1. Define Heat Transfer.

Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from one region to another
region due to temperature difference.

2. What are the modes of Heat Transfer?

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

3. Define Conduction.

Heat conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer from a region of high temperature to

a region of low temperature within a medium (solid, liquid or gases) or between different
medium in direct physical contact.

In condition energy exchange takes place by the kinematic motion or direct impact of
molecules. Pure conduction is found only in solids.

4. Define Convection.
Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface and a
fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.

Convection is possible only in the presence of fluid medium.

5. Define Radiation.
The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is
known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
6. State Fourier’s Law of conduction.

The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured – normal to the
direction of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in that direction.

dT
Q - A
dx
dT
Q  - KA
dx
where A – are in m2

dT
- Temperature gradient in K/m
dx
K – Thermal conductivity W/mK.

7. Define Thermal Conductivity.

1
 Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat.

8. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a slab or plane wall.

Toverall
Heat transfer Q 
R
Where
T = T1 – T2
L
R - Thermal resistance of slab
KA
L = Thickness of slab
K = Thermal conductivity of slab
A = Area

9. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a hollow cylinder.

Toverall
Heat transfer Q 
R
Where
 T = T1 – T2
1 r 
R in  2  thermal resistance of slab
2 LK  r1 
L – Length of cylinder
K – Thermal conductivity
r2 – Outer radius
r1 – inner radius

10. Write down equation for conduction of heat through hollow sphere.

Toverall
Heat transfer Q 
R
Where
 T = T1 – T2
r2  r1
R - Thermal resistance of hollow sphere.
4 K (r1r2 )

11. State Newton’s law of cooling or convection law.

Heat transfer by convection is given by Newton’s law of cooling

Q = hA (Ts - T)
Where
A – Area exposed to heat transfer in m2
h - heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K
Ts – Temperature of the surface in K
T - Temperature of the fluid in K.

2
12. Write down the equation for heat transfer through a composite plane wall.
Toverall
Heat transfer Q 
R
Where
 T = Ta– Tb

1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A

L – Thickness of slab
ha – heat transfer coefficient at inner diameter
hb – heat transfer coefficient at outer side.

13. Write down the equation for heat transfer through composite pipes or cylinder.
Toverall
Heat transfer Q 
R
Where
 T = Ta– Tb
r  r 
In  2  In  1  L2
1 1 r r 1
R   1  2  .
2 L ha r1 K1 K2 hb r3

14. Write down one dimensional, steady state conduction equation without internal heat
generation.
 2T
0
x 2

15. Write down steady state, two dimensional conduction equation without heat
generation.

 2T  2 T
 0
x 2 y 2

16. Write down the general equation for one dimensional steady state heat transfer in
slab or plane wall without heat generation.
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
  
x 2 y 2 z 2  t

17. Define overall heat transfer co-efficient.

The overall heat transfer by combined modes is usually expressed in terms of an

overall conductance or overall heat transfer co-efficient ‘U’.

3
 Heat transfer Q = UA T.

18. Write down the general equation for one dimensional steady state heat transfer in
slab with heat generation.

 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
   
x 2 y 2 z 2 K  t

19. What is critical radius of insulation (or) critical thickness.

Critical radius = rc
Critical thickness = rc – r1

Addition of insulating material on a surface does not reduce the amount of heat
transfer rate always. In fact under certain circumstances it actually increases the heat loss up
to certain thickness of insulation. The radius of insulation for which the heat transfer is
maximum is called critical radius of insulation, and the corresponding thickness is called
critical thickness.

20. Define fins (or) Extended surfaces.

It is possible to increase the heat transfer rate by increasing the surface of heat
transfer. The surfaces used for increasing heat transfer are called extended surfaces or
sometimes known as fins.

21. State the applications of fins.

The main application of fins are

1. Cooling of electronic components

2. Cooling of motor cycle engines.
3. Cooling of transformers
4. Cooling of small capacity compressors

22. Define Fin efficiency.

The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer by the fin to the
maximum possible heat transferred by the fin.
Q fin
 fin 
Qmax
23. Define Fin effectiveness.

Fin effectiveness is the ratio of heat transfer with fin to that without fin

Q with fin
Fin effectiveness =
Qwithout fin

24. What is meant by steady state heat conduction?

4
 If the temperature of a body does not vary with time, it is said to be in a steady state
and that type of conduction is known as steady state heat conduction.

25. What is meant by Transient heat conduction or unsteady state conduction?

If the temperature of a body varies with time, it is said to be in a transient state and
that type of conduction is known as transient heat conduction or unsteady state conduction.

26. What is Periodic heat flow?

In periodic heat flow, the temperature varies on a regular basis.

Example:
1. Cylinder of an IC engine.
2. Surface of earth during a period of 24 hours.

27. What is non periodic heat flow?

In non periodic heat flow, the temperature at any point within the system varies non
linearly with time.

Examples :

1. Heating of an ingot in a furnace.

2. Cooling of bars.

28. What is meant by Newtonian heating or cooling process?

The process in which the internal resistance is assumed as negligible in comparison

with its surface resistance is known as Newtonian heating or cooling process.

29. What is meant by Lumped heat analysis?

In a Newtonian heating or cooling process the temperature throughout the solid is

considered to be uniform at a given time. Such an analysis is called Lumped heat capacity
analysis.

30. What is meant by Semi-infinite solids?

In a semi infinite solid, at any instant of time, there is always a point where the effect
of heating or cooling at one of its boundaries is not felt at all. At this point the temperature
remains unchanged. In semi infinite solids, the biot number value is .

31. What is meant by infinite solid?

A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space is known as infinite solid.

5
 In semi infinite solids, the biot number value is in between 0.1 and 100.
0.1 < Bi< 100.

32. Define Biot number.

It is defined as the ratio of internal conductive resistance to the surface convective

resistance.

Internal conductive resistance

Bi =
Surface convective resistance
hLL
Bi= .
K
33. What is the significance of Biot number?
Biot number is used to find Lumped heat analysis, semi infinite solids and infinite solids

If Bi< 0.1 L  Lumped heat analysis

Bi =  Semi infinite solids
0.1 < Bi< 100  Infinite solids.

34. Explain the significance of Fourier number.

It is defined as the ratio of characteristic body dimension to temperature wave
penetration depth in time.
Characteristic body dimension
Fourier Number =
Temperature wave penetration
depth in time

It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect of a solid.

35. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?

1. Moisture
2. Density of material
3. Pressure
4. Temperature
5. Structure of material

36. Explain the significance of thermal diffusivity.

The physical significance of thermal diffusivity is that it tells us how fast heat is
propagated or it diffuses through a material during changes of temperature with time.

37. What are Heisler charts?

In Heisler chart, the solutions for temperature distributions and heat flows in plane

6
walls, long cylinders and spheres with finite internal and surface resistance are presented.
Heisler charts are nothing but a analytical solutions in the form of graphs.

1. A wall of 0.6m thickness having thermal conductivity of 1.2 w/Mk. The wall is to be
insulated with a material having an average thermal conductivity of 0.3 W/mK. Inner
and outer surface temperatures are 1000 C and 10C. Heat transfer rate is 1400 W/m2
calculate the thickness of insulation.

Given Data

Thickness of wall L1 = 0.6 m

Thermal conductivity of wall K1 = 1.2 W/mK.
Thermal conductivity of insulation K2 = 0.3 W/mK.
Inner surface Temperature
T1 = 1000C + 273 = 1273 K
Outer surface Temperature
T3 = 10C + 273 = 283 K
Heat transfer per unit area Q/A = 1400 W/m2.

Solution:

Let the thickness of insulation be L2

We know
Toverall
Q [From equation (13)] (or) [HMT Data book page No. 34]
R
Where
T = Ta– Tb (or) T1 – T3
1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
[T1  T3 ]
Q
1 L1 L L 1
  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A

Heat transfer coefficient ha, hb and thickness L3 are not given. So neglect that terms.

 Q=
 T1  T3 
L1 L
 2
K1 A K 2 A

7
 Q  T1  T3 
  
A L1 L2

K1 K 2
1273  283
1400 
0.6 L2

1.2 0.3
L2  0.0621 m

2. The wall of a cold room is composed of three layer. The outer layer is brick 30cm
thick. The middle layer is cork 20 cm thick, the inside layer is cement 15 cm thick. The
temperatures of the outside air is 25C and on the inside air is -20C. The film co-
efficient for outside air and brick is 55.4 W/m2K. Film co-efficient for inside air and
cement is 17 W/m2K. Find heat flow rate.

Take
K for brick = 2.5 W/mK
K for cork = 0.05 W/mK
K for cement = 0.28 W/mK

Given Data

Thickness of brick L3 = 30 cm = 0.3 m

Thickness of cork L2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Thickness of cement L1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Inside air temperature Ta = -20C + 273 = 253 K
Outside air temperature Tb = 25C + 273 = 298 K
Film co-efficient for inner side ha = 17 W/m2K
Film co-efficient for outside hb = 55.4 W/m2K
Kbrick = K3 = 2.5 W/mK
Kcork = K2 = 0.05 W/mK.
Kcement = K1 = 0.08 W/mK.

Solution:

Heat flow through composite wall is given by

Toverall
Q [From equation (13)] (or) [HMT Data book page No. 34]
R
Where

T = Ta– Tb
1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A

8
 [Ta  Tb ]
Q
1 L1 L L 1
  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A

 Q/ A
Ta  Tb 
1 L1 L2 L3 1
   
ha K1 K 2 K 3 hb
253  298
 Q/ A
1 0.15 0.2 0.3 1
   
17 0.28 0.05 2.5 55.4
Q / A  9.5 W / m 2

The negative sign indicates that the heat flows from the outside into the cold room.

3. A wall is constructed of several layers. The first layer consists of masonry brick 20
cm. thick of thermal conductivity 0.66 W/mK, the second layer consists of 3 cm thick
mortar of thermal conductivity 0.6 W/mK, the third layer consists of 8 cm thick lime
stone of thermal conductivity 0.58 W/mK and the outer layer consists of 1.2 cm thick
plaster of thermal conductivity 0.6 W/mK. The heat transfer coefficient on the interior
and exterior of the wall are 5.6 W/m2K and 11 W/m2K respectively. Interior room
temperature is 22C and outside air temperature is -5C.

Calculate

a) Overall heat transfer coefficient

b) Overall thermal resistance
c) The rate of heat transfer
d) The temperature at the junction between the mortar and the limestone.

Given Data

Thickness of masonry L1 = 20cm = 0.20 m

Thermal conductivity K1 = 0.66 W/mK
Thickness of mortar L2 = 3cm = 0.03 m
Thermal conductivity of mortar K2 = 0.6 W/mK
Thickness of limestone L3 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Thermal conductivity K3 = 0.58 W/mK
Thickness of Plaster L4 = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m
Thermal conductivity K4 = 0.6 W/mK
Interior heat transfer coefficient ha = 5.6 W/m2K
Exterior heat transfer co-efficient hb = 11 W/m2K
Interior room temperature Ta = 22C + 273 = 295 K
Outside air temperature Tb = -5C + 273 = 268 K.

Solution:

Heat flow through composite wall is given by

9
 Toverall
Q [From equation (13)] (or) [HMT Data book page No. 34]
R
Where
 T = Ta– Tb

1 L L L L 1
R  1  2  3  4 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A K 4 A hb A
Ta  Tb
Q
1 L L L L 1
 1  2  3  4 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A K 4 A hb A
295  268
 Q/ A
1 0.20 0.03 0.08 0.012 1
    
5.6 0.66 0.6 0.58 0.6 11
Heat transfer per unit area Q/A = 34.56 W/m2

We know
Heat transfer Q = UA (Ta – Tb) [From equation (14)]
Where U – overall heat transfer co-efficient
Q
U 
A  (Ta  Tb )
34.56
U 
295  268
Overall heat transfer co - efficient U = 1.28 W/m2 K

We know
Overall Thermal resistance (R)
1 L L L L 1
R  1  2  3  4 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A K 4 A hb A

For unit Area

1 L1 L2 L3 L4 1
R     
ha K1 K 2 K 3 K 4 hb
1 0.20 0.03 0.08 0.012 1
=     
56 0.66 0.6 0.58 0.6 11
R 0.78 K / W

Interface temperature between mortar and the limestone T 3

Interface temperatures relation

10
 Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4 T4  T5 T5  Tb
Q     
Ra R1 R2 R3 R4 Rb
Ta  T1
Q
Ra
295-T1  1 
Q=  R a  
1/ ha A  ha A

295  T1
 Q/ A 
1/ ha
295  T1
 34.56 
1/ 5.6
 T1  288.8 K
T1  T2
Q
R1
288.8  T2  L1 
Q  R1  
L1  k1A
K1 A
288.8  T2
Q/ A
L1
K1
288.8  T2
 34.56 
0.20
0.66
 T2  278.3 K
T2  T3
Q =
R2
278.3  T3  L2 
Q  R 2  
L2  K2 A 
K2 A
278.3  T3
Q/ A
L2
K2
278.3  T3
 34.56 
0.03
0.6
 T3  276.5 K

Temperature between Mortar and limestone (T3 is 276.5 K)

11
4. A steam to liquid heat exchanger area of 25.2 m2is constructed with 0.5cm nickel and
0.1 cm plating of copper on the steam sides. The resistivity of a water-scale deposit on
the steam side is 0.0015 K/W. The steam and liquid surface conductance are 5400
W/m2K ad 560 W/m2K respectively. The heated steam is at 110C and heated liquid is
at 70C.

Calculate

1. Overall steam to liquid heat transfer co-efficient

2. Temperature drop across the scale deposit

Take
K(Copper) = 350 W/mK and K (Nickel) = 55 W/mK.
Given

Area A = 25.2 m2
Thickness of Nickel L1 = 0.5 cm = 0.5  10-2 m
Thickness of Copper L2 = 0.1 cm = 0.1  10-2 m
Resistivity of scale R3 = 0.0015 K/W
Liquid surface conductance ha = 560 W/m2K
Steam surface conductance hb = 5400 W/m2K
Steam temperature Tb = 110C + 273 = 383 K
Liquid temperature Ta = 70C + 273 = 343 K
K2 (Copper) = 350 W/mK
K1 (Nickel) = 55 W/mK

Solution:

Heat transfer through composite wall is given by

Toverall
Q [From equation (13)] (or) [HMT Data book page No. 34]
R
Where
 T = Ta– Tb = 343 – 383 = -40 K

1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
= R a  R1  R2  R3  Rb

R3 value is given, R3 = 0.0015 K/W

1 L L 1
R  1  2  0.0015 
ha A K1 A K 2 A hb A
1 0.5  10-2 0.1 102 1
= +   0.0015 
560  25.2 55  25.2 350  25.2 5400  25.2
 R  1.58  103 K / W

Toverall
Q
R

12
 40
Q
1.58  103
Heat transfer Q = - 25.2  103 W
[-ve sign indicates that the heat flows from, outside to inside]
we know
Heat transfer Q = UA (Ta – Tb) [From equation No. (14)]
Q
 U=
A(Ta  Tb )
25.2 103

25.2  (40)
Overall heat transfer co - efficient U = 25 W/m 2 K

Temperature drop (T3 – T4) across the scale is given by

T
Q  T= T3  T4 
Rscale
T
25.2  103 
0.0015
 T  37.8C

5. A surface wall is made up of 3 layers one of fire brick, one of insulating brick and one
of red brick. The inner and outer surface temperatures are 900C and 30C
respectively. The respective co-efficient of thermal conductivity of the layers are 1.2,
0.14 and 0.9 W/mK and the thickness of 20cm, 8 cm and 11 cm. Assuming close bonding
of the layers at the interfaces. Find the heat loss per square meter and interface
temperatures.

Given

Inner temperature T1 = 900C + 273 = 1173 K

Outer temperature T4 = 30C + 273 = 303 K
Thermal conductivity of fire brick K1 = 1.2 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of insulating brick K2 = 0.14 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of red brick K3 = 0.9 W/mK
Thickness of fire brick L1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Thickness of insulating brick L2 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Thickness of red brick L3 = 11 cm = 0.11 m

Solution:
(i) Heat loss per square metre (Q/A)
Toverall
Heat transfer Q  [From equation (13)] (or) [HMT Data book page No. 34]
R
Where
T = Ta– Tb = T1 – T4

13
 1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
T1  T4
 Q=
1 L L L 1
 1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
[Convective heat transfer co-efficient ha, hb are not given.
So neglect that terms]
T1  T4
 Q=
L1 L L
 2  3
K1 A K 2 A K 3 A
T1  T4
Q/ A
L1 L2 L3
 
K1 K 2 K 3
1173  303

0.2 0.08 0.11
 
1.2 0.14 0.9
Q / A  1011.2546 W / m2

(ii) Interface temperatures (T2 and T3)

We know that, interface temperatures relation
T1  T4 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4
Q    ......( A)
R R1 R2 R3
T1  T2
( A)  Q 
R1
where
L1
R1 
K1 A
T1  T2
Q
L1
K1 A
T1  T2
Q/A =
L1
K1
1173  T2
1011.2546 
0.2
1.2
T2  1004.457 K
Similarly,
T2  T3
Q
R2
where

14
 L2
R2 
K2 A
T2  T3
Q
L2
K2 A
T2  T3
 Q/A =
L2
K2
1004.457  T3
1011.2546 
0.08
0.14
T3  426.597 K

6. A furnace wall made up of 7.5 cm of fire plate and 0.65 cm of mild steel plate. Inside
surface exposed to hot gas at 650C and outside air temperature 27C. The convective
heat transfer co-efficient for inner side is 60 W/m2K. The convective heat transfer co-
efficient for outer side is 8W/m2K. Calculate the heat lost per square meter area of the
furnace wall and also find outside surface temperature.

Given Data

Thickness of fire plate L1 = 7.5 cm = 0.075 m

Thickness of mild steel L2 = 0.65 cm = 0.0065 m
Inside hot gas temperature Ta = 650C + 273 = 923 K
Outside air temperature Tb = 27C + 273 = 300K
Convective heat transfer co-efficient for
Inner side ha = 60W/m2K
Convective heat transfer co-efficient for
Outer side hb = 8 W/m2K.

Solution:
(i) Heat lost per square meter area (Q/A)

Thermal conductivity for fire plate

K1 = 1035  10-3 W/mK
[From HMT data book page No.11]

Thermal conductivity for mild steel plate

K2 = 53.6W/mK
[From HMT data book page No.1]
Toverall
Heat flow Q 
R
Where
 T = Ta– Tb

15
 1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
Ta  Tb
 Q=
1 L L L 1
 1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A

[The term L3 is not given so neglect that term]

Ta  Tb
 Q=
1 L1 L L 1
  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A

The term L3 is not given so neglect that term]

Ta  Tb
Q=
1 L L 1
 1  2 
ha A K1 A K 2 A hb A

923  300
Q/ A
1 0.075 0.0065 1
  
60 1.035 53.6 8

Q / A  2907.79 W / m 2
(ii) Outside surface temperature T3

We know that, Interface temperatures relation

Ta  Tb Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  Tb
Q     ......( A)
R Ra R1 R2 Rb
T3  Tb
( A)  Q 
Rb
where
1
Rb 
hb A
T3  Tb
Q
1
hb A
T3  Tb
 Q/A =
1
hb
T3  300
 2907.79 
1
8
T3  663.473 K

16
7. A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10mm contains water at 90C. Calculate the rate of
heat loss per m2 of tank surface area when the atmospheric temperature is 15C. The
thermal conductivity of mild steel is 50 W/mK and the heat transfer co-efficient for
inside and outside the tank is 2800 and 11 W/m2K respectively. Calculate also the
temperature of the outside surface of the tank.
Given Data

Thickness of wall L1 = 10mm = 0.01 m

Inside temperature of water Ta = 90 + 273 = 363 K
Atmospheric temperature Tb = 15C + 273 = 288 K
Heat transfer co-efficient for inside ha = 2800 W/m2K
Heat transfer co-efficient for outside hb = 11 W/m2K
Thermal conductivity of mild steel K = 50 W/mK

To find

(i) Rate of heat loss per m2 of tank surface area (Q/A)

(ii) Tank outside surface temperature (T2)

Solution:

Heat loss
Toverall
Q
R
Where
 T = Ta– Tb
1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K3 A hb A

[L3, L2 not given so neglect L2 and L3 terms]

1 L 1
 R=  1 
ha A K1 A hb A
Ta  Tb
Q=
1 L 1
 1 
ha A K1 A hb A
Ta  Tb
Q/A =
1 L1 1
 
ha K1 hb
363  288
Q/ A 
1 0.01 1
 
2800 50 11
Q / A  819.9 W / m 2

We know

17
 Ta  Tb Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  Tb
Q    ......( A)
R Ra R1 Rb
Ta  T1 1
( A)  Q  where R a 
Ra ha A
363  T1
Q
1
ha A
363 - T1
 Q/A =
1
ha
363  T1
 819.9 
1
2800
T1  362.7 K

T1  T2 L1
( A)  Q  where R1 
R1 K1 A
T1  T2
Q
L1
K1 A
T1  T2
 Q/A =
L1
K1
362.7  T2
 819.9 
0.01
50
T2  362.5 K

8. A composite slab is made of three layers 15 cm, 10 cm and 12 cm thickness

respectively. The first layer is made of material with K = 1.45 W/mK, for 60% of the
area and the rest of material with K = 2.5 W/mK. The second layer is made of material
with K = 12.5 W/mK for 50% of area and rest of material with K = 18.5 W/mK. The
third layer is made of single material of K = 0.76 W/mK. The composite slab is exposed
on one side to warn at 26C and cold air at -20C. The inside heat transfer co-efficient is
15 W/m2K. The outside heat transfer co-efficient is 20 W/m2K determine heat flow rate
and interface temperatures.

Given Data

L1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
L2 = 10 cm = 0.1 m
L3 = 12 cm = 0.12 m
K1a = 1.45 W/mK, A1a = .60
K1b = 2.5 W/mK A1b = .40
K2a = 12.5 W/mK A2a = .50
K2b = 18.5 W/mK A2b = .50

18
K3 = 0.76 W/mK
Ta = 26C + 273 = 299 K
Tb = -20C + 273 = 253 K
ha = 15 W/m2K
hb = 20 W/m2K

Solution :

Toverall
Heat flow Q 
R
Where

T = Ta– Tb
1  1 L1 L2 L3 1 
R      
A  ha K1 K 2 K3 hb 
1 L L L 1
=  1  2  3 
Aa ha A1 K1 A2 K 2 A3 K3 Ab hb
R = R a  R1  R2  R3  Rb
Ta  Tb
Q = ....( A)
R a  R1  R2  R3  Rb
Where
1 1
Ra  
Aa ha 1 15
Ra  0.066 K / W

R1a  R1b
R1  .....(1)
R1a  R1b
L1 0.15
R 1a  
K1a  A1a 1.45  0.6
R1a  0.1724 K/W

L1 0.15
R1b  
K1b  A1b 2.5  0.4
R1b  0.15 K/W
Substitute R1a and R1b value in (1)
0.1724  0.15
(1)  R1 
0.1724  0.15
R1  0.08 K / W
Similarly,

19
 R2 a  R2b
R2  .....(2)
R2 a  R2b
L2 0.1
R 2a  
K 2 a  A2 a 12.5  0.5
R2 a  0.016 K/W
L2 0.1
R 2b  
K 2 b  A2b 18.5  0.5
R2b  0.0108 K/W

0.016  0.0108
(2)  R2 
0.016  0.0108
R2  0.0064 K / W

L3 0.12
R3    A 3  1m 2 
A3 K 3 1 0.76
R3  0.15789 K/W
1 1
Rb    A b  1m 2 
Aa hb 1 20
Rb  0.05 K/W

299  253
( A)  Q 
0.066  0.08  0.0064  0.15789  0.05
Q  127.67 W

(ii) Interface temperatures (T1, T2, T3 and T4)

We know
Ta  Tb Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3
Q   
R Ra R1 R2
T3  T4 T4  Tb
 = .....(B)
R3 Rb
Ta  T1
(B)  Q 
Ra
299  T1
=
0.066
299  T1
127.67 
0.066

T1  290.57 K

20
 T1  T2
(B)  Q 
R1
290.57  T2
127.67 
0.08
T2  280.35 K
T2  T3
(B)  Q 
R2
280.35  T3
127.67 
0.0064
T3  279.532 K

T3  T4
(B)  Q 
R3
279.532  T4
127.67 
0.15789
T4  259.374 K

9. An external wall of a house is made up of 10 cm common brick (K = 0.7 W/mK)

followed by a 4 cm layer of zibsum plaster (K = 0.48 W/mK). What thickness of loosely
packed insulation (K = 0.065 W/mK) should be added to reduce the heat loss through
the wall by 80%.
Given Data

Thickness of brick L1 = 10 cm = 0.1 m

Thermal conductivity of brick K1 = 0.7 W/mK
Thickness of zibsum L2 = 4 cm = 0.04 m
Thermal conductivity of zibsum K2 = 0.48 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of insulation K3 = 0.065 W/mK
To find

Thickness of insulation to reduce the heat loss through the wall by 80% (L3)

Solution:
Toverall
Heat flow rate Q 
R
[From HMT data book Page No.34]
Where

1  1 L1 L2 L3 1 
R      
A  ha K1 K 2 K 3 hb 
[The terms ha , hb is not given so neglect that terms].
1  L1 L2 L3 
R =    
A  K1 K 2 K 3 

21
Considering two slabs
T
Q= [Assume heat transfer (Q) = 100 W]
L1 L2

K1 K 2
T
100 =  A = 1m 2 
0.1 0.04

0.7 0.48
T  22.619 K

Heat loss is reduced by 80% due to insulation, so heat transfer is 20 W.

T
Q= [ A = 1m2 ]
1  L1 L2 L3 
   
A  K1 K 2 K 3 
22.619
20 =
1  0.1 0.04 L 
  3
1  0.7 0.48 0.065 
L3  0.0588 m

10. A furnace wall consists of steel plate of 20 mm thick, thermal conductivity 16.2
W/mK lined on inside with silica bricks 150 mm thick with conductivity 2.2 W/mK and
on the outside with magnesia brick 200 mm thick, of conductivity 5.1 W/mK. The inside
and outside surfaces of the wall are maintained at 650C and 150C respectively.
Calculate the heat loss from the wall per unit area. If the heat loss is reduced to
2850W/m2 by providing an air gap between steel and silica bricks, find the necessary
width of air gap if the thermal conductivity of air may be taken as 0.030 W/mK.

