inches from your face. It’ll
help if you close all your extra pairs of eyes, and just use your primary pair.”
“No problem.”
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122 Reading Techniques

“Now the hardest part is that you need to

focus about 6–9 inches behind the book. This
seems really counter-intuitive, but you mustn’t
focus on the words, or you’ll end up process-
ing the information consciously, and that
defeats the whole purpose. It may take a little
while to get used to, and the first time I tried
it made me feel a bit dizzy.”
“That’s OK. I’ll be fine. What then?”
“Well, keeping the focus behind the book, you turn over each page, at a
rate of about one per second. When you get to the end, turn the dictionary
upside down and flick through the pages again at the same rate. This
shouldn’t take more than about 10 minutes. When you’ve finished, you’ll give
me the dictionary, and I’ll flick through and randomly pick some words. For
each word I choose, you then guess whether the word appears on the right
or left page, which column, and whether it’s at the top or bottom.
“Sometimes it helps to agree a marking grid before hand. Then you can
just call out the number. The first time I tried this exercise, I was absolutely
stunned by the results. Even though I felt dizzy, I was 80 per cent correct
– which is way, way above chance. It convinced me that we have usable
information that was stored unconsciously – and that’s the basis for ‘quantum
reading’. Are you ready?”
“You bet. This is going to be great.”
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Reading Techniques 123

Table 6.3 Guide to your reading speed

Time Approximate Comments

Reading Speed

Less than 1,600 wpm Outstanding

1 minute
2–3 minutes 480–1,000 wpm Excellent. It seems that you’re already
a proficient speed reader
4–5 minutes 310–480 wpm Good. Your average reading speed is quite
high for ‘normal’ reading
5–7 minutes 230–310 wpm Average. This is typical of higher education
students who are reading normally in their native
language
More than < 230 wpm Slow. Improving your reading will really help your
7 minutes study efficiency

So how long did it take you to read the story? To estimate your average read-
ing speed in words per minute (wpm), all you need to do is divide 1,640 (the
number of words in the story) by the number of minutes it took to read (rounded
to the nearest minute). See Table 6.3 for a guide to interpreting your result.
Were you reading at your normal speed, or did you speed up, to see how
fast you can read? Or perhaps you read this slower than you would read study
material because you were enjoying the story. No one is suggesting that you
apply speed reading techniques to your leisure reading.
As we said in the introduction, speed reading seems to work well if you
need a high-level overview, perhaps to produce a written outline or summary.
If you read at 1,000 wpm rather than 250 wpm, you quarter your reading
time. How useful would you find that? And as mentioned in the story, ‘quan-
tum’ reading is a fundamentally different approach to reading altogether. There
is very little hard evidence, but the theory is intriguing and there’s lots of
anecdotal evidence from people who have mastered the technique.
Why not try some of the tips and techniques mentioned in the story and in the
rest of this chapter? But remember if the arguments presented are quite subtle,
and you need to follow them carefully, you’d probably be better reading in a
focused way, as discussed in the previous section. Building on the point we
made earlier, be careful to choose the reading strategy that most suits your
purpose!
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124 Reading Techniques

Here are our four Top Tips for Faster Reading!

TOP TIP 1 Don’t Subvocalise

Most people read for life at the speed which they learned
when reading aloud. The brain can process information much
more quickly than that. If you can make the switch to
reading without hearing every word in your head, it will
dramatically affect your reading rate.

TOP TIP 2 Use a Pacer

Typically, when we read, our eyes make rather jerky move-
ments and ‘back skip’ quite frequently. This slows you down.
If you run your finger or a pencil underneath the words as
you read, it’s possible to increase your reading speed just
by increasing the speed you move your finger. It may feel
unnatural at first, but many students report quite dramatic
improvements using this technique, which was pioneered by
Evelyn Wood in 1958.

TRY THIS

Ask a friend to follow an imaginary circle, about

3 metres in diameter, and watch their eye move-
ments. Now ask them to follow your finger as you
draw an imaginary circle in the air, and compare
how their eyes move. Did you notice a difference
in how smooth or jerky their eye movements were?
You should notice that eye movements are smoother when they are
following a finger or pencil. Without a pacer to follow, the eyes move
like they are following a series of dots, and may even back-pace!
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Reading Techniques 125

TOP TIP 3 Reduce the Number of

Fixation points per page

One of the main differences between ‘normal reading’ and

‘speed reading’ is the number of ‘fixations’ your eyes make
on a page. Instead of fixing on every word or two, experi-
enced speed readers are able to read a page with as few as
six ‘fixations’ (see figure 6.2). Practically, this is the main
difference between the two reading techniques.
To be a successful speed reader, you have to learn to infer
connections between those segments of the text that you’ve
sampled (Just & Carpenter 1987), and to take in more infor-
mation at each fixation point. The letter recognition and
visual-peripheral vision exercises in the story are designed
to help you do this, and both have been shown to have a
positive effect on reading speed (Chung et al. 2004).

X X X X X

X X X

Figure 6.2 Eye fixation points per page

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126 Reading Techniques

TOP TIP 4 Adjust Your PC

You may be surprised to know that the visual properties of

text and background affect your reading speed on a com-
puter screen. In a recent study involving undergraduate
students, Wu & Yuan (2003) found that the colour, lightness
and brightness of the foreground, relative to the background,
affect the average reading speed. From their findings, they
recommend that to improve your reading speed when using
a computer screen:

• the foreground should be darker and the background

should be lighter
• the foreground colour should be less saturated than the
background colour.

And interestingly, while the optimal settings for speed

were frequently found to be in conflict with visual prefer-
ences, Wu & Yuan (2003) reported they were unable to
locate any literature discussing the relationship between
visual preference and reading speed.

6. MATCHING THE TECHNIQUE TO THE PURPOSE

You should now be comfortable with the differences between the reading tech-
niques we’ve discussed. However, it is not enough simply to know about them.
You have to know when to use them (Lorch et al. 1993).
So for example, you might know how to scan or skim a text, but this isn’t
the same as knowing when it’s the best approach to use and why. And this
brings us back rather neatly to the importance of knowing your purpose, and
being clear about why you’re reading in the first place.
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Reading Techniques 127

TRY THIS

Circle the technique you would use for each of the following tasks:

1. I need to confirm the percentage of smokers under the age of 25.

Scan Skim Focus
2. I’m going on a field trip to China next month and want to buy a
travel guide. There are three books on the shelf, and I don’t know
which one to choose.
Scan Skim Focus
3. I need to prepare a 90-minute presentation explaining this author’s
main ideas.
Scan Skim Focus
4. I’ve been asked to critique this research article.
Scan Skim Focus
5. I’m trying to decide whether to take this course next semester. The
material for each week is based on a different chapter from this
textbook.
Scan Skim Focus
6. I’m revising for my exams, and need to check what year a particu-
lar study was published.
Scan Skim Focus
Answers on page 261

Q. How can I use this right now in my study?

Take a few minutes to think about why you’re reading this book and jot down
your ideas. Here are some questions you might like to ask yourself.

• How much time do I have for this task?

• How important is the outcome to me?
• Am I being assessed on the content? If so, when, and how?
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128 Reading Techniques

• Would I use different strategies if the assessment was soon, rather than
at some future unspecified time?
• What is my interest in the material?
• What is my emotional involvement?

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q. Do you have any tips for choosing the best book from a reading list?
A. There are lots of things you might take into consideration, including:

• What do you know about the author?

• Who is the intended audience (e.g. undergraduate students, postgraduate
students, experts, the general public)?
• What do you already know about the topic?
• What are you supposed to know before you read the book?
• Do you like the structure, style and layout?
• Do you like the use (or absence) of visuals, tables and graphics?
• Has the book been recommended, and by whom?
• Does the book look interesting?
• How well does it cover the areas you’re interested in?

Q. Can I apply these reading strategies on my e-learning course?

A. Unfortunately, a lot of e-learning courses are not particularly well
designed from the learner’s point of view. Often the navigation forces you to
work through each page in sequence and so it can be very difficult to scan
or skim the material.
We suggest you ask to preview the material before signing up – and see
how you feel working through their sample content. If you can’t preview the
material, ask how their designs cater for different reading strategies. When
enough people start asking, the designs will change!! (And also be aware that
although almost all e-learning designers say they cater to different learning
styles, this often means no more than including audio files.)

Q. My friends and I received an email, claiming that:

‘Aoccdrnig to rsceearh at an elingsh uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr

the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat
ltteer is in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed
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Reading Techniques 129

it wouthit graet porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae we do not raed ervey lteter by itslef
but the wrod as a wlohe.’

Is this true?

A. No, what this e-mail suggests is probably an urban legend. It claims we

can read the text because the brain recognises words as a whole, but
Edinburgh scientists, Dr Richard Shillcock and Dr Padraig Monaghan, have
evidence that reading actually involves splitting words in two. Although the
position of the first letter does help with word recognition, the brain has to
recognise both halves of the word.
Reading a couple of scrambled sentences might not seem too hard, but most
of us would soon tire of the extra effort required, according to Martin Turner
of the Dyslexia Institute. (T. Radford, the Guardian 25 Sept. 2003)

SUMMARY

This chapter is summarised in figure 6.3 (overleaf).

TRY THIS

(continued from page 111)

If you’re curious why focus is important, try this activity now.
You’ve just spent three minutes noticing all the red items in the room,
now read on . . .
Close your eyes and give yourself 60 seconds to recall all the green
items in the room.
How easy or hard did you find it? Do you think it might have
been easier if you’d focused on green items at the beginning of the
exercise?
We receive a lot of sensory information, and our ‘focus’ helps us decide
what to pay attention to. The same applies when we skim read. We
tend to notice information that is relevant. So spend a moment think-
ing explicitly about your focus before you start to skim read.
 130

Useful for understanding the ‘gist’

Before
you begin Speed reading Reduced comprehension at very high speeds
What do you know about the author?
Apply four top tips from pages 123–6
TSSC06 5/9/06 15:03 Page 130

Who is the intended audience?

Reading Techniques

Choose Consider whether ‘quantum’ reading is appropriate

What do you need to know before you read the book? your book

Do you like the style and layout? 1. Select relevant material & clarify purpose

Has the book been recommended, and by whom? Focused reading 2. Preview

Does the book look interesting? 3. Find the key points

4. Maintain focus & process actively

What do I already know about the topic?
Clarify your
What, exactly, do I want from this material? purpose Foreword

How quickly can I find what I need? Then Table of contents

chosose Skimming
Will I need to recall the information in future? your Headings and sub-headings
strategy
Preview

Scanning First & last paragraphs in each chapter

Identify keywords
Preparation Tables and graphics

Figure 6.3 Summary of chapter 6

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7 How to Remember
Everything You Need To!

KEY POINTS

Educational success requires accurate recall

Luckily, there is no such thing as a ‘bad memory’

Accurate recall involves focus, encoding and retrieval

There are many techniques and activities that can help you to remember

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we look at how to remember information.

Most educational programmes place a high value on accurate recall.
Although the increasing use of continuous assessment, open-book
exams, problem-based learning and project-based assignments may
indicate a move away from an ‘over-reliance’ on memory (Ryan 2003)
the need for accurate recall will not disappear. The ability to recall
information precisely can also save you time and energy outside the learn-
ing environment.
This chapter looks firstly at how you remember and the implications
this has for your study. We then describe some specific techniques and
activities that will help you remember.
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132 How to remember everything you need to!

How do I remember?

Various models of memory have been proposed. Although some controversy

continues, most people agree that it’s useful to consider three distinct mem-
ory systems: sensory, short-term and long-term memory. These are shown in
figure 7.1 below. This model has some implications for learning.
Here’s our list. You may be able to think of others.

• Memory is a process or an activity; it is not a noun.

• You must focus on information before it will enter your short-term memory.
• You must encode or process the information before it is stored in long-
term memory.
• In order to recall information you must ‘locate’ then ‘retrieve’ it.

Sensory memory
Sensory information enters from the environment
May be considered as ‘perception’ rather than ‘memory’
Most sensory input is thought to be immediately lost

1. Focusing

Short-term memory (STM)

A temporary store with limited capacity
Involved in conscious thought
Processed/manipulated information is transferred to Long-term Memory
STM is involved with retrieval from LTM?

2. Encoding 3. Retrieving

Long-term memory (LTM)

A permanent memory store
LTM includes episodic and semantic memory
(Episodic = memory for events/incidents
Semantic = memory for facts and knowledge)

Figure 7.1 A model of memory

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How to remember everything you need to! 133

• The more deeply and richly you can process or encode information the
easier it will be to remember that information accurately and easily.
• There are techniques to help you focus, encode and retrieve so that you
will remember more effectively and efficiently.

INTERESTING FACT

Taxi drivers have different brains! London black-cab taxi drivers have
larger hippocampi than other people, as a result of memorising the roads
and routes through London – a compulsory part of their training
(Maguire et al. 2000).

Making the model work for you

The model in figure 7.1 shows that in order to remember something you must
first focus on it properly.
Although focus is indeed essential, we also know that certain types of infor-
mation are more likely to be remembered.
If you make sure that you always understand your learning material
and then process it as deeply and vividly as possible you are more likely
to remember it. Most of the memory techniques below involve focus and en-
coding. In addition, material that is particularly vivid, unusual or humorous
is also likely to be better remembered because it ‘attracts your attention’
(Schmidt 1994).
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134 How to remember everything you need to!

TRY THIS

Ask yourself the following questions to see how well you focus.

Always Usually Sometimes Occasionally Never

How often are you unable to

say what you have read after
studying an article or set
reading?
How often do you engage in





‘simultaneous’ activities,
such as watching television,
when studying?
How often do you find





yourself copying passively
from set texts?
How often do you find





yourself thinking about other
things when studying e.g.
plans for the evening?
How often do you find





yourself distracted by
external events – noises,
friends – when studying?
How often do you nod off





while studying?
How often are you holding





a mental dialogue with the
author when reading?

How did you do? If you answered ‘never’ or ‘occasionally’ to each

question except the last (for which the desired answer is ‘always’!) then
congratulate yourself. If you scored less well, you might want to look
at Chapter 2 ‘Preparing for Study’. This contains suggestions on how
to improve your focus through maintaining good physical and mental
states and a conducive study environment.
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How to remember everything you need to! 135

TRY THIS
Read through the following list of words.

Shampoo Parrot
House Chair
Sky Measles
Baker Beach
Clock Purse

Now cover the page and write down all the words you can remember.
You have probably remembered more words from the start and the
end of the list than from the middle. This is called the ‘primacy’ and
‘recency’ effect. By dividing your study activity into small units you can
maximise the amount of material you recall simply by increasing the
number of ‘starts’ and ‘ends’.
Now, try the same exercise using the following list of words:

Schampnera Papegoja
Hus Stol
Himmel Massling
Bagare Plage
Ur Papper

How many words did you recall this time? We are guessing not many,
unless you are fluent in Swedish! It is difficult to process information
unless it is meaningful. Have you ever tried to memorise information
without fully understanding it first? What happened?
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136 How to remember everything you need to!

How comprehensive is the model?

Q. I understand the model but does it really account for everything I learn?
What about things like playing the piano or learning to drive? Surely we
learn these differently?
A. That’s a really good question, and yes, different types of memory have
been proposed. The model above only shows semantic memory (memory
for facts and information) and episodic memory (memory for personal
events). ‘Procedural memory’ is the phrase used to describe the acqui-
sition of skills such as typing or driving and it differs from semantic
and episodic. It is possible for someone to have episodic amnesia, for
example, yet retain the skills that they have learnt earlier in life.

INTERESTING FACT

Although you cannot learn new information while asleep the good news
is that processing and consolidation of previously reviewed material does
take place during sleep, indicating the wisdom of saying ‘I’d like to sleep
on it’ (Wagner et al. 2004).

How to remember more accurately

From the model and activities presented above, it should be clear that
improving your memory is all about improving your focus, encoding and retrieval
skills. There are various techniques and activities that can help you do this.
Here we will consider:

• Mnemonic techniques
• Repetition
• Chunking
• Overlearning
• Meaningfulness
• Interference
• Calm state
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How to remember everything you need to! 137

Mnemonic techniques tend to be most useful for learning information
that must be learnt ‘word perfect’ yet has little inherent organisation or mean-
ing – lists of names or digits. They are less useful for material that has
intrinsic meaning or where your recall should be faithful to an original
account but not word perfect, e.g. summarising a theory.

MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES

As with many new tools, you may find that it takes a little practice before you
are comfortable or proficient at using the techniques included here. Try not to
let this put you off and remember that you may not want to try or use all of
them. Decide which are best suited to your learning needs and then practise them.

Acronyms and acrostics (leading letters)

Definition: An acronym is a word or term developed from the first letter

of each to-be-remembered item. An acrostic is a complete sentence, or a
series of words, in which the first letter of each stands for one of the to-be-
remembered items.
Examples: My Darling Aunt Sally is one acrostic for remembering the order
of mathematical processes, multiply, divide, add then subtract. In medicine
it is even possible to purchase a textbook of medical mnemonics! (Khan 2003).
The acronym ‘Mr Comic’ could be used to remember the techniques included
in this chapter.
Use: Acronyms and acrostics are useful for memorising information that must
be recalled in a specific order. In addition the letters provide ‘clues’ that facil-
itate successful recall since solving one clue should help you to solve the others.
(See below and page 138.)
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138 How to remember everything you need to!

Rinse Out Your Grandmother’s My Very Easy Method Just Speeds Up

Boots In Vinegar – colours of Naming Planets – Mercury, Venus,
the rainbow: red, orange, yellow Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
green, blue, indigo and violet Neptune and Pluto

HOMES – Huron, Ontario, Fat Cats Prefer Mice Very Well Fried
Michigan, Erie and Superior – Fat, Carbohydrate, Protein, Minerals,
(Great Lakes) Vitamins, Water and Fibre (food
groups)

KILLS! Kidneys, Intestines, King Philip Cooked One Gorgeous

Lungs, Liver, Skin (excretory Steak – Kingdom, Phylum, Class,
organs) Order, Genus and Species (biological
categories)

Rhymes

Definition: Self-explanatory? A rhyme or rhythm that helps you recall the

to-be-remembered items.
Examples: Many adults cannot remember the number of days in each month
without chanting the rhyme that begins ‘30 days hath September’.
Use: Rhymes help ensure accurate order recall and act as a memory cue.
They are easer to recall than non-rhyming sentences (Rubin & Wallace 1989).
By inventing your own rhymes you necessarily have to focus and encode the
material, and the rhyme itself provides retrieval clues.

Memory pegs

Definition: Here, you learn each to-be-remembered item by associating it with

a previously memorised noun. Since each noun represents a number you can
then remember lists in order.
Examples: First of all you need to learn your 10 nouns or ‘pegwords’. These
are usually words that rhyme with the numbers one to ten, such as:
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How to remember everything you need to! 139

1 – Bun 2 – Shoe 3 – Tree 4 – Door 5 – Hive
6 – Sticks 7 – Heaven 8 – Plate 9 – Wine 10 – Hen

Pegwords can also be words that look like the numbers, for example,
swan for number two or six for spoon. Whichever you choose you need to
thoroughly learn and visualise each pegword. For example, is yours an iced
bun or a fruit bun? Is it round?
Let’s imagine that you are studying different energy types including wind,
wave, biomass, geothermal, solar and fuel-cell technology. Your memory peg
for wind could be an image of yourself standing on a giant iced bun hang-
ing grimly on to a wind turbine while struggling not to be blown away by a
gale. Next you might imagine your shoe full of water with seaweed hanging
out of it. For biomass you might picture your tree emerging out of a giant
bonfire formed from timber waste. The trick is to visualise a clearly defined
and ideally bizarre image for each.
Use: One advantage of using memory pegs is that if you do forget an item,
it will be clear where your memory has failed. Memory pegs also allow you
to retrieve an item directly without working through the entire sequence. By
adding additional detail to your mental pictures you can remember not only
a list of terms, but also some additional facts around them.

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I found the visualisation techniques difficult to apply to

abstract terms, so now I tend to keep these techniques for
my personal life – for remembering shopping lists for ex-
ample. Instead I’ve found it more useful to learn specialised
abstract terms by developing my own acronyms or acrostics.’
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140 How to remember everything you need to!

TRY THIS

Some people believe they are not good at visualising or that it is in

someway childish. Yet there are situations when most of us visualise,
for example when planning a journey or making household purchases.
Do you try to picture the roads or the colour of your décor in these
situations?
Imagine that someone asks you for directions to the nearest
hospital. How would you respond?
Verbal directions are often based on landmarks that we see in our
‘mind’s eye’, such as traffic lights, pubs or garages rather than street
names. If you use visualisation in situations like this, then you can also
use it in your study.
And, coincidentally, the next mnemonic builds on this idea of giving
directions. . . .

TOP TIP

So far we have described visualisation as a mechanism for

learning. Yet it can also be used to change state. Athletes,
for example, may visualise themselves winning events as part
of their mental preparation. This generates feelings of suc-
cess, confidence and motivation rather than the negative state
that could result if they dwelt on ‘worst fears’. You can use
visualisation to change your state prior to beginning study
or before exams.

Loci techniques – rooms and journeys

Definition: These two memory aids are the oldest known and both involve
placing the to-be-remembered items into a visualised known location. Before
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How to remember everything you need to! 141

you can use these techniques you must memorise a room or journey. This ini-
tial investment of time is not wasted since the room or journey can be used
for future memory tasks. You can also extend either by including more rooms
or by making the journey longer.
To use the ‘room’ technique, firstly select a room well known to you. Next,
mentally walk around the room and select a number of locations that fall
into a natural order. For example, logical locations in your kitchen might be
the sink, rubbish bin, windowsill, fridge, kettle, microwave and oven. To remem-
ber a list of items you mentally walk around your room and place one to-be-
remembered item in each location.
With the journey method you visualise a very familiar journey – walking
from your home to a local shop, for example – and select ‘drop off’ points
along the way. You then mentally place one to-be-remembered object at
each of these points. Position them carefully and note their location, size,
shape and colour. You need to visualise them as vividly as possible, so make
the images funny, sexy or plain extraordinary, ready to grab your attention
when you revisit the location!
Examples: The original Loci example dates from 500 BC. Simonides left a
banquet hall to take a message, when the roof collapsed crushing everyone
inside. The bodies were too badly damaged to be identified so Simonides recalled
where each person had been sitting and subsequently deduced that memory
can be improved by relating items to locations.
Use: You can use Loci techniques whenever you have a list of items to remem-
ber. Although rooms and journeys are typically used in these techniques, any
variation on this is possible. Once again these techniques help you remember
items in order.

