Filesystem bzip2 [opts] [filepattern] ·bzip2 Compression (better) cd [-]

[directory] ·Change directory - :Change to the previous directory you were in

chmod [opts] <mode> <filepattern> ·Change permissions
-R :Change permissions recursively chown [opts] <user>[.group] <file> ·Change
ownership
-R :Change ownership recursively cp [opts] <from> <to> ·Copy files and
directories -i :Interactive mode. Prompt before overwriting -p :Preserve file
permissions and ownership -R :Copy directories recursively df [opts] [device
name] ·Print filesystem usage info
-a :Show all filesystems -h :Human readable format/Quantify byte information
-i :Show inode usage info du [opts] [pattern] ·Show space usage on files and
dirs
-c :Produce a grand total for all arguments -h :Human readable
format/Quantify byte information -s :Summarize. Only show a total for each
argument find <path> [opts] ·Search for a file
Learning find, once and for all! Find all non-world readable html/htm files
and change their user ownership to fred using chmod: find / -type f –name
‘*.html’ -o -name '*.htm' -a
–perms –644 -exec chown fred {} \;
gzip [opts] <filepattern> ·Compress a file or files -1..9 : Set compression
level. 9=highest, 1=lowest -d :Decompress file. Same as the gunzip command -v
:List the statistics for a compressed file ln [opts] <tofile> <linkfile>
·Create a sym/hard link
-s :Create a symbolic link between files (alias name) -f :Force creation,
even if the link file exists ls [opts] [pattern] ·List file and directory
entries
-a :List all files including ones that start with '.' -d :List directories
themselves, not their contents -l :Long list. Shows permissions and modified
time -r :Recusively list files in directories -S :Sort output by file size -h
:Human readable format/Quantify byte information -X :Sort by filename
extension -1 :Print output files one per line --time=atime :Show last access
timestamp for file mkdir [opts] <dirname> ·Make a new directory
-p :Create parent directories if they don’t exist mv [-i] <frompattern>
<tofile> ·Move/Rename a file
-i :Interactive move (Prompt before moving files) rm [opts] <filepattern>
·Remove a file
-f :Force removal (Don’t ask if it’s ok to remove) -i :Interactive remove
(Ask before removing each file) -r :Recusively delete directories an their
contents shred [opts] <filepattern> ·Delete file data securely
-n :Number of pattern iterations to run (default 25) -u :Truncate and remove
the file after overwriting -z :Add a final overwrite with zeros to hide
shreding tar [opts] [tarfile] [pattern] ·Create an archive
c :Create mode. Create a tar archive x :Extract mode. Untar archive contents
t :List mode. List the contents of the archive f :Specify a tarfile to use v
:Verbose mode. Show files being added or untared z,j :De/compress. Send i/o
through gzip(z) or bzip2(j) touch [opts] <pattern> ·Update the timestamp on a
file
-t :Specify a timestamp to use instead of current time
Text Filtering / Mutative average [opts] [fileargs] ·Print the average of all
numbers encountered awk [opts] [exp] ·pattern scanning and processing
language
-F<fs> :Set the field separator to <fs> Ex: cat access_log | awk {‘print $1’}
(prints hostnames) Do a ‘man awk’ for more information and examples comm
[opts] [file1] [file2] ·Compare two sorted files
-1 :Suppress lines unique to left file
-2 :Suppress lines unique to right file
-3 :Supress lines unique to both files

csplit [opts] [file] [pattern] ·Split a file on context

-f prefix :Use prefix instead of xx in output filenames
-n <digits> :Use <digits> number of digits instead of 2
-z :Remove empty output files Ex: csplit mailspoolfile "/^From /" {*}

cut [opts] [filepattern] ·Remove sections from each line

-c range :Output only the characters in range Ex: cut –c 1-80 file (truncate
lines at 80 characters)

diff [opts] [file1] [file2] ·Differentiate two files

Ex: diff program-old.c program.c > program.patch echo [opts] [string] ·Print
a line of text
-e :Enable interpretation of backslashed sequences
-n :Don’t automatically insert a newline character fold [opts] [files] ·