Given Data

Steel plate thickness L1 = 20 mm = 0.02 m

Thermal conductivity of steel K1 = 16.2 W/mK
Thickness of the silica L2 = 150 mm = 0.150 m
Thermal conductivity of silica K2 = 2.2 W/mK
Thickness of the magnesia L3 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Thermal conductivity of magnesia K3 = 5.1 W/mK
Inner surface temperature T1 = 650C + 273 = 923
Outer surface temperature T4 = 150C + 273 = 423 K
Heat loss reduced due to air gap is 2850 W/m2
Thermal conductivity of the air gap Kair = 0.030 W/mK

Solution :

Heat transfer through composite wall is given by [without considering air gap]

22
 T
Q
R

Where
 T = T1– T4
1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
T1  T4
 Q=
1 L1 L L 1
  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
Neglecting unknown terms (ha and hb)

T1  T4
Q=
L1 L L
 2  3
K1 A K 2 A K 3 A
923  423
Q  A = 1m 2 
0.02 0.150 0.2
 
16.2  1 2.2  1 5.1 1
500
Q=
0.1086
Q  4602.6 W / m 2

Heat loss is reduced to 2850 W/m2 due to air gap. So the new thermal resistance is

T1
Q
Rnew
T T
 2850  1 4
Rnew
923  423
Rnew 
2850
Rnew  0.1754 K/W

Thermal resistance of air gap

Rair = Rnew – R
= 0.1754 – 0.1086
 L1 L L 
 R   2  3  0.1086 
 K1 A K 2 A K 3 A 
Rair  0.066 K/W
We know
Lair
Rair 
K air  A
Lair
0.066   A = 1m 2 
0.030  1
 Lair  1.98 103 m
Thickness of the air gap = 1.98  10-3 m

23
11. A thick walled tube of stainless steel [K = 77.85 kJ/hr mC] 25 mm ID and 50 mm
OD is covered with a 25 mm layer of asbestos [K = 0.88 kJ/hr mC]. If the inside wall
temperature of the pipe is maintained at 550C and the outside of the insulator at 45C.
Calculate the heat loss per meter length of the pipe.

Given Data

Inner diameter of steel d1 = 25 mm

Inner radius r1 = 12.5 mm  0.0125 m
Outer diameter D2 = 50 mm
Outer radius r2 = 25 mm  0.025 m
Radius r3 = r2 + 25 mm = 50 mm  0.05 m
Thermal conductivity of stainless steel
K1 = 77.85 kJ/hr mC = 77.85 kJ/sec mC
3600
= 0.0216 kJ/sec mC  0.0216 kW/mC
K1  21.625 W / m C
Similarly,

Thermal conductivity of asbestos K2 = 0.88 kJ/hr mC

K 2  0.244 W / mC
Ta  550C
Tb  45C

Solution :

Heat flow through composite cylinder is given by

Toverall
Q [From equation No.(19) or HMT
R
data book Page No.35]
Where
 T = Ta– Tb
 r  r  
 In  2  In  3  
1  1 r r 1 
R   1  2
2 L  h a r1 K1 K2 hb r3 
 
 
Convective heat transfer co-efficient are not given so neglect ha and hb terms.

24
 Ta  Tb
Q =
  r2   r3  
 In   In   
1   1 r r
  2 
2 L  K1 K2 
 
 
Ta  Tb
 Q/L =
  r2   r3  
 In   In   
1   1 r r
  2 
2  K1 K2 
 
 
550 - 45
Q/L =
  0.025   0.05  
In In 
1   0.0125  0.025  
   
2  21.625 0.244 
 

Q / L  1103.9 W/m

12. A steel tube (K = 43.26 W/mK) of 5.08 cm inner diameter and 7.62 cm outer
diameter is covered with 2.5 cm layer of insulation (K = 0.208 W/mK) the inside surface
of the tube receivers heat from a hot gas at the temperature of 316C with heat transfer
co-efficient of 28 W/m2K. While the outer surface exposed to the ambient air at 30C
with heat transfer co-efficient of 17 W/m2K. Calculate heat loss for 3 m length of the
tube.
Given

Steel tube thermal conductivity K1 = 43.26 W/mK

Inner diameter of steel d1 = 5.08 cm = 0.0508 m
Inner radius r1 = 0.0254 m
Outer diameter of steel d2 = 7.62 cm = 0.0762 m
Outer radius r2 = 0.0381 m
Radius r3 = r2 + thickness of insulation
Radius r3 = 0.0381 + 0.025 m
r3 = 0.0631 m
Thermal conductivity of insulation K2 = 0.208 W/mK
Hot gas temperature Ta = 316C + 273 = 589 K
Ambient air temperature Tb = 30C + 273 = 303 K
Heat transfer co-efficient at inner side ha = 28 W/m2K
Heat transfer co-efficient at outer side hb = 17 W/m2K
Length L = 3 m

Solution :
Toverall
Heat flow Q  [From equation No.(19) or HMT
R
data book Page No.35]
Where

25
T = Ta– Tb

1  1 1 r  1 r  1 r  1 
R   In  2   In  3   In  4   
2 L  h a r1 K1  r1  K 2  r2  K 3  r3  hb r4 
Ta  Tb
Q =
1  1 1  r  1 r  1 r  1 
  In  2   In  3   In  4   
2 L  h a r1 K1  r1  K 2  r2  K 3  r3  hb r4 
[The terms K3 and r4 are not given, so neglect that terms]

Ta  Tb
Q =
1  1 1 r  1 r  1 
  In 2  In 3  
2 L  h a r1 K1  r1  K 2  r2  hb r3 

589 - 303
Q =
1  1 1  0.0381  1  0.0631  1 
 In  + In  
2  3  28  0.0254 43.26  0.0254  0.208  0.0381  17  0.0631 
  

Q  1129.42 W

Heat loss Q = 1129.42 W.

13. A hollow sphere (K = 65 W/mK) of 120 mm inner diameter and 350 mm outer
diameter is covered 10 mm layer of insulation (K = 10 W/mK). The inside and outside
temperatures are 500C and 50C respectively. Calculate the rate of heat flow through
this sphere.

Given

Thermal conductivity of sphere K1 = 65 W/mK

Inner diameter of sphere d1 = 120 mm
Radius r1 = 60 mm = 0.060 m
Outer diameter of sphere d2 = 350 mm
Radius r2 = 175 mm = 0.175 m
Radius r3 = r2 + thickness of insulation
R3 = 0.175 + 0.010

r3  0.185m

Thermal conductivity of insulation K2 = 10 W/mK

Inside temperature Ta = 500C + 273 = 773 K
Outside temperature Tb = 50C + 273 = 323 K

Solution:

26
Heat loss through hollow sphere is given by
Toverall
Q [From equation No.(19) or HMT
R
data book Page No.34 & 35]
Where
 T = Ta– Tb

1  1 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 
R         
4  h a r12 K1  r1 r2  K 2  r2 r3  hb r32 
Ta  Tb
Q =
1  1 1 1 1  1 1 1  1 
        
4  h a r12 K1  r1 r2  K 2  r2 r3  hb r32 

ha, hb not given so neglect that terms.

Ta  Tb
Q
 1  1 1  1  1 1 
1
       
4
 K1  r1 r2  k2  r2 r3  
773 -323

1 1  1 1  1  1 1 
  
4  65  0.060 0.175  10  0.175 0.185  
 Q = 28361 W

Heat transfer = Q = 28361 W

Radius r3 = r2 + thickness of insulation
= 0.0455 + 90  10-3 m
r3 = 0.1355 m

Radius r4 = r3 + thickness of insulation

= 0.1355 + 40  10-3 m
r4 = 0.1755 m
Thermal conductivity of pipe K1 = 47 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of insulation (I) K2 = 0.5 W/mK
Thermal conductivity of insulation (II) K3 = 0.25 W/mK
Outside temperature T4 = 20C + 273 = 293 K
Solution :

Heat flow through composite cylinder is given by

Toverall
Q [From equation No.(19) or HMT
R
data book Page No.35]
Where
 T = Ta– Tb (or) T1 –T4

27
  r  r  r  
 In  2  In  3  In  4  
1  1 r r r 1 
R   1  2  3
2 L  h a r1 K1 K2 K 3 hb r4 
 
 
T1  T4
Q =
  r2  r  r  
 In   In  3  In  4  
1  1  r1   r2   r3  1 
   
2 L  h a r1 K1 K2 K3 hb r4 
 
 
Heat transfer coefficients ha,h are not given.
b
So neglect that terms.
T1  T4
 Q=
  r2   r3   r4  
 In   In   In   
1   r1  r r
  2    3 
2 L  K1 K2 K3 
 
 
523 - 293
Q =
  0.0455   0.1355   0.1755  
In In  In 
1   0.040  
   0.1355  

 
0.0455

2 L  47 0.5 0.25 
 

 Q / L  448.8 W/m

Heat transfer Q/L = 448.8 W/m.

14. A hollow sphere has inside surface temperature of 300C and then outside surface
temperature of 30C. If K = 18 W/mK. Calculate (i) heat lost by conduction for inside
diameter of 5 cm and outside diameter of 15 cm (ii) heat lost by conduction, if equation
for a plain wall area is equal to sphere area.

Given Data :
T1 = 300C + 273 = 573 K
T2 = 30C + 273 = 303 K
K1 = 18 W/mK
d1 = 5 cm = 0.05 m
r1 = 0.025 m
d2 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
r2 = 0.075 m

28
Solution:
(i) Heat lost (Q)
Toverall
Heat flow Q  [From HMT data book Page
R
No.34 & 35]
Where
 T = Ta– Tb (or) T1 – T2
1  1 1 1 1  1 
R      
4  h a r12 K1  r1 r2  hb r2 2 
T1  T2
Q =
1  1 1 1 1  1 
    
4  h a r12 K1  r1 r2  hb r2 2 

[The terms ha, hb not given so neglect that terms].

T1  T2
Q
1 1
 1 1 
  

4  K1
 r1 r2  
573 -303
 Q=
1 1  1 1 

4 18  0.025 0.075  
 Q = 2290.22 W

(ii) Heat loss (If the area is equal to the plain wall area) Q1

L = r2 – r1
= 0.075 – 0.025
L  0.05 m

A1  A2
A  A = 4 r 2 
2
4 r12  4 r2 2
=
2

A  2 (r 21  r 22 )
We know
T
Q1 
R

29
 T1  T2  L 
Q1   R= KA for plain wall
L  
KA
T1  T2
Q1 
L
K1  2  r12  r 2 2 
573 - 303
Q1 
0.05
18  2 (0.0252  0.0752 )
Q1  3817.03W

Derive an expression of Critical Radius of Insulation For A Cylinder.

Consider a cylinder having thermal conductivity K. Let r1 and r0 inner and outer radii
of insulation.

Ti  T
Heat transfer Q  [From equation No.(3)]
r 
In  0 
 r1 
2 KL

Considering h be the outside heat transfer co-efficient.

Ti  T
Q =
r 
In  0 
 r1   1
2 KL A 0h
Here A 0  2 r0L
Ti  T
Q
r 
In  0 
 r1   1
2 KL 2 r0Lh

To find the critical radius of insulation, differentiate Q with respect to r0 and equate it
to zero.

30
  1 1 
0  (Ti  T )   2


dQ
  2 KLr0 2 hLr0 
dr0 1 r  1
In  0  
2 KL  r1  2 hLr0
since (Ti  T )  0
1 1
  0
2 KLr0 2 hLr0 2
K
 r0   rc
h

15. A wire of 6 mm diameter with 2 mm thick insulation (K = 0.11 W/mK). If the

convective heat transfer co-efficient between the insulating surface and air is 25 W/m2L,
find the critical thickness of insulation. And also find the percentage of change in the
heat transfer rate if the critical radius is used.

Given Data
d1= 6 mm
r1 = 3 mm = 0.003 m
r2 = r1 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5 mm = 0.005 m
K = 0.11 W/mK
hb = 25 W/m2K
Solution:

K
1. Critical radius rc  [From equation No.(21)]
h
0.11
rc   4.4  10 3 m
25
rc  4.4  103 m

Critical thickness = rc – r1
 4.4  103  0.003
 1.4  103 m
Critical thickness t c = 1.4  10 -3 (or) 1.4 mm

2. Heat transfer through an insulated wire is given by

Ta  Tb
Q1 
  r2  
 In   
1   r1  1 

2 L  K1 hbr2 
 
 

31
 From HMT data book Page No.35
2 L (Ta  Tb )
=
  0.005  
 In  0.003  1 
   
 0.11 25  0.005 
 
2 L (Ta  Tb )
Q1 =
12.64

Heat flow through an insulated wire when critical radius is used is given by

Ta  Tb
Q2  r2  rc 
  rc  
 In   
1   r1  1 

2 L  K1 hbrc 
 
 

2 L (Ta  Tb )
=
 4.4  10 3 
In  
 0.003   1
0.11 25  4.4  10 3
2 L (Ta  Tb )
Q2 =
12.572

 Percentage of increase in heat flow by using

Q 2  Q1
Critical radius =  100
Q1
1 1
  100
 12.57 12.64
1
12.64
 0.55%

Internal Heat Generation – Formulae used

For plane wall :
qL
1. Surface temperature Tw  T 
2h
qL2
2. Maximum temperature Tmax  Tmax 
8K

32
where
T - Fluid temperature, K
q - Heat generation, W/m3
L – Thickness, m
h - Heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K
K – Thermal conductivity, W/mK.
For Cylinder
Q
1. Heat generation q 
V
qr 2
2. Maximum temperature Tmax  Tw 
4K
rq
3. Surface temperature Tw  T 
2h
Where
V – Volume - r2 L
r – radius – m

For sphere
qr 2
1. Temperature at the centre Tc  Tw 
6K

16. A current of 200 A is passed through a stainless steel wire (K = 19 W/mK) 3 mm in

diameter. The resistivity of the steel may be taken as 70  cm and the length of the
wire is submerged in a liquid at 110C with heat transfer co-efficient h = 4 kW/m2C.
Calculate the centre temperature of the wire.

Given
Current A = 200 A
Thermal conductivity K = 19 W/mK
Diameter d = 3 mm = 3  10-3 m
Resistivity = 70  - cm
Liquid temperature Tw = 110C + 273 = 383 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 4 kW/m2C
= 4  10-3 W/m2C
Solution:
The maximum temperature in the wire occurs at the centre.
qr 2
Tmax  Tc  Tw  ........(A) [From Equation No.12]
4K

33
 Resistivity  Length
Re sis tance of wire R =
Area
2
70  10  10  1
-6
=
4
 3  10 
2
3

R  0.099 

We know that
Q = I2R
= (200)2 (0.099)
Q = 3960 W
Q 3960
Heat generated q  
V  d2  L
4
3960
q
  3  10 3 2  1
4
q  560  106 W / m3

Substituting q value in Equation (A)

560  106  (1.5  103 )2

Tmax  Tc  383 
4  19
Tc  399.5 K

17. A sphere of 100 mm diameter, having thermal conductivity of 0.18 W/mK. The outer
surface temperature is 8C and 250 W/m2 of energy is released due to heat source.
Calculate
1. Heat generated
2. Temperature at the centre of the sphere.
Given
Diameter of sphere d = 100 mm
r = 50 mm = 0.050 m
Thermal conductivity K = 0.18 W/mK
Surface temperature Tw = 8C + 273 = 281 K
Energy released Q = 250 W/m2
Solution:
Q
Heat generated q 
V

34
 Q/ A
 q/ A  Here Q/A = 250 W/m2 
V
Q/ A
 q/ A  Here Q/A = 250 W/m2 
V
250
 q/ A 
4 / 3 r 3
q 250
 
4 r 2 4 / 3 r 3
250  4    (0.050)2
q
4 / 3  (0.50)3

 q = 15,000 W/m3

Temperature at the centre of the sphere

qr 2
Tc  Tw  [From Equation No.16]
6K
15000  (0.050)2
= 281 +
6  0.18
Tc  315.7 K

18. One end of the long solid rod of 50 mm diameter is inserted into a furnace with the
other end is projecting the atmosphere at 25C. Once the steady state is reached, the
temperature of the rod is measured at two points 20 cm apart are found to be 150C
and 100C. The convective heat transfer co-efficient between the rod and the
surrounding air is 30 W/m2K. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the rod material.
Given Data:
Atmospheric Temperature T = 25C + 273 = 298 K
Distance x = 20 cm = 0.20 m
Base temperature Tb = 150C + 273 = 423 K
Intermediate temperature T = 100C + 273 = 373 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 30 W/m2K.
Solution:
Since the rod is long, it is treated as long fin. So, temperature distribution
T  T
 e  mx [From HMT data book (CPK)
Tb  T
Page No.41]

35
 373 - 298
  e m(0.20)
423 - 298
 0.6 = e -m (0.20)
 In (0.6)= -m  (0.20)
 - 0.51 = -m  (0.20)
m = 2.55 m-1
We know that,
hP
m [From HMT data book
KA
(CPK) Page No.41]
hP
2.55 = .............(A)
KA
h – heat transfer co-efficient = 30 W/m2K
P – Perimeter = d =  0.050
P  0.157 m

A  Area  d2
4

= (0.050)2
4
A  1.96  103 m2

30  0.157
(A)  2.55 
K  1.96  103
30  0.157
 6.50 =
K  1.96  10 -3
K = 369.7 W/mK

19. An aluminium alloy fin of 7 mm thick and 50 mm long protrudes from a wall, which
is maintained at 120C. The ambient air temperature is 22C. The heat transfer
coefficient and conductivity of the fin material are 140 W/m2K and 55 W/mK
respectively. Determine

1. Temperature at the end of the fin.

2. Temperature at the middle of the fin.
3. Total heat dissipated by the fin.

Given

Thickness t = 7mm = 0.007 m

Length L= 50 mm = 0.050 m
Base temperature Tb = 120C + 273 = 393 K

36
Ambient temperature T = 22 + 273 = 295 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 140 W/m 2K
Thermal conductivity K = 55 W/mK.

Solution:

Length of the fin is 50 mm. So, this is short fin type problem. Assume end is
insulated.
We know
Temperature distribution [Short fin, end insulated]
T  T cos h m [L -x]
 .......(A)
Tb  T cos h (mL)

[From HMT data book Page No.41]

(i) Temperature at the end of the fin, Put x = L
T - T cos h m [L-L]
(A)  
Tb  T cos h (mL)
T - T 1
  ...(1)
Tb  T cos h (mL)
where
hP
m=
KA
P = Perimeter = 2  L (Approx)
= 2  0.050
P = 0.1 m

A – Area = Length  thickness = 0.050  0.007

A  3.5  104 m2
hP
 m=
KA

140  0.1

55  3.5  10 4
m  26.96

37
 T - T 1
(1)  
Tb  T cos h (26.9  0.050)
T - T 1
 
Tb  T 2.05
T - 295 1
 
393 - 295 2.05
 T - 295 = 47.8
 T = 342.8 K
Temperature at the end of the fin Tx L  342.8 K

(ii) Temperature of the middle of the fin,

Put x = L/2 in Equation (A)

T - T cos hm [L-L/2]
(A)  
Tb  T cos h (mL)
 0.050 
cos h 26.9 0.050 -
T - T  2 
 
Tb  T cos h  26.9  (0.050)
T- 295 1.234
 
393 - 295 2.049
T - 295
  0.6025
393 -295
T  354.04 K

Temperature at the middle of the fin

Tx L / 2  354.04 K

(iii) Total heat dissipated

[From HMT data book Page No.41]

 Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb  T )tan h (mL)

 [140  0.1  55  3.5  10-4 ]1/ 2  (393  295)
 tan h (26.9  0.050)
Q = 44.4 W

20. Ten thin brass fins (K = 100 W/mK), 0.75 mm thick are placed axially on a 1 m long
and 60 mm diameter engine cylinder which is surrounded by 35C. The fins are
extended 1.5 cm from the cylinder surface and the heat transfer co-efficient between
cylinder and atmospheric air is 15 W/m2K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer and the
temperature at the end of fins when the cylinder surface is at 160C.

38
Given

Number of fins = 10
Thermal conductivity K = 100 W/mK
Thickness of the fin t = 0.75 mm = 0.75  10-3 m
Length of engine cylinder = 1m
Diameter of the cylinder d = 60 mm = 0.060 m
Atmosphere temperature T = 35C + 273 = 300 K
Length of the fin L = 1.5 cm = 1.5  10-2 m
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 15 W/m2K
Cylinder surface temperature
i.e. Base temperature Tb = 160C + 273 = 433 K

Solution

Assuming that the fin end is insulated and length of the fin is 1.5 cm. So this is short
fin end insulated type problem.

We know
Heat transferred Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb - T) tan h (mL)….(A)
[From HMT data book Page No.41]
Where
P – Perimeter = 2  Length of the cylinder
=21
P  2m

A = Area = length of the cylinder  thickness

= 1  0.75  10-3 m

A  0.75  10 3 m 2
hP
m
KA
15  2
=
100  0.75  10-3
m  20
 Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb  T ) tan h (mL)
 [15  2  100  0.75  10 3 ]1/ 2  (433  300)
 tan h (20  1.5  10 2 )
Q = 1.5  133  0.29
Q = 58.1 W
Heat transferred per fin = 58.1 W
The heat transfer for 10 fins = 58.1  10
Q1  581 W ....(B)

39
Heat transfer from unfinned surface due to convection is
Q 2  h A T
= h  ( dL - 10  t  L) (Tb  T )
[ Area of unfinned surface = Area of cylinder - Area of
fin]
= 15  [  0.060  1]  [10  0.75  10 3  1.5  10 2 ]
[433 - 300]
Q 2  375.8 W ..........(C)

So, Total heat transfer Q = Q1 + Q2

Q = 581 + 375.8
Total heat transfer Q  956.8 W

We know that,

Temperature distribution [short fin, end insulated]

T  T cos h m [L-x]

Tb  T cos h (mL)
[From HMT data book Page No.41]

Temperature at the end of fin, so put x = L

21. Aluminium fins 1.5 cm wide and 10 mm thick are placed on a 2.5 cm diameter tube
to dissipate the heat. The tube surface temperature is 170C ambient temperature is
20C. Calculate the heat loss per fin. Take h = 130 W/m2 C and K = 200 W/m2 C for
aluminium.
Given

Wide of the fin b = 1.5 cm = 1.5  10-2 m

Thickness t = 10 mm = 10  10-3 m
Diameter of the tube d = 2.5 cm = 2.5  10-2 m
Surface temperature Tb = 170C + 273 = 443 K
Ambient temperature T = 20C + 273 = 293 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 130 W/m2C
Thermal conductivity K = 200 W/mC
Solution
Assume fin end is insulated, so this is short fin end insulated type problem.
Heat transfer [short fin, end insulated]

Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb - T) tan h (mL) ……..(1)

[From HMT data book Page No.41]
Where
A – Area = Breadth  thickness

40
  1.5  10 2  10  10 3
A  1.5  10 4 m2
P  Perimeter  2(b  t)
= 2[(1.5  10 2 )  (10  10 3 )]
P = 0.05 m
hP
m=
KA
130  0.05
=
200  1.5  10 -4
m = 14.7 m-1
(1)  Q = [130  0.05  200  1.5  10 4 ]1/ 2
 (443-293)  tan h (14.7  1.5  10-2 )
Q  14.3 W

22. A straight rectangular fin has a length of 35 mm, thickness of 1.4 mm. The thermal
conductivity is 55W/mC. The fin is exposed to a convection environment at 20C and h
= 500 W/m2C. Calculate the heat loss for a base temperature of 150C.

Given

Length L = 35 mm = 0.035 m
Thickness t = 1.4 mm = 0.0014 m
Thermal conductivity K = 55 W/mC
Fluid temperature T = 20C + 273 = 293 K
Base temperature Tb = 150C + 273 = 423 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 500 W/m 2K.
Solution
Length of the fin is 35 mm, so this is short fin type problem. Assume end is insulated.

Heat transferred [Short fin, end insulated]

Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb - T) tan h (mL) …….(1)
[From HMT data book Page No.41]
Where
P – Perimeter = 2  Length (Approximately)
= 2  0.035
P = 0.07 m

A – Area = Length  thickness

= 0.035  0.0014
A  4.9  105 m2

41
 hP
m
KA
500  0.07
=
55  4.9  10 -5
m = 113.9 m-1

Substituting h, p, K, A, T b, T, m, L values in equation (1)

(1)  Q = [500  0.07  55  4.0  10-5 ]1/ 2
 (423 - 293)  tan h (113.9  0.035)
Q = 39.8 W

23. A heating unit made in the form of a cylinder is 6 cm diameter and 1.2 m long. It is
provided with 20 longitudinal fins 3 mm thick which protrude 50 mm from the surface
of the cylinder. The temperature at the base of the fin is 80C.The ambient
temperatures is 25C. The film heat transfer co-efficient from the cylinder and fins to
the surrounding air is 10 W/m2K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer from the finned
wall to the surrounding. Take K = 90 W/mK.

Given

Diameter of the cylinder d = 6 cm = 0.06 m

Length of the cylinder = 1.2 m
Number of fins = 20
Thickness of fin (t) = 3 mm = 0.003 m
Length of fin L = 50 mm = 0.050 m
Base temperature Tb = 80C + 273 = 353 K
Ambient temperature T = 25C + 273 = 298 K
Film heat transfer co-efficient h = 10 W/m2K
Thermal conductivity K = 90 W/mK.

Solution

Length of the fins is 50 mm. Assume end is insulated. So this is short fin end
insulated type problem.

We know
Heat transferred [short fin, end insulated]

Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb - T) tan h (mL) ……..(1)

[From HMT data book Page No. 41]
Where
P – Perimeter = 2  Length of the cylinder

42
 = 2  1.2
P  2.4 m

A – Area = Length of the cylinder  thickness of fin

= 1.2  0.003
3
A  3.6  10 m2

hP
m
KA
10  2.4
=
90  3.6  10 -3
m = 8.6 m-1

(1)  Q = [10  2.4  90  3.6  10 3 ]1/ 2

 (353 - 298)  tan h (8.6  0.050)
Q  62.16 W
Heat transferred per fin = 62.16 W
Number of fins = 20
So, Total heat transferred Q1 = 62.16  20
Q1 = 1243.28 W
Heat transfer from unfinned surface due to convection is Q2 = h A T
 h   dL  20  t  L  (Tb  T )
[ Area of unfinned surface = Area of cylinder - Area
of fin]
= 10 [  0.06  1.2 - 20  0.003  0.050]
[353 - 298]
Q2  122.75 W
So,
Total heat transfer Q = Q1 + Q2
Q = 1243.28 + 122.75
Total heat transfer Q  1366 W

24. An aluminium cube 6 cm on a side is originally at a temperature of 500C. It is

suddenly immersed in a liquid at 10C for which h is 120 W/m2K. Estimate the time
required for the cube to reach a temperature of 250C. For aluminium  = 2700 kg/m3,

43
C= 900 J/kg K, K = 204 W/mK.
Given
Thickness of cube L = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Initial temperature T0 = 500C + 273 = 773 K
Final temperature T = 10C + 273 = 283 K
Intermediate temperature T = 250C + 273 = 523 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 120 w/m2K
Density  = 2700 kg/m3
Specific heat C = 900 J/Kg k
Thermal conductivity K = 204 W/mK
Solution
For Cube,
L
Characteristic length Lc 
6
0.06

6
L c  0.01 m
We know
hL c
Biot number Bi 
K
120  0.01

204
Bi = 5.88  10 3  0.1
Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem

For lumped parameter system,

  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V   
 e   ....(1)
T0  T
[From HMT data book Page No.48]
We know,
V
Characteristics length Lc 
A

44
  h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c 
T0  T
 120 
523 - 283  t
  e  9000.012700 
773 - 283
-120
 In (0.489) = t
900  0.01 2700
 t = 144.86 s

Time required for the cube to reach 250C is 144.86 s.