TOP TIP

You can use Simonides’ example whenever you are attend-

ing events, such as meetings or seminars, where you do not
know the other participants. Quickly sketch out the seating
plan and as people introduce themselves write each persons
name by their location. You can then use this plan to mem-
orise names and faces.
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142 How to remember everything you need to!

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I make notes on different parts of the page and try to remem-

ber the layout. I’ve found this works well as a memory
jogger. For example, when I was learning about planets, stars
and moons I wrote my notes in three separate columns using
different colours. Visualising this later helped me to recall
the information.’

TOP TIP

It is often easier to remember country-specific information

by writing on a sketch map rather than by making linear notes.
The progress of a war, for example, can be learnt by writing
notes and arrows on a map rather using long-hand notes.

Associations

Definition: You form an association every time you link to-be-remembered

information to another image or event in a meaningful way.
Examples: Stalactites hang from the ceiling and the word contains the
letter ‘c’. Stalagmites build up from the ground and contain the letter ‘g’. Sim-
ilarly, a Bactrian camel has two humps as seen in the initial letter B and
a Dromedary camel has one as in the letter D. Associations can be idiosyn-
cratic. Louise’s son remembers that kidneys contain ‘Bowman capsules’ by
thinking of a teacher called Mrs Bowman.
Metaphor or analogy is a form of association frequently used in teaching.
For example, the concept of homeostasis is often taught using the analogy
of a thermostat. Memory pegs are specific examples of forming associations.
Use: The more associations you can make between new and existing know-
ledge, the easier it is to remember, since you are increasing the total number
of mental ‘cross references’. As Leonardo da Vinci wrote: ‘In some way every-
thing connects with everything else.’ You simply have to find the connections!
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How to remember everything you need to! 143

You can also associate activities with learning. For example, you could
decide to rehearse the periodic table whenever you wash up. After a little
while this behaviour will become automatic.

Stories

‘The one who tells stories

rules the world.’
Hopi proverb

Definition: In this technique you incorporate the to-be-remembered items into

a story.
Examples: Just as rich story-telling was important in pre-literate cultures
for transmitting knowledge, so the same technique can be used today. Here
is a story for remembering Shakespeare comedies. Are you sitting comfort-
ably? Then I’ll begin. . . .
My tale begins in on a cold wintry day (A Winter’s Tale) when two rich
Italian businessmen decided to move from Verona to England (Two Gentle-
men of Verona). They moved to Windsor, where they quickly met and fell in love
with two beautiful laughing women. The weddings made these two women so
happy that they laughed more than ever before (The Merry Wives of Windsor).
Both wives fell pregnant straight away and nine months later, in the
middle of a summer night (A Midsummer Night’s Dream) the women woke
up and found themselves in labour. The labours were extremely long and painful
but their husbands said that they were making much fuss about nothing (Much
Ado About Nothing). Then on the twelfth night of labour (Twelfth Night)
everything seemed to get worse!!
Even though the babies were still not born two Italian relatives arrived.
These were a merchant from Venice (The Merchant of Venice) and his wife.
She was a lovely woman, despite the rumours that at one time she had been
a real shrew (The Taming of the Shrew).
As they all sat waiting in the hospital the weather broke and an almighty
storm took place (The Tempest). So much seemed to be going wrong it was
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144 How to remember everything you need to!

almost funny (Comedy of Errors). At last the labours were over and the babies
were born (Love’s Labours Lost) and they were identical in weight and
measurement (Measure for Measure). Everyone was so relieved that things
had turned out all right. “All’s well that ends well,” said one husband (All’s
Well that Ends Well). “From now on you can have whatever you like,” prom-
ised the second (As You Like It).
This story offers the titles of 14 of Shakespeare’s comedies. The other three
all have proper names as the title and these can either be incorporated into
the story as the names of characters or remembered separately. The names
are Cymbeline, Pericles Prince of Tyre, and Troilus and Cressida.
Use: It is important that your story has a clear thread or plot and is mean-
ingful for you. You would probably want to personalise the story shown here
and it is also important to try and use all your senses and imagination. Story
mnemonics offer a very simple way to memorise information and have been
shown to be effective (Hill et al. 1991). Unlike some of the other mnemonics
described there are no logical clues if you do forget part of your story.

TRY THIS

Think about the different mnemonic techniques we’ve talked about.

Which are particularly attractive to you? Is that because they suit
your intelligences or preferred learning styles? Or do they lend them-
selves to your particular studies?

Keyword mnemonics

Definition: This is a very specific mnemonic used when learning a foreign

language. To develop keywords you combine two mental images. The first is
an image of what the word sounds like, which is combined with an image of
what the word means.
Examples: ‘Maison’, the French word for house (pronounced maze-on)
could be remembered using an image of a maze on top of a house.
Use: This technique can be used when learning foreign language vocabulary.
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How to remember everything you need to! 145

DANGER!

Remember that most mnemonics help you to learn by rote.

Learning all the facial nerves or a list of alkali metals does
not demonstrate a depth of understanding. View mnemon-
ics as memory joggers and recognise their limitations!
Despite this health warning there is little doubt that accu-
rate memorisation is a prerequisite to achieving success in
formal study.

REPETITION

We tend to forget the bulk of what we are studying very quickly, although
the subsequent rate of loss slows down. Therefore it makes sense to return
to material quite soon after it has first been studied, and then allow gradu-
ally longer intervals between each repetition or review (Buzan 2003). As always,
the material should be fully understood since repetition alone cannot add depth
to your knowledge. It may take several cycles of review before material is
fully committed to long-term memory but once you are confident that you
have ‘learnt’ a subject area then quick reviews of the material are all that is
likely to be needed in future.

CHUNKING

How many words did you remember from the two earlier lists? In a classic
article published in 1956, G. A. Miller proposed that the number of items
we hold in our short-term memory is seven, plus or minus two.
However, the more ‘information’ contained within each item, the more
information you hold overall. Increasing the amount of information within
each item is called chunking.
Overleaf is an example of ‘chunked’ energy sources:
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146 How to remember everything you need to!

Full list Chunked list

Wind generation Renewable energy sources:

Hydro power Wind generation
Tidal power Solar power
Biomass Tidal power
Geothermal energy Hydro power
Solar power Geothermal energy
Coal Energy from waste
Oil Biomass
Gas
Energy from waste Non-renewable energy sources:
Nuclear energy Oil
Natural gas
Coal
Nuclear energy

Learning material is often already ‘chunked’ when presented. For exam-

ple, individual elements are grouped within the periodic table, diseases may
be chunked into different therapy areas, and geographical concepts might be
chunked under physical, social or economic geography.
Experimenting with different ways of chunking will not only help you
condense the information but you will also find new connections between
information, which by itself means deeper processing and better recall.
Acronyms are another example of chunking; single words or phrases like
‘Mr Comic’ take you to detailed information.

TRY THIS

Think about one of the subjects that you are currently studying. How
is information chunked in those subjects? And what chunking strate-
gies have you developed yourself?
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How to remember everything you need to! 147

For example, in media studies films may be categorised under different
genre such as comedy, thriller, romance, or film noir. However, you may have
also developed your own ways of rembembering films, by chunking according
to director, year of release, nationality, leading actors etc.

OVER-LEARNING

Have you ever spent the night before an exam cramming? This is a high-risk
learning strategy. Last-minute cramming raises the risk that information will
not be retrieved since it has only been superficially studied. Six months later
there may be little you can spontaneously recall.
Over-learning through repeated review leads to faster and better recall of
information. Think of the phrase ‘etched on my mind’ and try to over-learn
the material that you need. You can over-learn using many different tech-
niques – repeated review, chatting with friends, reading notes, through
mindmaps etc. Again, the more active your learning the better it will be!!

MEANINGFULNESS

Your brain tries to add meaning to all situations – and this includes all new
information. Most of the memory techniques presented in this chapter are
about adding extra layers of ‘meaning’ and ‘organisation’ to material. Both
classic and recent memory experiments have demonstrated that it’s easier to
remember material when it you find it meaningful and interesting (Miller and
Selfridge 1950, Shirey and Reynolds 1988).
Since material is stored in many ways, the more richly or ‘deeply’ you can
process information the more retrieval cues are at your disposal.
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148 How to remember everything you need to!

TRY THIS

Many of us know someone who can recall every football fixture and
score for the past umpteen seasons, or who can rattle off the names of
Oscar-winning films together with their starring actors and actresses.
What facts have you learnt purely because they are interesting and
meaningful to you? How did you learn them and how much effort was
involved?
Now ask other ‘trivia experts’ how they remember their facts and
note down all the different ways.

You are likely to find that trivia experts do not work hard at trying to
learn facts; they absorb them through personal interest and connecting new
information with old.

INTERFERENCE

New information can interfere with, or ‘get in the way’ of previously learnt
information. Did the lists that you tried to learn earlier interfere with each
other? The more similar the different sets of to-be-remembered material, the
greater the capacity for interference.
The implications for study are:

• Take breaks between topics or try to space them out.

• Try to avoid learning similar information ‘back to back’, unless the two
are related. It is best not to learn Latin vocabulary followed by French
vocabulary, as there may be interference. Instead follow the Latin with
an entirely different subject, such as maths, and save French revision for
later (Higbee 1996).
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How to remember everything you need to! 149

CALM STATE

The relationship between our emotional state and ability to perform well is
discussed in chapter 2, Preparing for Study. Can you think of a time when
you have been ‘put on the spot’ and not been able to recall a crucial piece
of information or even think of anything to say? Excessive anxiety or stress
makes it more difficult to remember accurately.
Although it has been suggested that highly emotional or arousing incidents
– such as where and how people heard of the death of Princess Diana or
the events of 9/11 – are well remembered, recent evidence suggests this
is not the case. Instead, self-perceived accuracy is higher, probably due to
rehearsal via conversations with others and ‘mental replays’ (Talarico &
Rubin 2003).
Some arousal is needed for successful learning and you should aim for a
heady mix of relaxation plus alertness. Cassaday et al. (2002) found that
recall of words was better when study took place in relaxing rather than a
neutral environment.

RETRIEVAL

Many of the techniques described in this chapter help you to retrieve

information by either providing contextual clues or signalling when you have
forgotten something. There are some other techniques that also help you retrieve
information when you need it.
When trying to remember information make use of the fact that your brain
organises and cross references information in many different ways. Memory
experiments have shown that even when people find it difficult to retrieve ‘known’
vocabulary, for example, they can still identify the number of syllables or the
initial letter at better than chance rates (Brown & McNeil 1966). Next time
you have forgotten something try working your way through the alphabet, or
think about the length of the word to see if this aids recall.
Similarly, have you ever struggled and failed to recall an important piece
of information, only to find that it pops into your head sometime later
when you are no longer directly thinking about it? Higbee (1996) advises
‘thinking around’ when trying to recall information, by mentally trawling through
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150 How to remember everything you need to!

‘You know... they are round

and grow on trees... Eve picked Got it!
one, Americans bake pies with Banana!
them, Snow White was
poisoned with one...’

all your associations with that item. When trying to attach a month or year
to an historical event, for example, consider what else you know about that
event. What came afterwards? Was there a subsequent coronation or peace
agreement that might help you place the date? What preceded the event?
Even thinking about when the event was taught within your curriculum might
help you remember the correct date. These may lead to greater success than
frustratingly focusing on the forgotten date.

FORGETTING

There are several theories of why we forget, including the following.

Fading: This theory states that memories simply fade away. There is limited
supporting evidence for this, but if memories do fade the implications for learn-
ing are clear – over-learn and review.
Interference: This was described above and refers to new material ‘getting in
the way’ of old.
Retrieval difficulty: This theory suggests that we never lose memories
but sometimes we can’t access them, and has emerged from physiological
evidence in which brain stimulation has awakened ‘forgotten’ memories.
When acquiring new information you may ‘learn and forget’ several times
before you really know the material. Continue to ‘process’ and ‘review’ until
you are able to retrieve the information easily and accurately.
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How to remember everything you need to! 151

TRY THIS

Write down all the capital cities you can recall and put the list in an
envelope.
Repeat this tomorrow and compare the list. Is it the same? Are there
any additions or omissions?
Any changes demonstrate that we may know more about a topic
than we retrieve at any one time. One practical application is, where
possible, to give yourself time to retrieve information when studying.

EXTERNAL RESOURCES

This chapter has focused on techniques and strategies to help you remember
but there are also external resources that you can use. What resources do
you use to help you remember? Our list included:

• IT and software resources e.g. task lists, reminders

• diary
• other people
• watch alarms
• post-it notes
• whiteboards/chalkboards
• address/telephone books
• mobile phone reminders.

There is no reason not to use external aids. Successful learning is partly

about making smart choices.
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152 How to remember everything you need to!

LOOKING AHEAD

If you want to keep your memory in good working order

you need to exercise it and use it regularly! Many of the
techniques covered in this chapter are shown to be as
effective for older people as they are for younger
(Verhaeghen et al. 1992). It also seems that older people
may optimise their learning by capitalising on their wider
experience and enhanced skill set. Older people, it seems,
may plan cognitive tasks more effectively than younger, by
looking further ahead and making better use of external aids
such as diaries or ‘to do’ lists (Maylor 1990).

SUMMARY

1. To remember successfully you need to focus, encode and

retrieve.
2. Memory is not equivalent to understanding – although they are
related.
3. The best way to learn is by making the material interesting,
stimulating and relevant.
4. Strategies and techniques to help you remember include:

• Mnemonic techniques
• Repetition
• Chunking
• Over-learning
• Meaningfulness
• Interference
• Calm state
TSSC08 5/9/06 15:02 Page 153

8 Making Notes

KEY POINTS

Making notes helps you to organise your material, your thoughts and
your learning

There are several different ways of making notes

Different skills are required for making notes in lectures and making
notes from books

Review your notes regularly and store carefully

INTRODUCTION

Why make notes? Note-making helps us to manage information and

is an important skill, which should not be left to chance. A good set
of notes will help you in your studies whereas poor notes may only con-
fuse or mislead.
Many of the general points made about active learning in the chap-
ters on memory and critical thinking also apply here.
In this chapter we look at:

• What makes a good set of notes?

• Different note-making techniques
• Making notes in lectures
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154 Making Notes

• Making notes from texts

• Selecting the appropriate technique
• Storing notes.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD SET OF NOTES?

You may have heard notes described as ‘bare bones’ that you later ‘flesh out’.
It’s a useful metaphor since bones demonstrate many of the qualities of good
notes (see figure 8.1).

Come in different shapes and sizes

Needed to move forwards Light yet strong

Interconnected parts that

together make one whole Form a framework

Figure 8.1 Notes as ‘bare bones’

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

To what extent do your notes

typically exhibit the properties
shown in figure 8.1?
Have you ever been taught how to make notes?

How often have you looked back at your notes only to discover a
few undecipherable words?
Do you think there is room to improve your note-making
techniques?
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Making Notes 155

DANGER!

Imagine being given a pile of bones and asked to build the

skeleton. Unless you know something about the animal this
could be an impossible challenge. Yet learners sometimes
borrow other people’s notes, even when the topic is new to
them. What’s more, notes are often idiosyncratic and may
include non-standard abbreviations or personal comments
that are not meaningful to others. If you do borrow notes
bear these potential pitfalls in mind!

DIFFERENT NOTE-MAKING TECHNIQUES

There are several different note-making techniques. Some particularly suit

specific contexts or material, or you may have personal preferences, perhaps
relating to your preferred intelligences and learning styles (chapters 3 and 4).

TRY THIS

What note-making techniques do you generally use?

What note-making techniques are you aware of?
Which note-making techniques have you tried?
How useful were they?
Why?

Now take a look at the mindmap in figure 8.2 on page 156 – it shows
some common approaches to note-making.
How do the techniques shown here compare with your own list?
Don’t worry if your own list is shorter. Our experience suggests that many
learners rely on one or two techniques.
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156 Making Notes

Mindmaps
Overview notes
Cardex notes
Concept maps

- Structured
Note ng Flow charts
i notes
Taped notes mak ique
t e c h n
Spiral notes

Margin notes Cornell system

In-text notes Linear notes

Highlighting and underlining Double entry

Figure 8.2 Different note-making techniques

Concept maps and mindmaps

If you were making notes from this book we hope you would see that, although
different topics are covered in individual chapters, they are all interconnected.
Perhaps we should have produced this book as a gigantic mindmap, since
this approach makes the ‘big’ picture highly visible?
Concept maps and mindmaps, which are very similar, allow you to see the
big picture. Mindmaps are usually attributed to Tony Buzan (1993) and
concept maps to J. D. Novak (1990). The differences are subtle although
mindmaps typically show one central concept and concept maps show idea
networks.
To make a mindmap hold your writing pad landscape and write the topic
heading in the centre or heart of the page. Draw the main arteries coming
out of this and write the key concepts alongside. Let each of these divide
into smaller veins and write secondary ideas. Be as creative as you wish and
experiment with colour, acronyms, symbols and pictures.
If this approach is new it may initially feel alien, particularly if you’re used
to linear techniques. Mapping may hold more instant appeal if you prefer to
focus on the big overview rather than on detail, or if you prefer visual images
to text (see chapter 4). Don’t use this as an excuse, though – remember that
learning styles should be viewed as current preferences and not used as a
barrier to development or experimentation.
What advantages do you think mind mapping offers?
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Making Notes 157

Seeing the big picture is one advantage offered by mindmapping. Others
include:

• Flexible order allows you to insert branches where you wish.

• You can easily show associations between branches using arrows.
• Masses of information can be presented without overload.
• You can join individual mindmaps together to see the MUCH bigger picture.
• It is easy to return and add additional notes.
• Mindmaps offer high visual appeal.
• They promote creativity.
• They can be undertaken as a group activity.

TRY THIS

If this approach is new to you try rewriting your latest notes as a

mindmap. How do the two techniques compare?

LOOKING AHEAD

Many work-based activities also require good note-making

skills, including:

• taking official minutes at meetings

• client meetings
• reading, digesting and summarising reports or documents
• interviewing
• internet searching
• telephone conversations.

Perhaps we should consider note-making a life skill rather

than an academic skill?
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158 Making Notes

Spiral notes

Circular processes (including, for example, biological and chemical cycles and
many business practices) can be summarised in spiral diagrams (see figure 8.3).
It is always worth considering if new information is a disguised circular
process.

n
oratio
Evap nd
a on
pirati
trans

tion ensat
ion
mula Cond
Accu

on
pitati
Preci

Figure 8.3 The rain cycle: An example of spiral notes

Flow charts

Flow charts are commonly used in business to chart complex processes

involving choice points. You can adapt this technique to summarise other
processes or proceedings such as the path of historical events or the plots of
films or literature. How might you summarise the course of World War II
as a flow chart? Could you summarise any of your learning topics in this way?
Figure 8.4 shows a method of using flow charts.

Matrix notes

The matrix system is a structured approach used to make comparisons

between categories of information. It is hugely useful, since many academic
courses require learners to compare, contrast and evaluate. See figure 8.5
for an example.
TSSC08 5/9/06 15:02 Page 159

Making Notes 159

Start
Flow charts usually begin and
end with this shape

Choice points
branch from
triangles

Rectangles are ‘action’ boxes

End

Figure 8.4 How to use flow charts

Insulin Anti-diuretic Thyroxin Cholecystokinin

hormone
Produced by Pancreas Hypothalamus Thyroid gland Duodenal mucosa
beta cells via posterior
pituitary
Purpose Lower blood Stimulates Stimulates Stimulates
glucose water metabolism release of bile
concentration re-absorption and growth
Target General Kidney General Gallbladder
organ/cells
Symptoms of Hunger, thirst Excessive urine Dry skin, weight Malabsorption
under and excessive production and gain, lethargy, syndromes
production urination thirst breathlessness,
Symptoms of
over production
Control
mechanisms
Hormone
antagonist

Figure 8.5 Example of matrix notes comparing hormones

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160 Making Notes

One benefit offered by a matrix system is that the items of interest are
compared across the same dimensions. In some cases you will need to iden-
tify the dimensions yourself before completing the grid, an activity that may
itself take considerable time and thought. For example, psychology students
making notes on Skinner, Freud, Piaget and Maslow might need to gener-
ate their own list of comparative dimensions such as key concepts, model of
man, research methods and areas of application.

TRY THIS

How might you use the matrix method to summarise key differences
between influential people in your own discipline?

Linear notes: Cornell notes

Pauk (2000) devised the Cornell technique. Here you divide the page vert-
ically leaving a couple of inches blank across the bottom:

Recall cues Main notes

Right & left columns In the right-hand column you record in paragraph form,
notes which contain the key ideas. When you have finished
you read the right-hand column and add ‘key words’ or
‘cues’ to the left column.
Recall aloud Read the cues and recall out loud (using your own language)
the points made in the right column. Think critically about
what you have learnt. Write a summary at the bottom the
page. Help your learning by regularly returning to the cue
words and vocalising your understandings.
6R The Cornell approach is also called the 6Rs. The Rs are
record, reduce, recite, reflect, review and recapitulation.

In the space at the bottom you write a brief summary or overview of the whole
page – the ‘recapitulation’.
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Making Notes 161

Linear notes: Double-entry notes

Double-entry notes use a similar technique. Here you draw a line down the
centre of the page:

Summary notes are then made on How does this differ from Cornell
the left-hand side of the page and note-making?
these include the key concepts, Is this approach better for
theories, facts etc. On the right- note-making from books or from
hand side of the page you raise key lectures?
questions, insights, and evaluations. It’s a bit like an ongoing debate.
These may be added immediately, Is it useful for those times when
or later when you have had a I’m finding it hard to stay focused?
chance to review your notes.