Wrap each line to a specified width

-s :Break at spaces instead of in the middle of a word.
-w <WIDTH> :Use <WIDTH> columns rather than 80

grep [opts] [pattern] [file] ·Print lines matching pattern

-B <num> :Print <num> lines of leading context on matches
-C <num> :Print <num> lines of trailing context on matches
-E :Interpret pattern as an extended regular expression -i :Do case
insensitve matching
-l :Just print the files that match the pattern
-r :Read all files under each directory recursively -v :Print the lines that
don’t match pattern head [opts] [file] ·Print the first part of a file
-n num :Print the first num lines instead of the first 10

numsum [opts] [filepattern] ·Print the sum of a group of numbers

Ex: cat numbers.txt | numsum (Add up all numbers in a file) numgrep
</numpattern/> [filepattern] ·Print lines matching numpattern Ex: cat
numbers.txt | numgrep /2..100/ (Print numbers from 2 to 100) nl [opts] [file] ·Number

the lines of a file paste [opts] [files] ·

Merge lines of files horizontally patch [opts] [patchfile] ·
Patch a file using a diff file sed [expression] [file] ·Stream editor
Ex: cat file | sed ‘s/frompattern/topattern/’ > output
sort [opts] [file] ·Sort lines of text files
-n :Compare according to string numerical value
-r :Reverse the result of comparisons
split [opts] [file] ·Split a file into pieces
-l <num> :Put <num> lines per output file tail [opts] [file] ·Print the last
lines of a file
-f :Output appended data as the file grows -n <num> :Print last <num> lines
of instead of the last 10 tee [opts] [file] ·Send current output stream to
file -a :Append to the given file instead of overwriting tr [opts] <set1>
[set2] ·Translate char. from set1 to set2 Ex: cat index.html | tr A-Z a-z >
index-new.html uniq [opts] [input] [output] ·Remove duplicate lines
-c :Prefix lines with number of occurances -d :Only print duplicated lines -u
:Only print unique lines -w <n> :Check no more than <n> characters in lines
wc [opts] [file] ·Print the number of lines in files, etc.
-m :Print the character count -l :Print the line count -w :Print the word
count -L :Print the length of the longest line Network ifconfig [devicename]
[action] [options] ipchains [opts] ·Manip. ipchains firewall(kernel 2.2+)
iptables [opts] ·Manip. iptables firewall(kernel 2.4+)
-F: Flush current set of rules (Careful!) -L: List the current rules -n:
Display rules without doing DNS lookups (faster) mail [opts] [address] ·Send
mail from the command line
-s subject :Specify the subject as subject -c list :Send carbon copy to list
of users -b list :Send blind carbon copy to list of users Ex: echo “Meet me
at noon.” | mail –s “Reminder” –c
[email protected],[email protected] [email protected] netstat [opts] ·Print
network connections and info -a :Show both listening and non-listening
sockets -n :Do not attempt to resolve IP addresses -t :Only show tcp socket
connection table ping [opts] [host] ·Send ICMP packets to network hosts
-c count :Send count number of packets and then quit -i sec :Wait sec seconds
between sending packets route [opts] [target] ·Show/Manipulate IP routing
table
-n :Show numerical addresses instead of hostnames scp [opts]
[[host:]fromfile] [[host:]to] · Secure copy -C :Compresses the data that is
sent over the session -r :Recursively copy directories ssh [opts]
[[user@]host] [command] · Secure shell/login -C :Compresses the data that is
sent over the session sniffit [opts] ·Record TCP network traffic tcpdump
[opts] [expression] ·Dump traffic on a network
Some examples of how to use tcpdump
tcpdump host foo (To or from host 'foo') tcpdump not host foo (Not to or from
host foo) tcpdump port http (All to or from port 80) tcpdump ip and not net
localnet (non-local net.)
telnet [opts] [host] [port] ·Open TCP socket to a host -n <file> : Opens file
for recording trace information -x :Turns on encryption of the data stream if
possible traceroute [opts] [host] ·Show the route packets take
-n :Don’t do DNS lookups of the IP addresses wget [opts] [URL] ·Make a HTTP
request from the shell
-r :Recursive get the URL and all it’s links -k :Convert the non-relative
links to relative ones whois [opts] <arg[@server]> ·Query a whois database
Ex: whois domain.com
whois a.b.c.d (IPv4 address)
Bash Shell > ·Send STDOUT to a file. overwrite/create a file
Ex: ls –l > list-of-files.txt >> ·Send STDOUT to a file, appending to te end
of the file
Ex: ps aux > pslog.txt | ·Send the STDOUT from a command to the STDIN of
another
Ex: cat listofnames | sort 2> ·Send STDERR to a file, overwriting the
filename
Ex: startx 2> X-errorlog
Command pipelines in action (records all running apache processes and kills
last 10 in process table)
$ ps auxw | grep [a]pache | tee apache-allprocs.txt | grep ^apache |
awk {'print $2'} | tail -n 10 | xargs kill
alias ·Create a command alias in the shell
Ex: alias ls=’ls –la –-color=auto’ cd [-] [directory] ·Change the current
working directory
- :Change to the previous directory you were in clear ·Clear the terminal
display (also can use Ctrl-L)
env [opts] [command] ·Run command in modified environment
export [opts] [variable] ·Export an environment variable
Ex: export TERM=vt100 for ·Execute sequence of commands for a list of items
Ex: for i in *.mp3 ; do mpg123 $i ; done history ·Show the command history up
til now