25. A copper plate 2 mm thick is heated up to 400C and quenched into water at 30C.
Find the time required for the plate to reach the temperature of 50C. Heat transfer co-
efficient is 100 W/m2K. Density of copper is 8800 kg/m3. Specific heat of copper = 0.36
kJ/kg K.
Plate dimensions = 30  30 cm.

Given

Thickness of plate L = 2 mm = 0.002 m

Initial temperature T0 = 400C + 273 = 673 K
Final temperature T = 30C + 273 = 303 K
Intermediate temperature T = 50C + 273 = 323 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 100 W/m 2K
Density  = 8800 kg/m3
Specific heat C= 360 J/kg k
Plate dimensions = 30  30 cm

To find
Time required for the plate to reach 50C.
[From HMT data book Page No.2]

Solution:

Thermal conductivity of the copper K = 386 W/mK

For slab,
L
Characteristic length Lc 
2
0.002
=
2
Lc  0.001 m
We know,
hL c
Biot number Bi 
K

45
 100  0.001

386
Bi = 2.59  10 4  0.1

Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem.

For lumped parameter system,

  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V   
 e   ……….(1)
T0  T
[From HMT data book Page No.48]
We know,
V
Characteristics length Lc =
A
 h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c 
T0  T
 100 
323 - 303  t 
  e  3600.0018800 
673 - 303
 t = 92.43 s

Time required for the plate to reach 50C is 92.43 s.

26. A 12 cm diameter long bar initially at a uniform temperature of 40 C is placed in a
medium at 650C with a convective co-efficient of 22 W/m2K. Determine the time
required for the center to reach 255C. For the material of the bar, K = 20 W/mK,
Density = 580 kg/m3, specific heat = 1050 J/kg K.
Given:
Diameter of bar, D = 12 cm = 0.12 m
Radius of bar, R = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Initial temperature T0 = 40C + 273 = 313 K
Final temperature T = 650C + 273 = 923 K
Intermediate temperature T = 255C + 273 = 528 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 22 W/m2K
Thermal conductivity K = 20 W/mK
Density  = 580 kg/m3
Specific heat C = 1050 J/kg k

Solution

For cylinder,
R
Characteristic Length Lc 
2

46
 0.06
=
2
Lc  0.03 m
We know,
hL c
Biot number Bi 
K
22  0.03

20

Bi = 0.033 < 0.1

Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem.
For lumped parameter system,
  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V   
 e   ……….(1)
T0  T
[From HMT data book Page No.48]
We know,
V
Characteristics length Lc =
A
 h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c 
T0  T
 22 t 
528 - 923  
  e 10500.03580 
313 - 923
 t = 360.8 s

Time required for the cube to reach 255C is 360.8 s.

27. A steel ball (specific heat = 0.46 kJ/kgK. and thermal conductivity = 35 W/mK)
having 5 cm diameter and initially at a uniform temperature of 450C is suddenly
placed in a control environment in which the temperature is maintained at 100C.
Calculate the time required for the balls to attained a temperature of 150C. Take h =
10W/m2K.

Given
Specific heat C = 0.46 kJ/kg K = 460 J/kg K
Thermal conductivity K = 35 W/mK
Diameter of the sphere D = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Radius of the sphere R = 0.025 m
Initial temperature T0 = 450C + 273 = 723 K
Final temperature T = 100C + 273 = 373 K
Intermediate temperature T = 150C + 273 = 423 K

47
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 10 W/m2K
To find
Time required for the ball to reach 150C
[From HMT data book Page No.1]
Solution
Density of steel is 7833 kg/m3
  7833 kg / m3
For sphere,
R
Characteristic Length Lc 
3
0.025
=
3
Lc  8.33  10 3 m
We know,
hL c
Biot number Bi 
K
10  8.3  10 3

35
Bi = 2.38  10-3< 0.1
Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem.
For lumped parameter system,
  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V   
 e   ……….(1)
T0  T
[From HMT data book Page No.48]
We know,
V
Characteristics length Lc =
A
 h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c 
T0  T
 10 
423 - 373  3
t 
  e  4608.3310 7833 
723 - 373
423 - 373 10
 In  t
723 - 373 460  8.33  10 3  7833
 t = 5840.54 s
Time required for the ball to reach 150C is 5840.54 s.
28. An aluminium sphere mass 5.5 kg and initially at a temperature of 290o is
suddenlyimmersedin a fluid at15C with heat transfer co-efficient 58 W/m3K. Estimate
the time required to cool the aluminium to 95C. For aluminium take  = 2700 kg/m3,

48
C = 900 J/kg K, K = 205 W/mK.

Given

Mass, m = 5.5 kg
Initial temperature T0 = 290C + 273 = 563 K
Final temperature T = 15C + 273 = 288 K
Intermediate temperature T = 95C + 273 =368 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 58 W/m2K
Thermal conductivity K = 205 W/mK
Density  = 2700 kg/m3
Specific heat C = 900 J/kg K.
Solution
We know,
mass m
Density  = 
volume V
m
 V=

5.5
=
2700
V  2.037  103 m3
We know,
4
Volume of sphere V   R3
3
3V 3  2.03  10 3
R3  
4 4
 R  0.0786 m
For sphere,
R
Characteristic Length Lc 
3
0.0786
=
3
Lc  0.0262 m
We know,
hL c
Biot number Bi 
K
58  0.0262

205

Bi = 7.41  10-3< 0.1

49
 Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem.

For lumped parameter system,

  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V   
 e   ……….(1)
T0  T

[From HMT data book Page No.48]

We know,
V
Characteristics length Lc =
A
 h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c 
T0  T
 58 
368 - 288  t 
  e  9000.02622700 
563 - 288
 368 - 288  58
 In    t
 563 - 288  900  0.0262  2700
 t = 1355.36 s

Time required to cool the aluminium to 95C is 1355.6 s.

29. Alloy steel ball of 2 mm diameter heated to 800C is quenched in a bath at 100C.
The material properties of the ball are K = 205 kJ/m hr K,  = 7860 kg/m3, C = 0.45
kJ/kg K, h = 150 KJ/ hr m2 K. Determine (i) Temperature of ball after 10 second and
(ii) Time for ball to cool to 400C.
Given

Diameter of the ball D = 12 mm = 0.012 m

Radius of the ball R = 0.006m
Initial temperature T0 = 800C + 273 = 1073 K
Final temperature T = 100C + 273 = 373 K
Thermal conductivity K = 205 kJ/m hr K
205  1000J

3600 s mK
 56.94 W / mK [  J/s = W]
3
Density  = 7860 kg/m
Specific heat C = 0.45 kJ/kg K
= 450 J/kg K

Heat transfer co-efficient h = 150 kJ/hr m2 K

50
 150  1000J

3600 s m2K
 41.66 W / m2K
Solution

Case (i) Temperature of ball after 10 sec.

For sphere,
R
Characteristic Length Lc 
3
0.006
=
3
Lc  0.002 m
We know,
hL c
Biot number Bi 
K
41.667  0.002

56.94
Bi = 1.46  10-3< 0.1
Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem.
For lumped parameter system,
  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V   
 e   ……….(1)
T0  T
[From HMT data book Page No.48]
We know,
V
Characteristics length Lc =
A
 h 
 t
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c  ..........(2)
T0  T
 41.667 
T - 373  10 
  e  4500.0027860 
1073 - 373
 T = 1032.95 K

Case (ii) Time for ball to cool to 400C

T = 400C + 273 = 673 K

51
  h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(2)   e   c  .......(2)
T0  T
 41.667 
673 - 373  t 
  e  4500.0027860 
1073 - 373
 673 - 373  41.667
 In    t
1073 - 373  450  0.002  7860
 t = 143.849 s

30. A large wall 2 cm thick has uniform temperature 30C initially and the wall
temperature is suddenly raised and maintained at 400C. Find

1. The temperature at a depth of 0.8 cm from the surface of the wall after 10 s.
2. Instantaneous heat flow rate through that surface per m2 per hour.

Take  = 0.008 m2/hr, K = 6 W/mC.

Given

Thickness L = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Initial temperature Ti = 30C + 273 = 303 K
Surface temperature T0 = 400C + 273 = 673 K
Thermal diffusivity  = 0.008 m2/h
= 2.22  10-6 m2/s
Thermal conductivity K = 6 W/mC.

Case (i)
Depth  0.8 cm = 0.8  10-2 m
= 0.008 m
Time t = 10 s
Case (ii)

Time t = 1 h = 3600 s
Solution

In this problem heat transfer co-efficient h is not given. So take it as . i.e. h .
We know that,
hLc
Biot number Bi =
K
h=
 Bi  

Bi value is . So this is semi infinite solid type problem.

Case (i)

52
 For semi infinite solid.
Tx  T0  x 
 erf  
Ti  T0  2 at 
[From HMT data book Page No. 50]
Tx  T0
  erf (X) .......(1)
Ti  T0
Where,
x
X
2 at

Put x = 0.008 m, t = 10 s,  = 2.22  10-6 m2/s.

0.008
 X=
2 2.22  10 -6  10
X = 0.848

X = 0.848, corresponding erf (X) is 0.7706

 erf (X) = 0.7706

[Refer HMT data book Page No.52]
Tx -T0
(1)   0.7706
Ti  T0
Tx - 673
  0.7706
303 - 673
T - 673
 x  0.7706
- 370
 Tx = 387.85 K

Case (ii)

Instantaneous heat flow

K  T0  Ti 
  x2 
 
 4 t 
qx  e
a t
[From HMT data book Page No.50]
t = 3600 s (Given)

53
   (0.008)2 
6 (673  303)  6 
 42.2210 3600 
 qx  e
  2.22  10-6  3600
qx  13982.37 W / m2

Intermediate temperature Tx = 387.85 K

Heat flux qx = 13982.37 W/m2.

31. A largecast iron at 750C is taken out from a furnace and its one of its surface is
suddenly lowered and maintained at 45C. Calculate the following:

1. The time required to reach the temperature 350C at a depth of 45 mm from the
surface.
2. Instantaneous heat flow rate at a depth of 45 mm and on surface after 30
minutes.
3. Total heat energy after 2 hr for ingot,
Take  = 0.06 m2/hr, K = 48.5 W/mK.
Given
Initial temperature Ti = 750C + 273 = 1023 K
Surface temperature T0 = 45C + 273 = 318 K
Intermediate temperature Tx = 350C + 273 = 623 K
Depth x = 45 mm = 0.045 m
Thermal diffusivity  = 0.06 m2/hr = 1.66  10-5 m2/s
Thermal conductivity K = 48.5 W/mK.
Solution

In this problem heat transfer co-efficient h is not given. So take it as , i.e. h .

We know that,
hLc
Biot number Bi =
K
h=
 Bi  

Bi value is . So this is semi infinite solid type problem.

1. For semi infinite solid.

Tx  T0  x 
 erf  
Ti  T0  2 at 
[From HMT data book Page No. 50]

54
 Tx  T0
  erf (X) where,
Ti  T0
x
X
2 at

623  318
  erf (X)
1023  318

 0.432 = erf (X)

 erf (X) = 0.432

erf (X) = 0.432, corresponding X is 0.41

 X  0.41

We know
x
X
2 at

0.045
 0.41 =
2 1.66  10-5  t
(0.045)2
 (0.41)2 
(2)2  1.66  10 5  t
 t = 181.42 s
Time required to reach 350C is 181.42 s.

2. Instantaneous heat flow

K  T0  Ti 
  x2 
 
 4 t 
qx  e
a t
[From HMT data book Page No.50]
t = 30 minutes (Given)
t = 1800 s
  (0.045)2 
48.5 (318  1023)  5 
 41.6610 1800 
 qx  e
  1.66  10-5  1800
qx  109725.4 W / m2
[Negative sign shows that heat lost from the ingot].

55
3. Total heat energy

t
q  2K[T0  Ti ]

7200
 2  48.5(318  1023) 
  1.66  105
[Time is given, 2 hr = 7200 s]

q  803.5  10 6 J / m2
[Negative sign shows that heat lost from the ingot]
32. A large steel plate 5 cm thick is initially at a uniform temperature of 400C. It is
suddenly exposed on both sides to a surrounding at 60C with convective heat transfer
co-efficient of 285 W/m2K. Calculate the centre line temperature and the temperature
inside the plate 1.25 cm from themed plane after 3 minutes.

Take K for steel = 42.5 W/mK,  for steel = 0.043 m2/hr.

Given

Thickness L = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Initial temperature Ti = 400C + 273 = 673 K
Final temperature T = 60C + 273 = 333 K
Distance x = 1.25 mm = 0.0125 m
Time t = 3 minutes = 180 s
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 285 W/m 2K
Thermal diffusivity  = 0.043 m2/hr
= 1.19  10-5 m2/s.
Thermal conductivity K = 42.5 W/mK.

Solution

For Plate :
L
Characteristic Length Lc 
2
0.05
=
2
Lc  0.025 m
We know,
hL c
Biot number Bi 
K
285  0.025

42.5
 Bi  0.1675

56
 0.1 < Bi< 100, So this is infinite solid type problem.
Infinite Solids

Case (i)

[To calculate centre line temperature (or) Mid plane temperature for infinite plate,
refer HMT data book Page No.59 Heisler chart].
t
X axis  Fourier number = 2
Lc
1.19  10-5  180
=
(0.025)2
X axis  Fourier number = 3.42
hLc
Curve 
K

285  0.025
  0.167
42.5
hLc
Curve   0.167
K

X axis value is 3.42, curve value is 0.167, corresponding Y axis value is 0.64

T0  T
Y axis =  0.64
Ti  T
T0  T
 0.64
Ti  T

T0  T
  0.64
Ti  T

T0  333
  0.64
673  333
 T0  550.6 K
Center line temperature T0  550.6 K
Case (ii)

Temperature (Tx) at a distance of 0.0125 m from mid plane

[Refer HMT data book Page No.60, Heisler chart]

57
 hLc
X axis  Biot number Bi   0.167
K
x 0.0125
Curve    0.5
Lc 0.025

X axis value is 0.167, curve value is 0.5, corresponding Y axis value is 0.97.

Tx  T
 0.97
T0  T

Tx  T
Y axis =  0.97
T0  T
Tx  T
  0.97
T0  T
Tx  333
  0.97
550.6  333
 Tx  544 K

Temperature inside the plate 1.25 cm from the mid plane is 544 K.

33. A 10 cm diameter apple approximately spherical in shape is taken from a 20C

environment and placed in a refrigerator where temperature is 5C and average heat
transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2K. Calculate the temperature at the centre of the apple
after a period of 1 hour. The physical properties of apple are density = 998 kg/m3.
Specific heat = 4180 J/kg K, Thermal conductivity = 0.6 W/mK.
Given:
Diameter of sphere D = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Radius of sphere R = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Initial temperature Ti = 20C + 273 = 293 K
Final temperature T = 5C + 273 = 278 K
Time t = 1 hour = 3600 s
Density  = 998 kg/m3
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 6 W/m 2K
Specific heat C = 4180 J/kg K
Thermal conductivity K = 0.6 W/mK
K 0.6
Thermal diffusivity  = 
 C  998  4180
  1.43  107 m2 / s.
Solution
For Sphere,

58
 R
Characteristic Length Lc 
3
0.05
=
3
Lc  0.016 m
We know,
hL c
Biot number Bi 
K
6  0.016

0.6
 Bi  0.16
0.1 < Bi< 100, So this is infinite solid type problem.
Infinite Solids

[To calculate centre line temperature for sphere, refer HMT data book Page No.63].

t
X axis =
R2
1.43  10-7  3600
=
(0.05)2
X axis = 0.20
hR
Curve 
K

6  0.05
  0.5
0.6
Curve  0.5

X axis value is 0.20, curve value is 0.5, corresponding Y axis value is 0.86.

T0  T
 Y axis =  0.86
Ti  T
T0  T
  0.86
Ti  T
T0  278
  0.86
293  278
 T0  290.9 K

Center line temperature T0 = 290.9 K.

59
34. A long steel cylinder 12 cm diameter and initially at 20C is placed into furnace at
820C with h = 140 W/m2K. Calculate the time required for the axis temperature to
reach 800C. Also calculate the corresponding temperature at a radius of 5.4 cm at that
time. Physical properties of steel are K = 21 W/mK,  = 6.11  10-6 m2/s.
Given:
Diameter of cylinder D = 12 cm = 0.12 m
Radius of sphere R = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Initial temperature Ti = 20C + 273 = 293 K
Final temperature T = 820C + 273 = 1093 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 140 W/m 2K
Axis temperature 

(or)  T0  800C  273  1073 K
Centre line temperature 
Intermediate radius r = 5.4 cm = 0.054 m
Thermal diffusivity  = 6.11  10-6 m2/s.
Thermal conductivity K = 21W/mK
To find
1. Time (t) required for the axis temperature to reach 800C.
2. Corresponding temperature (Tt) at a radius of 5.4 cm.
Solution
For Cylinder,
R 0.06
Characteristic Length Lc  
2 2
Lc  0.03 m
We know,
hLc
Biot number Bi =
K
140  0.03

21
 Bi  0.2
0.1 < Bi<100, So this is infinite solid type problem.
Infinite Solids

Case (i)
Axis temperature 

(or)  T0  800C
Centre line temperature 
To = 800C + 273 = 1073 K
Time (t) ?

60
 [Refer HMT data book Page No.61. Heisler chart]

hR
Curve 
K
140  0.06
=  0.4
21

T0  T
Y axis =
Ti  T
1073 - 1093
=
293 - 1093
Y axis = 0.025

Curve value is 0.4, Y axis 0.025, corresponding X axis value is 5.

T0  T
 0.025
Ti  T
t
 X axis = 5
R2
5  (0.06)2
 t=
(6.11 10-6 )
t  2945.9 s

Case (ii)

Intermediate radius r – 5.4 cm = 0.054 m

[Refer HMT data book Page No.62]

r 0.054
Curve    0.9
R 0.06
hR
X axis =
K
140  0.06
=  0.4
21

Curve value is 0.9, X axis value is 0.4, corresponding Y axis value is 0.84.

61
 Tr  T
 Y axis =  0.84
T0  T
Tr  T
  0.84
T0  T
Tr  1093
  0.84
1073  1093
 Tr  1076.2 K

1. Time required for the axis temperature to reach 800C is 2945.9 s.

2. Temperature (Tr) at a radius of 5.4 cm is 1076.2 K

62
 CONVECTION

1. What is dimensional analysis?

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical method which makes use of the study of the
dimensions for solving several engineering problems. This method can be applied to all types
of fluid resistances, heat flow problems in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.

2. State Buckingham  theorem.

Buckingham  theorem states as Follows: “If there are n variables in a dimensionally

homogeneous equation and if these contain m fundamental dimensions, then the variables are
arranged into (n – m) dimensionless terms. These dimensionless terms are called  terms.

3. What are all the advantages of dimensional analysis?

1. It expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensional terms.

2. It enables getting up a theoretical solution in a simplified dimensionless form.
3. The results of one series of tests can be applied to a large number of other similar
problems with the help of dimensional analysis.

4. What are all the limitations of dimensional analysis?

1. The complete information is not provided by dimensional analysis. It only indicates

that there is some relationship between the parameters.
2. No information is given about the internal mechanism of physical phenomenon.
3. Dimensional analysis does not give any clue regarding the selection of variables.
5. Define Reynolds number (Re).

It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.

Inertia force
Re 
Viscous force

6. Define prandtl number (Pr).

It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity of the thermal diffusivity.

Momentum diffusivity
Pr 
Thermal diffusivity

7. Define Nusselt number (Nu).

It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under an unit
temperature gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction under an unit temperature gradient
through a stationary thickness (L) of metre.

63
 Qconv
Nusselt number (Nu) = .
Qcond

8. Define Grash of number (Gr).

It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of
viscous force.

Inertia force  Buyoyancy force

Gr 
(Viscous force)2

9. Define Stanton number (St).

It is the ratio of nusselt number to the product of Reynolds number and prandtl
number.
Nu
St 
Re Pr

10. What is meant by Newtonion and non – Newtonion fluids?

The fluids which obey the Newton’s Law of viscosity are called Newtonion fluids and
those which do not obey are called non – newtonion fluids.

11. What is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow?

Laminar flow: Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this type of flow, the
fluid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth continuous path. The fluid
particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence without mixing with each other.
Turbulent flow: In addition to the laminar type of flow, a distinct irregular flow is
frequency observed in nature. This type of flow is called turbulent flow. The path of any
individual particle is zig – zag and irregular. Fig. shows the instantaneous velocity in laminar
and turbulent flow.

12. What is hydrodynamic boundary layer?

In hydrodynamic boundary layer, velocity of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream
velocity.

13. What is thermal boundary layer?

In thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream
velocity.

14. Define convection.

Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface and a
fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.

64
15. State Newton’s law of convection.
Heat transfer from the moving fluid to solid surface is given by the equation
Q = h A (Tw – T)
This equation is referred to as Newton’s law of cooling.
Where
h – Local heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K.
A – Surface area in m2
Tw – Surface (or) Wall temperature in K
T - Temperature of fluid in K.

16. What is meant by free or natural convection?

If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from temperature
gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection.

17. What is forced convection?

If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external force like a blower or
fan, that type of heat transfer is known as forced convection.

18. According to Newton’s law of cooling the amount of heat transfer from a solid surface of
area A at temperature Tw to a fluid at a temperature T is given by ________.

Ans : Q = h A (Tw – T)

19. What is the form of equation used to calculate heat transfer for flow through
cylindrical pipes?
Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
n = 0.4 for heating of fluids
n = 0.3 for cooling of fluids

20. What are the dimensionless parameters used in forced convection?

1. Reynolds number (Re)
2. Nusdselt number (Nu)
3. Prandtl number (Pr)

21. Define boundary layer thickness.

The thickness of the boundary layer has been defined as the distance from the surface
at which the local velocity or temperature reaches 99% of the external velocity or
temperature.

65
1. Air at 20C, at a pressure of 1 bar is flowing over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. if
the plate maintained at 60C, calculate the heat transfer per unit width of the plate.
Assuming the length of the plate along the flow of air is 2m.

Given : Fluid temperature T = 20C,

Pressure p = 1 bar,
Velocity U = 3 m/s,

Plate surface temperature Tw = 60C,

Width W = 1 m,
Length L = 2m.

Solution : We know,
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
60  20

2
Tf  40C

Properties of air at 40C:

Density  = 1.129 Kg/m3

Thermal conductivity K = 26.56  103 W / mK,
Kinematic viscosity v = 16.96  106 m2 / s.
Prandtl number Pr = 0.699
We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re =
v
32

16.96  10 6
 35.377  10 4

Re  35.377  10 4  5  105
Reynolds number value is less than 5  105, so this is laminar flow.

For flat plate, Laminar flow,

Local Nusselt Number Nux = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
Nux  0.332 (35.377  10 4 )0.5  (0.699)0.333
Nux  175.27
We know that,
hs  L
Local Nusselt Number Nux 
K

66
 hs  2
 175.27 
26.56  10 3

Local heat transfer coefficient hx = 2.327 W/m2K

We know,

Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2  hx

h  2  2.327
h = 4.65 W/m2K

Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw - T)

 4.65  2 (60  20)
[ Area  width  length  1 2  2]
Q  372 Watts.

2. Air at 20C at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. if the
plate is 1 m wide and 80C, calculate the following at x = 300 mm.

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,

2. Thermal boundary layer thickness,
3. Local friction coefficient,
4. Average friction coefficient,
5. Local heat transfer coefficient
6. Average heat transfer coefficient,
7. Heat transfer.

Given: Fluid temperature T = 20C

Velocity U = 3 m/s
Wide W=1m
Surface temperature Tw = 80C
Distance x = 300 mm = 0.3 m

Solution: We know
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2

67
 80  20

2
Tf  50C
Properties of air at 50C
Density  = 1.093 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity v = 17.95  10-6m2 / s
Pr andt l number Pr =0.698
Thermal conductivity K = 28.26  10 -3 W / mK

We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re =
v
3  0.3

17.95  10 6
Re  5.01 10 4  5  105

Since Re < 5  105, flow is laminar

For Flat plate, laminar flow,

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness:

 hx  5  x  (Re)0.5
= 5  0.3  (5.01 104 )0.5
 hx  6.7  10 3 m
2. Thermal boundary layer thickness:

 TX   hx (Pr)0.333
 
  TX  6.7  103 (0.698)0.333
 TX  7.5  10 3 m

3. Local Friction coefficient:

C fx  0.664(Re)0.5
= 0.664 (5.01 10 4 )0.5
C fx = 2.96  10-3

4. Average friction coefficient:

68
 CfL  1.328 (Re)-0.5
= 1.328 (5.01 10 4 )0.5
= 5.9  10-3
CfL  5.9  10 3

5. Local heat transfer coefficient (hx):

Local Nusselt Number

Nux = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
 0.332 (5.01 104 ) (0.698)0.333
Nux  65.9
We know

Local Nusselt Number

h L
Nux  x
K
hx  0.3
65.9 
23.26  10 3
 x = L = 0.3m
 hx  6.20 W/m2K
Local heat transfer coefficient h x  6.20 W / m2K

6. Average heat transfer coefficient (h):

h  2  hx
 2  6.20
h  12.41 W / m2K

7. Heat transfer:
We know that,
Q  h A(Tw  T )
= 12.41 (1 0.3) (80-20)
Q = 23.38 Watts

3. Air at 30C flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 2 m/s. The plate is 2 m long and 1.5
m wide. Calculate the following:
1. Boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate,
2. Total drag force,
3. Total mass flow rate through the boundary layer between x = 40 cm and x = 85
cm.
Given: Fluid temperature T = 30C
Velocity U = 2 m/s
Length L =2m

69
 Wide W W = 1.5 m
To find:
1. Boundary layer thickness
2. Total drag force.
3. Total mass flow rate through the boundary layer between x = 40 cm and x = 85
cm.
Solution: Properties of air at 30C

  1.165 kg/m3
v  16  10 6 m2 / s
Pr  0.701
K  26.75  10  3 W / mK
We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re 
v
2 2

16  10 6
Re  2.5  105  5  105
Since Re<5  105 ,flow is laminar

For flat plate, laminar flow, [from HMT data book, Page No.99]

Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness

 hx  5  x  (Re)0.5
= 5  2  (2.5  105 )0.5
 hx  0.02 m

Thermal boundary layer thickness,

 tx hx  (Pr)0.333
=0.02  (0.701)-0.333
 TX  0.0225 m
We know,
Average friction coefficient,
C fL  1.328 (Re)0.5
= 1.328  (2.5  105 )0.5
C fL  2.65  10-3

We know

70
 t
CfL 
U2
2
t
 2.65  10-3 
1.165  (2)2
2
 Average shear stress t = 6.1 10 -3N / m 2
Drag force = Area  Average shear stress
= 2  1.5  6.1 10-3
Drag force = 0.018 N
Drag force on two sides of the plate
= 0.018  2
= 0.036 N

Total mass flow rate between x = 40 cm and x= 85 cm.