MAKING NOTES IN LECTURES

So far we’ve reviewed different note-making techniques. You should also

consider whether you are making notes in a lecture or from a written text.
It is often more difficult to make good notes in a lecture, and some of the
challenges presented by lectures include:

• You need to listen, think and write simultaneously.

• You have limited influence over the pace of the lecture.
• You cannot choose your teachers or lecturers.
• You are working alongside others and must respect their needs too.
• There may be external distractions.

However, the content of your notes should be absolutely relevant to your course.

TRY THIS

There are things that you can do to help make meaningful notes in lectures.
How often do you do each of the activities below, before, during and
after a lecture?
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162 Making Notes

Before the lecture?

Never Sometimes Always

Arrive prepared: know the topic the lecture will

address and how it fits into the course.

Do any required preparatory work.

Consider the type of material likely to be

covered and which note-making technique you
will use.

Have a heavy session the night before . . .!

Life is much easier when you arrive at lectures without a thumping

headache and knowing which module you are attending! If you complete the
preparatory work you should gain more from the lecture and be better placed
to ask questions.

During the lecture?

Never Sometimes Always

Track the stages of the lecture carefully –

most presenters follow the ‘say what they are
going to say’, ‘say it’ then ‘say it again’ format.

Listen for clues on what is important –

phrases such as ‘The main idea’, ‘Never forget’
and ‘The most important thing’.

Focus on the content and not the style of

delivery.

Ask the lecturer to pause while you capture

key points . . .

The introduction and the conclusion usually capture the essential ideas, so
arrive on time, listen carefully and try to follow the arguments. Try to pick
out only the important aspects but don’t be afraid to ask the lecturer to slow
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Making Notes 163

down or present visual information for longer, while you do this. Chances are
that if you haven’t captured ideas you won’t be the only one. Focusing on
the content means you are less likely to become sidetracked by the funny or
irritating mannerisms shown by either lecturer or peers!

After the lecture?

Never Sometimes Always

Review and organise notes as soon as possible.

Use other resources to fill in any gaps.

Aim to read your notes after the lecture and clarify them where necessary.
Although you may want to add to or amend your notes, see if you can do
this without re-writing. Then use your notes and the course materials to guide
your next study steps.

How did you rate?

What did you learn from your ratings? Is there one area – either before,
during or after the lecture – which has greatest scope for improvement?
Or is there room for small changes across the entire process?
Lectures can pose further challenges for learners who are not studying in
their native language. Mulligan and Kirkpatrick (2000) found that overseas
students may be disadvantaged by not easily recognising cultural cues (such
as the gestures that may accompany important points) or differentiating between
jokes and asides and important content. Their study showed that such students
tended to focus more on pre- and post-lecture activity.
Students with specific needs or physical disabilities may also find it more difficult
to make effective notes in lectures. It is difficult to give general advice because
so much depends on the nature of the need or disability. Deafness or dyslexia
present very different challenges. If you have any learning needs then let your
lecturers know how they can help you.
Although this section has focused on lectures, some of the suggestions apply
if you are making notes from television programmes, video or audio tapes.
In some instances, though, you may have the luxury of replay!
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164 Making Notes

TOP TIP

There is evidence that lectures with accompanying handouts

are more effective learning tools than lectures alone. Per-
haps you can ask your teacher for help with this? (Morrison
et al. 2002, Austin et al. 2004.)

DANGER!

Remember that you are trying to make notes in a lecture,

not produce a verbatim transcript! Some learners try to
take down everything (Sutherland et al. 2002) even though
effective note-making techniques are about summarising the
key ideas and principal points.

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I’m studying in the UK and my first language is Chinese.

Even now, in the final year of my degree, I find that some
lectures are too fast. I try to do some reading before the lec-
ture starts, to try and get ahead and I always sit in the front
row where there are fewer distractions. I’ve also asked to
record some lectures so that I can listen to them again.’

Although personal shorthand can be used whenever you make notes, one
big advantage is that it saves you time and so it is particularly useful in
lectures. It doesn’t matter how idiosyncratic your shorthand is, providing that
you can always make sense of it. Try to be consistent in any shorthand that
you develop, so that you are not struggling to interpret it later.
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Making Notes 165

TRY THIS
• Develop your own shorthand for words and concepts that you will
use regularly
• Use international symbols and abbreviations for example:

use for
< less than
> more than
+ve positive
−ve negative
inc. increasing
statn station
abbn abbreviation

• Use the latest text messaging abbreviations

MAKING NOTES FROM TEXT

Note-making from books raises different challenges. Here are some of our
Dos and Don’ts for note-making from a text:

DO DON’T

• know the purpose of your • overuse highlighting or

reading (see chapter 6) underlining
• check that you understand what • make too many notes
you are writing • write reams in longhand
• decide on the best note-making • place yourself in danger of
strategy inadvertently plagiarising
• write full reference details and material by copying
page number if you decide to • make notes while doing other
include a direct quote in your notes. things e.g. one eye on the TV.

Can you think of any others that you want to add?

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166 Making Notes

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘Early on I decided to study my course the easy way. I do

two things without fail. I turn up to every lecture and I focus
my attention on those texts flagged as ‘essential reading’.
I make good notes from both and check constantly that I
understand the ideas. It’s about being organised really – the
hardest part is getting myself out of bed in the morning.’

Selecting the appropriate technique

We have introduced a number of different note-making techniques. In order

to produce the most effective notes we suggest that you view every note-
making situation as a problem to be solved (see figure 8.6). Approaching
every note-making situation in this way will help you to consciously consider
the options.

1. Diagnose the problem:

• What is the topic?
• What type of
information do I need?
• What do I already know?
• How is the material
4. Review: presented? 2. Plan:
• How is it going? • What note-taking
• What are my notes approaches are most
like? suited?
• What are the • What are my personal
implications for next preferences?
time? • What equipment do I
need?

3. Implement:
• Stay focused on key
ideas
• Just do it!

Figure 8.6 Classic problem-solving cycle applied to note-making

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Making Notes 167

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I only use three styles of note-making and I think of them

as the tools of my trade. I choose the most appropriate tool
before starting any work. Sometimes I stick to one and some-
times I combine them – it depends on the subject and what I
think will work best, but I always make a conscious choice.’

STORING NOTES

Figure 8.7 suggests how you might be able to make your notes more accessible
and easier to review. There are also other ways of storing notes, including:

• Audiotape your notes and listen when travelling, jogging etc.

• Use a Cardex system to keep track of books and articles that you have
read. Simply enter full reference details at the top of a card. Then write
a sentence or key words to remind you of the content and indicate how
useful you found it.

Colour
coding

Cross-
reference

Coloured
dividers

Everything
dated

Labelled
folders

Figure 8.7 Making notes accessible

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168 Making Notes

IT WORKED FOR ME
‘I used to take notes on loose-leaf paper and then not bother
reading them until I had an essay to write. I wasted so much
time hunting down those scraps of paper. Now I empty my
bag and file my notes every evening. It’s saved me many
“I know I’ve got it somewhere” moments.’

Making associations

When reviewing your notes don’t forget to look for associations or relation-
ships within and between topics.

Imagine, for example, that you are studying glass recycling. Within this topic
you might compare local, national and international practices. You might also
make between-topic associations by contrasting these with other ‘environmentally
friendly’ practices such as recycling paper or using alternative fuels.

TOP TIP
Note-making techniques are changing with advances in IT
and software. As handwriting- and voice-recognition soft-
ware becomes more available, electronic note-making is likely
to increase. This should make it easier to experiment with
different forms. Worth keeping an eye on?

QUESTIONS FOR US

Q. I usually copy out my notes many times. Are you saying I don’t need to
do that?
A. You don’t need to spend hours endlessly copying notes in the manner of
‘parrot learning’. Think about the subject and what you need to know
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Making Notes 169

and understand. Think about patterns, themes and associations in the
material. Think about the arguments presented, any advantages or limita-
tions, questions raised, underlying assumption or values. Then make notes
that are clear and meaningful to you. Review your notes regularly to
confirm your understanding.

Q. But surely this approach involves more work than simply copying notes
out?
A. Think of it as a high-interest monthly savings account. Although you must
open an account and set up a standing order, the pay-off is far higher
than if your money is kept under the mattress. It’s about working
smarter not harder – so a little time invested up front in good note-
making techniques pays off when you get to the exams.

Q. I’ve taken notes in the same way for years so why should I try to
change?
A. If you are actively processing information and your approach works then
you may not need to change, although there may be ways to improve
your approach further. Do you colour-code, for example? Remember
that pictures can be included even on linear notes. Or you can insert
mindmaps or flow diagrams into more traditional formats.

Q. What do you think about making notes in books – I usually go through

books with a highlighter.
A. Be careful that you are actively processing the information – it’s very
easy to highlight or underline without really thinking. Also, you may sub-
sequently read the same book for a different purpose, so beware if your
highlighting is permanent.

Q. I enjoy lectures and seminars but can’t discipline myself to knuckle down
and work on my notes afterwards – any suggestions?
A. Ask yourself if your note-making activity always needs to be solitary.
If you really prefer working with others you can work on mindmaps
and flow charts in groups – perhaps at the end of each day following
lectures? You still need to make sure that your time is well used. If
your problem is poor motivation take another look at preparing for study
(chapter 2).
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170 Making Notes

SUMMARY

Note-making is about capturing key ideas in the best way, to help you
manage information and learn efficiently. When preparing to make notes
consider both the topic and the medium (lecture or text) before select-
ing the most appropriate technique. When reviewing and storing notes,
always look for associations between topics.
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9 Generating ideas

KEY POINTS

It is easy to become stuck in particular ways of thinking

Learners who can consider information from different perspectives are
advantaged, since this is a key aspect of becoming a critical thinker

We outline here seven techniques to help you view topics in new ways

INTRODUCTION

If you’ve ever spent time with small children then you’ve probably noticed
the number of questions that they ask. What holds the sky up? Why
does Granny have wrinkles? Why is there war?
Have you been able to answer such questions satisfactorily? Children
often ask questions that you may not have considered before and that
stimulate new insights.
Such questioning tends to subside with age. Why is that? Perhaps
our environment becomes familiar and is not approached with the same
curiosity? Or does it stem from the introduction to formal education,
with its emphasis on rules and regulations? DeBono (1986) suggests
that much formal education emphasises the skill of sorting information
(categorising, comparing and contrasting) rather than generating
information. Perhaps we cannot develop fully as learners if we con-
tinually bring the same thinking to a situation?
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172 Generating ideas

Einstein attributed his achievements to his questioning approach,

saying: ‘I have no special talents, I am only passionately curious’.
So how can you see things from all angles? How can you think about
things differently? In this chapter we look at seven techniques intended
to help you do this. The techniques outlined here should help you to
engage in critical thinking (see chapter 10) since the ability to consider
information from different perspectives is a precursor for becoming a
successful critical thinker.

LOOKING AHEAD

New employees sometimes display questioning behaviours

similar to young children. They are keen to understand why
things happen as they do, or why the organisation is run in
a particular way. You may not always have answers in these
situations either, but it is worth listening to the questions!
New employees or new members see things with ‘fresh eyes’
and they can draw your attention to features that you now
take for granted and which can be improved.

THE ICEBERG METAPHOR

You can use the iceberg metaphor to remind yourself why you should try to
‘see things differently’. This metaphor says that the subjects you choose to
study are like icebergs. Can you think of ways this could be true?
We think the subjects you study are like icebergs because:

• You probably begin most new programmes of study with some pre-existing
knowledge or beliefs about the subject. This pre-existing knowledge can
be likened to the very tip of the iceberg – it’s visible and you are probably
aware of it.
• Probably most of the topic will be new and unknown to you. This
unknown element can be likened to the submerged part of the iceberg.
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Generating ideas 173

Figure 9.1 Different views of an iceberg

• Some aspects will be easier to reach and navigate.

• As with many icebergs there is scope to investigate previously unexplored
facets and make new discoveries.
• The subject is evolving and changing, just as icebergs do not remain static
in size or shape.
• There are many different ways that you can experience your subject, depend-
ing on the direction you approach it! The people in figure 9.1 will all
have a very different view!

Exploring the iceberg

When you are first getting to grips with a topic you need to acquire informa-
tion (see chapters 6 on reading and 10 on critical thinking) in order to
gain an understanding of the topic. If you rely on a single text you run the
risk of developing a very narrow or biased perspective on the issue.
Once you’ve gained a broader understanding of a topic then you need to
explore it. It is through such exploration that you will subsequently be able
to critically appraise the topic (see chapter 10).
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174 Generating ideas

There are some specific techniques to help you explore topics from differ-
ent angles and these can be a fruitful way to kick-start the critical thinking
process! The techniques outlined here are:

1. Six Thinking Hats

2. Visual representations
3. SWOT
4. Adopting persona
5. Metaphor
6. Brainstorming
7. Consequences.

Six Thinking Hats

DeBono (1986) developed this approach, which can be used in groups or alone,
in order to help people explore a topic from different perspectives.
Imagine you have six different coloured hats – white, black, yellow, green,
blue and red. Each hat represents a different attitudinal predisposition, or a
different way of looking at the topic, and each of the coloured hats is worn
in turn.
This is what the hats stand for:

• White hat: The white hat is neutral. Here you examine the facts, data
and the trends, without emotion. How can they be explained?
• Black hat: This is the pessimistic hat. Here you try your best to find prob-
lems, disadvantages and difficulties.
• Yellow hat: The yellow hat stands for optimism, benefits and pluses. When
wearing the yellow hat you delight in identifying the benefits associated
with the topic.
• Green hat: The green hat looks for different, fresh new ways of
approaching the topic. How else might it be explored? What hasn’t yet
been considered?
• Red hat: This is the emotional hat. How do you feel about the topic?
What is your intuition telling you? The red hat captures instant reactions,
hunches and emotions.
• Blue hat: This is the summary hat. The blue hat is the ‘chairperson’ who
pulls all the points of view together and evaluates and prioritises them.
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Generating ideas 175

Consciously wearing the different hats in turn can help you avoid unbal-
anced thinking, and ensure that you do try to view your iceberg from all
angles.

TOP TIP

The Six Hats technique is also useful in group-work as it

helps to ensure that different points of view are represented,
something that is particularly useful in groups where there
is one forceful point of view. It can also help to prevent
personality clashes since different points of view are raised
under the ‘hat’ rather than attributed personally.

Visual representations

We’ve mentioned this technique before in chapter 8.

Summarise your knowledge of a topic as a mindmap or flow diagram. Seeing
a summary of the ‘whole picture’ will help you identify ‘loose connections’,
any gaps that need filling or general trouble spots. Think of this as building
your own personal iceberg!
Drawing out what you know in this way also helps to ensure that you won’t
forget any component when systematically applying the critical thinking
questions in chapter 10.

SWOT

SWOT is another well-known technique, which you may have used before.
The aim is to generate a range of ideas about a topic using the four head-
ings Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. You generate the ideas
by asking: ‘What are the strengths (weaknesses, opportunities or threats) that
accompany this topic or debate?’
There are only two rules:

1. Every idea you have is written down and nothing is censored.

2. You only begin to evaluate the ideas when no more can be generated.
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176 Generating ideas

As with Six Hats, this is a technique you can use by yourself or with
others. When used in a group you are more likely to generate richer or more
diverse ideas.

LOOKING AHEAD

SWOT, along with PEST, is also a popular business tool,

PEST, or STEP as it is also known, follows the same
principles as SWOT, but ideas are generated by asking ‘What
are the political, economic, social and technological fac-
tors that accompany this topic or debate?’ It is possible for
the ideas generated in a PEST and a SWOT to overlap.

Adopting different persona

This activity is similar to Six Thinking Hats, although here you place
yourself in specific roles. For example, when studying the topic of Social Policy
and Healthcare you might systematically place yourself in the roles of Nye
Bevan, CEO of a private healthcare company, a pensioner on state benefit
and leader of the two main political parties. What would each of these have
to say about public policy around healthcare? And how would they justify
their viewpoints?
Once again this is a technique that can be used individually or in groups.
It can be used as a debating tool, in which group members debate according
to the role they have adopted.

Metaphor

Lakoff and Johnson (1980) stated that:

‘Most people think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor. We have
found, on the contrary, that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in
language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms
of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.’
(p. 3)
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Generating ideas 177

They stated that people learn through making comparisons, and it is the
resulting metaphors that drive subsequent thoughts and behaviours. The meta-
phors we use can help us to clarify topics, gain greater understandings,
generate new ideas and resolve problems (Fernandez-Duque & Johnson 1999,
Alty et al. 2000).
Metaphors can also restrict our learning. Chew and Laubichler (2003) argue
that while the simplicity of many scientific metaphors is what gives them
intuitive appeal, they can also lead to troubling misunderstandings. Similarly
metaphor can affect our ‘world view’. Lakoff (1991), for example, analysed
the language used to support the proposed Gulf War. When oil is described
as a ‘lifeline’, he argues, wealth then becomes synonymous with health, and
we all want to be healthy?
You may have noticed other references to consciously using and being aware
of metaphor in this book (see chapter 3 and chapter 9).

TRY THIS

What metaphors are used in your own subject? How do they direct your
thinking? Can you introduce a new metaphor? How well does it work?
Can you introduce a ‘forced’ metaphor? Try asking yourself, for
example, How is X like . . . a hair dressing salon . . . a zoo . . . or
a jungle? How well does the metaphor work?

Brainstorming

This is the ‘traditional’ and still widely used way of exploring a topic. It’s
attributed to Alex Osborn in the 1960s although there are many variants on
his original model. Brainstorming was originally a group attempt to find
solutions to problems by allowing everyone to express ideas their spontaneously.
Individuals can also use it to explore topics in a more general way – for
example everything you know, feel and believe about a topic. Like SWOT,
the aim of brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible, without
evaluation or censorship.
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178 Generating ideas

Ideas are only evaluated once no more can be generated and, as with SWOT,
ideas need not be owned or endorsed by the person who suggests them.
Variations on simple brainstorming are also possible (Richard 2003,
McFadzean 1998).

DANGER!

Brainstorming has been criticised for:

• not allowing sufficient time for idea generation

• moving on to evaluation too quickly
• not evaluating!

Because brainstorming is so widely used it is often in

danger of being used too casually, As with any tool, it is
only as good as the person using it. Allow ample time to
brainstorm and stick to the rules!

TOP TIP

Try brainstorming on post-it notes. When you come to review

your ideas you can physically move them round and
arrange them under different themes.

Consequences

In this technique you write out everything you know about the issue in separate
statements. Then for each statement pose the question. . . . ‘And the conse-
quence is?’ You continue posing this question until you can go no further. Let’s
look at how this technique might work if we wanted to explore Freud’s belief in
unconscious motivations.
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Generating ideas 179

Q. What is the consequence of this?
A. The theory is difficult to test empirically.

Q. What is the consequence of being difficult to test?

A. It will have less appeal to experimental psychologists.

Q. What is the consequence of having less appeal to experimental

psychologists?
A. Since the dominant paradigm is experimental psychology, then psycho-
analysis may not be well respected among other psychologists.

Q. What is the consequence of not being respected?

A. Freudian psychologists might become marginalised within psychology.

Q. What is the consequence of being marginalised?

A. Psychoanalysis may be ignored or overlooked by the psychological estab-
lishment, etc.

The aim is to progress your thinking to a stage that you might not
normally reach through continual probing.

What next?

If you are using any of the above techniques by yourself we recommend that
you try to have fun with them and enjoy them – particularly those that allow
you to exercise your imagination! By allowing yourself to play with ideas in
a non-threatening, ‘lets see where this takes me’ sort of way, you can make
your own meanings and engage with the subject in a new way.
And don’t worry if you find yourself sitting and daydreaming for a while
– you will be in good company. Einstein also claimed that ‘Imagination is
more important than knowledge’ and the story goes that the theory of rela-
tivity developed from a time when he sat in the sun and ‘daydreamed’ about
taking a ride on a sunbeam!
Feeling positive has itself been associated with improved performance
in problem-solving. So all the more reason to relax and enjoy? (Isen et al.
1987).
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180 Generating ideas

The techniques in this chapter should help you to explore and get to grips
with new concepts and ideas. They should make you better equipped to under-
take the more systematic and rigorous critical analysis that is described in
the next chapter.

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘Probably one that you’ve heard before, but it works. Try

carrying a “thought notebook” around with you and jotting
down ideas or insights as soon as they occur to you. I used to
promptly forget my flashes of inspiration but now I write them
down straight away and can return to them later.’

SUMMARY
The mindmap opposite, figure 9.2, summarises the ideas in this chapter.
 Relax and enjoy To challenge your thinking
Take a questioning
approach To see things differently
TSSC09 5/9/06 8:42 Page 181

To check what you understand

Assignments and projects

Six Thinking Hats

Seeing things differently
Visual representations
Seeing things
SWOT differently:
techniques
Adopting persona

Metaphor Is your subject Unknown content?

an iceberg?
Brainstorming Different ways to approach it?

Consequences Changing over time?

Figure 9.2 Summary of chapter 9

Generating ideas
181
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 182

10 Becoming a critical thinker

KEY POINTS

Critical thinking is an essential ‘real life’ skill and ‘higher level’

educational skill

There are standardised tests available for measuring critical thinking skills

You can develop your critical thinking skills

The Triple A model is a working definition of critical thinking:
Acquaint, Analyse and Advance

The LEOR model, Logic, Emotion, Omission and Research, is useful
for analysing information

There may be factors that can impede or facilitate critical thinking

INTRODUCTION

Why is education so important? What is its purpose? Are you trying

to perfect your memory skills? Or master the ‘perfect’ exam technique?
Or work successfully with others? Or learn to think?
Many would claim that transferable skills such as ‘working with
others’ and ‘learning to think’ are the greatest benefits of higher
education. It’s not unusual to hear successful adults claim they have
forgotten the subject matter they studied at university and, although
some job roles require specific subject knowledge, many do not. In these
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Becoming a critical thinker 183

cases graduate trainees, often with different academic backgrounds,

typically acquire company-relevant knowledge through a combination
of formal learning and practical experience. Such recruits are valued
for their generic skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking rather
than degree discipline alone.
In this chapter we’re going to explore the topic of critical thinking
through four questions:

1. What is ‘critical thinking’?

2. Am I a critical thinker?
3. How can I improve my critical thinking?
4. Are there any barriers to critical thinking?

By the end of the chapter, you should be able to use your critical
thinking skills to refine your own opinion on the purpose and value of
education.

1. WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?

Have you ever watched a comedy show in which one actor talks increasingly
loudly, in the hope that the foreign listener will eventually understand what
is being said? It’s funny only because we all know that raising the volume
does not improve comprehension!
Yet, in our experience something similar often happens in education. Does
any of the following feedback sound familiar?

‘Good work, although very descriptive – you needed to include

more critical appraisal.’
‘A sound summary, but lacking thorough critical evaluation.’
‘Good as far as it goes – the next step is to increase the
amount of critical comment.’

If you’re ever received similar feedback how did you feel? We’d guess that
the most common reactions include:
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184 Becoming a critical thinker

‘But I thought I had been critical. . . .’

‘I don’t understand what I’m meant to do.’
‘I worked so hard on that essay – it must
have deserved a better grade.’

Just as talking more loudly cannot increase language comprehension so

repeated requests for more critical reasoning cannot ensure it happens. In
both instances there is a skill to be learnt.

TRY THIS

In order to identify the skills required, let’s think about the meaning
of the phrase ‘critical thinking’. Take a look at some of the definitions
of critical thinking presented here and try to identify the key ideas
contained in each.
Critical thinking is. . . .

Reasonable and reflective thinking that is focused upon deciding what to

believe or do.
(Norris & Ennis 1989)

The art of thinking about thinking while thinking to make thinking better.
(Paul & Heaslip 1995)

Thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal directed – the kind of think-
ing involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating
likelihoods and making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are
thoughtful and effective for the particular context and type of thinking task.
(Halpern 1995)

An investigation whose purpose is to explore a situation, phenomenon, ques-

tion or problem to arrive at a hypothesis or conclusion about it, that inte-
grates all available information and that can therefore be convincingly justified.
(Kurfiss 2000)

An awareness of a set of interrelated critical questions, plus the ability

and willingness to ask and answer them at appropriate times.
(Browne & Keeley 2004)
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Becoming a critical thinker 185

There are numerous definitions of ‘critical thinking’, but

what do they have in common? Drawing on your own experience,
and the key ideas identified above, have a go at writing your own
definition of critical thinking.

How did you do? Your definition should aim to show what critical think-
ing involves and perhaps how it differs from other forms of thinking. If your
definition included words such as ‘evaluating’, ‘questioning’ with ‘conscious’,
‘directed’ or ‘focused’ then you are definitely on the right lines!
Good critical thinkers don’t accept facts at face value. This doesn’t mean
that you become distrustful or cynical, instead it means that you should
carefully consider the validity of every idea, concept or statement that you
meet in your study. You do not have to agree with all the ideas or theories
that you encounter, but any criticism must be based on sound thinking rather
than an emotional reaction or ‘gut’ feelings.

Critical thinking is like buying a secondhand car!

There are probably many occasions when you already exhibit critical think-
ing. Shopping for a major purchase is a time when most of us become skilled
critical thinkers. Imagine that you want to buy a secondhand car within a
fixed budget. You visit a car salesman, who says he has ‘the perfect car
for you’ and you agree to look at the vehicle. Which of the following best
captures how you will behave?

1. You hand over the cash on first sight.

2. You try to decide if this is indeed the perfect car for you.

There may be times when you ‘fall in love’ with a particular car at first
sight and allow your emotions to override more rational thoughts. We sus-
pect that, most of the time, most of us would want to take the second option.
Part of this decision would involve thinking carefully about the information
given by the salesman.
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186 Becoming a critical thinker

TRY THIS

Firstly, complete the ‘thought bubbles’ below in response to what the

salesman is saying:

‘This is
the ideal car for
you.’

‘It’s been exceptionally

well looked after. Only one careful
owner since new and it has been
serviced regularly.’

‘Not only is this car a

great little goer, but it’s just been
fitted with new tyres and
a new clutch.’

‘It does 35 mpg and this

model is renowned for its reliability. I’d
strongly recommend that you give it a
test drive – it’s bound
to sell quickly!’
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Becoming a critical thinker 187

See page 262 for our ideas. Now read through what you’ve written and
tick the table below to show whether these terms are evident in one or
more of your own thought bubbles.

Applies Does not apply

Questioning

Evaluating

Deciding

Intentional

Objective

Non-emotional

Rational

Evidence-based

Logical

Although we may associate ‘critical thinking’ with education, the exercise

above should demonstrate that you employ critical thinking in many other
contexts. Your role as a critical learner is to approach all ideas in the same
way that you would the secondhand car salesman.

Critical thinking in education

In each of your assignments and every course learning outcome, there should
be a key verb intended to show you how to engage with the material.
Commonly used verbs include compare, contrast, summarise, consider,
describe and state.
Such verbs are not chosen randomly. They are selected after taking the
level or stage of the course, and the specific aims of an assignment or learn-
ing outcome, into consideration.
One of the challenges that you face as a learner is to recognise the types
of thinking skills that these different verbs require you to demonstrate.
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188 Becoming a critical thinker

Evaluation Higher-level thinking

Synthesis

Analysis

Applicati
on

Compr
ehensio
n

Know
ledge

Lower-level thinking skills

Figure 10.1 Bloom’s hierarchy of cognitive skills

Educationalist Benjamin Bloom (1956) proposed a hierarchy of thinking skills

which is still used in education today (see figure 10.1).
This ‘thinking skills’ ladder runs from ‘concrete’ thinking (such as know-
ing facts) through to ‘abstract’ thinking. The abstract skill of evaluation, or
critical thinking, sits at the top of the ladder.

TRY THIS

Educationalists associate different verbs with the different rungs of the

ladder. Imagine that you want a group of students to complete several
assignments, each focusing on one of the levels above. What verbs could
you use to guide student thinking styles at each stage of the hierarchy?

Table 10.1 illustrates some of the verbs that are frequently employed at
each level of the hierarchy. So, when learners are expected to evaluate they
might be asked to ‘critically appraise’ or ‘judge’ as well as ‘evaluate’.
In reality there is often some overlap between the verbs associated with
the different rungs of the hierarchy; the important point is that there is an
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Becoming a critical thinker 189

Table 10.1 Verbs used at each stage of the thinking skills hierarchy

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

Label Describe Demonstrate Compare Organise Judge
Memorise Explain Illustrate Contrast Create Appraise
List Report Apply Distinguish Combine Assess
Order Re-write Solve Relate Review Justify

accepted cognitive continuum from ‘rote learning’ through to ‘what’s good

about this’? In order to reach the top rung of the ladder you must have climbed
the lower rungs first, since you can’t evaluate without first having factual know-
ledge and understanding.
Look again at some of your recent assignment titles or course learning out-
comes, with the following questions in mind:

• What cognitive instruction terms are included?

• Can you spot any ‘progression’ of terms, perhaps from one year to
another or from the start to the end of the course?
• If you are registered on a postgraduate programme do you notice any
change from your undergraduate days?

TRY THIS

We believe that all courses, regardless of the subject, lend themselves

to the full hierarchy of thinking skills. For example:

• Medical students must memorise anatomy; yet reaching the correct

diagnosis and deciding on optimal treatment for an individual patient
invariably requires critical thinking.
• History students memorise dates but choosing between two conflict-
ing historical accounts requires critical thinking.
• Sociology students must be able to describe Functionalism and
Interactionism. Yet evaluating these two perspectives requires
critical thinking.

Consider some of the topics that you are currently studying. What
have you memorised and what has involved critical thinking?
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190 Becoming a critical thinker

TOP TIP

When you are asked to evaluate in an essay or exam, it is

important that you reach the top of the ladder very quickly,
since this will help you to achieve maximum grades. Lengthy
description is usually at the expense of evaluation and it does
not attract the marks reserved for good critical thinking.
We’ve yet to hear of any essay feedback saying there was
too much critical appraisal!

2. AM I A CRITICAL THINKER?

Just as you can assess your preferred intelligence, learning style or reading
speed using specifically designed tests, so you can assess your critical think-
ing skills. There are three main tests designed for this purpose.

The Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal

(WGCTA) test

• Developed by Watson and Glaser (1952).

• Based on five different but interdependent types of ‘critical thinking’:

– drawing inferences
– making assumptions
– deductive reasoning
– interpretation
– argument discrimination.

The California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST)

• Developed by Facione (1990) following a survey among members of the

American Philosophical Association about what precisely constitutes
critical thinking.
• Incorporates five cognitive skills:
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Becoming a critical thinker 191

– induction
– deduction
– inference
– analysis
– evaluation.

The Cornell Critical Thinking Test

• Developed by Ennis and Millman (1985).

• Includes multiple-choice questions addressing:

– definition
– induction
– deduction
– prediction
– fallacy
– credibility
– assumptions identification.

Each of these tests measure critical thinking, as defined by the test develop-
ers, and each is independently produced and marketed. There is an enormous
amount of background information and data available for each test; norms are
available, validity has been examined and each has been widely used in research.
Educational organisations or employers sometimes use these tests to
assess levels of critical thinking. Scores on the WGCTA, for example, have
been shown to be predictive of success in a range of educational programmes
(Gadzella et al. 1997). You might want to enquire whether your educational
institution has purchased the rights to administer one of these tests.

TRY THIS

Table 10.2 suggests a few diagnostic questions to help you consider

your own critical thinking. Try to answer each question using ‘Hardly
Ever’ (HE), ‘Sometimes’ (S) or ‘Nearly Always’ (NA).
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192 Becoming a critical thinker

Table 10.2 Diagnostic questions

Question HE S NA

1. Does your assignment feedback typically praise your

critical appraisal?

2. When you first hear a controversial argument do you

consider all angles or you do you reach an ‘instant’
decision?

3. Are you able to articulate and justify the views you hold?

4. Do you easily spot weaknesses in other people’s

arguments?

5. Are you reflective – do you review and analyse personal

experiences and events?

6. Are you able to present an internally consistent argument

on controversial topics?

7. Are your opinions usually underpinned by logic and not

just emotion?

8. Would your friends describe you as fair and open-minded?

9. How often do you query the material that you are

presented with in the classroom or lecture theatre?

10. How often do you reconsider your views when you’re

presented with more information?

If your answers are mainly ‘nearly always’ then we think that you are likely
to be well on the way to being a good critical thinker, since these are some
of the attributes that we associate with critical thinking and evaluation. Personal
reflection and review are also an important element of critical thinking. See
chapter 12 for more detail.
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 193

Becoming a critical thinker 193

TOP TIP

It’s usually more difficult to carry out critical appraisal effec-

tively when you feel emotionally involved in the topic. No
matter how passionate you feel about a subject or debate,
try to adopt the position of a disinterested onlooker when
critically appraising the arguments. Chapter 9, Generating
Ideas, should help here.

The good news is that your critical thinking skills are not fixed but can be
improved. In the next section we look at how to develop and improve your
critical thinking abilities.

3. HOW CAN I IMPROVE MY CRITICAL THINKING?

As shown above there are many definitions of critical thinking around. We’ve
called our working definition of critical thinking the Triple A model. The Triple
A model aims to summarise the key stages of critical thinking.

TRIPLE A MODEL OF
CRITICAL THINKING

1. Acquaint yourself with the

ideas that are being presented. What key points are being made?
2. Analyse the arguments underpinning these ideas. Are they flawed
in any way?
3. Advance the situation. What are the implications of this debate?

At each stage of the Triple A model there are different strategies that you
can use to help improve your critical thinking skills:
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194 Becoming a critical thinker

Stage 1 Acquaint

The aim here is to gain an understanding of the theory or concept that you
wish to evaluate.
You first need to consider where to look for relevant information, which
books or journals will be useful and the best reading approach to use:

• If possible begin by looking at the information sources cited on your read-

ing lists.
• Alternatively, look for other books or articles published by the same authors.
• Try reading simple or introductory texts before moving to ‘higher level’
sources.
• Make sure you have the skills you need to undertake an effective liter-
ature search.
• Allow sufficient time to locate the information you need.

Assuming the information you have is in print format, you’ll probably use
all three main reading skills. You will need to scan and skim when making
your book or journal selection, and later engage in focused reading as you
familiarise yourself with some of the nuances and subtleties. (For more advice
on reading strategies see chapter 6.)
Even topics that predominantly involve visual or auditory evaluation – such
as art or music – normally require some background reading in order to appre-
ciate the historical or technical context.

Stage 2 Analyse

Once you have an understanding you then need to analyse the theory or con-
cept. One way to do this is to ask a series of questions under the headings
Logic, Emotion, Omission and Research (LEOR), as shown in figure 10.2.
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 195

Becoming a critical thinker 195

Logic
Is the theory or argument consistent or does it contradict itself?
Does each conclusion follow naturally from the preceding points?
Are there any circular arguments?
Are all the claims justified or are assumptions being made?
Are all the points relevant to the overall argument?
Emotion
Is the argument overly emotional?
Does the author have a vested interest in persuading the reader?
Is the argument presented fairly or is there bias?
Does the argument lack balance or subtlety?
Omission
Does any vital information appear to be missing?
Is any information distorted or presented inaccurately?
Is any information lacking in precision?
Are there are alternative explanations or viewpoints that are not included or considered?
Research
If research data are included then you need to assess their validity and reliability. The
questions that help you do this can be summarised as ‘5Ws and one H’:
Why? Why was the original research undertaken?
• What were the original research objectives?
What? What type of research was undertaken?
• Surveys? Experiments? Qualitative research (e.g. in-depth interviews)?
Where? Where was the research undertaken?
• In which country(ies)? Urban or rural settings?
• In a laboratory or in a natural setting?
When? 1. What year(s)?
2. Does the time of day, day of the week, or time of the year matter?
Who? 1. Who took part in the research?
• What type of person participated in the research? What criteria were
used to allow entry into the research, e.g. age, gender, social class?
• How many? How were they found?
• Does the sample represent the total population of interest?
2. Who commissioned the research?
• e.g. government/charity/pressure group/company
3. Who published the research? Was the report peer-reviewed?
How? 1. How were the data collected? e.g.
• attitudinal data?
• observational data?
• self-reported behavioural data?
• knowledge data?
2. How are the data reported?
• Does the reporting show any bias?
• Have the appropriate statistical tests been used?
• Is the use of percentages fair or misleading?
• Are graphs a fair representation of the data, or do they ‘distort’ the data
in any way?

Figure 10.2 The LEOR questions

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196 Becoming a critical thinker

If you feel that you want to include additional questions under each head-
ing don’t worry. The headings are there to help you remember the types of
questions you should ask, and the questions we’ve included are not intended
to be dogmatic or exhaustive.

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

When thinking critically try asking
these two questions:
1. Is this a theoretical argument and am I convinced by the quality
of the argument expressed?
2. Is research data included and have I assessed the quality of that data?

TRY THIS
Take a moment to read through the paragraph below, which presents
a fictional argument about smoking in the UK:
There are currently around 12 million adult smokers in Great Britain and
prevalence is highest in the 20–24-year age group. Smokers are more likely
to come from lower socio-economic groups, and these groups also begin
smoking at a younger age. As with so much else, it appears to be the
middle classes who are receiving the lion share of smoking cessation and
healthcare initiatives. Meanwhile, the number of teenage pregnancies
and sexually transmitted diseases continues to rise in the UK, and once again
these affect the lower socio-economic classes more than others. The con-
tinued representation in the media of smoking as an ‘adult’ behaviour and
one which enhances sexual attractiveness is negatively influencing these vul-
nerable young people, who find themselves in a cycle of smoking, drinking
and casual sex. If we want to reduce the number of new smokers we must
target these at-risk groups with literature on smoking and lung cancer, and
show the pain and stress that this disease brings to both the sufferers and
their familes. It is also time to conscientiously sue those vendors, who are
presently escaping prosecution, who sell tobacco to under-age consumers.

What were your initial thoughts as you read through the paragraph
above? What did you think of the arguments presented?
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 197

Becoming a critical thinker 197

Let’s look at this same paragraph now, using the four headings, LEOR:

Logic

• It is not consistent to claim that, because more Is the argument

smokers come from lower socio-economic classes, consistent or does it
these groups are receiving less health-promotion contradict itself?
resource. They might receive the same amount
or even more resource, but respond to it Does each conclusion
differently. Different messages around smoking follow naturally from
cessation might, for example, have a differential the preceding points?
impact on different socio-economic groups.
• This new topic of sexually transmitted disease Are there any
rates is not made relevant to the overall circular arguments?
discussion on smoking.
• The first implicit assumption is that smokers Are all the claims
are at greater risk of the STD or pregnancy justified or are
than non-smokers. Yet nothing is presented assumptions being
to substantiate that claim. made?
• A second assumption is that tobacco advertising
has resulted in increased sexual activity among Are all the points
the young. Once again, there is nothing to relevant to the
support this argument. overall argument?
• Although the assertion that more smoking-
cessation campaigns delivered to lower socio-
economic groups might be considered
reasonable, there is nothing to support the view
that ‘disease’ campaigns should be used.
Although a ‘disease’ campaign is advocated we
don’t know if this is the most effective campaign
material to use. Would ‘saving money’ or ‘bad
breath’ campaigns have more impact?
• The conclusion does not relate to the earlier
information, nor is the statement that vendors
are currently not prosecuted justified. In order
to examine the truth of this assertion we need
to see some data.
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198 Becoming a critical thinker

Emotion

• Some emotional terms are included in the Is the argument overly

paragraph. The phrase ‘lion share’ implies emotional?
a large difference in resource allocation,
but this assertion is not justified in Does the author have
any way. a vested interest in
• Since the author of the paragraph is not persuading the reader?
shown we do not know if the writer has a
vested interest. Who do you think is more Is the argument presented
likely to have written the article – the fairly or is it biased?
tobacco industry, a government department
or an anti-smoking pressure group?

Omission

• The figures included are not contextualised Is any vital information

and so important information is not missing?
included. Does the figure of 12 million
smokers represent an increase or decrease Is any information
of the number of smokers over time? distorted or presented
• Is the amount of tobacco smoked inaccurately?
increasing or decreasing over time?
• What is the actual prevalence of smokers Is any information
across different social groups? lacking in precision?
• What is the evidence around sales to under-
age smokers and rates of prosecution? Are there alternative
• What is the evidence to suggest that explanations or
‘disease’ campaigns prevent the uptake of viewpoints that are not
smoking any more than, say, campaigns that included or considered?
focus on saving money or ‘here and now’
health-related issues such as bad breath?
• Although some information is provided it is
not enough to see the whole picture and so
the argument is not fairly presented.
• The author’s identity is not disclosed.
Does this matter? Why?
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 199

Becoming a critical thinker 199

Research

Although some figures on smoking are included 5Ws and 1 H

they are not referenced and there are
outstanding questions. Specifically:

• Who undertook the research into smoking

prevalence?
• Who participated in the research?
• How were the data collected?
• When were the data collected – are these
recent or historical figures?

Did you find that helpful? Some of the points mentioned here may have
jumped out when you first read the paragraph on smoking. Yet, when faced
with a complex or sophisticated argument, it can be difficult to exercise good
critical judgement. The LEOR questions should help you remain focused.

TOP TIP

Don’t be surprised if you are asked to critically appraise

complex areas where there are no clear solutions. Even
‘experts’ may not agree in their critical analysis of a situ-
ation – property market predictions, explanations of
improvements in ‘A’ level results over time and the safety
of the MMR vaccine are just three examples which demon-
strate diversity among expert analysis. Your job is to
decide which viewpoint you support and why.

Logical fallacies

There are also a number of different ways of arguing illogically that you can
look out for in your studies. They are known as logical fallacies and here are
examples of three common fallacies:

• Fallacy of false alternatives: Only two alternatives are put forward and
a conclusion is reached. Yet there are other alternatives that have not
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200 Becoming a critical thinker

been considered. For example, the cause of climate change is either de-
forestation or increased levels of carbon dioxide emissions through rising
car use. . . .
• Fallacy of false cause: An earlier event is said to have caused a later
event even though no evidence of causality is presented. Louise’s Granny
used to believe that the bad weather she experienced shortly after the first
lunar landing was the direct result of space travel . . .
• Fallacy of ignorance: Something is presented as the truth simply
because there is no opposing evidence. No one has shown that genetically
modified food damages your health, therefore it is safe . . .

Many logical fallacies have been identified. If you want to explore this
further then two current internet sites are included in the list at the end of
the book, although you may prefer to conduct your own search.
The LEOR activity above involved only a small amount of research data.
The next activity will provide you with more practice with the ‘R’ of ‘LEOR’:

TRY THIS

Read through the fictional account below, and then apply the LEOR
questions.

New research shows that concern about the lack of student accommoda-
tion is one reason why students do not apply to university. A recent survey
among University of Can-Do students showed that 69 per cent of respon-
dents cited accommodation availability as a factor they had taken into
consideration before applying to the university. 81 per cent stated that the
provision of accommodation for first-year students was ‘very poor’ and
42 per cent rated their current accommodation as ‘very poor’ in size,
cost and facilities.
It appears that the accommodation shortage can only worsen. In
1995 100 per cent of first-year students were given university accom-
modation but by 2005 this figure had fallen to 77 per cent. Drop-outs
during this time have risen from 12 per cent to almost 20 per cent of
students, which highlights the effect that accommodation shortages have
upon student commitment.
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 201

Becoming a critical thinker 201

Because this argument is based almost entirely on research data, the R
questions become more pertinent. Did you include any of the points below in
your answers?

Logic

The explanation of university drop-out is not logically Is the argument

complete – there may be other reasons to account for consistent or
this. does it
contradict itself

Emotion

We do not know who authored the paragraph – is there Is the argument

a vested interest? presented fairly
or is it biased?

Omission

• We don’t know what percentage of students Is any vital

received university accommodation between 1995 information
and 2005. missing?