nice [opts] [command] ·Set the OS process priority

Ex: nice 19 gzip access_log (lowest priority on Linux)
Ex: nice –20 kswapd (real time priority on Linux)
pwd ·Print out the current working directory range [opts] </numpattern/>
·Print a range of numbers for use in loop Ex: for i in `range /1..20/` ; do
mkdir $i ; done renice [opts] <arg> ·Change priority of a running process
-p <PID>: Specify a process id (<PID>) to “renice” Ex: bob 6319 ? S 0:20 gzip
bigfile.txt (output line from running ps auxw) then run: 'renice 19 –p 6319' (which changes
the priority)
reset ·Initializes the terminal as if you just logged in set ·Set a shell
option or variable (run ‘help set’) sleep ·Pause for specified period before
continuing
Ex: ps aux ; sleep 3600 ; ps aux umask ·Set the default file permissions
Ex: umask 022 (files will be created 644 by default) while ·Loop that runs
commands while a condition is true Ex: while (true) ; do ps auxw ; sleep 1m ;
done > pslog xargs [opts] [command] ·Execute a command for each arg -n number
:How many arguments to give each command run -p :Prompt the user before each
command is run
Admin adduser [opts] <username> ·Add a user to the local system
-d <dir> : Set the home directory for the user to dir -g <group> : Set the
primary group for the user to group -G <group,group,...> : Set additional
groups for the user -s <shell> : Set the default shell for the user to shell
crontab [opts] ·Edit user crontab for periodic execution
-e : Edit a crontab -u <user> : Specify <user> for crontab operation edquota
[opts] <user> ·Edit a user’s or group’s quota -g : Edit the group quota
instead of user quota fsck [opts] [filesystem] ·Check and repair a filesystem -y : Answer yes to
any questions. (Use with caution!) kill [-signal] <pid> ·Terminate a
process/Send it a signal
-HUP,-1 : Signal usually makes process to reread config -9 :Send a SIGKILL,
process must die -l :Print a list of signal names and numbers killall [-
signal] [name]·Kill processes by name
-e :Require an exact name of a process -i :Interactively ask for confirmation
before killing Ex: killall -9 sendmail ldd [opts] [program] ·Show a programs library dependencies
ldconfig ·Configure dynamic linker run time bindings (run this program after
changing /etc/ld.so.conf) makewhatis ·Create the whatis db for searching man pages mount [opts]
<path/device> [mountpoint]·Mount a filesystem
-o <opts> : Specify options for mounting. Listed below loop - Mount a disk
file such as a CD-ROM image or floppy image
remount – Remount the filesystem with new options ro, rw - Mount filesystem
in readonly or read-write mode user - Allow normal users to mount this
filesystem -r :Mount the filesystem read-only. Same as ‘–o ro’ -t <vfstype>
:Specify the type of filesystem to mount
ext2, ext3 – Native Linux partition types. reiserfs - Advanced Linux
filesystem xfs, jfs - Other advanced Linux filesystems vfat – Windows 9x 32-
bit partition type msdos - Old DOS/Windows partition type iso9660 – CD-ROM
filesystem nfs – Network remote filesystem passwd [opts] [username]·Change
user’s system password
-l :Lock the password for the account -u :Unlock the password for the account
-S :Show the status of the password for the account su [-] [username] ·Switch
users or login as the superuser
- :Make shell a login shell -c <command> : Run <command> as username umount [opts]
[path/device]·Unmount a mounted filesystem -f :Force unmounting (in case of unreachable NFS
system) -l :Complete the unmount once filesystem is no longer busy
‡ Commands and options displayed in red can only be used by the superuser (root). ¥ Commands that
are underlined may not be available by default on some distributions of Linux and will need to be
installed. £ The programs Common random, average, numsum commands and numgrep are part of the num-utils and
suite of programs their which can be found at syntax http://suso.suso.org/programs/num-utils/ for the Linux® OS