5
m   U  hx  85   hx  40
8

Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness

 hx 0.5  5  x  (Re)0.5
0.5
U  x 
= 5  0.85   
 v 
0.5
 2  0.85 
 5  0.85   6 
 16  10 
 HX0.85  0.0130 m
 hx=0.40 = 5  x  (Re)-0.5
0.5
 U x 
 5  0.40   
 v 
0.5
 2  0.40 
 5  0.40   6 
 16  10 
 HX0.40  8.9  103 m
5
(1)  m=  1.165  2 0.0130  8.9  10 3 
8
m = 5.97  10-3Kg / s,

4. Air at 30C, Flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 4 m/s. The plate measures 50  30
cm and is maintained at a uniform temperature of 90C. Compare the heat loss from

71
the plate when the air flows
(a) Parallel to 50 cm,
(b) Parallel to 30 cm
Also calculate the percentage of heat loss.

Given: Fluid temperature T = 30C

Velocity U = 4 m/s
Plate dimensions = 50 cm  30 cm
 0.50  0.30 m2
Surface temperature Tw = 90C

Tw  T
Solution: Film temperature Tf 
2
90  30

2
Tf  60C

Properties of air at 60C,

  1.060 Kg/m3
  18.97  106 m2 / s
Pr  0.696
K = 28.96  10-3 W/mK

Case (i) : When the flow is parallel to 50 cm.

UL
Reynolds number Re 
v
4  0.50

18.97  10 6
Re  1.05  105  5  105
Since Re <5  105 ,flow is laminar

Local nusselt number NUx = 0.332(Re)0.5(Pr)0.333

NUx =0.332 1.05  105 
0.5
 (0.696)0.333

Local nusselt number NUx =95.35

We know
hL
NUx  x
K
hx  0.50
95.35 
28.96  103
Local heat transfer coefficient hx  5.52 W/m2K

72
We know

Average heat transfer coefficient h  2  hx

 h  2  5.52
h  11.04 W/m2K
Heat transfer Q1  h A(Tw  T )
 11.04  (0.5  0.3)  (90  30)
Q1  99.36 W

Case (ii) : When the flow is parallel to 30 cm side.

UL
Reynolds number Re =
v
4  0.3

18.97  10 6
Re = 6.3  10 4  5  105
Since Re<5  10 5 , flow is laminar
For flat plate, laminar flow,
Local Nusselt Number
NUx  0.332 (Re)0.5 (0.696)0.333
 0.332 (6.32  104 )0.5 (0.696)0.333
NUx  74.008
hxL
We know that, NUx =
K
hx  0.30
74.008 
28.96  103
 hx  7.141 W/m2K

Local heat transfer coefficient h x  7.141 W /m 2K

Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2hx

h  2  7.14
h  14.28 W/m2K
We know
Heat transfer Q2  h  A  (Tw  T )
 h  L  W (Tw  T )
 14.28  0.3  0.5  (363  303)
Q2  128.5W

73
Case (iii):
Q2  Q1
% heat loss =  100
Q1
128.5-99.36
=  100
99.36
% heat loss = 29.3%

5. Air at 40C is flows over a flat plate of 0.9 m at a velocity of 3 m/s. Calculate the
following:

1. Overall drag coefficient

2. Average shear stress,
3. Compare the average shear stress with local shear stress (shear stress at the
trailing edge)

Given : Fluid temperature T = 40C

Length L = 0.9 m
Velocity U = 3 m/s.

Solution:

Properties of air at 40C:

  1.128 Kg/m3
 = 16.96  10 -6 m2 / s
Pr  0.699
K  26.56  10-3 W/mK
We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re 
v
3  0.9

16.96  10 6
Re  1.59  105  5  105
Since Re< 5  10 5 , flow is laminar
For plate, laminar flow,

Drag coefficient (or) Average skin friction coefficient

C fL  1.328  (Re)0.5
 1.328  (1.59  10 5 )0.5
C fL  3.3  10 3
We know

74
 
Average friction coefficient CfL 
U2
2
U2
  CfL 
2
3.3  10-3  1.128  (3)2
=
2
Average shear stress  = 0.016 N/m 2
We know,

Local skin friction coefficient

C fx  0.664  (Re)0.5
 0.664  (1.59  10 5 )0.5
C fx  1.66  10 3
we know


Local skin friction coefficient Cfx 
U2
2

 1.66  103 
1.128  (3)2
2
 x  8.4  10 N/ m
3 2

Local shear stress  x  8.4  10 3 N/ m2

Local shear stress  x 8.4  10 3 N/ m2

Average shear stress  0.016 N / m2
 0.52
6. Air at 290C flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 6 m/s. The plate is 1m long and 0.5
m wide. The pressure of the air is 6 kN/2. If the plate is maintained at a temperature of
70C, estimate the rate of heat removed form the plate.

Given : Fluid temperature T = 290C

Velocity U = 6 m/s.
Length L =1m
Wide W = 0.5 m
Pressure of air P = 6 kN/m2
 6  103 N/ m2
Plate surface temperature Tw = 70C

To find: Heat removed from the plate

75
Solution:

We know
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
70  290

2
Tf  180C

Properties of air at 180C (At atmospheric pressure)

  0.799 Kg/m3
 = 32.49  10 -6 m2 / s
Pr  0.681
K  37.80  10-3 W/mK

Note: Pressure other than atmospheric pressure is given, so kinematic viscosity will vary with
pressure. Pr, K, Cp are same for all pressures.
P
Kinematic viscosity    atm  atm
Pgiven
1 bar
   32.49  10 6
6  103N / m2
 Atmospheric pressure = 1 bar 
105 N / m2
 32.49  10 6 
6  103 N / m3

 1 bar = 1 105N / m2 

Kinematic viscosity v = 5.145  10 -4m2 / s.

We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re 
v
6 1

5.145  10 4
Re  1.10  104  5  105
Since Re< 5  10 5 , flow is laminar

For plate, laminar flow,

Local nusselt number

76
NUx  0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
 0.332 (1.10  10 4 )0.5 (0.681)0.333
NUx  30.63
We know
hL
NUx = x
K
hx  1
30.63  [  L = 1 m]
37.80  10 3

Local heat transfer coefficient h x  1.15 W/m 2K

We know

Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2hx

h  2  1.15
h  2.31 W/m2K
We know
Heat transferred Q  h A (T  Tw )
 2.31 (1 0.5)  (563  343)
Q  254.1 W

Heat transfer from both side of the plate = 2  254.1

= 508.2 W.

7. Air at 40C flows over a flat plate, 0.8 m long at a velocity of 50 m/s. The plate surface
is maintained at 300C. Determine the heat transferred from the entire plate length to
air taking into consideration both laminar and turbulent portion of the boundary layer.
Also calculate the percentage error if the boundary layer is assumed to be turbulent
nature from the very leading edge of the plate.

Given : Fluid temperature T = 40C

Length L = 0.8 m
Velocity U = 50 m/s
Plate surface temperature Tw = 300C

To find :

1. Heat transferred for:

i. Entire plate is considered as combination of both laminar and turbulent flow.
ii. Entire plate is considered as turbulent flow.

2. Percentage error.

Solution: We know

77
 Tw  T
Film temperature Tf  T
2
300  40
  443 K
2
Tf  170C
Pr operties of air at 170C:
 = 0.790 Kg/m3
  31.10  10 6 m2 / s
Pr  0.6815
K  37  10 3 W/mK

We know
UL
Reynolds number Re=
v
50  0.8
  1.26  106
31.10  106
Re = 1.26  10 6  5  105
Re  5  105 ,so this is turbulent flow

Case (i): Laminar – turbulent combined. [It means, flow is laminar upto Reynolds number
value is 5  105, after that flow is turbulent]

Average nusselt number = Nu = (Pr)0.333 (Re)0.8 – 871

Nu = (0.6815)0.333 [0.037 (1.26  106)0.8 – 871
Average nusselt number Nu = 1705.3
hL
We know Nu =
K
h  0.8
1705.3 
37  10 3

h  78.8 W / m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient
h=78.8 W/m2K
Head transfer Q1  h  A  (Tw  T )
 h  L  W  (Tw  T )
= 78.8  0.8  1 (300 - 40)
Q1  16390.4 W

Case (ii) : Entire plate is turbulent flow:

78
Local nusselt number} Nux = 0.0296  (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.333

NUx = 0.0296  (1.26 106)0.8 (0.6815)0.333

NUx = 1977.57
We know
h L
NUx  x
K
h  0.8
1977.57  x
37  103
hx  91.46 W/m2K

Local heat transfer coefficient hx = 91.46 W/m2K

Average heat transfer coefficient (for turbulent flow)

h = 1.24  hx
= 1.24 91.46

Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 113.41 W/m2K

We know Heat transfer Q2 = h  A  (Tw + T)

= h  L  W  (Tw + T)
= 113.41  0.8  1 (300 – 40)
Q2 = 23589.2 W
Q  Q1
2. Percentage error = 2
Q1
23589.2 - 16390.4
=  100
16390.4
= 43.9%
8. Air at 20C flows over a flat plate at 60C with a free stream velocity of 6 m/s.
Determine the value of the average convective heat transfer coefficient upto a length of
1 m in the flow direction.
Given : Fluid temperature T = 20C
Plate temperature Tw = 60C
Velocity U = 6 m/s
Length L =1m

To find : Average heat transfer coefficient

Solution : We know

79
 Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
60+20

2
Tf  40C
Properties of air at 40C:
Density  = 1.128 Kg/m3
Thermal conductivity K = 26.56  10-3 W/mK
Kinematic viscosity v = 16.96  10 -6m2 / s
Pr andtl number Pr = 0.699

We know
UL
Reynolds number Re =
v
6 1

16.96  10 6
Re  3.53  105  5  105
Since Re < 5  105 , flow is laminar

For flat plate, laminar flow

Local nusselt number} Nux = 0.332  (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333

= 0.332  (3.53  105)0.5 (0.699)0.333
NUx = 175.27

We know,
hx  L
Local nusselt number} NUx 
K
hx  1
175.27 
26.56  10 3
Local nusselt number} NUx  4.65 W/m 2K
Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 2  h x
 2  4.65
h  9.31 W/m 2K

9. Air at 25C at the atmospheric pressure is flowing over a flat plate at 3 m/s. If the
plate is 1 m wide and the temperature Tw = 75C. Calculate the following at a location of
1m from leading edge.
i. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
ii. Local friction coefficient,
iii. Thermal boundary layer thickness,
iv. Local heat transfer coefficient

80
Given : Fluid temperature T = 25C
Velocity U = 3 m/s
Wide W=1m

Plate surface temperature Tw = 75C

Distance =1m
To find:

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness.

2. Local friction coefficient
3. Thermal boundary layer thickness
4. Local heat transfer coefficient

Solution: We know

Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
75  25
  323 K = 50C
2
Tf  50C
Pr operties of air at 50C:
Density  = 1.093
Kinematic viscosity     10 6 m2 / s
Prandtl number Pr = 0.698
Thermal conductivity K = 28.26  13 -3 W/m K
We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re= [  x = L 1m]
v
3 1
  1.67  105
17.95  10 6

Re  1.67  105  5  105

Since Re < 5  105 ,flow is laminar

For flat plate, laminar flow,

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,

 hx  5  x  (Re)0.5
= 5  1 (1.67  105 )0.5
 hx  0.0122 m

81
2. Local friction coefficient

C fx  0.644 (Re)-0.5
= 0.644 (1.67  105 )0.5
C fx  1.62  10 3

3. Thermal boundary layer thickness,

 TX   hx  (Pr)0.333
 0.0122  (0.698)0.333
 TX  0.01375

4. Local heat transfer coefficient (hx):

We know

Local nusselt number} NUx = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333

= 0.332 (1.67  105)0.5 (0.698)0.333

NUx = 120.415
h L
We know, NUx  x
K
hx  1
 120.415 =
28.26  10-3
 x = L = 1m
Local heat transfer coefficient} hx  3.4 W / m2K

10. Atmospheric air at 300 K with a velocity of 2.5 m/s flows over a flat plate of length L
= 2m and width W = 1m maintained at uniform temperature of 400 K. Calculate the
local heat transfer coefficient at 1 m length and the average heat transfer coefficient
from L = 0 to L = 2m. Also find the heat transfer,
Given: Fluid temperature T = 300 K
Velocity U = 2.5 m/s
Total Length L = 2 m
Width W=1m
Surface temperature Tw = 400 K

To find:

1. Local heat transfer coefficient at L = 1 m

2. Average heat transfer coefficient at L = 2 m
3. Heat transfer Q

Solution:

82
Case (i): Local heat transfer coefficient at L = 1m

Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
400  300
  350 K
2
Tf  77C

Properties of air at 77C  80C:

 = 1 Kg/m3
 = 21.09  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.692
K = 30.47  10 -3 W/mK
We know
UL
Reynolds number Re =
v
2.5  1

21.09  106
Re  118539.45  5  105
Since Re < 5  105 ,flow is laminar.
For flat plate, laminar flow,

Local Nusselt number} NUx = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333

= 0.332 (118539.5)0.5 (0.692)0.333

NUx = 101.18
We know,
hL
Local nusselt number} NUx  x
K
hx  1
101.18 =
30.47  103
hx = 3.0832 W/m2K

 Local heat transfer coefficient} hx = 3.08 W/m2K

Case (ii): Average heat transfer coefficient at L = 2m

UL
Reynolds number Re =
v

83
 2.5  2
Re 
21.09  10 6
Re  237079.18 < 5  105
Since Re < 5  105 ,flow is laminar.

For flat plate, laminar flow,

NUx = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333

= 0.332 (237079.18)0.5 (0.692)0.333
NUx = 143
h L
We know that, NUx  x
K
hx  2
 143 =
30.47  10 3

Local heat transfer coefficient} hx = 2.17 W/m2K

We know that,

Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 2  hx

h = 2  2.17
h = 4.35 W/m2K

Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 4.35 W/m2K

Case (iii) : Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw - T)

= 4.35  2  1 (400 – 300)
 L = 2m; W= 1m 
Q = 870 W.

11. For a particular engine, the underside of the crank case can be idealized as a flat
plat measuring 80 cm  20 cm. The engine runs at 80 km/hr and the crank case is cooled
by air flowing past it at the same speed. Calculate the loss of heat from the crank case
surface of temperature 75C to the ambient air temperature 25C. Assume the
boundary layer becomes turbulent from the loading edge itself.

Given : Area A = 80 cm  20 cm
= 1600 cm2 = 0.16m2

Velocity U = 80 Km/hr
80  103 m

3600s
 22.22 m/s
Surface temperature Tw  75C
Ambient air temperature T  25C

84
Flow is turbulent from the leading edge, i.e,. flow is fully turbulent.

To find:
1. Heat loss
Tw  T 75  25
Film temperature Tf  
2 2
Tf  50C
Properties of air at 50C:
 = 1.093 Kg/m3
 = 17.95  10-6 m2 / s
Pr  0.698
K  28.26  10 3 W/mK
We know
UL
Re ynolds number Re =
v
22.22  0.8
 [  L = 0.8m]
17.95  10 6
Re = 9  105
Re  9  105  5  105
Since Re>5  105 , Flow is turbulent

For flat plate, turbulent flow,

[Fully turbulent from leading edge – given]

Local Nusselt number} NUx = 0.0296 (Re)0.8 (Pt)0.333

= 0.0296 [9  105]0.8 (0.698)0.33

NUx = 1524.6
h xL
We know that, NUx 
K
hx  0.8
1524.6  [  L = 0.8m]
28.26  103
hx  53.85 W/m2K

Local heat transfer coefficient} hx = 53.85 W/m2K

For turbulent flow, flat plate

Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 1.24 hx

h = 1.24  53.85
h = 66.78 W/m2K

85
We know,
Heat loss Q = h A (Tw - T)
= 66.78  0.16 (75 – 25)
Q = 534.2 W

Formula used for Flow over cylinders and spheres

TW  T
1. Film temperature Tf 
2
Where T - Fluid temperature C
Tw – Plate surface temperature C

UD
2. Reynolds number NUx 
v
Where U – Velocity, m/s
D - Diameter, m
 - Kinematic viscosity, m2/s

3. Nusselt number NU = C (Re)m (Pr)0.333

hD
4. Nusselt number NU =
K

5. Heat transfer Q = h  A  (Tw - T)

Where A =  DL

For sphere:

Nusselt number NU = 0.37 (Re)0.6

Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw - T)
Where A 4r2

12. Air at 15C, 30 km/h flows over a cylinder of 400 mm diameter and 1500 mm height
with surface temperature of 45C. Calculate the heat loss.

Given : Fluid temperature T = 15C

Velocity U = 30 Km/h
30  10 m
3

3600 s
U  8.33 m/s

Diameter D = 400 mm = 0.4 m

Length L = 1500 mm = 1.5 m
Plate surface temperature Tw = 45C

86
To find: Heat loss.
Solution: We know
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
45  15

2
Tf  30C

Properties of air at 30C : [From HMT data book, Page No.22]

Density  = 1.165 Kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity v = 16  10-6 m2/s
Prandtl Number Pr = 0.701

Thermal conductivity K = 26.75  10-3 W/mK

We know
UD
Reynolds Number Re =
v
8.33  0.4

16  10 6
ReD  2.08  105

We know

Nusselt Number Nu = C (Re)m (Pr)0.333

[From HMT data book, Page No.105]

ReD value is 2.08  105, so C value is 0.0266 and m value is 0.805.

[From HMT data book, Page No.105]

 NU = 0.0266  (2.08  105)0.805 (0.701)0.333
NU  451.3

We know that,
hD
Nusselt Number NU =
K
h  0.4
 451.3 =
26.75  10 -3
 h = 30.18 W/m2K

87
Heat transfer coefficient h = 30.18 W/m 2K
Heat transfer Q = hA (Tw  T )
= h    D  L  (Tw  T )
[  A =  DL]
= 30.18    0.4  1.5  (45 -15)
Q = 1706.6 W

13. Air at 30C, 0.2 m/s flows across a 120W electric bulb at 130C. Find heat transfer
and power lost due to convection if bulb diameter is 70 mm.

Given : Fluid temperature T = 30C

Velocity U = 0.2 m/s
Heat energy Q1 = 120 W
Surface temperature Tw = 130C
Diameter D = 70 mm = 0.070 m

To find:

1. Heat Transfer
2. Power lost due to convection

Solution:
Tw  T
1. Film temperature Tf 
2

130  30

2
Tf  80C
Properties of air at 80C:
 = 1 Kg/m3
 = 21.09  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.692
K = 30.47  10 -3 W/mK
We know
UD
Reynolds number Re =

0.2  0.070
  663.82
21.09  103
Re  663.82
We know

88
Nusselt Number Nu = 0.37 (Re)0.6
= 0.37 (663.82)0.6
Nu = 18.25
We know
hD
Nusselt number Nu 
K
h  0.070
 18.25 =
30.47  10-3
 h = 7.94 W/m2K

Heat transfer coefficient h = 7.94 W/m2K

We know

Heat transfer Q2 = h A (Tw - T)

 h  4 r 2 [Tw  T ] [  A = 4 r 2 ]
2
 0.070 
 7.94  4       (130  30)
 2 
Heat transfer Q 2  12.22 W

Q2
2. % of heat lost =  100
Q1
12.22
  100
120
 10.18%

14. Air at 40C flows over a tube with a velocity of 30 m/s. The tube surface
temperature is 120C. Calculate the heat transfer for the following cases.

1. Tube could be square with a side of 6 cm.

2. Tube is circular cylinder of diameter 6 cm

Given : Fluid temperature T = 40C

Velocity U = 30 m/s
Tube surface temperature Tw = 120C

To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)

Solution: We know
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
120  40

2

89
Tf  80C
Properties of air at 80C:
 = 1 Kg/m3
 = 21.09  10-6 m2 / s
Pr  0.692
K = 30.47  10-3 W/mK

Case (i): Tube is considered as square of side 6 cm

i.e., L = 6cm = 0.06m
UL
Reynolds number Re =
v

30  0.06

21.09  10 6
Re  0.853  105
Nusselt Number Nu = C  (Re)n (Pr)0.333
For square, n = 0.675
C = 0.092
 Nu = 0.092 (0.853  105 )0.675  (0.692)0.333
 Nu = 173.3
hL
We know that, NU =
K

h  0.06
173.3 
30.47  103
Heat transfer coefficient h = 88 W/m 2K

Case (ii)

Tube diameter D = 6cm = 0.06 m

UD
Reynolds number Re =

30  0.06

21.09  10 6
Re  0.853  105
Nusselt number Nu = C (ReD )m (Pr)0.333

Re value is 0.853  105 , so corresponding C and m values are 0.0266 and 0.805
respectively.

90
 Nu = 0.0266  (0.853  105 )0.805  (0.692)0.333
Nu = 219.3
hD
We know Nu =
K

h  0.06
 219.3
30.47  10-3
 h = 111.3 W/m2K
 Heat transfer coefficient h = 111.3 W/m2K

Formulae Used for Flow Over Bank of Tubes

Sn
1. Maximum velocity Umax = U 
Sn  D
Where Sn – Transverse pitch, m.

Umax  D
2. Reynolds Number Re =


3. Nusselt Number, NU = 1.13  (Pr)0.33 [C Ren]

[From HMT data book, Page No.114]

15. In a surface condenser, water flows through staggered tubes while the air is passed
in cross flow over the tubes. The temperature and velocity of air are 30C and 8 m/s
respectively. The longitudinal and transverse pitches are 22 mm and 20 mm
respectively. The tube outside diameter is 18 mm and tube surface temperature is 90C.
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient.

Given: Fluid temperature T = 30C

Velocity U = 8 m/s
Longitudinal pitch, Sp = 22mm = 0.022 m
Transverse pitch, Sn = 20mm = 0.020 m
Diameter D = 18mm = 0.018 m
Tube surface temperature Tw = 90C

Solution:

91
 Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
90  30

2
Tf  60C
Properties of air at 60C:
 = 1.060 Kg/m3
 = 18.97  10 -6 m2 / s
Pr  0.696
K = 28.96  10 -3 W / mK

We know
Sn
Maximum velocity Umax = U 
Sn  D
0.020
 Umax  8 
0.020  0.018
Umax = 80 m/s

We know
Umax  D
Reynolds Number Re =

80  0.018

18.97  106
Re  7.5  10 4
Sn 0.020
  1.11
D 0.018
Sn
 1.11
D
Sp 0.022
  1.22
D 0.018
Sp
 1.22
D

Sn S
 1.11. p  1.22, corresponding C, n values are 0.518 and 0.556 respectively.
D D

[From HMT data book, Page No.114]

C = 0.518
n = 0.556

We know,

92
 Nusselt Number Nu = 1.13 (Pr) 0.333[C (Re)n]
[From HMT data book, Page No.114]

 Nu = 1.13  (0.696)0.333  [0.518  (7.5  10 4 )0.556 ]

Nu = 266.3
We know
hD
Nusselt Number Nu 
K
h  0.018
 266.3 =
28.96  10 -3

Heat transfer coefficient h = 428.6 W/m2K.

Formulae used for flow through Cylinders (Internal flow)

1. Bulk mean temperature

T  Tmo
Tm  mi
2
Tmi = Inlet temperature C,
Where
Tmo = Outlet temperature C.
UD
2. Reynolds Number Re 

If Reynolds number value is less than 2300, flow is laminar. If Reynolds number values is
greater than 2300, flow is turbulent.

3. Laminar Flow:
Nusselt Number NU – 3.66
[From HMT data book, Page No.116]

4. Turbulent Flow (General Equation)

Nusselt Number Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
n = 0.4 – Heating process
n = 0.3 – Cooling process
[From HMT data book, Page No.119]

This equation is valid for

0.6 < Pr < 160,
Re < 10000
L
 60
D
For turbulent flow,
0.055
D
Nu  0.036 (Re) (Pr) 0.8 0.33
L
 
This equation is valid for

93
 L
10   400
D

5. Equivalent diameter for rectangular section,

4A 4(L  W)
Dh (or) Dc  
P 2(L  W )
2
Where A – Area, m ,
P – Perimeter, m
L – Length, m,
W – Width, m.

6. Equivalent diameter for hollow cylinder

4A
Dh (or) Dc =
P

4 D02  Di2 
= 4
 D0  Di 
Where D0  Outer diameter
Di - Inner diameter
7. Heat transfer

Q = h A (Tw – Tm) where A =  D  L

(or)
Q = m Cp (Tmo – Tmi)

Where Tw – Tube wall temperature C,

Tm – Mean temperature C.
Tmi – Inlet temperature C
Tmo – Outlet temperature C.

8. Mass flow rate

m -  A  U Kg/s
Where  - Density, Kg/m3

A – Area, D2 , m2
4
U – Velocity, m/s

16. When 0.6 Kg of water per minute is passed through a tube of 2 cm diameter, it is
found to be heated from 20C to 60C. The heating is achieved by condensing steam on
the surface of the tube and subsequently the surface temperature of the tube is
maintained at 90C. Determine the length of the tube required for fully developed flow.