Research

• The original research objectives are not given and 5 Ws and 1 H

the aims are not made explicit. Why?
• The research is described as a survey. What?
• Was research undertaken at other universities as Where?
the University of Can-do may not be representative
of all universities. Can you think of any ways in which
older non-campus universities, for example, may face
very different housing issues than newer campus
universities? Or universities with higher proportions
of overseas students? You might also want to
consider where the research is published since not
all journals review articles prior to publication.
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 202

202 Becoming a critical thinker

• Does it matter when the survey was undertaken? When?

Would you expect any differences if students were
surveyed in the first week of an academic year or
the last week?
• We are not told who participated nor the type Who?
of student that took part. Would it matter if
they were all from one type of university faculty or
from the same undergraduate year? Do you think
that first-year undergraduates face the same
housing issues as second- or third-year students?
• We also know very little about who took part. Would
you expect different responses if only students visiting
the student accommodation office were recruited?
• How were the data collected? We are not told how How?
the questionnaires were administered nor the exact
questions included. Question wording can influence
answers. For example, the question ‘Don’t you agree
that universities do not do very much to help students
find suitable accommodation?’ is more leading than
one that asks ‘How helpful are universities in helping
students to find accommodation?’
• How well are data reported? There are two or three
concerns that you might have identified. Firstly the
data is reported as percentages, yet we do not know
how many students took part in research.
Presenting percentages without including the overall
number of respondents is not very helpful. If only
20 students participated overall, then even high
percentages would still refer to very low absolute
numbers of students.
• Figures are presented for 1995 and 2005 but there
is no interim data. If student numbers had fallen
gradually over this period then you might feel more
convinced that there is a trend that will continue.
Alternatively, was there a sharp decrease in one
year only? A change in educational policy, for
example, might result in a sudden decrease in the
number of undergraduate students.
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 203

Becoming a critical thinker 203

We hope that this account shows how the ‘five Ws and an H’ can help you
to assess the strengths and weakness of a research study and the potency of
its’ conclusions or recommendations.

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘My advice to new learners is to be brave and always try to

adopt a position or an argument. Thanks mainly to a really
supportive teacher I’ve realised that I learn far more by eval-
uating and taking a position than I do through describing.
Sometimes I miss something very obvious, or my thinking is
illogical, yet my grade has still been respectable – it’s as though
my lecturers would prefer to see some attempt at critical think-
ing, even if it is flawed, than none at all. So, think positively,
have faith in yourself and have a go at developing your own
arguments!’

TOP TIP

It is likely that much of what you read will be a mix of both

logic- and research-based argument. Try to remember:

• Factual claims often require supporting evidence to be

convincing (try asking if you are reading an opinion
masquerading as a fact).
• Data does not speak for itself but always requires
interpretation.

Stage 3 Advance

And finally, the third stage of the Triple A model which is advance. Take a
look at the following paragraph about personal autonomy.
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204 Becoming a critical thinker

Do we have the freedom to choose the person we want to be? Does our biology
determine who we are? Does our environment determine who we are? This has
been one of the great debates in psychology and philosophy for hundreds of
years. The extreme biological model argues that our genes determine who we
are. The extreme social model argues that the culture we are born into makes
us who we are. Alternative models propose that through conscious thought we
have the capacity to examine ourselves and bring about change.

One way to advance your critical thinking is by taking a

step back and asking some ‘big picture’ questions. Instead of
focusing purely on the detail of the theory try asking ‘Why
is this an important question?’, ‘What are the implications
and applications of the arguments presented?’ and ‘Is there
a completely different way of addressing the question?’
What happens when you apply ‘big picture’ questions to the example of
personal autonomy above? Although the paragraph is short this debate has
HUGE implications. Does acceptance of biological determinism remove per-
sonal responsibility for our own actions? For example, if a ‘criminal gene’
was identified are criminals ‘born’ and not ‘made’? What would be the
implications for our current legal system? Should we continue to invest in
rehabilitation programmes? Or should there be greater investment into gene
research? What would be the role of psychologists or probation officers?
Being able to evaluate a debate in this manner is another way of demonstrating
your critical thinking skills. The big questions add an extra dimension to the debate
so try to get into the habit of asking yourself ‘Why is this topic important?’

IT WORKED FOR ME
‘One thing I’ve learned as an undergraduate, is that critical
thinking takes time. If I write an essay the night before the
due submission date, then either it is descriptive or the
thinking is flawed. So now, I try to give myself plenty of think-
ing time beforehand. It doesn’t need to be a huge block of
time; in fact I’ve found small pockets of time more useful.
It doesn’t have to be “formal” study time either. I sometimes
try and explore academic ideas when I’m engaged in fairly
“mindless” activities, for example when I’m working as a shelf
stacker at weekends or when I’m in the bath.’
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 205

Becoming a critical thinker 205

4. ARE THERE ANY BARRIERS TO CRITICAL THINKING?

We’ve said that critical thinking is a highly valued skill. Can you think of
any possible barriers to being a critical thinker? We asked a student
called Andrew to consider this and here is an extract from our subsequent
conversation:

Louise: Did you identify some potential barriers to

critical thinking?
Andrew: I’ve never considered this before so I’ve
tried to guess what might act as a barrier,
or what might make a difference. My first thought was that
family background might be important. Some families encourage
children to put forward their points of view far more than others,
so perhaps that impacts on how much critical thinking they later
display?
Louise: That’s a great suggestion. We’re not aware of any research look-
ing purely at ‘parental encouragement’ alone but some research
has investigated differences relating to social class. A study of
over 500 Hong Kong university students showed higher social
class students demonstrated superior critical thinking skills as
well as a more positive predisposition towards critical thinking
(Cheung et al. 2001). And many studies have highlighted class
differences in overall educational attainment and motivation
(Felner et al. 1995, Argyle 1994). As with much else, it seems
plausible that earlier experiences may impact later behaviours in
this area.
Andrew: I also wondered if cultural background matters? I’ve heard that
there are often differences in educational practices between coun-
tries, so I wondered if there are cultures where critical appraisal
is not encouraged? In a highly censored society for example? Or
some countries might want to actively discourage students ques-
tioning the status quo for political reasons?
Louise: Again, that’s a really good point. Although we can’t claim that polit-
ical sensitivity lies behind differences in educational systems, some
research suggests differences in approach to critical thinking between
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 206

206 Becoming a critical thinker

cultures (Yeh & Chen 2003, Howe 2004). One study, for example,
found that Australian students had a more positive predisposition
to critical thinking than Hong Kong Chinese students (Tiwari et al.
2003).
So, both personal experiences and societal influences may
affect critical thinking skills. Did you have anything else on your
list?
Andrew: I got stuck after that – there didn’t seem to be any more obvious
barriers! I wondered if there are individual barriers. For example,
are there any personality types that make better critical thinkers
than others, for example?
Louise: Well there are certainly some essential personal attributes and prac-
tices that go hand-in-hand with critical thinking. One of these is
metacognition a term coined by Flavell (1976). Metacognition is
the ability to stand back and consciously think about your think-
ing processes. It involves reflecting on what you currently know,
identifying gaps and needs, and monitoring and directing your
own thought processes. By thinking about your own thinking
you can plan and direct future thinking and learning strategies.
Metacogniton is a hugely valuable life skill! Outside formal learn-
ing situations you may receive little regular feedback and so it
becomes even more important that you can appraise your own
thinking processes.
And finally, one other potential barrier that we haven’t con-
sidered yet is the way in which education is organised. In a recent
review of the literature, Pithers and Soden (2000) identified certain
types of teacher behaviour, a curriculum focused on subject matter
rather than debate, or a culture of oppression as each being a
barrier to critical thinking.
Andrew: So what sorts of positive educational influences are there?
Louise: There is some evidence that students prefer certain teaching styles
above others, for example Problem Based Learning, and that these
preferred styles are associated with improved critical thinking
skills (Streinert 2004, Hay & Vincent 2004). And the current con-
sensus seems to be that critical thinking should be at the centre
of subject teaching and not taught solely as an independent sub-
ject in isolation from others (Pithers 2000, Maudsley & Strivens
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 207

Becoming a critical thinker 207

2000). Even when you have only limited direct influence over your
programme delivery, you can still consciously reflect on your
thinking processes and bring critical thinking to every subject that
you study.
Andrew: OK, great. I’ll try doing that and see what happens to my
grades!

LOOKING AHEAD

This chapter has focused on becoming a ‘critical thinker’.

Yet engaging in critical thinking and applying the results
of that thinking are not the same (Seymour et al. 2003).
Greenwood et al. (2000), for example, found that nurses
did not always implement the conclusion they had arrived
at through critical analysis. The nurses’ explanations for
this included the ‘people they were working with’ and ‘hos-
pital policy’. Other possible reasons why people do not apply
the results of their critical thinking might include:

• manager or peer pressure

• lack of any reward
• lack of experience in managing change
• an organisational culture that favours the ‘status quo’
• suggesting change often makes people unpopular.

Why not look ahead and consider whether there are any
personal skills that will help you to implement the results
of your critical appraisal either now or in the future?
TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 208

208 Becoming a critical thinker

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘A small group of us meet regularly to bounce ideas around

and challenge each other. It’s been so successful it’s almost
a social event now! Two weeks before each assignment is due
we meet up to discuss the topic and each bring along a snack
to share. My critical thinking skills have really developed
through this exploration and debate. Despite this group
discussion, we still each produce an individual essay – yet
one that each of us feels is richer because of the wider
discussions.’

SUMMARY

Let’s quickly summarise the Triple A model before showing a chapter

overview (figure 10.3).

• Step 1 Acquaint
• Step 2 Analyse: Use LEOR to help you, as appropriate
• Step 3 Advance
 Culture, gender? Are there any Life skill
barriers to What is
critical thinking? critical
Programme delivery? thinking? Educationally prized

Personal experiences? Higher-level cognitive skill

TSSC10 5/9/06 8:42 Page 209

A questioning approach
Triple A:
Read around Acquaint

Understand
Becoming a critical thinker

Logic How can I improve

Why? Triple A: my critical
Emotion Analyse thinking?
What?
Omission
Where? 5 Ws and 1 H WGCTA
Research
Am I a
When? critical 3 main tests CCTST
Big picture thinker?
Who? Self test CCTT
Importance and Triple A:
How? implications Advance You can improve!

Figure 10.3 Summary of chapter 10

Becoming a critical thinker
209
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 210

11 How to Write an Essay

‘Good writing is bad writing that was rewritten.’

Railbert (1996)

KEY POINTS

Essay-writing draws on reading, note-taking, and critical thinking

Developing expertise in writing requires time and practice

You should consider purpose, preparation, process, structure, style and
content when essay writing

The ability to communicate clearly in writing is a valuable skill

INTRODUCTION
Most, if not all, formal study requires some writing, although the nature
of the writing will vary. This chapter focuses on essay-writing, the tradi-
tional method of assessing student learning, and we explore the craft
of essay writing by examining these seven areas:

1. Purpose: What is my objective here? (page 211)

2. Preparation: What should I do first? (page 212)
3. Process: Is there a recommended approach to writing? (page 216)
4. Structure: What form should my essay take? (page 221)
5. Style: What kind of writing do I use? (page 222)
6. Content: What subject matter do I include? (page 228)
7. Review: What can I learn for the future? (page 231)
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 211

How to write an essay 211

1. PURPOSE: WHAT IS MY OBJECTIVE HERE?

Before you begin any writing assignment, you should be able to answer the
following questions:

• What do I want to say?

• Who is my audience?
• Why are they reading what I’ve written?

Although these questions may appear straightforward, many people find them
tricky to answer when applied to course essays. How would you respond? The
answers to these questions will influence how you write.
Many academics feel driven to write because of a passionate belief in their
subject, yet as a learner you may often be uncertain of what you want to say.
It is much easier to write when you have a clear idea of your intended
message and the preparation stage can help you identify this.
Your ‘official’ audience is the person who marks the essay. However, we
recommend that you also write with an artificial audience in mind, such as
an intelligent, educated ‘lay person’ with an interest in the subject. Your
lecturer will read your essay in order to assess your learning, while your
fictitious audience will read to be informed. Your essay will be much stronger
if you take account of both audiences.
It can be intimidating to write with your lecturer, an acknowledged expert,
in mind. Norton et al. (2001)’s research on essay-writing uncovered a num-
ber of misguided beliefs that students followed in the hope of pleasing the
assessor and improving their grades.
These included:

• not criticising the lecturer’s views

• using jargon/big words/technical terms to try and impress the lecturer
• trying to include obscure information, or information not covered in the
lectures, to try and make a better impression
• putting more effort into the first essay to try and create a positive first
impression
• writing over the word limit.

Such behaviours are not recommended and instead of helping may actu-
ally hinder your grade.
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212 How to write an essay

2. PREPARATION: WHAT SHOULD I DO FIRST?

Before you can begin to write an essay you need to be clear about your task.
This requires good preparation.

TRY THIS

Rate the statements below to review how you usually prepare for essay
writing
Never Occasionally Sometimes Usually Always

a) I allow enough time

to research my essays

b) I allow enough time

to write my essays

c) I take care to





interpret and
understand the
essay title

d) I read all the student

advice and marking
criteria

e) I think about what

I already know, and
identify knowledge
gaps and ways to
fill them

f) I keep a record of





all my reading

g) I develop a position





on the topic before
I begin writing

h) If I am unsure of





what is expected,
I ask my tutor
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 213

How to write an essay 213

Which answers did you select? We hope you had a clean sweep of ‘always’,
but if not, let’s take a closer look at each point.

a) I allow enough time to research my essays

Try working backwards from the due submission date to allocate the time
you need. Allow time for:

• searching the literature

• reading and critically appraising the literature
• inter-library requests
• recalling on-loan texts
• other studies
• other areas of your life e.g. birthdays, work, public holidays, vacations
and family time.

b) I allow enough time to write my essays

Essay-writing falls under the category of ‘Things in Life that Always Take
Much Longer than Anticipated’ so allow even more time than you might expect.
Even smaller tasks such as proofreading, or compiling the reference list, can
be surprisingly time-consuming. If you have to deal with any unexpected events
e.g. illness, then keep a record of dates in case you need to request an exten-
sion or ask for ‘exceptional circumstances’ to be taken into consideration.
A late submission without permission may not be accepted or may carry an
automatic penalty.

c) I take care to interpret and understand the title

It can be tempting to read a title and start working immediately, only to realise
later that your initial interpretation was wrong. Consider the title carefully,
until you are confident you understand what is required. Are you clear about:

• exactly what the question is asking?

• how many parts there are to the question?
• which parts, if any, are the most important?
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 214

214 How to write an essay

• any hidden subtleties in the question?

• the degree of flexibility you have to select a particular approach? (see
the Q&A section on page 229).

DANGER!

It is absolutely fine, and even helpful, to discuss the title with

your peers. Any collaboration after this point may leave you
open to accusations of cheating or plagiarism. You should
write your essay alone and not in a group.

d) I read all the student advice and marking criteria

You need to do this at the preparation stage and not leave it until the point
of submission!
Some courses/institutions have very explicit competencies and marking
criteria for assignments and marks are automatically deducted if work does not
strictly adhere to the given criteria. Other institutions may have more sub-
jective or flexible marking schemes. We recommend you find out as much as
you can about exactly how your work will be graded. In many cases you’ll
be given specific advice, which may even include guidance on the preferred
‘house style’ and whether there are penalties for exceeding the word limit.

TRY THIS

Have a go at grading essays by swapping clean copies of previously

marked essays with other course members. If marking criteria were
provided then use those, otherwise you can apply/adapt our generic
marking grid on page 263.
As you read the essay put yourself into the assessor role and consider
the following:
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 215

How to write an essay 215

• What grade will you award overall?

• How will you justify that grade?
• How will you phrase your feedback so that it is balanced, truthful
and motivating?

You may want to read through the section on peer assessment

(page 102, chapter 5) before undertaking this activity, since it requires
high levels of trust and good interpersonal skills.

e) I think about what I already know and identify knowledge

gaps and ways to fill them

Reflecting on the essay title and student advice will help you to assess your
knowledge and identify any gaps. You then need to consider which resources
will help you improve. Try to make this as easy as possible for yourself:

• Use your recommended reading lists, lecture notes and handouts before
searching further.
• Check out the learning style tips for literature searches on pages 71– 6
(chapter 4).
• Use the reading techniques in chapter 6 to help you read texts in the most
appropriate way.
• Don’t allow yourself to be distracted by interesting, yet irrelevant
information.
• Recognise when to stop. Don’t use extended literature searching and
reading as an avoidance technique or displacement activity to delay the
essay writing!

f) I keep a record of all my reading

Have you ever completed an essay only to discover that you do not have full
details of all the references? Don’t let it happen. (Refer to chapter 8 for tips
on note-taking and record-keeping.)
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216 How to write an essay

g) I develop a position on the topic before I begin writing

An essay is a balanced argument, expressed in writing, usually in support of

a particular point of view. In order to make the writing process easier you
need to be clear about your own position and understand the supporting and
opposing arguments. Make sure you understand the positions and arguments
that are adopted in the literature, and ask yourself how convincing you find
them. What are the strengths of the different theories, perspectives or
accounts that you are reading? What are the weaknesses? Which aspects are
central to your essay? Some of the chapters in this book should help you to
develop your own point of view. (See especially chapters 8 and 9.)

h) If I am unsure of what is expected, I ask my tutor

Lecturers should not mind if you seek clarification around an essay title. Expect
to be asked for your own interpretation first so that the lecturer can see that
you have actively considered the assignment and can understand what is
causing confusion. It is better to ask than feel anxious.

3. PROCESS: IS THERE A RECOMMENDED APPROACH TO

WRITING?

There are many possible approaches to the process of writing an essay. Some
students sit down and write and write, while others work in a more piece-
meal fashion. Learners are often advised to ‘follow the process that works
best for you’. Yet often the essay-writing process is simply a ‘habit’ devel-
oped over time, rather than a conscious and deliberate attempt to find the
best technique. Is this the case for you?
What is your reaction to the statement below?

‘I have tried different approaches to essay-writing and am confident that I use

the one that gives me best results.’
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 217

How to write an essay 217

TRY THIS

Drawing on your own knowledge and experience what advice would you
give a new learner on the ‘best’ essay-writing process?
Our advice is shown below.

Begin with an essay plan

Use your preparation time to formulate an essay plan. You need to include
the key points, ideas and evidence that you will use to support your position
and then decide on a logical order. When you begin drafting the essay
you may find that you want to modify, extend or even completely rewrite
the plan. Don’t worry if this happens, for most people writing is an evolving
process.

Write your first draft

For most people, an iterative approach to essay-writing works best. In other

words, be prepared to write several drafts. With this in mind we recommend
that you:

• Write your essay in any order that you want to – many writers begin with
the main body of the essay and leave the introduction until last.
• Write down everything that seems relevant in your first draft and do not
censor. You can remove unnecessary material later.
• Do not aim for perfection – leave word crafting until much later in the
essay-writing process.

Your first draft should demonstrate the strengths and weaknesses of your
position and help to clarify your thinking and understanding. To confirm your
own clarity of thought on the issues try summarising your position to a friend
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218 How to write an essay

or colleague, without referring to your notes. This is a great way to uncover

any gaps or ‘woolly thinking’.

Develop and refine your essay

We predict that your first draft will include a mix of high- and low-quality
writing and content that varies in relevance. You may also have some glaring
gaps. You need to continue improving the essay by refining both content and
style. Doing this may take a number of iterations – research in this area
indicates that 3–4 drafts are common in better student essays. Campbell et al.
(1998) found that students who wrote stronger academic essays were more
likely to:

• reorganise material across sources when making notes

• engage in continuous drafting of the essay
• revise arguments and ideas not just ‘technicalities’ such as grammar and
spelling.

Be prepared to edit ruthlessly. Although this can feel tedious, each draft will
be superior to the previous attempt. Much essay-writing skill lies in what you’re
prepared to remove!

Continue to check that you are addressing the title

Throughout the writing process refer back to the title. This will avoid the
danger of unwittingly ‘replacing’ the actual title with another and going
off at a tangent. You may want to consider using the words in the title
to help keep you on track – but remember that too much repetition can be
tedious.

Continue to monitor your essay against the marking criteria

As your essay develops check that it meets the marking criteria. How are
marks allocated? Does your essay focus on the most important areas?
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 219

How to write an essay 219

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘When I’ve finished writing an essay I mark it myself using

the marking criteria. I always jot down the mark I would
award and the reasons why. Later on I compare my own
notes with the teacher’s comments. If I’m within 10 marks
I celebrate!’

Ask someone uninvolved to read the essay

It is often useful to have your essay looked at by someone unconnected with

your course – perhaps a friend from another course? Do they find any sections
vague or ambiguous? If so, how can you add precision or clarity? To avoid
accusations of cheating and plagiarism, don’t share drafts with others in your
study group, unless you’re all tackling different essays.

Read your essay aloud

We suggest that you read your final draft out loud. This helps to confirm
that the overall structure works, as well as providing insight about the flow
of individual sentences. At this stage you should not need to make sweeping
changes to the content or structure.

Proofread carefully

Proofread a paper copy that you can make notes on. Check the following:

• spelling
• grammar
• references
• length
• adherence to house style (including format and presentation).
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 220

220 How to write an essay

Retain electronic and paper copies

Keep a copy of every essay you submit: i) as a back-up if the original goes
astray and ii) as a reference for your future study. When you receive your
grade and feedback, file it with the essay.

Recognise the rule of diminishing returns

We’ve described essay writing as an iterative process, which begs the ques-
tion of when to stop. Anecdotally, it seems that three drafts are typical.
Remember that the early revisions are likely to lead to more substantial improve-
ments than later smaller amendments. Try to recognise the point when you
are simply ‘tweaking’ and call it a day. Three or four drafts of an essay are
usually enough to secure a reasonable grade.

INTERESTING FINDING

Torrance et al. (2000) identified four undergraduate writing strategies,

which they named:

1. Minimal drafting: one or two drafts at most.

2. Outline and develop: content development before and during draft-
ing.
3. Detailed planning: involved techniques such as brainstorming,
mindmapping in addition to drafting.
4. Think-then-do: preparation without an initial draft.