environment
This quick info sheet is Copyright 2001 by Suso Banderas and Copyright 2005 by Suso Technology Services,
Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. To view a copy of
this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 559
Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
For more information, downloads, ordering laminated copies and the original OpenOffice.org file that
created this sheet, please visit http://suso.org/infosheets/ v1.2 (2005-03-28)
Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds. All other trademarks belong to their respective holders.
Have a nice day!
Informational cat [opts] [filepattern] ·Print file contents on STOUT
-E :Display a $ at the end of each line -T :Show tabs as ^I -v :Show non-
printing characters date [opts] ·Print or set the system date and time
--date=STRING :display time described by STRING --set=STRING :set time
described by STRING dmesg [opts] ·Print or control the kernel ring buffer
-c :Clear the contents of the ring buffer file [opts] [filepattern]
·Determine the file type
-z :Try to look inside compressed files finger [opts] [userpattern] ·Show
info about system users
-m :Match the exact username specified free [opts] ·Display free and used
memory in the system
 -b :Display the information in bytes hexdump [opts] ·Show all the characters
of a file
-c :Display the input offset in hexidecimal last [opts] [username] ·Show last
system logins for users
-num :Show last num of sessions -a :Display the hostname in the last column -
d :Translates IP numbers to their hostname -f <file> :Use file as last log
less [opts] [filepattern] ·View a file a page at a time
-i :Do case insensitive searching -S :Don’t wrap long lines +[less commands]
:Pass initial commands to less lsof [opts] [names] ·List all open files
Try these useful tasks with lsof When the CD-ROM is “busy”: lsof /dev/cdrom
Programs using audio: lsof /dev/dsp List open ipv4 network files: lsof -i 4 -
a
man [opts] [section] <manpage> ·View software manual pages
-a :View all available manual pages for name Ex: 'man ls' or 'man -a nice' or
'man 5 crontab' md5sum [opts] [filepattern] ·Show the uniqueness of files -c
:Check MD5 sums of files against md5sum listfile ps [opts] ·Show what processes are running
on the system
a :Select all processes on a terminal u :Display user oriented format. More
columns x :Select processes without a controlling TTY w :Show an extra line
of process entry per w specified Ex: ps auxwww =Displays all process
information on system quota [opts] [user] ·Display disk usage and limits
-v :Display filesystems where no quota is set random </numpattern/> ·Print
out a random number from numpattern
Ex: random /500..1000/ (print a random number between 500 and 1000) slocate
[opts] [pattern] ·Locate pattern in file index db
-i : Case insensitive search -r : Search the database using POSIX regular
expressions time [opts] [command] ·Show resource usage for a command top
[opts] ·Display top CPU processes every X seconds
-d sec :Set the delay to sec seconds before refreshing umask [opts] [mode]
·Set the default file permissions
-S :Show current symbolic umask uname [opts] ·Show OS and system information
-a :Show everything uptime ·Show system uptime and load w [opts] [user] ·Show who is
logged in/what they are doing whereis [command] ·Locate the related files for
a command which [command] ·Show full path to the specified command who [opts]
[args] ·Show who is logged in
DOS What follows are some common commands used at the MS-DOS and Linux Commands prompt in Windows 9x, and in Linux, as well as a basic example of how
the command is used at the Linux shell prompt. Note that these commands usually have a number of options. To learn more
about each command, read its associated man page (for example, type man ls at the shell prompt to read about the ls
command).