94
 0.6
Given :Mass m = 0.6 Kg/min = kg / s
60
= 0.01 Kg/s
Diameter D = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Inlet temperature Tmi  20C
Outlet temperature Tmo  60C
Tube surface temperature Tw  90C

To find: length of the tube (L)

Solution:
Tmi  Tmo
Bulk mean temperature Tm 
2
20  60

2
Tm  40C
Properties of water at 40C:
 = 995 Kg/m3
 = 0.657  10-6m2 / s
Pr = 4.340
K = 628  10-3 W/mK
CP  4.178 KJ/KgK = 4178 J/KgK
Mass flow rate m =  A U
m
 U=
A
0.01
=

995  (0.02)2
4
Velocity U = 0.031 m/s
Let us first determine the type of flow
UD
Re 

0.031 0.02
 Re 
0.657  10 6
Re  943.6
Since Re < 2300, flow is laminar

For laminar flow,

Nusselt number NU = 3.66

95
We know

hD
NU 
K
h  0.02
 3.66 =
628  10 -3
 h = 114.9 W/m2K
Heat transfer Q = mCP t
= mCP (Tmo  Tmi )
= 0.01 4178  (60-20)
Q = 1671.2 W

We know that Q = h A 
= h    D  L  (Tw  Tm )
= 1671.2 =114.9    0.02  L  (90-40)
L = 4.62m

17. Water at 50C enters 50 mm diameter and 4 m long tube with a velocity of 0.8 m/s.
The tube wall is maintained at a constant temperature of 90C. Determine the heat
transfer coefficient and the total amount of heat transferred if exist water temperature
is 70C.

Given:

Inner temperature of water Tmi = 50C

Diameter D = 50mm = 0.05 m
Length L =4m
Velocity U = 0.8 m/s
Total wall temperature Tw = 90C
Exit temperature of water Tmo = 70C

To find:

1. Heat transfer coefficient (h)

2. Heat transfer (Q)

Solution:

96
 Tmi  Tmo
Bulk mean temperature Tm 
2
50  70

2
Tm  60C
Properties of water at 60C:
 = 985 Kg/m3
 = 0.478  10-6m2 / s
Pr  3.020
K = 651.3  10-3 W/mK

Let us first determine the type of flow:

UD
Re 

0.8  0.05
=
0.478  10-6

Re  8.36  10 4
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent
L 4
  80
D 0.05
L
 80 > 60
D
Re = 8.36  10 4  10,000
Pr  3.020  0.6 < Pr < 160
L
ratio is greater than 60. Re value is greater than 10,000 and Pr value is in between 0.6 and
D
160 so,

Nusselt number NU = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n

[Inlet temperature 50C, Exit temperature 70C
 Heating Process, So n = 0.4]
 Nu = 0.023  (8.36  10 4 )0.8  (3.020)0.4
Nu = 310
hD
We know that Nu=
K
h  0.05
310 
651.3  10 3

Heat transfer coefficient h = 4039.3 W/m2K

Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw – Tm)

97
 = h    D  L  (Tw  Tm )
= 4093.3    0.05  4  (90 - 60)
Q = 76139 W

18. What flows through 0.8 cm diameter, 3m long tube at an average temperature of
40C. The flow velocity is 0.65 m/s and tube wall temperature is 140C. Calculate the
average heat transfer coefficient.

Given : Diameter of tube D = 0.8 cm = 0.008 m

Length L =3m
Average temperature Tm = 40C
Velocity U = 0.65 m/s
Tube wall temperature Tw = 140C

To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)

 = 995 Kg/m3
 = 0.657  10-6 m2 / s
Pr  4.340
K  628  10 3 W/mK
UD
We know Re =


0.65  0.008

0.657  10 6
Re  7914.76
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent.
L 3
  375
D 0.008
L
10 <  400
D
L
ratio is in between 10 and 400, Re < 10000, so Nusselt Number Nu = 0.036 (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.33
D
0.055
D
L
 
0.055
 0.008 
 Nu = 0.036 (7914.76)0.8 (4.340)0.33   
 3 
 Nu = 55.44

We know

98
 hD
Nusselt number NU=
K

h  0.008
55.44 
628  10 3
Heat transfer coefficient h = 4352.3 W/m2K

19. Air at 15C, 35 m/s, flows through a hollow cylinder of 4 cm inner diameter and 6
cm outer diameter and leaves at 45C. Tube wall is maintained at 60C. Calculate the
heat transfer coefficient between the air and the inner tube.

Given: Inner temperature of air Tmi = 15C

Velocity U = 35 m/s
Inner diameter Di = 4 cm = 0.04m
Outer diameter Do = 6 cm = 0.06m
Exit temperature of air Tmo = 45C
Tube wall temperature Tw = 60C

To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)

Solution: We know
Tmi  Tmo
Mean temperature Tm 
2
15  45

2
Tm  30C
Properties of air at 30C
 = 1.165 Kg/m3
 = 16  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.701
K = 26.75  10 -3 W/mK

Hydraulic of Equivalent diameter

99
 
4 D2  Di2 
4A 4
De  
P  Do  Di 
D2  Di2 
=
Do  Di
(Do  Di ) (Do  Di )
=
(Do  Di )
= Do  Di
= 0.06 - 0.04
De = 0.02 m
UDc
Reynolds Number Re=

35  0.02
=
16  10-6
Re  43750

Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent

For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re > 10000)

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n

This is heating process so, n0.8= 0.4

 Nu = 0.023  (43750)  (0.701)0.4
Nu = 102.9
hDe
We know Nu =
K
h  0.02
102.9 
26.75  10 3
 h = 137.7 W/m2K.

20. Air at 30C, 6 m/s flows over a rectangular section of size 300  800 mm. Calculate
the heat leakage per meter length per unit temperature difference.

Given : Air temperature Tm = 30C

Velocity U = 6 m/s
Area A = 300  800 mm2
2
A = 0.24 m

100
To find:
1. Heat leakage per metre length per unit temperature difference.

Solution:

Properties of air at 30C

 = 1.165 Kg/m3
 = 16  10-4 m2 / s
Pr = 0.701
K = 26.75  10 -3 W / mK

Equivalent diameter for 300  800 mm2 cross section is given by

4A 4  (0.3  0.8)
De  
P 2 (0.3  0.8)
Where P - Perimeter = 2 (L+W)
 De  0.436 m

We know
UDe
Reynolds Number Re =

6  0.436

16  106
Re = 16.3  10 4
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow general equation is (Re > 10000)

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n

Assuming the pipe wall temperature to be higher than a temperature. So heating

process  n = 0.4

 Nu = 0.023 (16.3  10 4 )0.8 (0.701)0.4

Nu  294.96
We know
hDe
Nusselt Number Nu =
K
h  0.436
 294.96 =
26.75  10 -3
Heat transfer coefficient  h = 18.09 W/m2K
Heat leakage per unit per length per unit temperature difference
Q=hP

101
 = 18.09   2  (0.3 + 0.8 
Q = 39.79 W

21. Air at 333K, 1.5 bar pressure, flow through 12 cm diameter tube. The surface
temperature of the tube is maintained at 400K and mass flow rate is 75 kg/hr.
Calculate the heat transfer rate for 1.5 m length of the tube.

Given : Air temperature Tm = 333 K = 60C

Diameter D = 12 cm = 0.12 m
Surface temperature Tw = 400 K = 127C
75 Kg
Mass flow rate m = 75 kg/hr =
3600 s
m = 0.020 Kg/s
Length L = 1.5 m

To find:
1. Heat transfer rate (Q)

Solution:

Since the pressure is not much above atmospheric, physical properties of air may be taken at
atmospheric condition

Properties of air at 60C

 = 1.060 Kg/m3
 = 18.97  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.696
K = 28.96  10-3 W/mK
UD
Reynolds number Re =

We know

Mass flow rate m p  U

102
 
0.020 = 1.060   D2  U
4

 0.020 = 1.060   (0.12)2  U
4
 U = 1.668 m/s
UD
(1)  Re =

1.668  0.12

18.97  10 -6
Re = 10551.3

Since Re > 2300, so flow is turbulent

For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re>10000)
Nu  0.023  (Re)0.8  (0.696)0.4
Nu = 32.9
hD
We know Nu =
K
h  0.12
 32.9 =
28.96  10 -3
 h = 7.94 W/m2K
Heat transfer rate Q = h A (Tw  Tm )
 h  (  D  L)  (Tw  Tm )
 7.94  (  0.12  1.5)  (127  60)
Q  300.82 W

22. 250 Kg/hr of air are cooled from 100C to 30C by flowing through a 3.5 cm inner
diameter pipe coil bent in to a helix of 0.6 m diameter. Calculate the value of air side
heat transfer coefficient if the properties of air at 65C are

K = 0.0298 W/mK
 = 0.003 Kg/hr – m
Pr = 0.7
 = 1.044 Kg/m3

Given : Mass flow rate in = 205 kg/hr

205
 Kg / s in = 0.056 Kg/s
3600

Inlet temperature of air Tmi = 100C

Outlet temperature of air Tmo = 30C
Diameter D = 3.5 cm = 0.035 m

103
 Tmi  Tmo
Mean temperature Tm   65C
2

To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)

Solution:
UD
Reynolds Number Re =


Kinematic viscosity  

0.003
Kg / s  m
3600
1.044 Kg/m3
v  7.98  107 m2 / s
Mass flow rate in =  A U


0.056  1.044   D2  U
4

0.056  1.044   (0.035)2  U
4

 U = 55.7 m/s
UD
(1)  Re =

55.7  0.035
=
7.98  10 -7
Re = 2.44  10 6

Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent

For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re > 10000)

Nu  0.023  (Re)0.8  (Pr)0.3

This is cooling process, so n = 0.3
 Nu = 0.023  (2.44  106 )0.8  (0.7)0.3
Nu  2661.7

hD
We know that, Nu 
K
h  0.035
2661.7 
0.0298

Heat transfer coefficient h = 2266.2 W/m2K

104
23. In a long annulus (3.125 cm ID and 5 cm OD) the air is heated by maintaining the
temperature of the outer surface of inner tube at 50C. The air enters at 16C and
leaves at 32C. Its flow rate is 30 m/s. Estimate the heat transfer coefficient between air
and the inner tube.

Given : Inner diameter Di = 3.125 cm = 0.03125 m

Outer diameter Do = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Tube wall temperature Tw = 50C
Inner temperature of air Tmi = 16C
Outer temperature of air tmo = 32C
Flow rate U = 30 m/s

To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)

Solution:
Tmi  Tmo
Mean temperature Tm =
2
16  32

2
Tm  24C
Properties of air at 24C:
 = 1.614 Kg/m3
 = 15.9  10 -6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.707
K = 26.3  10-3 W / mK
We know,

Hydraulic or equivalent diameter


4  D2  Di2 
4A 4
Dh  
P  Do  Di 


Do  Di  Do  Di 
(Do  Di )
 Do  Di
= 0.05 – 0.03125
Dh= 0.01875 m
UDh
Reynolds number Re =

30  0.01875

15.9  10 6
Re = 35.3  10-6

105
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent

For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re > 10000)

Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n

This is heating process. So n = 0.4

 Nu = 0.023  (35.3  103 )0.8 (0.707)0.4
Nu  87.19
hDh
We know Nu =
K
h  0.01875
 87.19=
26.3  10-3
 h = 122.3 W/m2K

24. Engine oil flows through a 50 mm diameter tube at an average temperature of

147C. The flow velocity is 80 cm/s. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient if the
tube wall is maintained at a temperature of 200C and it is 2 m long.

Given : Diameter D = 50 mm = 0.050 m

Average temperature Tm = 147C
Velocity U = 80 cm/s = 0.80 m/s
Tube wall temperature Tw = 200C
Length L = 2m

To find: Average heat transfer coefficient (h)

Solution : Properties of engine oil at 147C

 = 816 Kg/m3
 = 7  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 116
K = 133.8  10-3 W/mK
We know
UD
Reynolds number Re =

0.8  0.05

7  106
Re = 5714.2

Since Re < 2300 flow is turbulent

106
L 2
  40
D 0.050
L
10   400
D
For turbulent flow, (Re < 10000)
0.055
0.8 0.33 D
Nusselt number Nu = 0.036 (Re) (Pr) L
 
0.055
 0.050 
Nu  0.036 (5714.2) 0.8
 (116)
0.33
 
 2 
Nu  142.8
hD
We know Nu =
K
h  0.050
 142.8 =
133.8  10 -3
 h = 382.3 W/m2K

25. A system for heating water from an inlet temperature of 20C to an outlet
temperature of 40C involves passing the water through a 2.5cm diameter steel pipe.
The pipe surface temperature is maintained at 110C by condensing steam on its
surface. For a water mass flow rate of 0.5 kg/min, find the length of the tube desired.

Given : Inlet temperature Tmi = 20C

Outlet temperature Tmo = 40C
Diameter D = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m
Piper surface temperature Tw = 110C
Mass flow rate m = 0.5 Kg/min = 8.33  10-3 Kg/s

To find: Length of the tube (L)

Solution: We know

107
 Tmi  Tmo
Bulk mean temperature Tm 
2
20  40

2
Tm  30C
Properties of water at 30C
 = 997 Kg/m3
 = 0.857  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 5.5
K = 610  10-3 W/mK
CP  4.178 KJ/Kg K = 4178 J/Kg K
We know
UD
Reynolds number Nu =

We know that,
Mass flow rate in =  AU

8.33  10-3    D2  U
4

8.33  10 3  997   (0.025)2  U
4
 U = 0.017 m/s
UD
(1)  Re =

0.017  0.025

0.857  106
Re  495
Since Re < 2300, flow is laminar

For laminar flow,

Nusselt number Nu = 3.66

hD
We know that, Nu =
K
h  0.025
3.66 
610  10 3

Heat transfer coefficient h = 89.3 W/m2K

108
Heat transfer Q = m CP T
 m CP (Tmo  Tmi )
 8.33  10 3  4178 (40  20)
Q  696.05 W
Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw  Tm )
 h    D  L (Tw  Tm )
696.05  89.3    0.025  L  (110  30)
 L = 1.24 m

Formulae used for free convection

Tw  T
1. Film temperature Tf 
2
where Tw – Surface temperature in C
T - Fluid temperature in C

2. Coefficient of thermal expansion

1
 
Tf in K

hL
3. Nusselt Number Nu =
K

Where h – Heat transfer coefficient W/m2K

L – Length, m
K – Thermal conductivity, W/mK

4. Grashof number for vertical plate

g    L3  T
Gr 
v2
Where L - Length of the plate,
T - Tw  T
 - Kinematic viscosity, m2 / s,
 - Coefficient of thermal expansion.

5. If GrPr value is less than 109, flow is laminar. If GrPr value is greater than 109, flow is
turbulent.

i.e., GrPr > 109,  Laminar flow

GrPr > 109,  Turbulent flow

6. For laminar flow (Vertical plate):

109
Nusselt number Nu = 0.59 (GrPr)0.25

This expression is valid for,

104< Gr Pr < 109

7. For turbulent flow (Vertical plate):

Nusselt Number Nu = 0.10 [Gr Pr]0.333

8. Heat transfer (vertical plate):

Q = h A (Tw - T)

9. Grashof number for horizontal plate:

g    L c 3  T
Gr 
v2
W
Where Lc – Characteristic length =
2
W – Width of the plate.

10. For horizontal plate, upper surface heated,

Nusselt number Nu = 0.54 [Gr Pr]0.25

This expression is valid for
2  10 4  Gr Pr < 8  106
Nusselt number Nu = 0.15 [Gr Pr]0.333
This expression is valid for 8  10 6  Gr Pr <1011

11. For horizontal plate, lower surface heated

Nusselt Number Nu = 0.27 [Gr Pr]0.25

This expression is valid for 105< Gr Pr < 1011

12. Heat transfer (Horizontal plate)

Q = (hu + hj)  A  (Tw - T)

Where hu – Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient W/m2 K
Hi – Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K

13. For horizontal cylinder

Nusselt number Nu = C [Gr Pr]m

14. For horizontal cylinder,

Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw - T)

110
Where A - DL
15.For sphere,

Nusselt number Nu = 2 + 0.43 [Gr Pr]0.25

Heat transfer Q = h  A  (Tw - T)
Where A - 4r2

16. Boundary layer thickness

 x  [3.93  (Pr)0.5 (0.952+Pr)0.25  (Gr)0.25 ]  x

26. A vertical plate of 0.75 m height is at 170 C and is exposed to air at a temperature
of 105C and one atmosphere calculate:

1. Mean heat transfer coefficient,

2. Rate of heat transfer per unit width of the plate

Given :
Length L = 0.75 m
Wall temperature Tw = 170C
Fluid temperature T = 105C

To find:

1. Heat transfer coefficient (h)

2. Heat transfer (Q) per unit width

Solution: Velocity (U) is not given. So this is natural convection type problem.
T  T
Film temperature Tf  w
2
170  105

2
Tf  137.5C
Pr operties of air at Tf = 137.5C = 140C
Density  = 0.854 Kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity  = 27.80  10-6 m 2 / s
Prandtl number Pr = 0.684
Thermal conductivity K = 34.89  103 W / mK
We know that

111
 1
Coefficient of thermal expansion}  =
Tf in K
1
 =
137.5+273
1

410.5
  2.4  103 K 1

We know
g    L3  T
Grahsof number Gr =
v2
9.81 2.4  10-3  (0.75)3  (170  105)
 Gr =
(27.80  10 6 )2
 Gr = 8.35  108
 Gr Pr = 8.35  108  0.684
Gr Pr = 5.71 108

Since Gr Pr < 109, flow is laminar

Gr Pr value is in between 104 and 109 i.e., 104< Gr Pr < 109

So, Nusselt Number

Nu = 0.59 (Gr Pr)0.25

 = 0.59 (5.71 10 8 )0.25
Nu  91.21

We know
hL
Nusselt number Nu =
K
h  0.75
 91.21 =
34.89  10-3
 h = 4.24 W/m2K

Heat transfer coefficient h = 4.24 W/m2K

We know
Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw  T )
= 4.24  1 0.75  (170-105)
[  W = 1m]
Q = 206.8 W

112
27. A large vertical plate 4 m height is maintained at 606C and exposed to atmospheric
air at 106C. Calculate the heat transfer is the plate is 10 m wide.

Given :
Vertical plate length (or) Height L = 4 m
Wall temperature Tw = 606C
Air temperature T = 106C
Wide W = 10 m

To find: Heat transfer (Q)

Solution:
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
606  106

2
Tf  356C
Properties of air at 356C = 350C
 = 0.566 Kg/m3
  55.46  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.676
K = 49.08  10 -3 W/mK
1
Coefficient of thermal expansion}  =
Tf in K
1 1
 
356  273 629
 = 1.58  10-3K 1
g    L3  T
Grashof number Gr =
v2
9.81 2.4  10-3  (4)3  (606  106)
 Gr =
(55.46  106 )2

Gr = 1.61  1011
Gr Pr = 1.61  1011 0.676
Gr Pr = 1.08  1011
Since Gr Pr > 109, flow is turbulent
For turbulent flow,
Nusselt number Nu = 0.10 [Gr Pr]0.333

113
 Nu = 0.10 [1.08  1011 ]0.333
Nu = 471.20

We know that,
hL
Nusselt number Nu 
K
h 4
 472.20 =
49.08  10-3
Heat transfer coefficient h = 5.78 W/m2K

Heat transfer Q = h A T
 h  W  L  (Tw  T )
 5.78  10  4  (606  106)
Q  115600 W
Q = 115.6  103 W

28. A thin 100 cm long and 10 cm wide horizontal plate is maintained at a uniform
temperature of 150C in a large tank full of water at 75C. Estimate the rate of heat to
be supplied to the plate to maintain constant plate temperature as heat is dissipated
from either side of plate.

Given :

Length of horizontal plate L = 100 cm = 1m

Wide W = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Plate temperature Tw = 150C
Fluid temperature T = 75C

To find: Heat loss (Q) from either side of plate

Solution:
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
150  75

2
Tf  112.5C
Properties of water at 112.5C
 = 951 Kg/m3
 = 0.264  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 1.55
K = 683  10 3 W/mK

114
 1 1
Coefficient of thermal expansion}  = 
T in K 112.5  273
f
  2.59  10 3 K 1
g    L3  T
Grashof Number Gr =
v2
For horizontal plate,
W 0.10
Characteristic length L c  
2 2
Lc = 0.05 m
9.81 2.59  10-3  (0.05)3  (150  75)
(1)  Gr =
(0.264  10 6 )2
Gr = 3.41 109
Gr Pr = 3.41 109  1.55

Gr Pr = 5.29  109
Gr Pr value is in between 8  106 and 1011
i.e., 8  106< Gr Pr < 1011

For horizontal plate, upper surface heated:

Nusselt number Nu = 0.15 (Gr Pr)0.333

 Nu = 0.15 [5.29  109 ]0.333 
 Nu = 259.41

We know that,
huLc
Nusselt number Nu =
K
hu  0.05
259.41 
683  103
hu = 3543.6 W/m2K

Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient hu = 3543.6 W/m2K

For horizontal plate, lower surface heated:

Nusselt number Nu = 0.27 [Gr Pr]0.25

115
 Nu = 0.27 [5.29  10 9 ]0.25
Nu = 72.8
We know that,
h1Lc
Nusselt number Nu =
K
h1Lc
72.8 
K
h1  0.05
72.8 
683  103
h1  994.6 W/m2K

Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient h1 = 994.6 W/m2K

Total heat transfer Q = (hu + h1)  A T

= (hu + h1)  W  L  (Tw - T)

= (3543.6 + 994.6)  0.10  (150 – 75)
Q = 34036.5 W

29. A hot plate 20 cm in height and 60 cm wide is exposed to the ambient air at 30C.
Assuming the temperature of the plate is maintained at 110C. Find the beat loss from
both surface of the plate. Assume horizontal plate.

Given:

Height (or) Length of the Plate L = 20 cm = 0.20 m

Wide W = 60 cm = 0.60 m
Fluid temperature T = 30C
Plate surface temperature Tw = 110C

To find:

Heat loss from both the surface of the plate (Q)

Solution:
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
110  30

2
Tf  70C

Properties of air at 70C:

 = 1.029 Kg/m3

116
 = 20.02  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.694
K = 29.66  10-3 W/mK

We know
1 1
Coefficient of thermal expansion}  = 
Tf in K 70  273
1

343
 2.91 10 3 K 1
 = 2.91 103K 1

We know
g    L3  T
Grashof number Gr =
v2
W
Where L c  Characteristic length =
2
0.60
Lc   0.30 m
2
Lc  0.30 m
9.81 2.91 10-3  (0.30)3  (110  30)
(1)  Gr =
(20.02  10 6 )2

Gr = 1.5384  108
Gr Pr = 1.5384  108  0.694
Gr Pr = 1.0676  108
Gr Pr value is in between 8  106 and 1011
i.e., 8  106< Gr Pr < 1011

For horizontal plate, Upper surface heated,

Nusselt number Nu = 0.15 (Gr Pr)0.333

117
 0.333
 Nu = 0.15 1.0676  108 
Nu = 70.72
We know that,
huLc
Nusselt number Nu =
K
hu  0.30
70.72 
29.66  10 3
hu  6.99 W/m2K
Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient hu = 6.99 W/m2K

For horizontal plate, lower surface heated:

Nusselt number Nu = 0.27 (Gr Pr)0.25

= 0.277 [1.06  108]0.25
Nu = 28.15
We know that,
hL
Nusselt number Nu = 1 c
K
h1  0.30
28.15 
29.66  103
 h1 = 2.78 W/m2K

Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient h = 2.78 W/m2K

Total heat transfer Q = (hu  h1 )  A  T

 (hu  h1 )  W  L  (Tw  T )
 Q = (6.99+2.78)  0.60  0.20  (110-30)
Q = 93.82 W

30. A vertical pipe 80 mm diameter and 2 m height is maintained at a consent

temperature of 120C. The pipe is surrounded by still atmospheric air at 30C. Find
heat loss by natural convection.

Given :
Vertical pipe diameter D = 80 mm = 0.080 m
Height (or) Length L =2m
Surface temperature Tw = 120 C
Air temperature T = 30C

To find: Heat loss (Q)

Solution: We know

118
 Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2
120 + 30

2
Tf  75C
Properties of air at 75C
 = 1.0145 Kg/m3
 = 20.55  10 -6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.693
K = 30.06  10-3 W/mK

1
We know  =
Tf in K
1
  2.87  10 3 K 1
75 + 273
 = 2.87  10 -3K 1

We know
g    L3  T
Gr =
v2

9.81 2.87  10-3  (2)3  (120  30)

Gr =
(20.55  10 6 )2
Gr = 4.80  1010
Gr Pr = 4.80  1010  0.693
Gr Pr = 3.32  1010
Since Gr Pr > 109 , flow is turbulent

For turbulent flow,

Nu = 0.10 [Gr Pr]0.333

= 0.10 [3.32  1010]0.333
Nu = 318.8

We know that,

119
 hL
Nusselt Number Nu =
K
h 2
318.8 
30.06  10 3
Heat transfer coefficient, h = 4.79 W/m 2K
Heat loss Q = h  A  T
= h    D  L  (Tw  T )
 4.79    0.080  2  (120  30)
Q  216.7 W

120
 RADIATION

1. Define Radiation.

The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is
known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.

2. Define emissive power [E]

The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per
unit time and unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.

3. Define monochromatic emissive power. [Eb]

The energy emitted by the surface at a given length per unit time per unit area in all
directions is known as monochromatic emissive power.

4. What is meant by absorptivity?

Absorptivity is defined as the ratio between radiation absorbed and incident radiation.
Radiation absorbed
Absorptivity  
Incident radiation

5. What is meant by reflectivity?

Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the incident radiation.

Radiation reflected
Reflectivity  
Incident radiation

Radiation absorbed
Absorptivity  
Incident radiation

6. What is meant by transmissivity?

Transmissivity is defined as the ratio of radiation transmitted to the incident radiation.

Radiation transmitted
Transmissivity  
Incident radiation

7. What is black body?

Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties.

121
 1. A black body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wave length and direction.

2. For a prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can emit more energy than
black body.

8. State Planck’s distribution law.

The relationship between the monochromatic emissive power of a black body and
wave length of a radiation at a particular temperature is given by the following expression, by
Planck.

C1 5
Eb 
 C2 
 
e   T  1

Where Eb = Monochromatic emissive power W/m2

 = Wave length – m
c1 = 0.374  10-15 W m2
c2 = 14.4  10-3 mK
9. State Wien’s displacement law.

The Wien’s law gives the relationship between temperature and wave length
corresponding to the maximum spectral emissive power of the black body at that temperature.