The 48 students involved in this longitudinal study showed consistency

in their chosen methods over time and the students using ‘detailed
planning’ or ‘think-then-do’ produced better-quality essays than others.
Thorough planning is vital.
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 221

How to write an essay 221

TOP TIP

Always proofread following an electronic spell-check.

Some spelling errors are also genuine words – ‘form’
instead of ‘from’ for example – and are not identified by a
computer spell-check. One final proofread before submis-
sion prevents this happening.
Some of our favourite spell-check gaffes include:

‘Freud engaged in extensive seasoning before arriving at

his model of . . .’
‘There is a rage of thought on this theory . . .’
‘The mascara at the Battle of the Somme’
‘Evidence is growing in support of global worming’.

4. STRUCTURE: WHAT FORM SHOULD MY ESSAY TAKE?

Academic essays have the following structure:

Title How to structure an essay

Introduction An introduction follows the title. This is usually one or
two paragraphs that interpret the title, state what is
(and sometimes what is not) covered within the essay and
summarise the key argument. The introduction is the
writer’s opportunity to set the context by showing how the
title has been interpreted and how the subject will be
approached.

Key Key definitions may be included next. The essay should then
definition? progress swiftly to the central thesis.

Main body The main body of the essay is used to build and develop the
(no central thesis or argument. Every point in the argument
subheadings, should be explored separately, and the supporting and
but clear conflicting theory or evidence discussed. (Chapter 10 on
structure) critical thinking should help you here.) After discussing the
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222 How to write an essay

strengths, weaknesses and alternatives, a conclusion is

reached on this aspect of the overall debate. The essay then
moves on to the next idea.
Each idea should progress naturally one to another and
subheadings are not needed. Instead, the connection between
paragraphs is shown by ‘signposts’ that signal your flow of
ideas. These help to ensure that the essay is cohesive and
not simply a series of disconnected points. Some examples
are shown later in this chapter.
Any quotes must also be structured correctly. Direct
quotes should be placed in quotation marks, indented and
properly referenced, to avoid plagiarism. Use quotes
sparingly and strive to use your own words. As Zinsser
(2001) says:

Remember that words are the only tools you’ve got. Learn to
use them with originality and care.
(p. 37)

Conclusion Finally, after presenting the relevant perspectives

there should be a conclusion that pulls together the
points made throughout the essay and reconfirms the
central argument. At this stage no new ideas or
material are introduced.

References References
Possibly a Zinsser, W. (2001) On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing
bibliography Nonfiction. New York: Harper Resource.

5. STYLE: WHAT KIND OF WRITING SHOULD I USE?

Style relates to your choice and use of language. Just as there is an academic
convention around the correct structure of an essay, so there are some
conventions around style that the majority of learning organisations have
adopted. What aspects of style should you consider when writing an
essay?
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 223

How to write an essay 223

TRY THIS

Table 11.1 lists eleven aspects of style.

Cover the right-hand column with a piece of paper and then read the
topics shown on the left. Before removing the paper, decide what advice
you would offer to a new student on each topic.

Table 11.1 Ten aspects of style

Style Advice

Use of Academic essays have traditionally been written in the third

first person person and have not used the personal pronoun I.
Sentences such as ‘This essay will explore . . .’ rather than
‘I will explore’ were considered the norm. More recently this
convention has been challenged (e.g. Hamill 1999) and more
learning organisations accept both first-and third-person writing.
If you’re not sure which is acceptable then have a word with your
teacher.
Note that some types of writing, such as reflective journals, may
require first-person writing.
The use of the second person e.g. ‘In this essay you will
discover . . .’ is invariably considered poor style.

Tense Essays tend to be written in the past tense, although there are
exceptions. Art and literature, for example, tend to be discussed in
the present tense. If you are unsure, ask your tutor which tense is
preferred in your subject area.

Gender-specific Gender-specific pronouns should be used only when

pronouns you want to refer specifically to men or to women. Continually
repeating words or phrases such as ‘he or she’ quickly becomes
cumbersome. For variety, try using plurals e.g. ‘they’ or ‘people’.
Only include gender when it’s helpful or necessary: e.g. is it
relevant that the engineer is ‘female’?
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 224

224 How to write an essay

Table 11.1 (cont’d)

Style Advice

Using quotes Direct quotes should be used sparingly, since their over-use
prevents you from demonstrating your own understanding.
However, they can be effective if well-chosen.
If you include direct quotes, then unless they are very short, they
should be indented and in inverted commas.

Use of bullet Essays should be written using full grammatical sentences, so

points avoid the use of bullet points or abbreviated sentences.

Voice Academia traditionally favoured use of the passive voice in essays,

but the rules are now more relaxed. For example, take the ‘active’
sentence ‘we are reading this book.’ In the passive this becomes
‘this book is being read by us.’ In the passive voice, the item or
person receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the
thing doing the action is optionally included at the end of the
sentence.
As a general rule, use the active voice unless there is a valid
reason for using the passive voice. The main reasons for using
passive voice are:

a) You want to emphasise the person or thing being acted upon

e.g. Columbus was ridiculed by his peers.
b) The actor or person ‘doing’ is not the important point. When
writing the experimental methods for a paper, it doesn’t usually
matter who added the sodium.
e.g. 20 mg of sodium was added to the solution.
c) The actor is unknown.
e.g. these cave drawings were painted thousands of years
ago.
d) You want to avoid any suggestion of responsibility or blame
e.g. the animals were killed. Rephrased in the active
voice, this becomes ‘They/we/somebody killed the
animals’.

You can check your understanding of this by completing the

activity on page 227.
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 225

How to write an essay 225

Table 11.1 (cont’d)

Style Advice

Referencing Vancouver and Harvard are the two main referencing styles.
style Many publications use the Vancouver method which involves
numbered references, while learning organisations often use the
Harvard approach, which is an alphabetical system. The Harvard
system always includes the author and date of publication within
the main body of the text, either by writing it into the
grammatical structure of the sentence or by including it
in brackets. For example:

Smith (1999) investigating classical conditioning in rats

found. . .
or
. . . as shown in classical conditioning research involving rats
(Smith 1999).

Note that author initials are not included except in the rare
case where you cite two different authors with the same surname
and with works in the same year. If there are two authors, both
names are included e.g. Smith & Brown (2002). When there
are three or more authors then only the first author is usually
presented in the text e.g. Smith et al. (2004). In the reference
list at the end of your text you should always use all the authors’
names, no matter how many there are for a given work, and
their initials. We’ve used the Vancouver methods for the interview
on sleep (see pages 24–6) and the Harvard system throughout the
rest of this book.
Although referencing is not difficult there is little flexibility.
That means that you must follow guidelines accurately in order
not to lose grades. Learning organisations usually produce their
own referencing guide. If you have not seen a copy ask your tutor
or librarian how to access one. Remember that all sources should
be referenced, e.g. internet or conference sources in addition to
journals or books.

Signposting Here are some ‘signposts’ or traditional ways of promoting

continuity between one paragraph and the next:
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 226

226 How to write an essay

Table 11.1 (cont’d)

Style Advice

• On the other hand . . .

• As a result of this . . .
• A contrary point of view argues . . .
• Nevertheless . . .
• An alternative approach . . .
• One consequence of this . . .
• Therefore . . .
• Alternatively . . .
• Finally . . .
• However . . .

Language George Orwell’s (1946) advice on language selection generally

remains sound:

• Never use a long word where a short one will do.

• If it is possible to remove a word, always do so.
• Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word
if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.

Why not try the word crafting activity on page 228?

House style Many learning organisations ask you to use the ‘house style’. This
is likely to include regulations around:

• handwritten or typed
• line-spacing requirements e.g. double spaced/single spaced
• margin requirements – some courses request wide margins, or
space for comments at the bottom of each page
• style relating to name, personal identifier and course code
• submission format e.g. stapled? plastic folder?

Is there No, do not try to be funny. Also avoid:

a place for
• colloquial phrases or slang
humour?
• sarcasm
• clichés
• over-used metaphors
• rhetorical questions.
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 227

How to write an essay 227

TRY THIS
The sentences in the left-hand column are written in the passive voice.
See if you can rewrite them using an active voice. Answers on page 264.

Passive Active

The exams were taken by the students The students took the exams

The books were read by the students The students read the books

The notes are being handed out by the

lecturer now

The sentences in this table should be

modified by you

The theories were presented by the authors

Your use of the active voice is encouraged

by us

DANGER!

If you write in the first person your reasoning must be

robust and balanced. When writing in the first person it is
easy to slip from objective argument to anecdotal account,
something you need to guard against.
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228 How to write an essay

TOP TIP

If your course involves a lot of writing you might want to

investigate some of the commercial referencing software
that tracks and imports references. Check if your learning
organisation has a site licence, or experience of any par-
ticular brand first, though.

TRY THIS

See if you can reduce the following passage from 64 words to under 40
without losing any meaning. You are allowed to make changes to the words
and the word order, but need to keep the sentiment the same. There are
lots of ways to do this, and our 32-word suggestion is on page 264. When
you’ve finished, decide which version you think is easier to read.

Although I do have a check-list for editing my essays once I’ve finished

writing them, it is not always clear to me how to apply this to my own
work. However, I know that one suggestion is to remove any absolutely
non-essential words, but I am a little bit worried because I think that
may mean my writing ends up much harder to read.
(64 words)

6. ESSAY CONTENT: WHAT SUBJECT MATTER DO I

INCLUDE?

The content is the most important aspect of your essay and ensuring
high-quality content will draw on all your reading, note-taking and critical
thinking skills (see chapters 6, 8 and 10). The questions and answers
below deal with some frequent content queries.
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 229

How to write an essay 229

Q. I know a lot about my subject but my essay marks are poor. What am
I doing wrong?
A. Are you receiving comments from markers along the lines of ‘don’t
try to write everything you know’ or ‘you are answering a different
question’? Writing ‘everything you know’ about a topic does not lead to
high grades.
If you’re asked to write an essay but have the freedom to choose
your topic within a subject area, the problem may be with your topic
selection. So, for example, if you’re taking a course in genetics, and
you choose to write an essay on ‘Cancer’, it will be very hard to write a
coherent essay unless you narrow the scope. So rather than tackling
all aspects of ‘Cancer’, you could focus on treatments using monoclonal
antibodies, or the trigger factors for cell division, or the success of screen-
ing programmes for certain types of cancer.
Your essay must address the question. Always consider carefully what
the question is asking and return to the question when writing the essay.
You must show how the argument you present in your essay relates to
the title. As a result you may need to omit vast amounts of ‘what you
know’ unless it’s directly relevant.
If you find yourself writing phrases such, as ‘before addressing the
question it is useful to consider’, then stop and think. Are you trying
to change the question to one that you would prefer? Are you wasting
valuable word allowance on irrelevant content?
Your content must demonstrate your own understanding. You cannot
do this if you adhere too closely to the original text or include too many
direct quotes. Generally, powerful quotes expressing opinions are accept-
able while quotes that outline a theory or model are not required –
this is the sort of information that you need to explain in your own
words.

Q. I’m told I spend too long defining terms in my essays. Any suggestions?
A. This can be a tricky balance to achieve. While it can be dangerous to
assume knowledge on the part of the reader, you should not define every
term. Keep in mind your intended audience(s) and only define terms that
are controversial and/or central to the topic. Use a specialist ‘subject’ dic-
tionary, and do not try to provide technical definitions using a standard
dictionary.
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230 How to write an essay

Q. I’m constantly told that my essays are too descriptive.

A. A good essay is a logically developed argument or position that considers
all sides of the argument. Highly descriptive essays tend not to achieve
this. In order to reduce the amount of description, take the time to under-
stand the issues and work out where you stand. This requires good read-
ing and critical thinking skills (chapter 6 and chapter 10).
You need to develop your own position rather than write about a topic.
A common misconception about writing is that is it easy. In fact, many
people agree that writing well is a difficult skill to acquire, but we can
all practise, develop and continue to improve long after we graduate
(Robson et al. 2002, Hoadley-Maidment 1997 and Morss & Murray 2001).

What is written without effort is in general read without pleasure.

Samuel Johnson

Q. I’m worried about plagiarism. When is it acceptable to include the views

of others in my essays?
A. You are not expected to produce new answers to longstanding academic
issues and so your essays will always draw on the views of others. What
matters is how you do this. Plagiarism is:

• copying, or near-copying, the words of others, without attributing them

• using the ideas of others without attributing them

Plagiarism is considered a serious academic offence and you could

fail the essay or even a course if found guilty. To avoid accidental
plagiarism you need to write in your own words and reference all ideas
that are not your own. Experienced teachers are able to spot plagiar-
ism relatively easily. They are familiar with the key texts, they read
many essays and can spot shifting styles that result from plagiarism
(Northedge 1990).

Q. I find it difficult to use subject specific language.

A. This can be a problem when you are new to a subject. The following
ideas may help you:

• Compile a subject glossary, using definitions that are meaningful to

you. These days there are many subject dictionaries on the internet
so it can be worth reading several definitions.
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 231

How to write an essay 231

• Try to familiarise yourself with the technical terms.
• Check your understandings with your teacher or lecturer.

Just as new vocabulary in a foreign language becomes familiar, so do

specialist terms. Don’t worry if you are clumsy with the new language
at first.

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I try to stick to the principle of the three Cs – Clear, Concise

and Connected – when writing and editing. I check that:

• my essay is not vague or ambiguous

• my sentences are as direct and straightforward as possible
• the ideas flow one from another and are connected with
the title.’

7. REVIEW: WHAT CAN I LEARN FOR THE FUTURE?

It is tempting to submit an essay and then forget about it, yet there is a lot
that you can learn after submission. Try the suggestions in figure 11.1 (over-
leaf) once your essay is returned.

LOOKING AHEAD

Writing expertise comes from practice, so try to view every

assignment as an opportunity to develop your writing com-
petency as well as your subject understanding. There is plenty
of evidence that good writing skills are important across a
range of professions (Evans 1995, Nestel and Kidd 2004,
Davies and Birbili 2000). In many jobs, it will be helpful if
you can write unambiguous e-mails, clear reports, effective
letters, well-argued business cases and balanced appraisals.
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 232

232 How to write an essay

Read the written feedback as well as the grade; be prepared for a range of emotion,
but do not despair!

After a few hours, or the next day, re-read the written feedback calmly.

Think about what the feedback is saying without being defensive.

Identify what you have done well and the areas you could have improved.

Check that you understand all the written feedback.

If not make an appointment to discuss with the marker.

Compare the feedback for this essay with previous feedback –

are there any consistent themes? File all feedback.

Read friends’ essays and feedback. Try to identify what the higher graded
essays have done well and how lower graded essays have lost marks.

Draw on all this feedback when writing your next essay.

Figure 11.1 Dealing with feedback

As a learner you may only be involved in writing essays or you may also
be required to submit other written work such as experimental reports,
literature reviews or reflective accounts.
We have compared four types of writing in the grid (Table 11.2) opposite
– literature reviews, report, reflective accounts and essays. Do you agree with
the differences and similarities that we have identified? Is there anything else
that you want to add to the grid??
TSSC11 5/9/06 8:43 Page 233

How to write an essay 233

Table 11.2 A comparison of writing types

Literature review Reflective Research Academic essay

account report

Purpose? Inform (and learn) Personal Describe and Inform

development inform (and (and learn)
learn)
May not have
an external
audience

Structure? Longer: 5,000– Shorter: Longer: Shorter:

10,000 words 50–1,500 3,000–5,000 1,000–3,000
Subheadings, words words words
e.g. abstract, Subheadings,
No subheadings
introduction e.g. method,
results.

Style? Specialist Everyday Specialist Specialist

Precise Colloquial Precise Precise
Accurate Specialist Accurate Accurate
Balanced Precise Balanced Balanced
First person

Content? Analytical Descriptive Detailed Analytical

account plus description of
Topic often chosen Restricted choice
analysis methodology
by writer of title
plus analysis
Topic chosen
Need to state the
by the writer Restricted
criteria used for
and personal choice of title
content
to the writer
selection/inclusion
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234 How to write an essay

SUMMARY

In order to write a good essay you need to focus on several areas

(see table below).

Table 11.3 Summary of chapter 11

Purpose Preparation Process Structure Style Content Review

Why? Allow Draft Introduction Pronouns Addresses the Read,

Who? time to: Redraft Main text Tense question understand
What? Search Redraft Conclusion Gender Relevant to and learn
Read Quotes the course from
Evaluate Bullet No plagiarism feedback
Think points Clear, concise,
Referencing connected
Signposting Debate not
Language description
House style
Voice
TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 235

12 Portfolios, Reflective
Journals and Learning Logs

By three methods we may learn wisdom: first, by reflec-

tion, which is noblest; second, by imitation, which is
easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest.
Confucius

KEY POINTS

A personal portfolio provides a dynamic record of your learning and

development

Reflecting on your own experiences can deliver useful learning

Monitoring your progress against learning objectives encourages
self-appraisal

Life-long learning can be a reality for you

INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces the skill of self-evaluation, which is the

application of critical thinking to yourself. Learners and workers are
increasingly asked to demonstrate this skill using portfolios, reflective
journals and learning logs. The way these terms are defined can vary
between organisations, so take care to clarify any formal requirements
before beginning.
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236 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

PORTFOLIOS

. . . . One hot day at the end of June, David flopped onto his bed. It had
been a bad week and he felt exhausted. It was the end of his first year at
university but instead of feeling relaxed, things seemed to have suddenly gone
wrong.
He’d taken his economics exam earlier in the week. This was his favourite
subject and he’d expected to do well. Instead, he wasn’t even sure that he’d
passed.
Then to make matters worse, he had flunked an interview for a summer
job. David had expected the interview to be a formality, yet the questions had
stumped him. Why had he been asked about his management experience when
his application form showed his previous employment to be delivering papers
and selling shoes? After all, he would hardly be running the country in his
spare time, would he?
He looked at his watch and realised his friends would soon arrive. David
was mentally inventing excuses not to go out, when there was a knock on the
door and Andrew, Rosie and Amita walked in.
“Hi! Are you ready?”
“Almost,” said David.
“What’s the matter?” asked Amita, detecting an edge in his voice.
“Nothing,” said David.
“It doesn’t sound like nothing . . . how did the interview go?”
“Not bad,” said David, and then added: “Well, very bad actually! I had
a thirty-minute telephone interview and I blew it.”
“What went wrong?” asked Andrew.
“Well, for one thing the interviewer asked me questions about my
previous positions of responsibility . . .”
“I hope you mentioned being student representative on the hall
committee.”
David looked sheepish. “I didn’t . . . I couldn’t think of anything . . . my
mind just went blank . . .”
“You need a portfolio,” said Rosie. “That would have helped you prepare.”
“What’s a portfolio?” asked David and Amita together.
“Well,” said Rosie, delighted to have everyone’s attention, “let me
explain . . .”
TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 237

Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs 237

What is a portfolio?

A personal portfolio is a record of your achievements together with supporting

evidence. Brown (1992) described a portfolio as:

A private collection of evidence which demonstrate the continuing acquisition of

skills, knowledge, attitudes, understanding and achievement. It is both retro-
spective and prospective, as well as reflecting the current stage of development
of the individual.

Many formal programmes of study, and some professions, require members

to compile a learning portfolio. Guidance is usually provided on the types of
evidence that are appropriate. A doctor, for example, might demonstrate involve-
ment in audit projects, research and teaching in addition to therapy specific
learning (Driessen et al. 2003).
It is useful to include evidence from all areas of your personal develop-
ment, even when the portfolio is a formal requirement. In this way you will
have a total record of your accomplishments and goals, and you can always
remove any highly personal or irrelevant evidence before submitting your
portfolio for a formal assessment.

Why keep a personal portfolio?

Reasons for keeping a portfolio include:

1. You have a holistic overview of all your learning and development

with readily accessible supporting evidence.
2. It provides an opportunity to identify your own learning strengths,
preferences and weaknesses.
3. It provides the motivation to set goals and work towards them
systematically.

Do not confuse a portfolio with a CV. A portfolio is a dynamic collection

of evidence, while many CVs are little more than a list of job titles and
qualifications. Your portfolio might include a copy of your current CV.
TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 238

238 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

LOOKING AHEAD

A well-constructed portfolio demonstrates that you are

continuously developing and learning, something that many
professions want to see. You can also use your evidence in
workplace appraisals and sometimes to gain entry onto learn-
ing programmes if you lack formal qualifications, e.g. via
Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning in the UK.

How do I create my portfolio?

The criteria for building a successful portfolio are:

• Include all relevant evidence that demonstrates your personal and pro-
fessional development.
• Organise, and if need be, cross-reference the evidence.
• Continuously refine and update your portfolio.

The layout of your portfolio depends partly on the type of evidence that
you want to include. For example, a learner studying acoustical engineering
might include samples of sound recordings, while another studying textiles
might incorporate swatches of material. So although your portfolio is
likely to be a lever arch file divided into sections, it could also be a suit-
case under the bed! Table 12.1 gives examples of some common portfolio
inclusions.

TRY THIS

How would you structure your own portfolio?

What evidence would you include?
Where is that evidence currently?
Table 12.1 Common portfolio inclusions

Academic and Employment record Positions of Hobbies/interests General CV and future

TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 239

professional responsibility achievements goals

qualifications

GCSE certificates Paper boy – dates School prefect – dates Drama – copies of Full driving Current CV
and employment and duties programmes from licence
A-level certificates Goals: a) 2:1 degree
record amateur dramatic
Representative on Excel, Word and
Undergraduate productions b) trainee risk
Sales assistant – university hall PowerPoint IT
examination results analyst in the City
dates and employment committee – dates, Chess – list of skills (examples)
Course synopsis record, e.g. sales responsibilities and tournaments and
assistant of the achievements, e.g. placings
month/handling changing hall menu to
Photography
customer complaints healthier options
(workshops attended
successfully
Occasional baby-sitting plus examples)
(include testimonials)
Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs
239
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240 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

We all have different experiences to draw on and you should structure

your portfolio in the way that is most logical to you. You may, for example,
want to demonstrate your achievements as a parent or carer in addition to
your formal learning or career accomplishments.
Try to cross-reference your evidence where possible. For example, if you
have written a computer program does it demonstrate your problem-solving
capability as well as your IT skills?
How easy will it be for you to locate evidence? Do you know where your
past examination certificates are right now? Do you have current contact details
for past employers or potential referees?
Regard your portfolio as a living document. Update it regularly and check
whether past evidence is still useful. For example, evidence from your foun-
dation courses may become less important as your study progresses.