Table C-1. Similar Commands

Command's Purpose MS-DOS Linux Basic Linux Example

Copies files copy cp cp thisfile.txt

/home/thisdirectory

Moves files move mv mv thisfile.txt

/home/thisdirectory
 Lists files dir ls ls

Clears screen cls clear clear

Closes prompt window exit exit exit

Displays or sets date date date date

Deletes files del rm rm thisfile.txt

file
"Echoes" output on the find grep grep this word or phrase
screen thisfile.txt
his message
Formats a floppy format a: (if
floppy's in A:)
Edits files with simple mke2fs (or
text editor
mformat[b])
thisfile.txt
/sbin/mke2fs /dev/fd0 (/dev/fd0 is the
Linux equivalent of A:)
/sbin/mke2fs /dev/fd0 (/dev/fd0 is the
Compares the contents of
Linux equivalent of A:)
files
e1 file2 /sbin/mke2fs /dev/fd0 (/dev/fd0 is the
Linux equivalent of A:)

Finds a string of text in a

Displays command help command /? man[c] man command

Creates a directory mkdir mkdir mkdir directory

Screens through a file more less[d] less thisfile.txt

Renames a file ren mv mv thisfile.txt thatfile.txt[e]

path)
Shows your location in cd pathname cd pathname cd /directory/directory
the file system

Changes directories with a

Changes directories with a relative path
specified path (absolute cd .. cd .. cd ..
Command's Purpose MS-DOS Linux Basic Linux Example

Displays the time time date date

and use
Shows amount of RAM mem free procinfo
 Notes: a. Pico is a simple text editor; other editors you can use in place of pico include emacs and vi. b. This formats a disk for the DO
can use info for some commands. d. You can also another pager, called more, to scroll through a file a screen at at time. e. The mv
double-duty, because it can both move a file and, if you want to rename a file in the same directory, you "move" that file to the same d
as in this example.
Running kernel and system information

# uname -a # Get the kernel version (and BSD version) # lsb_release -a # Full release info of any LSB
distribution # cat /etc/SuSE-release # Get SuSE version # cat /etc/debian_version # Get Debian version

Use /etc/DISTR-release with DISTR= lsb (Ubuntu), redhat, gentoo, mandrake, sun (Solaris), and so on. See also /etc/issue.

# uptime # Show how long the system has been running + load # hostname # system's host name # hostname -i #
Display the IP address of the host. (Linux only) # man hier # Description of the file system hierarchy # last reboot # Show
system reboot history

Hardware Informations

Kernel detected hardware

# dmesg # Detected hardware and boot messages # lsdev # information about installed hardware # dd if=/dev/mem bs=1k
skip=768 count=256 2>/dev/null | strings -n 8 # Read BIOS

Linux

# cat /proc/cpuinfo # CPU model # cat /proc/meminfo # Hardware memory # grep MemTotal /proc/meminfo # Display
the physical memory # watch -n1 'cat /proc/interrupts' # Watch changeable interrupts continuously # free -m # Used
and free memory (-m for MB) # cat /proc/devices # Configured devices # lspci -tv # Show PCI devices # lsusb -tv #
Show USB devices # lshal # Show a list of all devices with their properties # dmidecode # Show DMI/SMBIOS: hw
info from the BIOS

FreeBSD

# sysctl hw.model # CPU model # sysctl hw # Gives a lot of hardware information # sysctl vm # Memory
usage # dmesg | grep "real mem" # Hardware memory # sysctl -a | grep mem # Kernel memory settings
and info # sysctl dev # Configured devices # pciconf -l -cv # Show PCI devices # usbdevs -v # Show
USB devices # atacontrol list # Show ATA devices # camcontrol devlist -v # Show SCSI devices

Load, statistics and messages

The following commands are useful to find out what is going on on the system.

# top # display and update the top cpu processes # mpstat 1 # display processors related statistics # vmstat
2 # display virtual memory statistics
# iostat 2 # display I/O statistics (2 s intervals) # systat -vmstat 1 # BSD summary of system statistics (1 s intervals) #
systat -tcp 1 # BSD tcp connections (try also -ip) # systat -netstat 1 # BSD active network connections # systat -ifstat 1 #
BSD network traffic through active interfaces # systat -iostat 1 # BSD CPU and and disk throughput # tail -n 500
/var/log/messages # Last 500 kernel/syslog messages # tail /var/log/warn # System warnings messages see syslog.conf

Users

# id # Show the active user id with login and group # last # Show last logins on the system # who # Show who is logged on
the system # groupadd admin # Add group "admin" and user colin (Linux/Solaris) # useradd -c "Colin Barschel" -g admin -
m colin # usermod -a -G <group> <user> # Add existing user to group (Debian) # groupmod -A <user> <group> # Add
existing user to group (SuSE) # userdel colin # Delete user colin (Linux/Solaris) # adduser joe # FreeBSD add user joe
(interactive) # rmuser joe # FreeBSD delete user joe (interactive) # pw groupadd admin # Use pw on FreeBSD # pw
groupmod admin -m newmember # Add a new member to a group # pw useradd colin -c "Colin Barschel" -g admin -m -s
/bin/tcsh # pw userdel colin; pw groupdel admin

Encrypted passwords are stored in /etc/shadow for Linux and Solaris and /etc/master.passwd on FreeBSD. If the master.passwd is mod
a password), run # pwd_mkdb -p master.passwd to rebuild the database.