 T = c3
mas

Where c3 = 2.9  10-3 [Radiation constant]

  mas T = 2.9  10 -3 mK

10. State Stefan – Boltzmann law.

The emissive power of a black body is proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature.
Eb  T 4
Eb =  T4
Where Eb = Emissive power, w/m2
 = Stefan. Boltzmann constant
= 5.67  10 -8 W/m2 K 4
T = Temperature, K

11. Define Emissivity.

122
 It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. It is also defined as
the ratio of emissive power of any body to the emissive power of a black body of equal
temperature.

E
Emissivity  
Eb

12. What is meant by gray body?

If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation irrespective of their wave

length, the body is known as gray body. The emissive power of a gray body is always less
than that of the black body.

13. State Kirchoff’s law of radiation.

This law states that the ratio of total emissive power to the absorbtivity is constant for
all surfaces which are in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. This can be written as

E1 E2 E3
 
1 2 3

It also states that the emissivity of the body is always equal to its absorptivity when
the body remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
1 = E1; 2 = E2 and so on.

14. Define intensity of radiation (Ib).

It is defined as the rate of energy leaving a space in a given direction per unit solid
angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space.
E
In  b


15. State Lambert’s cosine law.

It states that the total emissive power Eb from a radiating plane surface in any
direction proportional to the cosine of the angle of emission

Eb cos 

16. What is the purpose of radiation shield?

123
 Radiation shields constructed from low emissivity (high reflective) materials. It is
used to reduce the net radiation transfer between two surfaces.

17. Define irradiation (G)

It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area. It
is expressed in W/m2.

18. What is radiosity (J)

It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit area. It
is expressed in W/m2.

19. What are the assumptions made to calculate radiation exchange between the
surfaces?

1. All surfaces are considered to be either black or gray

2. Radiation and reflection process are assumed to be diffuse.
3. The absorptivity of a surface is taken equal to its emissivity and independent of
temperature of the source of the incident radiation.

20. What is meant by shape factor?

The shape factor is defined as the fraction of the radiative energy that is diffused from
on surface element and strikes the other surface directly with no intervening reflections. It is
represented by Fij. Other names for radiation shape factor are view factor, angle factor and
configuration factor.

1. A black body at 3000 K emits radiation. Calculate the following:

i) Monochromatic emissive power at 7 m wave length.

ii) Wave length at which emission is maximum.
iii) Maximum emissive power.
iv) Total emissive power,
v) Calculate the total emissive of the furnace if it is assumed as a real surface
having emissivity equal to 0.85.
Given: Surface temperature T = 3000K

Solution:

124
1. Monochromatic Emissive Power :

From Planck’s distribution law, we know

C1 5
Eb 
 C2 
 
e   T  1
[From HMT data book, Page No.71]
Where
c1 = 0.374  10-15 W m2
c2 = 14.4  10-3 mK
 = 1  10-6 m [Given]

0.374  10 15 [1 10 6 ]5

 Eb 
 144  10 3 
1 106  3000 
  1
Eb  3.10  1012 W/m2

2. Maximum wave length (max)

From Wien’s law, we know

max T  2.9  10 3 mK
2.9  10 3
 max =
3000
max = 0.966  10-6m

3. Maximum emissive power (Eb) max:

Maximum emissive power

(Eb)max = 1.307  10-5 T5
= 1.307  10-5 (3000)5
(Eb)max = 3.17  1012 W/m2

4. Total emissive power (Eb):

From Stefan – Boltzmann law, we know that

Eb =  T4
[From HMT data book Page No.71]

Where  = Stefan – Boltzmann constant

= 5.67  10-8 W/m2K4
 Eb = (5.67  10-8) (3000)4
Eb = 4.59  106 W/m2

125
5. Total emissive power of a real surface:

(Eb)real =  T4
Where  = Emissivity = 0.85

(Eb)real = 0.85  5.67  108  (3000)4

(E b )real  3.90  10 6 W / m 2

2. A black body of 1200 cm2 emits radiation at 1000 K. Calculate the following:
1. Total rate of energy emission
2. Intensity of normal radiation
3. Wave length of maximum monochromatic emissive power.
4. Intensity of radiation along a direction at 60 to the normal.

Solution:

From Stefan – Boltzmann law.

1. Energy emission Eb =  T4

[From HMT data book, Page No.71]

 Eb = 5.67  108  (1000)4
E b = 5.67  10 3 W /m 2
Here Area = 1200  10-4 m2,
 Eb = 5.67103 1200  10-4
Eb = 6804 W

2. Intensity of normal radiation

Eb
In 

56.7  103 W / m2
=

In = 18,048 W/m2

3. From Wien’s law, we know that

max T = 2.9  10 -3 mK
2.9  10 -3
 max =
3000
max = 2.9  10-6 m
max = 2.9  [ 1 = 10 -6 m]

126
3. Assuming sun to be black body emitting radiation at 6000 K at a mean distance of 12
 1010 m from the earth. The diameter of the sun is 1.5  109 m and that of the earth is
13.2  106 m. Calculation the following.

1. Total energy emitted by the sun.

2. The emission received per m2 just outside the earth’s atmosphere.
3. The total energy received by the earth if no radiation is blocked by the earth’s
atmosphere.
4. The energy received by a 2  2 m solar collector whose normal is inclined at 45 to
the sun. The energy loss through the atmosphere is 50% and the diffuse radiation is
20% of direct radiation.

Given: Surface temperature T = 6000 K

Distance between earth and sun R = 12  1010 m
Diameter on the sun D1 = 1.5 109 m
Diameter of the earth D2 = 13.2  106 m

Solution:

1. Energy emitted by sun Eb =  T4

 Eb = 5.67  10 -8  (6000)4
[   = Stefan - Boltzmann constant
= 5.67  10 -8 W / m2 K 4 ]
Eb = 73.4  10 6 W/m2
Area of sun A 1  4 R12
2
 1.5  109 
= 4   
 2 
A 1  7  1018 m2

 Energy emitted by the sun

Eb = 73.4  10 6  7  1018
Eb  5.14  1026 W
2. The emission received per m2 just outside the earth’s atmosphere:

The distance between earth and sun

R = 12  1010 m

127
Area, A = 4 R 2
= 4    (12  1010 )2
A = 1.80  10 23 m2
 The radiation received outside the earth atmosphere per
m2
Eb
=
A
5.14  10 26
=
1.80  10 23
= 2855.5 W/m2

3. Energy received by the earth:


Earth area = (D2 )2
4

=  [13.2  10 6 ]2
4
Earth area = 1.36  10 4m2

Energy received by the earth

 2855.5  1.36  104
 3.88  1017 W

4. The energy received by a 2  2 m solar collector;

Energy loss through the atmosphere is 50%. So energy reaching the earth.
 100 - 50 = 50%
= 0.50

Energy received by the earth

 0.50  2855.5
 1427.7 W/m2 ......(1)

Diffuse radiation is 20%

 0.20  1427.7 = 285.5 W/m2
Diffuse radiation = 285.5 W/m2 .........(2)

Total radiation reaching the collection

 142.7  285.5
 1713.2 W/m 2

128
Plate area = A  cos 
= 2  2  cos 45
= 2.82 m2

Energy received by the collector

 2.82  1713.2
 4831.2 W

4. A large enclosure is maintained at a uniform temperature of 3000 K. Calculate the

following:

1. Emissive power
2. The wave length 1 below which 20 percent of the emission is concentrated and the
wave length 2 above which 20 percent of the emission is concentrated.
3. The maximum wave length.
4. Spectral emissive power.
5. The irradiation incident.

Given : Surface temperature T = 3000 K

1. Emissive power Eb =  T4
 5.67  108  (3000)4
Eb  4.59  10 6 W/m 2

2. The wave length 1 corresponds to the upper limit, containing 20% of emitted radiation.
Eb(0-1T )
  0.20 , corresponding
 T4

1T = 2666 K
[From HMT data book, Page No.72]

 1T  2666 K
2666
 1 =
3000
 1  0.88

The wave length 2 corresponds to the lower limit, containing 20% of emitted
radiation.

129
 Eb(0-1T )
  (1  0.20)
 T4
Eb(0-1T )
  0.80, corresponding
 T4
2T  6888 K
6888
 2 =
3000
2  2.2 

3. Maximum wave length (max):

max T = 2.9  10-3 mK

2.9  10-3
max =
3000
= 9.6  10-7m
max  0.96  106 m

4. Spectral Emissive Power:

From Planck’s distribution law, we know

C1max 5
Eb 
 C2 
 
e   T  1
[From HMT data book, Page No.71]
where C1  0.374  10 15 W m2
C2  14.4  10 3 mK

 Eb 
0.374  10    0.96  10 
15 6 5

 14.4  103 
 6 
e
0.96  10  3000 1
 Eb = 3.1  1012 W/m2

5. Irradiation:

The irradiation incident on a small object placed within the enclosure may be treated
as equal to emission from a black body at the enclosure surface temperature.
So, G = Eb= 4.59  106 W/m2 .

5. The sun emits maximum radiation at  = 0.52. Assuming the sun to be a black body,
calculate the surface temperature of the sun. Also calculate the monochromatic emissive

130
power of the sun’s surface.
Given : max  0.52   0.52  10 6 m

To find : 1. Surface temperature T.

2. Monochromatic emissive power Eb.
Solution:

1. From Wien’s law, we know

max T = 2.9  10 3 mK
[From HMT data book, Page No.71]
2.9  10-3
 T=
0.52  10 6
T = 5576 K

2. Monochromatic emissive power (Eb):

From Planck’s law, we know

c1 5
Eb 
 C2 
 
e   T  1

[From HMT data book, Page No.71]

where C1  0.374  10 15 W m2

C2  14.4  10 3 mK

 = 0.52  10 -6 m

0.374  10 15  (0.52  10 6 )5

 Eb 
 14.4  103 
 6 
e
0.52  10  5576  1

Eb  6.9  1013 W / m2

6. A furnace wall emits radiation at 2000 K. Treating it as black body radiation,

calculate
1. Monochromatic radiant flux density at 1m wave length.
2. Wave length at which emission is maximum and the corresponding emissive
power.
3. Total emissive power

Given: Temperature T = 2000 K;  = 1 m = 1  10-6

Solution:

131
1. Monochromatic emissive power (Eb):

c1 5
Eb 
 C2 
 
e   T  1
[From HMT data book, Page No.71]

where C1  0.374  10 15 W m2

C2  14.4  10 3 mK
 = 1 m = 1 10 -6 m [Given]
0.374  10 15  (1 10 6 )5
 Eb 
 14.4  10 3 
 
e
1 10 6  2000 1
Eb  2.79  1011 W / m2

2. Maximum Wave Length (max):

From Wien’s Law, we know that

max T = 2.9  10 3 mK
[From HMT data book, Page No.71]
2.9  10 3
max 
T
2.9  10 3
=  1.45  10 6 m
2000
max  1.45 

Corresponding emissive power

c1max 5
Eb 
 C2 
 
 T
e  max  1

5
0.374  1015  1.45  10 6 

 14.4  103 
 6 
e
1.45  10  2000 1
 4.09  1011 W / m2

3. Total emissive power (Eb):

132
From Stefan – Boltzmann law, we know

Eb =  T4
Where  - Stefan – Boltzmann constant

 5.67  10 8 W / m2 K 4
Eb = 5.67  10 -8  (2000)4
Eb  907.2  103 W/m2

7. The temperature of a black surface 0.25 m2 of area is 650C. Calculate,

1. The total rate of energy emission

2. The intensity of normal radiation.

The wavelength of maximum monochromatic emissive power.

Given : A = 0.25 m2
T = 650 + 273 = 923 K
To find : 1. Eb ; 2. In ; 3. max

Solution:

1. We know
Emissive power Eb =  T4
= 5.67  10 8  (923)4
Eb = 41151.8 W/m2
Here Area = 0.25 m2
 E b = 41151.8 W/m 2  0.25 m 2
Eb  10.28  103 Watts

2. We know
Eb
Intensity  In 

10.28  103
=

In = 3274.7 W
3. From Wien’s law,

max T = 2.9  103 m

2.9  10 -3
max =
923
max  3.13  106 m

133
8. Calculate the heat exchange by radiation between the surfaces of two long cylinders
having radii 120mm and 60mm respectively. The axis of the cylinder are parallel to
each other. The inner cylinder is maintained at a temperature of 130C and emissivity
of 0.6. Outer cylinder is maintained at a temperature of 30C and emissivity of 0.5.

Given : r1 = 60 mm
= 0.060 m
r2 = 120 mm
= 0.12
T1 = 130C + 273
= 403
1 = 0.6
T2 = 30C + 273 = 303 K
2 = 0.5
To find : Heat exchange (Q)

Solution: Heat exchange between two large concentric cylinder is given by

Q    A T14  T2 4  .....(1)
[From equation No.27]
1
where  
1 A1  1 
   1
1 A 2   2 
1
 = [ A   DL]
1  D1L 2  1 
 1
0.6  D2L 2  0.5 
1
= [  L1  L 2  1]
1 0.12  1 
 1
0.6 0.24  0.5 
  0.46
(1) 
Q12  0.46  5.67  108    D1  L  (403)4  (303)4 
= 0.46  5.67  10 8    0.12  1 (403)4  (303)4 
Q12  176.47 W

9. Two concentric spheres 30 cm and 40 cm in diameter with the space between them
evacuated are used to store liquid air at - 130C in a room at 25C. The surfaces of the
spheres are flushed with aluminium of emissivity  = 0.05. Calculate the rate of
evaporation of liquid air if the latent heat of vaporization of liquid air is 220 kJ/kg.

Given: Inner diameter D1 = 30 cm

134
 = 0.30 m
Inner radius r1 = 0.15 m
Outer diameter D2 = 40 cm
= 0.40 m
Outer radius r2 = 0.20 m
T1 = - 130C + 273
= 143 K
T2 = 25C + 273
= 298 K
 = 0.05
Latent heat of vapourisation = 220kJ /kg
= 220 103 J / kg

To find: Rate of evaporation

Solution: This is heat exchange between large concentric sphere problem.

Heat transfer Q12    A 1 [T14  T2 4 ] ......(1)
1
Where  
1 A1  1 
   1
1 A 2   2 
1

1 4 r12  1 
 2 
 1
0.05 4 r2  0.05 
[  1   2  0.05; A  4 r 2 ]
1
=
1 (0.15)2  1 
 2 
 1
0.05 (0.20)  0.05 
  0.032

10. A pipe of outside diameter 30 cm having emissivity 0.6 and at a temperature of 600
K runs centrally in a brick of 40 cm side square section having emissivity 0.8 and at a
temperature of 300K. Calculate the following:

1. Heat exchange per metre length.

2. Convective heat transfer coefficient when surrounding of duct is 280 K.

Given:

Pipe diameter D1 = 30 cm
D1 = 0.30 m
Surface area A1 =  D1L
=  0.30  1
A1 = 0.942 m2

135
 1 = 0.6 [ L  1 m]
T1 = 600 K

Brick duct side = 40 cm = 0.40 m

Surface area A2 = (0.4  1)  4
[length L = 1m; No. of sides = 4]

A 2  1.6 m2
 2  0.8
T2  300 K

To find: 1. Heat exchange (Q)

2. Convective heat transfer coefficient (h) when
T = 280 K
Solution:

Case 1: We know that

Heat exchange Q12      A1 T14  T2 4  ....(1)

1
where  
1 A1  1 
   1
1 A 2   2 
1
=
1 0.942  1 
   1
0.6 1.6  0.8 
  0.55
(1)  Q12  0.55    A1  [T14  T2 4 ]
= 0.55  5.67  10 8  0.942  (600)4  (300)4 
Heat exchange Q12  3569.2 W / m ......(2)

Case (ii) :

Heat transfer by convection Q = hA (T - T)

Q12 = h  A  (T2 - T)
Q12 = h  1  (300 – 280)
Q12  20h .....(3)
Equating (2) and (3),
3569.2 = 20h
Heat transfer coefficient = 178.46 W/m2 K

136
11. Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at 800C and 300C are 0.5
respectively. Find net radiant hat exchange per square metre for these plates. Find the
percentage reduction in heat transfer when a polished aluminium radiation shield of
emissivity 0.06 is placed between them. Also find the temperature of the shield.

Given : T1 = 800C + 273

= 1073 K
T2 = 300C + 273
= 573 K
1 = 0.3
2 = 0.5
Shield emissivity 3 = 0.06

To find:

1. Net radiant heat exchange per square metre. (Q/A)

2. Percentage reduction in heat loss due to radiation shield.
3. Temperature of the shield (T3).

Solution: Heat exchange between two large parallel plates without radiation shield is given
by

Q12    A T14  T2 4 

1

1 1
 1
1 2
1
=
1 1
 1
0.3 0.5
  0.230

(1)  Q12  0.230    A  [T14  T24 ]

= 0.230  5.67  10 8  A  (1073)4  (573)4 
Q12
 15,879.9 W/m2
A
Heat transfer square metre without radiation shield
Q12
 15.87 k W/m2 ......(1)
A

Heat exchange between plate 1 and radiation shield 3 is given by

137
(1)  Q13   A [T14  T2 4 ]
1

1 1
 1
1 3
  A [T14  T3 4 ]
 Q13  .....(A)
1 1
 1
1 3

Heat exchange between radiation shield 3 and plate 2 is given by

Q32   A [T3 4  T2 4 ]
1
Where  =
1 1
 1
3 2
  A T3 4  T24 
 Q32  .....(B)
1 1
 1
3 2
We know Q13 = Q32

 A [T14  T3 4 ]  A [T3 4  T2 4 ]
 = 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1 3 3 2
[T14  T3 4 ] [T3 4  T24 ]
 = 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
0.3 0.06 0.06 0.5
(1073)4  (T3 4 ) (T3 4 )  (573)4
 
19 17.6
17.6 (1073)  (T3 ) 
4 4

 T3 4 = + (573)4
19
 T3 4 = 0.926 (1073)4  (T3 )4   (573)4

 T3 4 = 0.926 (1073)4  0.926  (T3 )4   (573)4

(T3 )4  0.926 (T3 4 )  1.33  1012

(1.926) (T3 )4 = 1.33  1012

(T3 )4 = 6.90  1011
T3  911.5 K

138
Radiation shield temperature T3  911.5 K

Substituting T3 value in equation (A) (or) equation (B), Heat transfer with radiation shield
5.67  10 8  A  (1073)4  (911.5)4 
 Q13 
1 1
 1
0.3 0.06
Q13
 1895.76 W/m2
A

Heat transfer with radiation shield

Q13
  1.89kW / m2 ......(2)
A

Reduction in heat loss due to radiation shield

Q without shield  Q with shield Q12  Q13

 
Q without shield Q12
15.87 - 1.89
=
15.87
= 0.88 = 88%

12. A pipe of diameter 30 cm, carrying steam runs in a large room and is exposed to air
at a temperature of 25C. The surface temperature of the pipe is 300C. Calculate the
loss of heat of surrounding per meter length of pipe due to thermal radiation. The
emissivity of the pipe surface is 0.8.

What would be the loss of heat due to radiation of the pipe is enclosed in a 55 cm
diameter brick of emissivity 0.91?

Given :

Case 1: Diameter of pipe D1 = 30 cm = 0.30 m

Surface temperature T1 = 300C + 273
= 573 K
Air temperature T2 = 25C + 273
= 298 K
Emissivity of the pipe 1 = 0.8
Case 2: Outer diameter D2 = 55 cm = 0.55m
Emissivity 2 = 0.91

To find: 1. Loss of heat per metre length (Q/L).

2. Reduction in heat loss.

139
Solution:

Case 1:
Heat transfer Q  1  A T14  T2 4 
 1     DL  T14  T24 
[  A =  DL
Q = 0.8  5.67  10-8    0.30  L (573)4  (298)4 
 Q/L = 4271.3 W/m

Heat loss per metre length = 4271.3 W/m

Case 2: When the 30 cm dia pipe is enclosed in a 55 cm diameter pipe, heat exchange
between two large concentric cylinder is given by
Q    A1 T14  T24 
1
where  
1 A1  1 
   1
1 A 2   2 
1
=
1  D1L 2  1 
   1
0.8  D2L 2  0.91 
1
=
1 D1  1 
   1
0.8 D2  0.91 

1
=
1 0.30  1 
   1
0.8 0.55  0.91 
  0.76

Substituting emissivity  value in equation (A),

(A)  Q  0.76  5.67  108    D1  L1 (573)4  (298)4 
Q
= 0.76  5.67  10 8    0.30  (573)4  (298)4 
L
Q
 4057.8 W / m
L

Reduction in heat loss

140
 = 4271.3 – 4057.8
= 21.3.4

13. Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at T1 K and T2 K are 0.6 and 0.6
respectively. Heat transfer is reduced 75 times when a polished aluminium radiation
shields of emissivity 0.04 are placed in between them. Calculate the number of shields
required.

Given: 1 = 0.6
2 = 0.6

Heat transfer reduced = 75 times

Emissivity of radiation shield, s = 3 = 0.04

To find: Number of screens require.

Solution: Heat transfer with n shield is given by

A [T14  T2 4 ]
Qin = .......(1)
1 1  2n 
    (n  1)
1  2   s 
Heat transfer without shield, i.e., n=0
A [T14  T24 ]
(1)  Q12 = .......(2)
1 1
 1
1 2
Heat transfer is reduced 75 times

Q without shield
  75
Q with shield
Q12
  75
Q13

A [T14  T2 4 ]
1 1
 1
(2) 1  2
  75
(1) A [T14  T2 4 ]
1 1 2n
  (n  1)
1 2 s
1 1 2n
  (n  1)
1 2 s
  75
1 1
 1
1 2

141
 1 1 2n
  (n  1)
 0.6 0.6 0.04 = 75
1 1
 1
0.6 0.6
3.33  50n  (n  1)
  75
2.33
 50n n-1 = 171.67
49n - 1 = 171.67
49n = 172.67
n = 3.52  4
n=4

14. Find the relative heat transfer between two large plane at temperature 1000 K and
500 K when they are

1. Black bodies
2. Gray bodies with emissivities of each surface is 0.7.

Given: T1 = 1000 K
T2 = 500 K
1 = 0.7
2 = 0.7

Solution :

Case 1: Heat exchange between two large parallel plate is given by

Q   A  T14  T2 4 
For black bodies,   1
Q = A  T14  T2 4 
Q
 5.67  108 (1000)4  (500)4 
A
Q
 53.15  103 W / m2
A

Case 2: Q   A  T14  T2 4 

142
 1

1 1
 1
1 2
1
 =
1 1
 1
0.7 0.7
  0.538
 Q  0.538  A  5.67  10 8 (1000)4  (500)4 
Q
 28.6  103 W / m2
A

15. The inner sphere of liquid oxygen container is 40 cm diameter and outer sphere is 50
cm diameter. Both have emissivities 0.05. Determine the rate at which the liquid oxygen
would evaporate at -183C when the outer sphere at 20C. Latent heat of oxygen is 210
kJ/kg.

Given : Inner diameter D1 = 40 cm = 0.40 m

Inner radius r1 = 0.20 m
Outer diameter D2 = 50 cm = 0.50 m
Outer radius r2 = 0.25 m
Emissivity 1 = 0.05
2 = 0.05
Inner temperature T1 = -183C + 273 = 90K
Outer temperature T2 = 20C + 273
= 293 K
Latent heat of oxygen = 210 kJ / kg
= 210  103 J/kg
To find : Rate of evaporation

Solution :

This is heat exchange between two large concentric spheres problem.

Heat transfer Q    A1 T14  T24  ......(1)
[From equation No.27]
1
where  
1 A1  1 
   1
1 A 2   2 

143
 1
= [  A = 4 r 2 ]
1 4 r  12

 1
  1
0.05 4 r  0.05 
2
2

1
= 2
1 r  1 
 12   1
0.05 r2  0.05 
1

1 (0.20)2  1 
 2 
 1
0.05 (0.25)  0.05 
  0.031
(1)  Q12  0.031 5.67  10 8  4   (90)4  (293)4 
Q12  6.45 W

[Negative sign indicates heat is transferred from outer surface to inner surface.]

Heat transfer
Rate of evaporation =
Latent heat
6.45 W

210  103 J/kg
6.45 J/s

210  103J / kg
Rate of evaporation = 3.07  10 -5kg / s

16. Emissivities of two large parallel plates maintained at 800C are 0.3 and 0.5
respectively. Find the net radiant heat exchange per square metre of the plates. If a
polished aluminium shield ( = 0.05) is placed between them. Find the percentage of
reduction in heat transfer.

Given : T1 = 800C + 273 = 1073 K

T2 = 300C + 273 = 573 K
1 = 0.3
2 = 0.5

Radiation shield emissivity 3 = 0.05

To find:

144
 Q 
1. Net radiant heat exchange per square metre  12 
 A 
2. Percentage of reduction in heat loss due to radiation shield.

Solution:

Case 1 : Heat transfer without radiation shield:

Heat exchange between two large parallel plats without radiation shield is given by

Q12    A T14  T2 4 
1

1 1
 1
1  2
1
=
1 1
 1
0.3 0.5
  0.230
 Q12  0.230  5.67  10 8  A  (1073)4  (573)4 
Q12
Heat transfer  15.8  10 3 W / m2
A

Case 2: Heat transfer with radiation shield:

Heat exchange between plate 1 and radiation shield 3 is given by

Q13   A [T14  T2 4 ]
1
where 
1 1
 1
1 3
 A [T14  T3 4 ]
 Q13  .....(A)
1 1
 1
1 3

Heat exchange between radiation shield 3 and plate 2 is given by

Q 32   A [T3 4  T2 4 ]

145
 1
Where  =
1 1
 1
3 2
 A T3 4  T2 4 
 Q32  .....(B)
1 1
 1
3 2

We know Q13 = Q32

 A [T14  T3 4 ]  A [T3 4  T2 4 ]
 = 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
1 3 3 2
(1073)4 - (T3 4 ) (T3 4 )  (573)4 ]
 = 
1 1 1 1
 1  1
0.3 0.05 0.3 0.05
(1073)4  (T3 4 ) (T3 4 )  (573)4
 
22.3 21
 2.78  10  21T3  22.3T3 4  2.4  1013
13 4

 3.02  1013  43.3T3 4

Shield temperature  T3  913.8 K

Substitute T3 value in equation (A) or (B).