TOP TIP!

If you are an overseas student, or will be studying abroad,

ensure that you compile comprehensive learning evidence
as soon as you can. Once you have left a country it can take
time and money to collect evidence retrospectively.

Although we have described a portfolio as a collection of evidence, this is

a rather simplified description. In order to gain the most benefit from your
portfolio you should reflect on the evidence and consider how you can use it
in different situations or for different purposes. We look at reflection in more
detail in the next section.

. . . . and so that’s what a portfolio is,” said Rosie, pausing for breath.
“If I begin to put a portfolio together would you take a look at it for me?”
asked David.
“Of course!”
“Portfolios sound similar to reflective journals,” said Andrew, with
studied casualness.
“What’s that?” asked David.
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Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs 241

“Well,” said Andrew smiling. “I keep a reflective journal – and I’d say it
shares some similarities with your portfolio.”
“Yes, reflective accounts can form part of a portfolio and these may be
compulsory if your portfolio is part of an educational or professional require-
ment,” said Rosie quickly.
“So what is it?” asked the other two.
“Well,” said Andrew, “My sister, who’s a teacher, told me about reflective
journals when I was telling her about a girlfriend problem.”
The others looked amazed. Andrew typically talked only about football and
beer – never relationships!
“You told your sister about a girlfriend problem?” asked David incredulously.
“Under this macho exterior there’s a sensitive caring man,” Andrew
joked.
Rosie and Amita sat up a little straighter.
“Never mind that now,” said David. “What’s a reflective journal?”

REFLECTIVE JOURNALS

The unexamined life is not worth living.

Socrates

What is a reflective journal?

A reflective journal is similar to a diary, in which you describe and then

critically appraise your own experiences. The aim is to learn more about your-
self through careful analysis and reflection – and this ties in with developing
your intrapersonal intelligence (see chapter 3).
In recent years the work of Kolb (1984) (see page 80 for a reminder of
Kolb’s learning theory) has influenced the use of reflection in education. First
you have an experience. Then you reflect on the experience to try and
establish why it unfolded as it did. You then think about your role and how
you could do things differently to increase or decrease the likelihood of
such a situation arising again. In other words, for any experience, you try to
figure out what you need to do to avoid, to repeat or to improve a similar sit-
uation in the future. You then test those ideas in the real situation and see if
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242 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

1. Describe what happened

6. What will you do next 2. Identify your thoughts

time? and feelings

5. Identify how you might 3. Assess the good and

have behaved differently bad aspects

4. Make sense of the situation

Figure 12.1 Summary of Gibbs’ model of reflection

your predictions are met (Imel 1992). Reflection is a sought-after skill both in
education and professionally (Dewey 1933, Schon 1983, Harrison et al. 2003,
Langer 2002, Ferraro 2000).
There are many models of reflection. Although most follow the same broad
outline, the number of individual steps varies. Figure 12.1 shows Gibbs’ (1988)
model of reflection.
This model demonstrates that when reflecting you must focus on your own
thoughts, feelings and behaviours. The aim is to learn from past experiences
and plan for future ones.

Why keep a reflective journal?

The benefits of maintaining a reflective journal include:

• Reflective journals offer a safe environment in which to explore your

thoughts, feelings and behaviour.
• Reflective journals foster self-awareness and personal growth.
• Reflective journals foster student-centred learning.
• Reflective journals promote critical thinking skills.
(Jasper cited in Bulman & Schutz 2004)
TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 243

Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs 243

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Do you agree with these benefits?

Can you think of any others?
Are there any disadvantages or barriers?

DANGER!

It can be more difficult to analyse your own motives,

thoughts and feelings than it is to pass comment on
others!

Keeping a reflective journal may sound simple, yet research suggests:

• New learners may initially write descriptively rather than critically.

• Not everyone finds reflection a ‘natural’ activity.
• There may be cultural differences in ease of reflection.
(Leung & Kember 2003, Paterson 1995)

A number of important skills are required for successful reflection and these
are shown in the mindmap overleaf (figure 12.2):

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

How many of these skills would

you consider yourself to do well?
How frequently, if ever, are you accused of being defensive?
How easily can you accept that you may be in the wrong?
Are you able to see situations from all perspectives?
Would you say that you deal with your emotions or that you bury them?
 244

You take responsibility Observation skills

TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 244

for your actions

Ability to pay
attention to detail
You can see new possibilities

Ability to ask
Skills needed for reflection powerful questions
Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

Critical thinking

The ability to adopt different

perspectives and view points

Open mindedness:
preparedness to try out new Honest self appraisal
behaviours and ways of thinking

Figure 12.2 Skills needed for reflection

TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 245

Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs 245

LOOKING AHEAD

Educational, career and life success are about more than

collecting certificates. Well-developed interpersonal and
intrapersonal skills are increasingly rewarded profession-
ally, and often summed up by the phrase ‘emotional intellig-
ence’. Reflection offers an opportunity for you to appraise and
improve your own skills in these areas (see also chapter 5).

How do I begin a reflective journal?

Unless you are writing an assessed journal there are no rules around frequency,
length or format. You may write as frequently as daily or just once every
week or so. We recommend that you try to develop a routine so that
reflective writing becomes a study habit.
Similarly there is no recommended length of journal entry, although you
may be surprised at the length of your entries for even quite ‘simple’ events.
While the phrase ‘journal’ may conjure up images of leather-bound note-
books you can record your reflections on a PC, if that feels more comfort-
able. We suggest that you consider accessibility by others, and you may decide
to password-protect your journal or keep it locked away.

TRY THIS

Think of a time when you have felt bored in a lecture (recently if

possible) and reflect upon it using Gibbs’ model above. The following
questions should be helpful, but do ask any others that you want to.

• The experience (description): First describe the situation. What

time of day was the lecture? How long was the lecture? Who
delivered the lecture? What was the subject and topic? Had you
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246 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

prepared for the lecture? Where were you sitting? Could you see and
hear the lecturer? What were you doing? What did you do when you
first felt bored?
• Thoughts and feelings: What was your physical and mental state
at the start of the lecture? What were your expectations about the
lecture? Did you view the topic as important? When did you begin
to feel bored? How did that affect the learning experience? Did you
blame anyone else for your state?
• Evaluation: What was good about the situation? Did any aspects
fulfil your image of the ‘ideal’ lecture or the perfect student?
What was bad about the situation? Do any of these typify a ‘poor’
lecture or a ‘poor’ student?
• Analysis: What was happening? What triggered, or contributed to,
your feelings of boredom? How do you want to behave and feel in
lectures? When do you behave and feel that way?
• Conclusion: What could you have done at the time to prevent this
situation developing? What can you do to help achieve your desired
state? Try to generate different hypotheses, e.g. preparing more
beforehand, asking questions in the lecture, arriving on time,
eating beforehand, asking friends to stop distracting you , sitting
nearer the front, remaining focused? Which of these do you think
would have worked best?
• Action Plan: What will you do in the future to avoid such a
situation developing again? Now do it!

DANGER!

It is very easy to reflect only on negative experiences. Often

we take successful experiences for granted and only ‘stop
and think’ when things go wrong. ‘Neutral’ and ‘successful’
experiences can also provide important learnings. Why did
today go so well?!
TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 247

Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs 247

TRY THIS

Now choose your own example of a recent experience, and work

through the reflective cycle once more.
How useful did you find this?
What have you learnt?
Will you change your behaviour in the future? How?

IT WORKED FOR ME

‘I sometimes return to previous journal entries and re-

analyse them. I’ve found it useful to consider whether I acted
on my reflections as intended, or whether I simply repeated
earlier experiences.’

Reflection is about learning for the future. This means that you must test
out your hypotheses in real situations to gain the benefit. Behaving differ-
ently (either from the way you have in the past, or differently from others
around you) can be threatening or require personal courage. Yet reflection
cannot be considered successful unless it influences your subsequent behaviour
or changes the way that you feel about the situation (Page & Meerabeau 2000).

“So, today,” said David slowly, “When I was asked in my interview to talk
about positions of responsibility I could have reflected on what I learnt as a
hall representative?”
“Exactly. And what could you say you’ve learnt?”
“Masses about diplomacy, chairing meetings and good timekeeping. I just
wish I’d remembered this before now!”
“By keeping a permanent record, either in your portfolio, or reflective
journal, you can remind yourself at any time.”
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248 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

Amita had been quiet a while but now she spoke up:
“You know, I think this must somehow fit in with learning logs.”
“Learning logs?” asked Rosie.
“Yes – written records that show how learning objectives have been met.”
“OK – tell us more.”

LEARNING LOGS

Learning logs allow you to check that you are meeting the learning objec-
tives set for your course. They are a written record of your performance
set against the learning objectives or assessment criteria for your programme
of study.
The gold standard for learning objectives is that they should be SMART:

Specific: Specific objectives are unambiguous – there is no dispute

about what is required. An example might be learning the periodic table
by rote.
Measurable: You can demonstrate that a measurable objective has been
met, e.g. reproduce an error-free periodic table without using aids.
Acceptable: Acceptable objectives have relevant outcomes set at the
correct level, e.g. memorising the periodic table is a requirement of the
undergraduate chemistry programme.
Realistic: Realistic objectives are feasible, e.g. undergraduate students are
capable of learning the periodic table.
Time-bound: Time-bound objectives must be met within a defined time,
e.g. periodic table must be learnt within the first semester.

TRY THIS

1. Take a look at the learning objectives that accompany your course.

Are they all SMART? If not do you need to ask for any additional
clarification?
TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 249

Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs 249

2. Pick a topic that you have recently explored and see if you can set
a SMART learning objective. For example, one SMART objective
when reading this book might be: At the end of this chapter
you will be able to identify and define all five criteria for SMART
learning objectives.

This is a very simple or low-level learning objective. Higher-level or applied

learning objectives typically require more consideration in deciding how
and when they’ve been met.

It is easier to assess your own performance against learning objectives

when they are in a SMART format. Table 12.2 is an example of a simple
learning log.
As you can see, a learning log can literally be a list of learning objectives
with space for you to record when and how you met the requirements of
each. Spaces show where any outstanding gaps in achievement.

Table 12.2 A simple learning log

Learning objective How I’ve met the Date achieved

objective/evidence

List and describe the function Submitted an ‘A’ grade 1 March 2005
of the eight major endocrine assignment on the function
glands (By xx) of the eight major endocrine
glands

Critically review the Attended research awareness 24 May 2005

methodology of a research modules at the end of which
article published in the Journal I presented a critical review
of xx (By xx) of article xxx in a seminar –
received excellent feedback
Describe the assessment
and treatment of one endocrine
disorder (By xx)
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250 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

Do you have learning objectives for

your present programme of study?
How do you use the objectives?

Learning logs offer a record of what you’ve learnt and can also help you
to:

• monitor your progress

• plan your study
• make the syllabus manageable
• work towards particular learning objectives.

TRY THIS

Set up and use a learning log for your next module or programme of
study.
At the end of the module reflect on the experience. Did the learning
log help you to learn more effectively?

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Q. I’ve been reading round and have found several, slightly different,
descriptions of learning logs, portfolios and reflective diaries.
A. Yes, we have separated the three tools here for simplicity, although they
can overlap. Learning logs may include reflective accounts or evidence,
for example. If portfolios, reflective journals or learning logs form part
of your course requirements, ensure that you understand their precise
role and the assessment criteria.
TSSC12 5/9/06 8:43 Page 251

Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs 251

Q. How much evidence is there that such tools are effective – in either the
short or longer term?
A. The literature contains a range of views. Many are based on theory rather
than research. Pertinent research is typically small scale and not longi-
tudinal, and outcome measures tend to focus on users’ perceptions, rather
than measuring learning or performance improvements (Cornford 2002).
However, respondents do find the tools valuable (though not necessarily
simple to use) and believe them to enhance their personal or professional
development.
The tools support current educational philosophies including Life
Long Learning and Student Focused Learning. We are advocating them
for personal use on the basis of the literature and the common-sense plat-
form that these tools provide visible evidence of your own achievements,
and incorporate many of the principles we already know about effective
learning.

Q. This all sounds like it’s adding to my workload rather than reducing
it.
A. Portfolios and reflection, in particular, should save you time when apply-
ing for jobs or further study. A learning log should help you to organise
your study time effectively and again, can help you develop insights into
your own natural aptitudes.

Q. Do I need to reflect by myself or can I reflect with others?

A. Either. If you reflect alone you may be restrained by your own world
biases or any reluctance to explore issues fully or honestly. On the other
hand reflection with others can be difficult due to the limitations of
language and the potential for misinterpretation, or because of issues around
exposure. You will need a safe environment, with high levels of trust to
avoid embarrassment and censorship.

Q. I have to keep a reflective journal as a course requirement but the

prospect of somebody else reading it is making it hard for me to be
honest.
A. Check how your tutors will use the journal. It may be that you will be
able to choose an entry to read or discuss, and therefore have choice
over what you disclose.
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252 Portfolios, Reflective Journals and Learning Logs

SUMMARY

This chapter described three tools that you can use to monitor you
learning:

Learning record Principal role

Learning portfolio Records your total learning achievements

Reflective journal Records your learning from experience
Learning log Records your progress against learning objectives

The uses of all three tools can overlap. Drawing on these concepts
will help you to be a Life Long Learner.

POSTSCRIPT

David scraped through his first-year economics exam and spent

that summer at his local supermarket checkout, learning how
to handle boredom and difficult customers. Two years, one
portfolio and many learning objectives later he graduated with
a 2:1 degree.
TSSD01 5/9/06 8:43 Page 253

Next Steps

The Smart Study Guide has explored many aspects of effective study.
The Smart Study Guide is most useful if you:

• review the information

• apply the relevant information every time you study
• monitor the contribution this makes to your learning effectiveness
• set yourself learning goals to help fulfil your learning potential.

We recommend two ‘next steps’.

Step 1. Consider how The Smart Study Guide has already contributed to your
study effectiveness. If you can already see a difference then is that additional
motivation to continue drawing on the information contained here? You may
find these questions below helpful for this exercise:
Q. Has this book already affected the way you perceive, or approach, any
of the following?

• your motivation to learn

• yourself as a learner
• your strengths and abilities
• your potential
• how you prepare for study
• the way you read
• working with other learners
TSSD01 5/9/06 8:43 Page 254

254 Next steps

• the quality of your notes

• learning by rote
• evaluating academic theories
• evaluating academic research
• the quality of your essays
• time spent on activities such as this!

Q. Where do you think your biggest learning gains have been?

Q. Which chapter(s) would you gain most benefit from reading again?
Q. What study behaviours have you already changed?
Q. Where are your greatest opportunities for becoming a more effective
learner?
Q. What do you need to do now?

Step 2. In order to maximise the benefits you gain try to incorporate our
suggestions into your study routine, by doing the following:

Reviewing: To help you review the material, we have summarised the over-
all content in the diagrams on pages 255 and 256. Why not add any points
that you found particularly helpful?
Applying: At the beginning of every learning activity, decide which material
is relevant and afterwards ask yourself:

• Did I make use of the material?

• Which material did I use?
• How did I use that material?

Monitoring: How did the information contribute to your learning effective-

ness? What will you do differently next time? What will you repeat next time?
Setting goals: Try to set yourself goals that will stretch you as a learner.
Rather than settle for being good enough, why not try to see how good a
learner you can be?

Finally, we hope you find The Smart Study Guide useful. The following mind-
maps give an overview of the chapters. We would love to hear your feedback
and experiences. You can e-mail us at louise&[email protected]
 Effective readers clarify their purpose before beginning to read There is more pressure to learn than ever before

There are lots of different reading techniques: this chapter Many students do not receive advice on how to learn
looks at scanning, skimming, focused reading, speed
reading and quantum reading It is good practice to consider how your personal
circumstances may affect your learning
Effective readers can use a range of techniques 6.
Reading 1.
Effective readers choose the most appropriate technique techniques Becoming Your current learning behaviours may not be the most effective
an effective
TSSD01 5/9/06 8:43 Page 255

for their purpose There are tools and techniques to help you become an
learner
effective and successful learner
Working successfully with others is an increasingly
important student skill
Your environment affects how well you learn
Group-work presents different challenges to individual study
Physiological preferences and needs matter
At least four areas contribute to successful group-work:
goal focus, roles, process and interactions The Smart Be aware of and manage your mental state; aim for ‘Flow’
Study Guide:
Online group activities raise some different issues than face-to-face activities 5. chapters 1–6 2. Follow a ‘study-plan’
Working Preparing
Others can help you to become a successful learner with others for study Watch out for displacement activities

We all have different preferences in the way we like to You are almost certainly more capable than you think
take in, store and retrieve information
There are 8 different kinds of intelligence
Learning about your own learning preferences has many benefits
We all have different combinations of strengths and weaknesses
There are lots of ways to approach any task, and different
tasks may benefit from different approaches 3. Understanding your natural strengths will help you make
4. Multiple better use of them
No learning style preference is better than any other intelligences
Learning
You can develop each of your intelligences, even those
Looking ahead, you can apply your knowledge of learning styles at work preferences which are weak
Next steps

Figure A1 Overview of chapters 1–6

255
 256

A personal portfolio provides a dynamic record of your Educational success requires accurate recall
learning and development
Luckily, there is no such thing as a ‘bad memory’
Reflecting on your own experiences can deliver valuable learning
Next steps

Accurate recall involves focus, encoding and retrieval

Monitoring your progress against learning objectives 12. 7.
TSSD01 5/9/06 8:43 Page 256

encourages self-appraisal Portfolios, How to There are many techniques and activities that can help
reflective remember you to remember
You can be a life-long learner journals and everything
learning logs you need to!
Essay writing draws on reading, note-taking and critical thinking

Making notes helps you to organise your material,

Developing expertise in writing requires time and practice thoughts and your learning

You should consider purpose, preparation, process, There are several different ways of making notes
structure, style and content when essay writing The Smart
Study Guide:
11. chapters 7–12 8. Different skills are required for making notes in lectures
The ability to communicate clearly in writing is a valuable skill and making notes from books
How to Making
write an notes
Critical thinking is an essential ‘real-life’ skill and essay Review your notes afterwards and store carefully
‘higher level’ educational skill

There are standardised tests available for measuring

critical thinking skills
It is easy to become stuck in ways of thinking
The Triple A model is a working definition of critical
thinking; Acquaint, Analyse and Advance Learners who can consider information from different
perspectives are advantaged, since this is a key aspect of
10. 9. becoming a critical thinker
The LEOR model – Logic, Emotion, Omission and Research
– is useful for analysing information Becoming Generating
a critical ideas We outline seven techniques to help you view topics in new ways
There may be factors that can impede or facilitate critical thinking thinker

Figure A2 Overview of chapters 7–12

TSSD02 5/9/06 8:44 Page 257

Appendix 1 Gardner’s Criteria

for Intelligence

Gardner (1999) suggests that in order for an ability to be considered an ‘intelligence’,

it needs to meet the following eight criteria ‘reasonably well’, taking into account
evidence from brain research, human development, evolution, and cross-cultural
comparisons. The criteria are:

• Experience of idiot savants, prodigies and other exceptional individuals.

Although rare, there will be some individuals who have a ‘truly exceptional’
ability in the intelligence, which was evident at a young age; e.g. Mozart’s musical
performances at the age of 4.
• An identifiable core set of operations. True intelligences will have basic kinds
of information-processing operations or mechanisms that deal with one specific
kind of input.
• A distinctive developmental history. A true intelligence has an identifiable set
of stages of growth with a ‘Mastery level’ which exists as an end state in human
development. For true intelligences, there will be examples of people who have
reached the Mastery level.
• An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility. It is generally accepted
among anthropologists and evolutionary biologists that our species developed
intelligence over time. For true intelligences, there will be evidence of this evolu-
tionary development and plausible explanations.
• Support from experimental and psychological tasks. A true intelligence can be
identified by specific tasks which can be carried out, observed and measured by
clinical psychologists.
• Support from psychometric findings. Traditionally, psychometric instruments
have been used to measure intelligence (e.g. IQ tests). Such tests could be
designed and used to identify and quantify true unique intelligences. The Multiple
TSSD02 5/9/06 8:44 Page 258

258 Appendix 1

Intelligence theory does not reject psychometric testing for specific scientific
study.
• Potential isolation by brain damage. The functioning of a true intelligence will
be location in specific areas of the brain. Research involves studies of brain injury
and degenerative diseases.
• Susceptibility to encoding from a symbol system. Humans have developed many
kinds of symbol systems over time for varied disciplines. A true intelligence has
its own set of images or symbols, which are unique to itself and are important in
completing its identified set of tasks.
TSSD03 5/9/06 8:44 Page 259

Appendix 2 Answers

Page 58: Crossword answers (Example 3)

1
M
2 3 4
K V U M
5
I N T R A P E R S O N A L
N R I T
A B C H
E A A E
6
S P A T I A L L M
T A
7
H N A T U R A L I S T
E I
T C
8
I N T E R P E R S O N A L
C L
TSSD03 5/9/06 8:44 Page 260

260 Appendix 2

Page 117: Question types (Table 6.2)

Fact/Opinion
Prediction
Relevance

Challenge

Associate

Explain
How can I apply this to x ✓
Where’s the author going with this ✓
How do we know this is true ✓ ✓
What are the other possible explanations ✓ ✓ ✓
What do we know since this was published ✓
What is the author going to conclude ✓
How reliable is the evidence ✓ ✓
What evidence supports the claim ✓
Where else was this presented ✓
How would I explain this to x ✓
TSSD03 5/9/06 8:44 Page 261

Appendix 2 261
Page 127: Scan, skim or focus
1. I need to confirm the percentage of smokers under the age of 25.
Scan Skim Focus

2. I’m going on a field trip to China next month and want to buy a travel
guide. There are 3 books on the shelf, and I don’t know which one to
choose.
Scan Skim Focus

3. I need to prepare a 90 minute presentation explaining this author’s main

ideas.
Scan Skim Focus

4. I’ve been asked to critique this research article.

Scan Skim Focus

5. I’m trying to decide whether to take this course next semester. The
material for each week is based on a different chapter from this
textbook.
Scan Skim Focus

6. I’m revising for my exams, and need to check what year a particular
study was published.
Scan Skim Focus
TSSD03 5/9/06 8:44 Page 262

262 Appendix 2

Page 186: Our thought bubbles . . .