Substituting T3 value in equation (A) (or) equation (B),

8 4 4
5.67  10  A  (1073)  (913.8) 
Heat transfer with   
Q 
radiation shield  13 1 1
 1
0.3 0.05
Q13
 1594.6 W / m2 ......(2)
A

Re duction in heat loss  Q without shield  Q with shield


due to radiation shield  Q without shield
Q12  Q13

Q12
15.8  103 - 1594.6
=
15.8  103
= 0.899 = 89.9%

146
17. The amount of radiant energy falling on a 50 cm  50 cm horizontal thin metal plate
insulated to the bottom is 3600kJ /m2 hr. If the emissivity of the plate surface is 0.8 and
the ambient air temperature is 30C, find the equilibrium temperature of the plate.

Given : Area A = 50 cm  50 cm
= 0.5  0.5 m
A  0.25 m2

Radiant energy Q = 3600 kJ / m2 hr

3600  103 J
=
3600 m2s
= 103J / s  m2

W  J 
= 1000
m2  s  W 
 
Here Area = 0.25 m2
W
 Q = 1000  2
 0.25m2
m
Q = 250 W
Emissivity  = 0.8

Ambient air temperature T2 = 30C + 273

= 303 K

To find : Plate temperature T1

Solution : We know

Heat transfer Q    A T14  T24 

250  0.8  5.67  10 8  0.25  T14  (303)4 
250  1.13  10 8 T14  (303)4 
T14  (303)4 = 2.2  1010
T1  417.8 K

18. Calculate the shape factors for the configuration shown in fig.

1. A black body inside a black enclosure.

147
2. A tube with cross section of an equilateral triangle.

3. Hemispherical surface and a plane surface

Solution:
Case 1:
[All radiation emitted from the black surface 2 is absorbed by the enclosing surface
1.]
We know
F1-1 + F1 – 2 = 1 ….(1)

By reciprocity theorem
A1F12 = A2F21
AF
 F12  2 21
A1
(1)  F1-1  1  F12
A2
F11  1  F21
A1
A
F11  1  2 [  F21  1]
A1
A2
F11  1 
A1
F21  1
A2 A
Re sult : F1-1  1  , F1-2  2 , F21  1
A1 A1
Case 2 : We know
F1-1  F12  F13  1
F1-1  0
[For Flat surface shape factor (F1-1 )  0]....(2)

 F1 - 2  F1  3  1
F12  F13 [Since symmetry triangle]
(2)  F1 - 2  0.5 F1 - 3  0.5

Now considering radiation from surface 2,

148
F21  F22  F23  1
F2 - 2  0
F21  F23  1
F23  1  F21 .....(3)

By reciprocity theorem, we know

A1F12 = A2F21
A
F21  1 F12
A2
F21  F12 [  A1  A 2 ]

(3)  F23  1  F21

 1  F12 [  F21  F12 ]
 1  0.5 [  F12  0.5]
F23  0.5

Result: F1 – 1 = 0, F21 = F12 = 0.5

F22 = 0
F1 – 2 = 0.5, F2 – 3 = 0.5
F1 – 3 = 0.5

Case 3: We know
F1 – 1 + F1 – 2 = 1

By reciprocity theorem,
A1 F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1
A
F1 2  2 F21 ...... (4)
A1
F2 - 1  1

[Since all radiation emitting from the black surface 2 are absorbed by the enclosing surface 1]
A
F1 - 2  2 [  F2 - 1  1]
A1
 r2 1
(4)  F1 - 2    0.5
2 r 2
2

149
 F1 - 2  0.5
We know F1 - 1  F12  1
 F1 - 1  0.5  1
F1 - 1  0.5

19. Two black square plates of size 2 by 2 m are placed parallel to each other at a
distance of 0.5 m. One plate is maintained at a temperature of 1000C and the other at
500C. Find the heat exchange between the plates.

Given: Area A = 2  2 = 4 m2

T1 = 1000C + 273
= 1273 K
T2 = 500C + 273
= 773 K
Distance = 0.5 m

To find : Heat transfer (Q)

Solution : We know

Heat transfer general equation is

 T14  T24 
where Q12 
1  1 1 1 2
 
A11 A1F12 A1 2
[From equation No.(6)]

For black body

1   2  1

 Q12   [T14  T2 4 ]  A1F12

= 5.67  10 8 (1273)4  (773)4   4  F12

Q12  5.14  105 F12 ......(1)

Where F12 – Shape factor for square plates

In order to find shape factor F12, refer HMT data book, Page No.76.

150
 Smaller side
X axis =
Distance between planes
2
=
0.5
X axis = 4

Curve  2 [Since given is square plates]

X axis value is 4, curve is 2. So corresponding Y axis value is 0.62.

i.e., F12  0.62

(1)  Q12  5.14  105  0.62

Q12  3.18  105 W

20. Two circular discs of diameter 0.3 m each are placed parallel to each other at a
distance of 0.2 m. one is disc is maintained at a temperature of 750C and the other at
350C and their corresponding emissivities are 0.3 and 0.6. Calculate heat exchange
between the discs.

Given : D1 = 0.3 m
D2 = 0.3 m

A1  A 2 = D2
4

= (0.3)2
4
A1  A 2  0.070 m2

T1 = 750C + 273 = 1023 K

T2 = 350C + 273 = 623 K
1 = 0.3
2 = 0.6

Distance between discs = 0.2 m.

To find : Heat exchange between discs (Q),

Solution:

Heat transfer by radiation general equation is

151
  T14  T24 
Q12  [From equation (6)]
1  1 1 1  2
 
A11 A1F12 A1 2
5.67  108 (1023)4  (623)4 

1  0.3 1 1  0.6
 
0.070  0.3 0.070F12 0.070  0.6
5.35  10 4
Q12  ........(1)
1
42.85 
0.070 F12
Where F12 – Shape factor for disc

In order to find shape factor F12, refer HMT data book, Page No.76.

Diameter
X axis =
Distance between discs
0.3
=
0.2
X axis = 1.5
Curve  1 [Since given is disc]

X axis value is 1.5, curve is 1. So, corresponding Y axis value is 0.28.

 F12  0.28

5.35  10 4
(1)  Q12 
1
42.85 
0.070  0.28
Q12  569.9 W

21. Two parallel rectangular surfaces 1 m  2m are opposite to each other at a distance
of 4m. The surfaces are black and at 300C and 200C. Calculate the heat exchange by
radiation between two surfaces.

Given: Area A = 2  2 = 2 m2
Distance = 4 m
T1 = 300C + 273
= 573 K
T2 = 200C + 273
= 473 K

To find: Heat exchange (Q12)

152
Solution : We know, Heat transfer general equation is

  T14  T2 4 
Q12 
1  1 1 1 2
 
A11 A1F12 A1 2
For Black surface,
1   2  1
 Q12    T14  T2 4   A 1F12 ......(1)

Where F12 – Shape factor for parallel rectangles

In order to find shape factor refer HMT data book, Page No.77 and 78.

b Longer side
X 
c Dis tance
2
=  0.5
4
a 1
Y    0.25
c 4

From graph, we know,

F12  0.04

(1)  Q12  5.67  10 8 (573)4  (473)4   2  0.04

Q12  261.9 W

22. Two parallel plates of size 3 m  2 m are placed parallel to each other at a distance
of 1 m. One plate is maintained at a temperature of 550C and the other at 250C and
the emissivities are 0.35 and 0.55 respectively. The plates are located in a large room
whose walls are at 35C. If the plates located exchange heat with each other and with
the room, calculate.

1. Heat lost by the plates.

2. Heat received by the room.

Given: Size of the plates = 3 m  2 m

Distance between plates =1m

153
First plate temperature T1 = 550C + 273 = 823 K
Second plate temperature T2 = 250C + 273 = 523 K
Emissivity of first plate 1 = 0.35
Emissivity of second plate 2 = 0.55
Room temperature T3 = 35C + 273 = 308 K

To find: 1. Heat lost by the plates

2. Heat received by the room.

Solution: In this problem, heat exchange take place between two plates and the room. So this
is three surface problem and the corresponding radiation network is given below.

Area A1 = 3  2 = 6 m2

A 1  A 2  6m 2

Since the room is large A 3  

From electrical network diagram.

1  1 1  0.35
  0.309
1A1 0.35  6
1   2 1  0.55
  0.136
 2 A 2 0.55  6
1 3
0 [  A 3  ]
3A3

1 3 1-1 1 2
Apply  0,  0.309,  0.136 values in electrical network
3 A 3 1A 1 2A2
diagram.

To find shape factor F12 refer HMT data book, Page No.78.

b 3
X  3
c 1
a 2
Y   2
c 1

X value is 3, Y value is 2, corresponding shape factor

[From table]
F12 = 0.47

154
F12  0.47

We know that,
F11 + F12 + F13 = 1
But, F11 = 0
 F13  1  F12
 F13  1  0.47
F13  0.53

Similarly, F21 + F22 + F23 = 1

We know F22 = 0
 F23  1  F21
 F23  1  F12
F13 = 1 - 0.47
F23  0.53

From electrical network diagram,

1 1
  0.314 ....(1)
A1F13 6  0.53
1 1
  0.314 ....(2)
A 2F23 6  0.53
1 1
  0.354 ....(3)
A1F12 6  0.47

From Stefan – Boltzmann law, we know

Eb   T 4
Eb1   T14
= 5.67  10-8 823 
4

Eb1  26.01 103 W / m2 .....(4)

Eb2   T2 4

= 5.67  10-8 823 

4

Eb2  4.24  103 W / m2 .....(5)

Eb3   T3 4
= 5.67  10-8 308 
4

Eb3  J3  510.25 W / m2 .....(6)

155
 [From diagram]

The radiosities, J1 and J2 can be calculated by using Kirchoff’s law.

 The sum of current entering the node J1 is zero.

At Node J1:
Eb1  J1 J2  J1 Eb3  J1
  0
0.309 1 1
A1F12 A1F13
[From diagram]

26.01 103  J1 J2  J1 510.25  J1

   0
0.309 0.354 0.314
J1 J2 J1 J1
 84.17  103     1625  0
0.309 0.354 0.354 0.354
 -9.24J1  2.82J2  85.79  10 3 .....(7)

At node j2

J1  J2 Eb3  J2 Eb2  J2
   0 -+*
1 1 0.136
A 1F12 A 2F23

J1  J2 510.25  J2 4.24  103  J2

  0
0.354 0.314 0.136
J1 J2 510.25 J2 4.24  103 J2
     0
0.354 0.354 0.314 0.314 0.136 0.136
 2.82J1  13.3J2  32.8  103 ....(8)

Solving equation (7) and (8),

 -9.24J1  2.82J2  85.79  103 .....(7)

 2.82J1  13.3J2  32.8  103 .....(8)

J2  4.73  103 W / m2
J1  10.73  103 W / m2

Heat lost by plate (1) is given by

156
 Eb1  J1
Q1 
 1  1 
 
 1A1 
26.01 103  10.73  103
Q1 
1  0.35
0.35  6
Q1  49.36  103 W

Heat lost by plate 2 is given by

E J
Q2  b2 2
 1  2 
 
 2A2 

4.24  103  4.73  103

Q2 
1  0.55
6  0.55
Q2  3.59  103 W

Total heat lost by the plates

Q = Q1 + Q2
= 49.36  103 – 3.59  103

Q  45.76  103 W ......(9)

Heat received by the room

J1  J3 J2  J3
Q 
1 1
A 1F13 A 1F12
10.73  103  510.25 4.24  103  510.25
 
0.314 0.314
[  Eb1  J1  512.9]
Q = 45.9  10 3 W .....(10)
From equation (9), (10), we came to know heat lost by the plates is equal to heat
received by the room.

157
23. Two black square plates of size 1 by 1 m are placed parallel to each other at a
distance of 0.4 m. One plate is maintained at a temperature of 900C and the other at
400. Find the net heat exchange of energy due to radiation between the two plates.

Given: Area A = 1  1 = 1 m2
Distance = 0.4 m
T1 = 900C + 273
= 1173 K
T2 = 400C + 273
= 673 K

To find: Heat exchange (Q)

Solution: Heat transfer by radiation general equation is

 T14  T24 
Q12 
1  1 1 1 2
 
A11 A 1F12 A1 2
[From equation No.(6)]
For black body,
1   2  1
 Q12   T14  T2 4  A1F12
= 5.67  10 -8 (1173)4  (673)4  F12
Q12 = 95.7  103F12 .......(1)

Where F12 – shape factor for square plates.

In order to find shape factor F12, refer HMT data book, Page No.76.
Smaller side
X axis =
Distance between planes
1
=
0.4
X axis = 2.5

Curve 2 [since given is square plate]

X axis value is 2.5, curve is 2, so corresponding Y axis value is 0.42.

i.e., F12 = 0.42

(1)  Q12  95.7  103  0.42

Q12  40  103 W

158
24. Two circular discs of diameter 20 cm each are placed 2 m apart. Calculate the
radiant heat exchange for these discs if there are maintained at 800C and 300C
respectively and the corresponding emissivities are 0.3 and 0.5.

Given : D1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
D2 = 0.2 m
T1 = 800C + 273
= 1073 K
T2 = 300C + 273
= 573 K
1 = 0.3
2 = 0.5

To find: Heat exchange (Q)


A1 
4
D 
1
2


Solution: Area = (0.2)2  0.031 m2
4
A1 = 0.031 m2
2 = 0.031 m  D1  D 2 
A 2

Heat transfer by radiation generation equation is

 T14  T24 
Q12 
1  1 1 1 2
 
A11 A1F12 A 2 2

5.67  108 (1073)4  (573)4 


1  0.3 1 1  0.5
 
0.031 0.3 0.31 F12 0.031 0.5
69  103
Q12  .......(1)
1
107.45 
0.031 F12

Where F12 = Shape factor for disc.

In order to find shape factor, F12 refer HMT data book, Page No.76.
Diameter
X axis =
Distance between disc
0.2
=
2
X axis = 0.1

159
Curve 1 [since given is disc]

X axis value is 0.1, curve is 1, so corresponding Y axis value is 0.01.

 F12 = 0.01

F12 = 0.01

69  103
(1)  Q12 
1
107.45 
0.031 0.01
Q12 = 20.7 Watts.

25. A long cylindrical heater 30 in diameter is maintained at 700C. It has surface

emissivity of 0.8. The heater is located in a large room whose wall are 35C. Find the
radiant heat transfer. Find the percentage of reduction in heat transfer if the heater is
completely covered by radiation shield ( = 0.05) and diameter 40 mm.

Given : Diameter of cylinder D1=30mm=0.030 mm

Temperature T1=700C + 273 = 973 K
Emissivity 1 = 0.8
Room temperature T2 = 35C + 273 = 308 K

Radiation Shield :

Emissivity 3 = 0.05
Diameter D3 = 40 mm = 0.040 m

Solution:

Case 1 : Heat transfer without shield:

Heat transfer by radiation general equation is

  T14  T2 4 
Q12 
1  1 1 1 2
 
A11 A1F12 A 2 2
Where A 1   DL    0.030  1  0.094 m
A1  0.094 m2
Since room is large A 2  
F12 = Shape factor

Small body enclosed by large body  F12 = 1

160
 [Refer HMT data book, Page No.73]
5.67  108 (973)4  (308)4 
(1)  Q12 
1  0.8 1  0.5
 0
0.094  0.8 0.094  1
 1 2 
Since A 12  , A   0 
 2 2 

Heat transfer without shield

Q12  3783.2 W ........(2)

Case 2: Heat transfer with shield:

Heat transfer between heater (1) and radiation shield (3) is given by

  T14  T3 4 
Q13 
1  1 1 1 3
 
A11 A1F13 A 3 3
  T14  T2 4 
Q12 
1  1 1 1 2
 
A11 A1F12 A 2 2
Where A 3   D3L    0.040  1
A 3  0.094 m2

Shape factor for concentric long cylinder F13 = 1

[Refer HMT data book, Page No. 73]

5.67  10 8 (973)4  T3 4 
(1)  Q13 
1  0.8 1 1  0.5
 +
0.094  0.8 0.094  1 0.125  0.05
Q13  3.43  1010 (973)4  T3 4  ........(3)

Heat exchange between radiation shield (3) and Room (2) is given by

 T3 4  T24 
Q32 
1 3 1 1 2
 
A 3 3 A 3F32 A 2 2

Since room is large, A2 = 

161
 1 2
 0
A 2 2
Shape factor for small body enclosed by large body
F32 = 1
[Refer HMT data book, Page No.73]

5.67  108  T3 4  (308)4 

 Q32 
1  0.05 1
 +0
0.125  0.5 0.125  1
Q32  3.54  1010 T3 4  (308)4  ........(4)

 3.43  10-10 (973)4  T3 4   3.54  10 10 T3 4  (308)4 

 307.4 - 3.43  1010 T3 4  3.54  10 10 T3 4  3.18
310.58= 6.97  10 -10T3 4
 T3  817 K

Substitute T3 value in (3) or (4).

Heat transfer with radiation shield

Q13  3.43  10 10 (973)4  (817)4 

Q13  154.6 W
Re duction heat 
 Q without shield  Q with shield
loss due to 
Q without shield
radiation shield 
Q12  Q13

Q12
3783.2  154.6
  95.9%
3783.2

26. A gas is enclosed in a body at a temperature of 727C. The mean beam length of the
gas body is 3 m. The partial pressure of water vapour is 0.2 atm and the total pressure is
2 atm. Calculate the emissivity of water vapour.

Given : Temperature T = 727C + 273 = 1000K

Mean beam length Lm = 3m
Partial pressure of water vapour PH2  0.2 atm.
0

Total pressure P = 2 atm.

To find :Emissivity of water vapour (H2 )

o

162
Solution: PH2o  L m  0.2  3
PH2oLm  0.6 m atm

From HMT data book, Page No.92, we can find emissivity of H 2o.

From graph,

Emissivity of H2o = 0.3

 H2o  0.3

To find correction factor for H20:

PH2 0  P 0.2  2
  1.1
2 2
PH2 0  P
 1.1, PH2 0 Lm  0.6
2

From HMT data book, Page No.94, we can find correction factor for H2o

PH2O  P

2

From graph,

Correction factor for H2o = 1.36

C H2 o  1.36 ...........(2)

So, Emissivity of H2o,  H2 0  0.3  1.36

 H 0  0.408
2

27. A gas mixture contains 20% CO2 and 10% H2o by volume. The total pressure is 2
atm. The temperature of the gas is 927C. The mean beam length is 0.3 m. Calculate the
emissivity of the mixture.

Given :Partial pressure of CO2, PCO2 = 20% = 0.20 atm

Partial pressure of H2o, PH2 0 = 10% = 0.10 atm.
Total pressure P = 2 atm
Temperature T = 927C + 273
= 1200 K
Mean beam length Lm = 0.3 m

To find: Emissivity of mixture (mix).

163
Solution : To find emissivity of CO2
PCO2  Lm  0.2  0.3
PCO2  Lm  0.06 m - atm

From HMT data book, Page No.90, we can find emissivity of CO 2.

From graph, Emissivity of CO2 = 0.09

 CO  0.09
2

To find correction factor for CO2

Total pressure, P = 2 atm

PCO2 L m = 0.06 m - atm.
From HMT data book, Page No.91, we can find correction factor for CO2

From graph, correction factor for CO2 is 1.25

CCO2  1.25
 CO  CCO  0.09  1.25
2 2

 CO  CCO  0.1125
2 2

To find emissivity of H2o :

PH2o  Lm  0.1 0.3
PH2oLm  0.03 m - atm

From HMT data book, Page No.92, we can find emissivity of H2o.

From graph Emissivity of H2o = 0.048

 H o  0.048
2

To find correction factor for H2o :

164
 PH2o  P 0.1  2
  1.05
2 2
PH2o  P
 1.05,
2
PH2o Lm  0.03 m - atm

From HMT data book, Page No.92 we can find emission of H20

From graph,

Correction factor for H2o = 1.39

CH2O  1.39
 H O  CH O  0.048  1.39
2 2

H O  CH O  0.066
2 2

Correction factor for mixture of CO2 and H2O:

PH2o 0.1
  1.05
PH2o  PCO2 0.1  0.2
PH2o
 0.333
PH2o  PCO2
PCO2  Lm  PH2O  Lm  0.06  0.03
PCO2  Lm  PH2O  Lm  0.09

From HMT data book, Page No.95, we can find correction factor for mixture of CO2 and
H2o.

From graph,   0.002

Total emissivity of gascous mixture

 max   co2 CCO2  H2O CH2O 
 max  0.1125  0.066  0.002
[From equation (1), (2) and (3)]
 max  0.1765

28. A furnace of 25 m2 area and 12 m2 volume is maintained at a temperature of 925C

165
over is entire volume. The total pressure of the combustion gases is 3 atm, the partial
pressure of water vapour is 0.1 atm and that of CO2 is 0.25 atm.
Calculate the emissivity of the gaseous mixture.

Given : Area A = 25 m2
Volume V = 12 m3
Temperature T = 925 + 273
= 1198 K
Total pressure P = 3 atm

Partial pressure of water vapour, PH2O = 0.1 atm.

Partial pressure of CO2 PCO2  0.25 atm.

To find: Emissivity of mixture ( mix ).

Solution : We know Mean beam length for gaseous mixture.
V
Lm  3.6 
A
12
= 3.6 
25
Lm  1.72 m

To find emissivity of CO2

PCO2  Lm  0.25  1.72
PCO2  Lm  0.43 m-atm.

From HMT data book, Page No.90, we can find emissivity of CO 2.

 CO  CCO  0.18
2 2

From graph,
Emissivity of CO2 = 0.15
 CO2  0.15
To find correction factor for CO2:

Total pressure P = 3 atm.

PCO2 L m  0.43 m-atm

From HMT data book, Page No.91, we can find correction factor for CO 2.

From graph, we find CCO2  1.2

CCO2  1.2

166
  CO2  CCO2  0.15  1.72 .....(1)

To find emissivity of H2O:

PH2O  L m  0.1 1.72

PH2O  L m  0.172

From HMT data book, Page No.92, we can find emissivity of H2O.

From graph,
Emissivity of H2O = 0.15
 H2O  0.15

To find correction factor for H2O:

PH2O  P 0.1  3
  1.55
2 2

PH2O  P
 1.55,PH2O Lm  0.172.
2

From HMT data book, Page No.94, we can find correction factor for H2O.
PCO2 L m  PH2O L m  0.602

From graph, we find

CH2 O  1.58

CH2O  1.58
  H2O  CH2O  0.15  1.58
 H O  CH O  0.237 ........(2)
2 2

Correction Factor for mixture of CO2 and H2O:

PH2O 0.1
  0.285
PH2O  PCO2 0.1  0.25

167
 PH2O
 0.285
PH2O  PCO2
PCO2  Lm  PH2O  Lm  0.25  1.72  0.1 1.72
= 0.602.
From HMT data book, Page No.95 we can find correction factor for mixture of CO 2
2
and H O

From graph, we find  = 0.045.

   0.045 ..........(3)

Total emissivity of the gaseous mixture is

 mix   CO2 CCO2  H2O CH2O 
 mix  0.18  0.237  0.045
[From equation (1), (2) and (3)]
 mix  0.372

168
 Heat Exchangers

1. What is heat exchanger?

A heat exchanger is defined as an equipment which transfers the heat from a hot fluid
to a cold fluid.
2. What are the types of heat exchangers?
The types of heat exchangers are as follows
1. Direct contact heat exchangers
2. Indirect contact heat exchangers
3. Surface heat exchangers
4. Parallel flow heat exchangers
5. Counter flow heat exchangers
6. Cross flow heat exchangers
7. Shell and tube heat exchangers
8. Compact heat exchangers.

3. What is meant by Direct heat exchanger (or) open heat exchanger?

In direct contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place by direct mixing of hot
and cold fluids.

4. What is meant by Indirect contact heat exchanger?

In this type of heat exchangers, the transfer of heat between two fluids could be
carried out by transmission through a wall which separates the two fluids.

5. What is meant by Regenerators?

In this type of heat exchangers, hot and cold fluids flow alternately through the same
space.
Examples: IC engines, gas turbines.
6. What is meant by Recupcradors (or) surface heat exchangers?

This is the most common type of heat exchangers in which the hot and cold fluid do
not come into direct contact with each other but are separated by a tube wall or a surface.

7. What is meant by parallel flow heat exchanger?

In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in the same direction.

8. What is meant by counter flow heat exchanger?

In this type of heat exchanger hot and cold fluids move in parallel but opposite
directions.

169
9. What is meant by cross flow heat exchanger?

In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move at right angles to each other.

10. What is meant by shell and tube heat exchanger?

In this type of heat exchanger, one of the fluids move through a bundle of tubes
enclosed by a shell. The other fluid is forced through the shell and it moves over the outside
surface of the tubes.

11. What is meant by compact heat exchangers? [Nov 1996 MU]

There are many special purpose heat exchangers called compact heat exchangers.
They are generally employed when convective heat transfer coefficient associated with one of
the fluids is much smaller than that associated with the other fluid.

12. What is meant by LMTD?

We know that the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids in the heat
exchanger varies from point in addition various modes of heat transfer are involved.
Therefore based on concept of appropriate mean temperature difference, also called
logarithmic mean temperature difference, also called logarithmic mean temperature
difference, the total heat transfer rate in the heat exchanger is expressed as
Q = U A (T)m
Where
U – Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
A – Area m2
(T)m – Logarithmic mean temperature difference.

13. What is meant by Fouling factor?

We know the surfaces of a heat exchangers do not remain clean after it has been in
use for some time. The surfaces become fouled with scaling or deposits. The effect of these
deposits the value of overall heat transfer coefficient. This effect is taken care of by
introducing an additional thermal resistance called the fouling resistance.

14. What is meant by effectiveness?

The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the
maximum possible heat transfer.

Actual heat transfer

Effectiveness  
Maximum possible heat transfer
Q
=
Q max

170
1.A condenser is to designed to condense 600 kg/h of dry saturated steam at a pressure
of 0.12 bar. A square array of 400 tubes, each of 8 mm diameter is to be used. The tube
surface is maintained at 30C. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient and the length of
each tube.

Given :
600
m  600 kg/h = kg / s  0.166 kg/s
3600
m = 0.166 kg/s
Pressure P – 0.12 bar
No. of tubes = 400
Diameter D = 8mm = 8  10 -3m
Surface temperature Tw  30C

Solution

Properties of steam at 0.12 bar

From R.S. Khurmi steam table Page No.7
Tsat  49.45C
hfg  2384.3 kj/kg
hfg = 2384.9  103 j / kg
We know

Tw  Tsat
Film temperature Tf 
2
30  49.45

2
Tf  39.72C  40C

Properties of saturated water at 40C

From HMT data book Page No.13
 - 995 kg/m3

 = .657  10-6 m2 / s

k  628.7  10 3 W/mk

 =   = 995  0.657  10 -6

 = 653.7  10-6 Ns/m2

with 400 tubes a 20  20 tube of square array could be formed

i.e. N  400  20

171
N  20

For horizontal bank of tubes heat transfer coefficient.

0.25
 K 3  2g hfg 
h = 0.728  
  D (Tsat  Tw ) 

From HMT data book Page No.150

0.25
 (628  10-3 )3  (995)2  9.81 2384.3  103 
h = 0.728  6 3 
 653.7  10  20  8  10  (49.45  30) 
h = 5304.75 W/m2K

We know

Heat transfer

Q  hA(Tsat  Tw )
No. of tubes = 400
Q = 400  h    D  L  (Tsat  Tw )
Q  400  5304.75    8  10 3  1 (49.45-30)
Q = 1.05  10 6  L........1

We know
Q  m  hfg
= 0.166  2384.3  103
Q = 0.3957  106 W
= 0.3957  10 6  1.05  10 6 L
L  0.37 m

Problems on Parallel flow and Counter flow heat exchangers

From HMT data book Page No.135

Formulae used
1. Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m

Where
U – Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
A – Area, m2

(T)m – Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference. LMTD

For parallel flow

172
 (T1  t1 )  (T2  t 2 )
( T)m 
T t 
In  1 1 
 T2  t 2 

In Counter flow
(T  t )  (T2  t 2 )
( T)m  1 1
T t 
In  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
Where

T1 – Entry temperature of hot fluid C

T2 – Exit temperature of hot fluid C
T1 – Entry temperature of cold fluid C
T2 – Exit temperature of cold fluid C
2. Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid
Qh = Q c

mh Cph (T1  T2 )  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )

Mh – Mass flow rate of hot fluid, kg/s
Mc – Mass flow rate of cold fluid kg/s
Cph – Specific heat of hot fluid J/kg K
Cpc – Specific heat of cold fluid J/kg L

3. Surface area of tube

A = D1 L
Where D1 Inner din

4. Q = m  hfg
Where hfg – Enthalpy of evaporation j/kg K

5. Mass flow rate

m =  AC

2. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, oil is cooled from 85C to 55C by
water entering at 25C. The mass flow rate of oil is 9,800 kg/h and specific heat of oil is
2000 j/kg K. the mass flow rate of water is 8,000 kg/h and specific heat of water is 4180
j/kg K. Determine the heat exchanger area and heat transfer rate for an overall heat
transfer coefficient of 280 W/m2 K.

Given:

Hot fluid – oil Cold fluid – water

T1,T2 t1, t2

173
Entry temperature of oil T1 = 85C
Exit temperature of oil T2 = 55C
Entry temperature of water t1 = 25C
Mass flow rate of oil (Hot fluid) mh = 9,800 kg/h
9,800
kg / s
3600
mh  2.72 kg/s

Specific heat of oil Cph = 2000 j/kg K

Mass flow of water (Cold fluid mc = 8,000 kg/h)

8,000
kg / s
3600
me  2.22 kg / s

Specific heat of water Cpc – 4180 j/kg K

Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 280 W/m2K

To find
1. Heat exchanger area (A)
2. Heat transfer rate (Q)

Solution
We know that

Heat lost by oil Hot fluid = Heat gained by water cold fluid
Qh = Qc
mhCph (T1  T2 )  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
2.72  2000 (85-55)=2.22  4180  (t 2  25)
163.2  10 3  9279.6 t 2  231.9  103
t 2  42.5C
Exit temperature of water t 2  42.5C

Heat transfer Q =mc Cpc (t 2  t1 ) (or) mhCph (T1  T2 )

Q  2.22  4180  (42.5  25)
Q  162  103 W
Q  UA (T)m ........1
From HMT data book Page No.154

For counter flow

174
 (T1  t1 ) - (T2  t 2 )
( T)m 
T t 
In  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
From HMT data book Page No.154
(85  42.5) - (55  25)
( T)m 
 85  42.5 
In 
 55  25 
( T)m  35.8C

Substitute (T)m U and Q values in Equation (1)

(1)  Q = UA (T)m
 162  103  280  A  35.8
 A = 16.16 m2

3. Water flows at the rate of 65 kg/min through a double pipe counter flow heat
exchanger. Water is heated from 50C to 75C by an oil flowing through the tube. The
specific heat of the oil is 1.780 kj/kg K. The oil enters at 115C and leaves at 70C. The
overall heat transfer coefficient is 340 W/m2 K. Calculate the following

1. Heat exchanger area

2. Rate of heat transfer

Given :

Hot fluid – oil Cold fluid – water

T1, T2 t1, t2

Mass flow rate of water cold fluid mc = 65 kg/min

65
kg / s
60
mc  1.08 kg/s

Entry temperature of water t1 = 50C

Exit temperature of water t2 = 75C
Specific heat of oil (Hot fluid) Cph = 1.780 kj/kg K
= 1.780  103 j/kg K

Entry temperature of oil T1 = 115C

Exit temperature of oil T2 = 70C
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 340 W/m2/K

To find

175
 1. Heat exchanger area (A)
2. Heat transfer rate (Q)

Solution

We know

Heat transfer Q = mc Cpc (t 2  t1 ) (or)

mhCph (T1  T2 )
Q  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
Q  1.08  4186  (75  50)
 Specific heat of water Cph  4186 j/kg K

Q = 113  103 W

We know

Heat transfer Q = U  A (T)m

From HMT data book Page No., 154

Where

(T)m – Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference. LMTD

For Counter flow

(T  t )  (T2  t 2 )
( T)m  1 1
T t 
In  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
From HMT data book Page No.154
(115  75)  (70  50)
(T)m 
115  75 
In 
 70  50 
( T)m  28.8C

Substitute (T)m Q and U values in Equation (1)

(1)  Q =UA (T)m

 113  103  340  A  28.8
 A = 11.54 m2

4. In a double pipe heat exchanger hot fluid with a specific heat of 2300 j/kg K enters at

176
380C and leaves at 300C. cold fluid enters at 25C and leaves at 210C. Calculate the
heat exchanger area required for

1. Parallel flow 2. Counter flow

Take overall heat transfer coefficient is 750 w/m2 K and mass flow rate of hot fluid is 1
kg/s.

Given :

Specific heat of hot fluid Cph = 2300 j/kg K

Entry temperature of hot fluid T1 = 380C
Exit temperature of hot fluid T2 = 300C
Entry temperature of cold fluid t1 = 25C
Exit temperature of cold fluid t2 = 210C
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 750 W/m2K
Mass flow rate of fluid mh = 1 kg/s

Solution

Case (i)

For parallel flow

(T1  t1 )  (T2  t 2 )
( T)m 
T t 
In  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
From HMT data book Page No.154
(380  25)  (300  210)
(T)m 
 380  25 
In 
 300  210 
( T)m  193.1C

Heat transfer Q = mcCpc (t 2  t1 ) (or)

mhCph (T1  T2 )
Q  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
= 1 2300  380  300
Q = 184  103 W
From HMT data book Page No.154
We know that
Q  U  A ( T)m
Heat transfer 184  103  750  A  193.1

177
 Area for parallel flow A = 1.27 m2

Case (ii)

For counter flow

(T1  t 2 )  (T2  t1 )
( T)m 
T  t 
In  1 2 
 T2  t1 
From HMT data book Page No.154
(380  210)  (300  25)
(T)m 
 380  210 
In 
 300  25 
( T)m  218.3C

We know that,
Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m
 184  103  750  A  218.3
Area for counter flow A = 1.12 m2

5. In a counter flow single pass heat exchanger is used to cool the engine oil from 150C
with water available at 23c as the cooling medium. The specific heat of oil is 2125 J/kg
K. The flow rate of cooling water through the inner tube of 0.4 m diameter is 2.2 Kg/s.
the flow rate of oil through the outer tube of 0.75m diameter is 2.4 kg/s. If the value of
the overall heat transfer coefficient is 240 W/m2 how long must the heat exchanger be to
meet its cooling requirement?

Given :

Hot fluid oil Cold fluid water

T1, T2 (t1, t2)

Entry temperature of oil T1 = 150C

Exit temperature of oil T2 = 55
Entry temperature of water t1 = 23C
Specific heat of oil hot fluid Cph = 2125 J/Kg K
Inner Diameter D1 = 0.4 m
Flow rate of water cooling fluid mc = 2.2 kg/s
Outer diameter D2 = 0.75 m
Flow rate of oil Hot fluid mh = 2.4 kg/s
Over all heat transfer coefficient U= 240 W/m2K
Solution

We know

178
Heat lost by oil Hot fluid = Heat gained by water (cold fluid)
 Qh  Qc
 mhCph (T1  T2 )  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
 2.4  2125 (150 - 55) = 2.2  4186  (t 2  23)
[Specific heat of water Cpc = 4186 J/Kg K]

 434.5  103 = 9209.2 t 2 - 211  103

 t 2  75.6C
Exit temperature of water t 2  75.6C
We know

Heat transfer Q = mc Cpc (t2 – t1) (or)

MhCph (T1 – T2)

 Q = 2.2  4186  (75.6 - 53)

Q = 484.4  103 W
We know
Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m …………(1)

[From HMT data book Page No.154]

where

(T)m – Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD).

For Counter flow,

(T  t )  (T2  t1 )
( T)m  1 2
T  t 
In  1 2 
 T2  t1 

From HMT data book Page No.154

179
 (150  75.6)  (55  23)
( T)m 
 150  75.6 
In 
 55  23 
( T)m  50C
Substitute (T)m U and Q values in equation 1
Q = U  A (T)m
484.4  103  240  A  50.2
A  40.20 m2
We know
Area A =   D1  L
40.20    0.4  L
L  31.9 m

6. Saturated steam at 126C is condensing on the outer tube surface of a single pass heat
exchanger. The heat exchanger heats 1050 kg/h of water from 20C to 95C. The overall
heat transfer coefficient is 1800 W/m2K. Calculate the following.
1. Area of heat exchanger
2. Rate of condensation of steam
Take hfg = 2185 kj/kg

Given :

Hot fluid – steam Cold fluid – water

T1, T2 t1, t2

Saturated steam temperature T1 = T2 = 126C

Mass flow rate of water mc = 1050 kg/h

1050 kg

3600 s
mc  0.29 kg/s

Entry temperature of water t1 = 20C

Exit temperature of water t2 = 95C
Over all transfer coefficient U = 1800 W/m2K
Enthalpy of evaporation hfg = 2185 kg/jg
= 2185  103 j/kg
Solution

We know
Heat transfer

180
Q  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
Q  0.29  4186  (95  20)
[  Specific heat of water Cpc  4186 J/kg K]

Q = 91 103 W

We know
Heat transfer
Q  mh  hfg
91 103  mh  2185  103

Rate of condensation of steam mh = 0.0416 kg/s

We know that

Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m ………….1

From HMT data book Page No.154
Where
( T)m  Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference LMTD
For parallel flow

(T)m 
(T1  t1 )  (T2  t 2 )
T t 
In  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
(126 - 20) - (126-95)
=
126-20 
In 
126-95 
(T)m  61C
Substitute (T)m Q, U values in equation (1)
(1)  q = UA (T)m
 91 103  1800  A  61
Area A = 0.828 m2

7. An oil cooler of the form of tubular heat exchanger cools oil from a temperature of
90C to 35C by a large pool of stagnant water assumed constant temperature of 28C.
The tube length is 32 m and diameter is 28 mm. The specific heat and specific gravity of
the oil are 2.45 kj/kg K and 0.8 respectively. The velocity of the oil is 62 cm/s. Calculate
the over all heat transfer coefficient.

Given :

Hot fluid – Oil Cold fluid – Water

T1, T2 t1, t2

181
Entry temperature of oil T1 = 90C
Exit temperature of oil T2 = 35C
Entry and Exit temperature of water t1=t2=28C
Tube length L = 32 m
Diameter D = 28 mm = 0.028 m
Specific heat of oil Cph = 2.45 kj/kg/K
Cph = 2.45  103 j/kg K
Specific gravity of oil = 0.8
Velocity of oil C = 62 cm/s = 0.62 m/s.

To find

We know
Density of oil
Specific gravity of oil =
Density of water
Q
=
w
0
0.8 =
1000
Density of oil  0 = 800 kg/m3

Mass flow rate of oil

mh   0  A  C

 800  (D2 )  0.62
4

 800  (0.028)2  0.62
4
mh  0.305 kg/s

We know
Heat transfer
Q  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
0.305  2.45  103  90  35 
Q = 41 103 W

We know
Heat transfer Q = U A (T)m ………..1
(From HMT data book Page No.154)
Where
(T)m – Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference LMTD.
For parallel flow

182
( T)m 
(T1  t1 )  (T2  t 2 )
T t 
In  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
From HMT data book Page No.154
(90-28)-(35 -28)
=
 90-28 
In 
 35-28 
(T)m  25.2C

Substitute (T)m Q value in equation 1

(1)  q = U A (T)m
41 103  U   DL  ( T)m
41 103  U    0.028  32  25.2
U = 577.9
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 577.9 W/m2K

Result

U = 577.9 W/m2K

Problems on cross flow heat exchangers (or) shell and tube heat exchangers.
From HMT data book Page No.154

Formulae used

1. Q = FU A (T)m (Counter Flow)

Where

F – Correction factor – From data book

U – Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
(T)m – Logarithmic mean temperature difference

For counter flow

(T  t )  (T2  t1 )
( T)m  1 2
T  t 
In  1 2 
 T2  t1 
where
T1 – Entry temperature of hot fluid C
T2 – Exit temperature of hot fluid C
T1 – Entry temperature of cold fluid C

183
T2 – Exit temperature of cold fluid C

2. Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid

Qh = Qc
 mhCph  T1  T2   mc Cph (t 2  t1 )

8. In a cross heat exchangers both fluids unmixed hot fluid with a specific heat of 2300
J/kg K enters at 380C and leaves at 300C cold fluids enters at 25C and leaves at
210C. Calculate the required surface of heat exchanger. Take overall heat transfer
coefficient is 750 W/m2 K. Mass flow rate of hot fluid is 1 kg/s

Given :

Specific heat of hot fluid Cph = 23000 J/kg K

Entry temperature of hot fluid T1 = 380C
Exit temperature of heat fluid T2 = 300C
Entry temperature of cold fluid t1 = 25C
Exit temperature of cold fluid t2 = 210C
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 750 W/m2K
Mass flow rate of hot fluid mh = 1 kg/s

To find

Heat exchanger area (A)

Solution:

This is cross flow both fluids unmixed type heat exchanger. For cross flow heat exchanger.
Q = FU A (T)m (Counter flow)……….1
From HMT data book Page No.154

Where
F – correction factor

(T)m – Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference for Counter Flow

For Counter flow

( T)m 
(T1  t 2 )  (T2  t1 )
T  t 
In  1 2 
 T2  t1 

184
 (380-210)-(300 -25)
=
 380-210 
In 
 300-25 
(T)m  218.3C

We know
Heat transfer
 Q = mhCph (T1  T2 )
Q  1 1200 (380-300)
Q = 184  103 W

To find correction factor E refer HMT data book Page No.164.

Single pass cross flow heat exchanger – Both fluids unmixed.

From graph

t 2  t1 210  25
Xaxis Value P =   0.52
T1  t1 380  25
T1  T2 380  300
Curve value = R=   0.432
t 2  t1 210  25
Xaxis Value is 0.52 curve

Value is 0.432 corresponding Yaxis value is 0.97

i.e. F = 0.07

Substitute Q, F (T)m and U value in Equation (1)

(1)  Q = FU A (T)m
184  103  0.97  750  A  218.3
A  1.15 m2

9. In a refrigerating plant water is cooled from 20C to 7C by brine solution entering at
-2C and leaving at 3C. The design heat load is 5500 W and the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 800 W/m2 K. What area required when using a shell and tube heat
exchanger with the water making one shell pass and the brine making two tube passes.

Given:

Hot fluid – Water Cold fluid – brine solution

185
 (T1, T2) (t1, t2)

Entry temperature of water T1 = 20C

Exit temperature of water T2 = 7C
Entry temperature of brine solution t 1 = -2C
Exit temperature of brine solution t2 = 3C
Heat load Q = 5500 W
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 8000 W/m2 K

To find
Area required A

Solution

Shell and tube heat exchanger – one shell pass and two tube passes
For shell and tube heat exchanger or cross heat exchanger.
Q = F U A (T)m (Counter flow)
(From HMT data book Page No.154)
Where
F – Correction factor
(T)m – Logarithmic mean temperature difference for counter flow
For counter flow
(T  t )  (T2  t1 )
( T)m  1 2
T  t 
In  1 2 
 T2  t1 
(20-3)-(7 +2)
=
 20-3 
In 
 7+2 
(T)m  12.57C
To find correction factor F refer HMT data book Page No.161
One shell pass and two tube passes

From graph
t 2  t1 32 5
Xaxis Value P =  
T1  t1 20  2 22
P  0.22
T1  T2 20  7 13
Curve value = R=  
t 2  t1 32 5
R = 2.6

Xaxis value is 0.22 curve value is 2.6 corresponding Yaxis value is 0.94

Substitute (T)m Q, U and F value is Equation (1)

186
 1  Q  F U A (T)m
5500  0.94  800  A  12.57
A  0.58 m2

10. Saturated steam at 120C is condensing in shell and tube heat exchanger. The
cooling water enters the tuber at 25C and leaves at 80C. Calculate the logarithmic
meant temperature difference if the arrangement is

(a) Counter Flow (b) Parallel Flow (c) Cross Flow

Given :

Hot fluid steam Cold fluid water

(T1, T2) (t1, t2)

Saturated steam temperature T1 = T2 = 120C

Entry temperature of water t1 = 25C
Exit temperature of water t2 = 80C

To find
(T)m for parallel flow counter flow and cross flow

Solution:

Case (i)
For parallel flow [From HMT data book Page No.154]

(T1  t1 )  (T2  t 2 )
( T)m 
T t 
In  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
(120-25)-(120-80)
=
 120-25 
In 
 120-80 
(T)m for parallel flow = 63.5C
Case (ii)

For Counter Flow

187
 (T1  t 2 )  (T2  t1 )
( T)m 
T  t 
In  1 2 
 T2  t1 
(120-80)-(120-25)
=
 120-80 
In 
 120-25 
(T)m for Counter flow = 63.5C

Case (iii)
For cross flow
(T)m = F (T)m for Counter flow
( T)m  F  63.5 ...........2

Where
F = Correction factor
Refer HMT data book Page No.163

Correction factor for single pass cross flow heat exchanger one fluid mixed other unmixed.

t 2  t1 80  25
Xaxis Value P = 
T1  t1 120  25
P  0.578
T1  T2 120  120
Curve value = R= 
t 2  t1 80  25
R=0

Xaxis value is 0.578 curve value is 0

So corresponding Yaxis value is 1

Correction Faction F = 1
(3)  ( T)m  F  63.5C  1 63.5
(T)m for cross flow = 63.5 .........3

From (1) (2) and (4) we came to know when one of the fluids in a heat exchanger changes
phase, the logarithmic mean temperature difference and rate of heat transfer will remain same
for parallel flow counter flow and cross flow.

Solved problems – NTU method

Note NTU method is used to determine the inlet or exit temperatures of heat exchanger.

11. A parallel flow heat exchanger is used to cool. 4.2 kg/min of hot liquid of specific

188
heat 3.5 kj/kg K at 130C. A cooling water of specific heat 4.18 kj/kg K is used for
cooling purpose at a temperature of 15C. The mass flow rate of cooling water is 17
kg/min calculate the following.

1. Outlet temperature of liquid

2. Outlet temperature of water
3. Effectiveness of heat exchanger

Take care,

Overall heat transfer coefficient is 1100 W/m2 K.

Heat exchanger area is 0.30 m2

Given :

Mass flow rate of hot liquid mh = 4.2 kg/min

mh = 0.07 kg/s
specific heat of hot liquid Cph = 3.5 kj/kg K

Cph  3.5  103 j / kg K

Inlet temperature of hot liquid T1 = 130C
Specific heat of water Cph = 4.18 kj/kg K
Cph = 4.18  103 j/kg K
Inlet temperature of cooling water t1 = 15C
Mass flow rate of cooling water mc = 17 kg/min
mc  0.28 kg/s

Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 1100 w/m2K

Area A = 030 m2

To find

1. Outlet temperature of liquid (T2)

2. Outlet temperature of water (t2)
3. Effectiveness of heat exchanger ()

Solution:

Capacity rate of hot liquid C  m h  C ph

0.07  3.5  103
C  245 W/K .......1

189
Capacity rate of liquid C = mh  Cph
= 0.28  4.18  103
C = 1170.4 W/K ..........2
From (1) and (2)
Cmin = 245 w/k
Cmax  1170.4 w/k
Cmin 245
  0.209
Cmax 1170.4
Cmin
 0.209..........3
Cmax
UA
Number of transfer units NTU =
Cmin
From HMT data book Page No.155

1100  0.30
NTU 
245
NTU  1.34 .........4

To find effectiveness  refer HMT data book Page No.165

Parallel Flow heat exchanger

From graph
Xaxis  NTU  1.34
Cmin
Curve   0.209
Cmax
Corresponding Yaxis value is 64%
i.e.  = 0.64

We know

Maximum possible heat transfer

Qmax  Cmin (T1  t1 )

= 245 (130-15)
Qmax  28,175 W

Actual heat transfer rate

Q    Qmax
= 0.64  28.175
Q = 18,032 W

190
We know that

Heat transfer

Q  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
 18,032 = 0.28  4.18  103  t 2  15 
 18,032 = 1170.4 t 2  17556
 t 2  30.40C
Outlet temperature of water t 2  30.40C

We know that
Heat transfer
Q  mc Cpc (T1  T2 )
 18,032 = 0.07  3.5  103 130  T2 
 18,032 = 31850  245 T2
 T2  56.4C
Outlet temperature of liquid T2  56.4C

12. In a counter flow heat exchanger water at 20C flowing at the rate of 1200 kg/h it is
heated by oil of specific heat 2100 J/kg K flowing at the rate of 520 kg/h at inlet
temperature of 95C. Determine the following.

1. Total heat transfer

2. Outlet temperature of water
3. Outlet temperature of oil
Take

Overall heat transfer coefficient is 1000 W/m2 K. Heat exchanger area is 1m2

Given:

Cold fluid – Water Hot fluid – Oil

Inlet temperature of water t1 = 20C
Mass flow rate of water mc = 1200 kg/h
mc = 0.33 kg/s
Specific heat of oil Cph = 2100 J/kg K
Mass flow rate of oil = mh = 520 kg/h
520
 kg / s
3600
mh  0.144 kg / s

191
Inter temperature of oil T1 = 95C
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 1000 W/m2K

Heat exchanger area A = 1m2

To find
1. Total heat transfer (Q)
2. Outlet temperature of water (T2)
3. Outlet temperature of oil (t2)

Solution

Capacity rate of oil C  m h  C ph

 0.144  2100
C = 302.4 W /K .......1

Capacity rate of water

C  mh  Cph
= 0.33  4186
C = 1381.3 W/K ........2

Specific heat of water Cpc = 4186 J/kg K

From Equation (1) and (2)

Cmin  302.4 W/K
Cmax = 1381.3 W/K
Cmin 302.4
=  0.218
Cmax 1381.3

Cmin
 0.218 ......3
Cmax
UA
Number of transfer units NTU =
Cmin
From HMT data book Page No.155
100  1
302.4
NTU -3.3 ........4

To find effectiveness  refer HMT data book Page No.166

(Counter Flow heat exchanger)

192
From graph

Xaxis  NTU = 3.3

Cmin
Curve   0.218
Cmax
Corresponding Yaxis value is 0.95
i.e.  = 0.095

We know

Maximum possible heat transfer

Qmax  Cmin  T1  t1 
= 302.4 (95-20)
Qmax  22,680 W

We know

Actual heat transfer rate

Q    Qmax
= 0.925  22,680
Q = 21,546 W
We know that
Heat transfer
Q  mc Cpc  t 2  t1 
21,546  0.33  4186 (t 2  20)
 Cpc = 4186 J/kg K
21,546 - 1381.38 t 2  27.627.6
t 2  35.5C
Outlet temperature of water t 2  35.5C

We know that
Heat transfer

193
Q  mc Cpc  T1  T2 
21,546  0.144  2100 (95  T2 )
21,546 = 28,728 - 3024 t 2
T2  23.75C
Outlet temperature of oil T2  23.75C

13. In a cross flow both fluids unmixed heat exchanger, water at 6C flowing at the rate
of 1.25 kg/s. It is used to cool 1.2 kg/s of air that is initially at a temperature of 50C.
Calculate the following.

1. Exit temperature of air

2. Exit temperature of water
Assume overall heat transfer coefficient is 130 W/m2K and area is 23 m2.

Given :
Cold fluid – water Hot fluid – air
Inlet temperature of water t1 = 6C
Mss flow rate of water mc = 1.25 kg/s
Mass flow rate of air mh = 1.2 kg/s
Initial temperature of air T1 = 50C
Overall heat transfer coefficient U = 130 W/m2 K
Surface area A = 23 m2

To find
1. Exit temperature of air (T2)
2. Exit temperature of water (t2)

Solution

We know
Specific heat of water Cpc = 4186 J/kg K
Specific heat of air Cph = 1010 J/kg K (constant)
We know
Capacity rate of water
C  mc  Cpc
= 1.25  4186
C = 5232.5 W.K ............1
Capacity rate of air
C  mh  Cpc
= 1.2  1010
C = 1212 W.K ............2
From Equation (1) and (2) we know

194
Cmin  1212 W / K
Cmax = 5232.5 W/K
Cmin 1212
  0.23
Cmax 5232.5
Cmin
 0.23 .......3
Cmax
UA
Number of transfer units NTU =
Cmin
130  23
=
1212
NTU = 2.46 ...........4

(To find effectiveness  refer HMT data book Page No.169)

(cross flow both fluids unmixed)

From graph
Xaxis  NTU  2.46
Cmin
Curve   0.23
Cmax
Corresponding Yaxis valueis 0.85
i.e.  = 0.85

Maximum heat transfer

Qmax  Cmin (T1  t1 )

= 1212 (50-6)
Qmax  53,328 W

Actual heat transfer rate

Q    Qmax
= 0.85  53,328
Q = 45,328 W

195
We know
Heat transfer
Q  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
45,328  1.25  4186 (t 2  6)
45,328  5232.5 t 2  31,395
t 2  14.6C
Outlet temperature of water t 2  14.6C

we know
Heat transfer

Q = mhCph (T1  T2 )
45,328  1.2  1010 (50  T2 )
45,328  60,600  1212 T2
T2 = 12.6C
Outlet transfer of air T2  12.6C

******************

196