‘This is
the ideal car for
you.’

Mmm . . . bet he says that to everyone ...... wonder what

he means by ideal.... I’ll try to pin him down on that...

‘It’s been exceptionally

well looked after. Only one careful
owner since new and it has been
serviced regularly.’

I’ll check the vehicle registration document to see

how many owners .... and ask to see the service
record . . if he doesn’t have it then how does he know?

‘Not only is this car a

great little goer, but it’s just been
fitted with new tyres and
a new clutch.’

I’ll check the tread on each tyre in a moment...

now how can I find out about the clutch....?

‘It does 35 mpg and this

model is renowned for its reliability. I’d
strongly recommend that you give it a
test drive – it’s bound
to sell quickly!’

I’ll take a look at the manufacturers’

information and see what mpg they say ...
TSSD03 5/9/06 8:44 Page 263

Appendix 2 263
Page 214: Sample guide to marking essays
If you are grading essays without any specific marking criteria, then we
suggest that you consider the following areas. Our suggested ‘weightings’ are
also shown.

Well presented and correctly referenced – 0–5%

Is the referencing format correct?
Are all the references included?
Is the ‘house style’ met?
Writing style – 0–10%
Is it grammatical?
Are the sentences well constructed?
Content – 0–45%
Is this content relevant?
Does the content demonstrate understanding?
Are there any areas of confusion? Or inaccuracies?
Are there any important omissions?
Is information from different sources synthesised?
Critical appraisal/evaluation 0–40%
Is the topic critically appraised and evaluated?
Does the essay present and discuss different points of view?
How coherent, insightful or sophisticated are the arguments presented?
Is there any originality in the arguments expressed, the examples used or
the applications suggested?
TSSD03 5/9/06 8:44 Page 264

264 Appendix 2

Page 227: Active/Passive voice

Passive Active (include the first

two as examples)

The exams were taken by the students The students took the exams

The books were read by the students The students read the books

The notes are being handed out by the The lecturer is handing out
lecturer now the notes now

The sentences in this table should be You should modify the sentences
modified by you in this table

The theories were presented by the The authors presented

authors their theories

Your use of the active voice is We encourage you to use

encouraged by us the active voice

Page 229: Word Crafting

I have a check-list for editing finished essays, but struggle to apply it. One
suggestion is to remove non-essential words, but I worry in case it makes my
writing harder to read.
(32 words)
TSSD04 5/9/06 8:45 Page 265

References

WEBSITE REFERENCES

Topic Website

New Buildings Institute website (chapter 2) www.newbuildings.org

Multiple Intelligences: Howard Gardner’s www.pz.harvard.edu
Project Zero website (chapter 3)
Multiple Intelligence Developmental www.miresearch.org
Assessment Scales (MIDAS) website
(chapter 3)
The Honey & Mumford Learning Style www.peterhoney.co.uk/ls80.
questionnaire (chapter 4)
Learning styles analysis for adults, www.learningstyles.com
(including environmental and physical
preferences) (chapter 4)
Belbin’s group roles and teamworking www.belbin.com/
(chapter 5)
Speed reading (chapter 6) www.speedyreader.co.uk
Logical fallacies (chapter 10) www.fallacyfiles.org/.
Logical fallacies (chapter 10) www.adamsmith.org/logicalfallacies/
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Index

academic qualifications, 239, 240 concept maps, 156

aim of study, 6 see also mindmaps
acronyms and acrostics, 137–8 conflict resolution, 50
Alexander technique, the, 21 Cook, M. J., 83
Allen, Woody, 117 Cornell Critical Thinking Test, 191
American Philosophical Association, 190 Cornell notes, 160, 161
analogy, 142 cramming, 8, 9, 147
assessments, 63, 100–2, 190–3 critical thinking, 172, 174, 183–208, 221
self- see self-evaluation assessments, 190–3
auditory learners, 77–8 barriers to, 205
Australia, 206 cultural differences, 205–6
and education, 187–90
babies see infants improvement, 193–205
Ballone, L. M. and C. Czerniak, 23 as life skill, 185–6
Belbin, R. M., 90 meaning of, 183–90
teamwork roles, 90–4, 107 and medicine, 189
biological determinism, 204 skills and techniques, 174–80, 184–205
Bloom, Benjamin, 188 social class differences, 205
bodily intelligence see kinaesthetic and sociology, 189
intelligence studying history, 189
brainstorming, 81, 86, 106, 177–8 time-consuming, 204
dangers of, 178 the Triple A model, 193–5
Braun, Werner von, 37 crossword puzzle construction, 46
Brindley, C. and Scoffield, S., 102 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi, 29–30
Browne M. N. and Keeley, S. M., 184 cycling, 78
Buzan, Tony, 156
databases, use of, 72, 73
California Critical Thinking Skills Test data interpretation, 203
(CCTST), 190–1 see also information
Campbell, J., 218 deadlines, 75
CAP scores, 27–9, 31 DeBono, E., 172, 174
and physiology, 28–9 Six Thinking Hats, 174–5
careers, 4, 6, 60, 64, 83, 245 De Vries, Kimberly, 46, 59
Cassaday, H. J., 149 dictionaries, use of, 229, 230
Chew, M. K. and Laubichler, M. D., 177 Dilts, Robert, 75
chunking see also VAKT learning styles
as memorisation tool, 145–7: example, displacement activities, 35
146 Dunn, R., 23
tasks, 32
Cockerton, T., 20 Edison, Thomas, 37
Coffield, F., 65 Einstein, Albert, 37, 172, 179
cognitive skills, 15, 182, 187–8 e-learning, 128
hierarchy, 188– 9 Ennis, R. H. and Millman, J., 191
see also critical thinking environment see learning environment
communication, 64 essay writing, 11, 66, 210–34
written, 77 addressing the question, 213–14, 229
see also essay writing argument in, 46, 216, 229, 230
computers content, 228–31, 233
adjusting screens, 126 defining terms, 229
courses on, 67 editing, 218, 228
for journals, 245 feedback, 232
see also IT grading, 214
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284 Index

essay writing (cont’d) giving directions, 140

humour, 226 graphical representations, 48
length, 233 see also mindmaps
keeping copies, 220 group-work, 8, 10, 63, 70, 85–8, 90
marking criteria, 214, 218–19 brainstorming, 177
plagiarism, 214, 230: see also plagiarism problems, 98–9
précis, 228 Six Thinking Hats technique, 175
preparation, 212–16, 217 stages, 94–6
process, 216–21 see also joint projects; online groups;
proofreading, 219, 221 teamwork
purpose, 211, 233 Gulf War, 1991, 177
quotations, 224, 229
references, 215, 222, 225, 228 Halpern, D. F., 184
research for, 213, 215 Hare, Kimberley, 27
reviewing, 231–2 Heschon, C. and Knecht, L., 17
seeking help, 216, 219, 231 Higbee, K. L., 149
structure, 221–2, 233 Honey & Mumford learning styles, 68–75
studies of, 211 Hong Kong, 205, 206
style, 222–7, 233: active or passive voice, iceberg metaphor, the, 172–3
224, 227, 264; first or third person, identity, sense of, 50
223, 227 idiot savants, 257
summary, 234 imagination, role of, 48, 179
technical terms in, 230–1 index cards, 47, 79, 167
titles, 213–14, 215, 218 infants, 52, 76
topic selection, 229 information
types, 232, 233 evaluation of, 195–205: see also critical
word crafting, 217 thinking
evaluation presentation, 64, 66
of research data, 195 processing, 43, 46, 47, 55, 62, 116, 124:
self- see self-evaluation see also making notes
skills see critical thinking retrieval, 149–50
Evans, G. and Johnson, D., 18 searching, 70–5: see also databases, use of
examinations, 63 sources, 22, 74, 75, 110, 194, 215
see also revision strategies technology see IT
eye movements, 124–5 see also internet; learning; memorising;
reading
Facione, P. A., 190 Institute of Medicine, 23
family support, 4, 105 intelligence, 37
Fischer, Bobby, 56 contexts, 56, 59
fixation points, 125 see also intelligence quotients (IQs);
Flavell, J. H., 206 multiple intelligences
flow charts, 158, 159, 169, 175 internet, the
‘flow’ states, 11, 29–30 dictionaries on, 230
food see under physical needs and distractions of, 22
well-being variable quality, 55
Ford, Henry, 29 see also literature searches
forgetting, 150–1 interpersonal intelligence, 38, 40, 50–2
see also memory core abilities, 50, 51
Freud, Sigmund, 178–9 in The Gambia, 59
see also multiple intelligences
Gambia, The, 59 intrapersonal intelligence, 38, 40, 49–50
games, 30 core abilities, 49
Gandhi, Mahatma, 37 see also multiple intelligences
Gardner, Howard, 37, 49, 53–4, 55, 56, intelligence quotients (IQs), 36–7
59, 259 and success, 37
see also multiple intelligences tests, 55, 257
generating ideas, 172–81 IT
brainstorming, 177–8 as memory resource, 151
and critical thinking, 172: see also and note-making, 168
critical thinking skills, 103, 110
iceberg metaphor, 172–3 unreliability, 103
playing consequences, 178–9 see also online groups
SWOT and PEST techniques, 175–6
Gibbs, G., 242 jigsaw puzzles, 48
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joint projects, 86, 87–107 paradox see learning paradox, the
assessment, 100 and personal circumstances, 3
benefits and drawbacks, 87, 88 planning see planning
design, 89 preferences see learning styles
feedback, 101 process, 39–1
goal focus, 87–90, 107 profiles see learning profiles
ground rules for, 97–8, 99 programmes, 3, 4
leadership, 93– 4 and qualifications see qualifications
monitoring behaviour, 98–9 role of sleep see under sleep
online see online groups rote, 9
tips, 90 schedules, 32–3
see also group-work; project management; in school, 76: see also under learning skills
teamwork setting targets for, 31
Jones, Anne, speedreader, 117 skills see learning skills
journals see reflective journals student-centred, 86
supplies, 16
keywords times of day for, 16, 24
as mnemonics, 144–5 visual, 76, 77, 140
for reading, 111, 113 see also memorisation
!Kung of the Kalahari, 47 learning environment, 13–22
kinaesthetic intelligence, 38, 40, 46–7 aspects, 14, 16–22: see also individual
and control, 46 aspects
core abilities, 46 décor, 16, 18–19
and drawing/writing, 47 design and preparation, 14, 15, 21
elements of, 46–7 effect on performance, 14
see also multiple intelligences interruptions, 22
kinaesthetic learners, 78 preferences, 14, 22
Kline, N., 98 poor, 19
Kolb’s learning styles, 80–3, 92–3, 241 temperature, 16, 17–18: see also
Kurfiss, J. G., 184 temperature
learning logs, 81, 248–50
learning paradox, the, 1–3
Lakoff, G., 177 learning preferences see learning styles
and M. Johnson, 45, 176 learning profiles, 1, 3–7
leadership see under joint projects assessing, 8
learning, 6–12 learning programmes, 3, 4
activities, types of, 31–2, 33: see also learning skills, vi, 8, 31, 183
individual disciplines and higher education, 182–3
aims, 6, 182, 187 at school, 10
auditory, 77–8 see also games
barriers to, 4 learning state, 27
behaviours, 6, 7–12 CAP numbers see CAP scores
beliefs about, 6 learning styles, 10, 62–84
challenges, 30 confusion with multiple intelligences, 84
context of, 2 frameworks/models, 64–5: see also
detail, 8 individual frameworks
and employment, 4 importance of, 63–4
environment see learning environment less preferred, 64
experience, 4, 6 practical applications, 67, 70, 77–9
in groups see group-work lectures, 161–3, 166
habits, 7 handouts, 164
involving others, 104–6 listening, 162–3
kinaesthetic, 78: see also multiple making notes, 161–2, 163
intelligences preparation for, 162
lifelong, 2, 251 and second language students, 163, 164
logs see learning logs Leonardo da Vinci, 142
making associations, 168 LEOR questions, 194–205
and memory see memory see also critical thinking
modes, 6 lifelong learning, 2, 251
motivation for, 6 light, and learning, 15–17
objectives, 249–50: SMART daylight, 15, 17
see SMART objectives linguistic intelligence, 38, 40, 44–6
online see e-learning and science, 46
over-, 147 see also multiple intelligences
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literature reviews, 232 Mindjet’s MindManager, 48

literature searches, 110, 213 mindmaps, 4, 48, 147, 156–7, 169, 175
loci techniques, 140–2 advantages, 156–7
logical fallacies, 199–200 examples, 5, 33, 38, 40, 107, 155, 181,
Loo, R., 83 209, 244, 255, 256
and learning style, 66, 156
making notes, 9, 47, 77, 153–70 making, 156
as ‘bare bones’, 154–5 see also concept maps
and disabilities, 163 Mind Sports Olympiad, 117
inherent dangers, 164 MI profiling see under multiple intelligences
and IT, 168 mnemonics, 137–45
in lectures see under lectures acronyms and acrostics, 137–8
as life skill, 157 by association, 142–3
reasons for, 153 dangers of, 145
shorthand, 164–5 loci techniques, 140–2
summary, 170 using maps, 142
techniques for, 155–61, 166–7 memory pegs, 48, 138–9, 142
from text, 165–7 rhymes, 138
see also notes stories, 143–4
Manus, New Guinea, 56 visualisation, 139–42
mathematical intelligence, 38, 40, 41–4 see also memorising
core abilities, 41 modes of learning, 6
see also multiple intelligences Monaghan, Padraig, 129
mathematics, 41–2, 43 motivation, 6, 90, 96, 169
formulae, 43 Mozart, W. A., 19, 20
and music, 77 effect, 19–20
teaching, 67 Mulligan, D. and Kirkpatrick, A., 163
see also under mathematical intelligence Multiple Intelligence Developmental
matrix notes, 54, 158–9 Assessment Scales (MIDAS), 55
mature students, 2, 7 multiple intelligences, 11, 36–62
McGuire, S. and Edmonson, S., 88 bodily/kinaesthetic see kinaesthetic
Mednick, Sara, 25 intelligence
memorising, 30, 46, 78, 131–52 and careers, 60
and brain development, 133 criteria, 257–8
chunking, 145–7 cultural aspects, 56–7
interference, 148–9, 150 developing, 39, 40
keywords, 144–5 examples: in economics, 57; in English,
mnemonics see mnemonics 58; in history, 57
models, 132–3, 136 existential, 41
and older people, 152 interpersonal see interpersonal intelligence
repetition, 145: repeated review, 147, intrapersonal see intrapersonal intelligence
151 mathematical/logical see mathematical
resources, 151–2 intelligence
summary, 152 musical see musical intelligence
trivia, 148 naturalist see naturalist intelligence
see also memory and performing arts, 58
memory, 8, 10, 15, 23 profiling, 55
episodic, 136 recognition, 59–60
long-term, 132, 145 spatial see spatial intelligence
pegs see under mnemonics and teaching, 60
procedural, 136 verbal/linguistic see linguistic intelligence
semantic, 136 music, 20, 53
sensory, 132 classical, 21
short-term, 132, 145 and infants, 52
stories, 143–4 intelligence, 38, 39
strategies, 10 and learning, 16, 19–21, 76, 77:
techniques, 136–50 see also musical intelligence
visual, 120, 140 relaxation, 21
see also forgetting; memorising singing, 53
metacognition, 206 musical intelligence, 38, 40, 52–3
metalearning, 50 core abilities, 52
metaphor, 45, 46, 117, 142, 176–7 relationships with other intelligences,
examples, 154, 172 53
Miller, G. A., 145 see also multiple intelligences
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naturalist intelligence, 38, 40, 53–5 projects, 89
core abilities, 54 study plans see study plans
misunderstandings, 54 Prashnig, B., 67, 75
see also multiple intelligences Price, G., 22
natural strengths, 39–41, 56, 60, 84 privacy, 22
assessing, 8, 11 project management, 87–90
see also learning styles; multiple see also group-work; joint projects;
intelligences online groups; teamwork
New Zealand, 76 proverbs, 143
Norris, S. and Ennis, R., 184 psychometric procedures, 55, 257–8
Norton, L. S., 211 Puluwat, Caroline Islands, 56, 59
notes, 9
borrowing, 155 Qualifications and Curriculum Authority
Cornell, 160, 161 (QCA), 85–6
flow charts, 158, 159, 169 quantum reading, 120–2
and index cards, 79, 167 questioning, 115, 172–3
linear/double-entry, 161 and young children, 171
matrix, 54, 158–9
memorising, 142 Railbert, M., 210
reviewing, 163, 169 Rauscher, F. H., 19
spiral, 158 reading, 108
storing, 167–8 focused, 114, 116
taking see making notes keywords, 111, 113
use of, 8, 9 leisure, 123
Novak, J. D., 156 purpose, 109–10
on screen, 126
O’Brien, Lynn, 64 speed, 118–22, 123, 126: see also speed
odours, 16, 22 reading
O’Flynn, Sheila, 70 ‘staircase’, 115–16
Olympic Games, 56 strategies, 9, 109, 119
online groups, 85, 102–4 and the subconscious, 121
benefits and challenges, 103–4 techniques, 108–30: choosing, 126–9
role of moderator, 104 see also quantum reading, scanning,
stages of development, 104 skim-reading, speed reading
see also group-work recommended reading, 8, 9
originality, 8, 11 referencing, 215, 222, 225, 228
Orwell, George, 226 Harvard system, 225
Osborn, Alex, 177 Vancouver system, 225
over-learning, 147 reflection, 10, 241, 242
overseas students, 163 skills, 243–4
reflective journals, 240, 241–7
Parsons, L. M., 20 changing behaviour, 247
Pask learning style framework, constructing, 245–6
66–8 as course requirement, 251
Pauk, W., 160 dangers, 243
see also Cornell notes purpose, 242–3
Paul, R. W. and Heaslip, P. 184 research findings see individual
peer assessment, 100 researchers
personal portfolios, 237–40 revision strategies, 46, 127, 148
PEST techniques, 176 rhymes, 138
phonics, 59 rhythms
physical needs and well-being, 4, 11, 13, circadian, 24
23–6 musical, 20, 52
and CAP scores, 28 Rodaway, Paul, 79
food and drink, 16, 23 role of parents, 4, 6
mobility, 23 role play, use of, 47, 51, 176
posture, 16, 21–2
sleep see sleep Salmon, G., 104
Pithers, R. T. and Soden, R., 206 scanning, 111–13, 194
plagiarism, 9, 214, 219, 230 using keywords, 111
planning, 9, 13, 32–5 scheduling study, 32, 34, 251
allocation of time, 4 see also planning
and mathematical/logical intelligence, science teaching, 67, 83
42 second languages, 163, 164
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self-assessment, 100, 102 teamwork, 51, 70, 86, 87, 90

see also self-evaluation roles, 91–2
self-awareness, 49–50, 67, 82, 100 see also group-work
see also intrapersonal intelligence telephones, 22
self-discipline, 6 temperature
self-evaluation, 235–52 body, 24
sequential learning, 66 in the study environment, 17–18
Shearer, Branton, 55 tests see examinations
Shillcock, Richard, 129 thinking
shorthand, 164–5 ‘cap’ see CAP scores
Simonides, ancient Greek writer, 141 critical see critical thinking
Six Thinking Hats technique, 174–5, 176 drawing conclusions, 20
skim-reading, 113–14, 116, 194 focus, 28–9
use of keywords, 113 skills see cognitive skills
sleep, 11, 16, 112 see also Six Thinking Hats technique
role in learning, 24–6, 136 tidiness, 22
SMART objectives, 89, 248–9 Torrance, M., 220
Smith, R. M., 64–5 transport, 103
sounds, and learning, 16, 19–21 Tuckman, B. W., 94
music see under music group model, 94–5
rhythmic, 20 Turner, Martin, 129
spatial intelligence, 38, 40, 47–9, 59
and 3D, 47, 48 Unilever, 70
core abilities, 47 United States, 76
see also multiple intelligences university education drop-out rates, 2
speed reading, 117–25
assessment, 123 VAKT learning styles, 75–80
and comprehension, 118 virtual groups see online groups
exercise, 118–22 visualisation, 139–42, 175
and fixation points, 125 in athletes, 140
spellcheckers, 221 loci techniques, 140–2
stalactites and stalagmites, 142 memory pegs, 139
Stickgold, R., 25 in verbal directions, 140
stress, 18 see also flow charts; mindmaps
balls, 79 visual learners, 77
and challenges, 29
and memory, 149 War and Peace (Tolstoy), 117
and music, 20 Watson Glaser Critical Thinking
student-centred learning, 86, 251 Appraisal (WGCTA) test, 190, 191
study partners, 51, 78, 218, 251 websites, 17, 265
see also revision strategies what works, 63
study plans, 14 Wilson, T. L. and Brown, T. L., 19
designing, 31–5 Winograd, P. and Johnson, P., 109
see also planning Wood, Evelyn, 124
study skills see learning skills working with others, 85–107, 169, 182
subvocalising, 119, 120, 124 see also group-work, teamwork
SWOT techniques, 175–6, 177, 178 workspace, 16, 22
see also learning environment
tactile learning, 75–6, 79 World Speed Reading Championships,
taxi drivers, 133 117
teaching, 60, 64, 206–7 Wu, J. H. and Yuan, Y., 126
computer skills, 67 Xenon gas, 31
mathematics, 67
methods, 76 Yan, L. and Kember, D., 96
science, 67, 83
styles, 206: see also learning styles Zinsser, W., 222