To temporarily prevent logins system wide (for all users but root) use nologin. The message in nologin will be displayed (might not work

# echo "Sorry no login now" > /etc/nologin # (Linux) # echo "Sorry no login now" > /var/run/nologin
# (FreeBSD)

Limits

Some application require higher limits on open files and sockets (like a proxy web server, database). The default
limits are usually too low. Linux

Per shell/script

The shell limits are governed by ulimit. The status is checked with ulimit -a. For example to change
the open files limit from 1024 to 10240 do:

# ulimit -n 10240 # This is only valid within the shell

The ulimit command can be used in a script to change the limits for the script only.

Per user/process

Login users and applications can be configured in /etc/security/limits.conf. For example:

# cat /etc/security/limits.conf * hard nproc 250 # Limit user processes asterisk hard nofile 409600 #
Limit application open files
System wide

Kernel limits are set with sysctl. Permanent limits are set in /etc/sysctl.conf.

# sysctl -a # View all system limits # sysctl fs.file-max # View max open files limit # sysctl fs.file-max=102400 #
Change max open files limit # echo "1024 50000" > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_local_port_range # port range # cat
/etc/sysctl.conf fs.file-max=102400 # Permanent entry in sysctl.conf # cat /proc/sys/fs/file-nr # How many file
descriptors are in use

FreeBSD

Per shell/script

Use the command limits in csh or tcsh or as in Linux, use ulimit in an sh or bash shell. Per user/process

The default limits on login are set in /etc/login.conf. An unlimited value is still limited by the system maximal value. System wide

Kernel limits are also set with sysctl. Permanent limits are set in /etc/sysctl.conf or /boot/loader.conf. The syntax is the same as Linux b

# sysctl -a # View all system limits # sysctl kern.maxfiles=XXXX # maximum number of file descriptors
kern.ipc.nmbclusters=32768 # Permanent entry in /etc/sysctl.conf kern.maxfiles=65536 # Typical values for Squid
kern.maxfilesperproc=32768 kern.ipc.somaxconn=8192 # TCP queue. Better for apache/sendmail # sysctl
kern.openfiles # How many file descriptors are in use # sysctl kern.ipc.numopensockets # How many open sockets
are in use # sysctl -w net.inet.ip.portrange.last=50000 # Default is 1024-5000 # netstat -m # network memory buffers
statistics

See The FreeBSD handbook Chapter 11http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/configtuning-kernel-limits.html for details.

Solaris

The following values in /etc/system will increase the maximum file descriptors per proc:

set rlim_fd_max = 4096 # Hard limit on file descriptors for a single proc set rlim_fd_cur = 1024 # Soft limit on file
descriptors for a single proc

Runlevels

Linux

Once booted, the kernel starts init which then starts rc which starts all scripts belonging to a runlevel. The scripts are stored in /etc/init.d
/etc/rc.d/rcN.d with N the runlevel number.
The default runlevel is configured in /etc/inittab. It is usually 3 or 5:

# grep default: /etc/inittab id:3:initdefault:

The actual runlevel can be changed with init. For example to go from 3 to 5:

# init 5 # Enters runlevel 5

* 0 Shutdown and halt

* 1 Single-User mode (also S)

* 2 Multi-user without network

* 3 Multi-user with network

* 5 Multi-user with X

* 6 Reboot

Use chkconfig to configure the programs that will be started at boot in a runlevel.

# chkconfig --list # List all init scripts # chkconfig --list sshd # Report the status of sshd # chkconfig sshd --
level 35 on # Configure sshd for levels 3 and 5 # chkconfig sshd off # Disable sshd for all runlevels

Debian and Debian based distributions like Ubuntu or Knoppix use the command update-rc.d to manage the runlevels scripts. Default is
shutdown in 0,1 and 6.

# update-rc.d sshd defaults # Activate sshd with the default runlevels # update-rc.d sshd start 20 2 3 4 5 . stop 20 0 1
6 . # With explicit arguments # update-rc.d -f sshd remove # Disable sshd for all runlevels # shutdown -h now (or #
poweroff) # Shutdown and halt the system

FreeBSD

The BSD boot approach is different from the SysV, there are no runlevels. The final boot state (single user, with or without X) is configur
are located in /etc/rc.d/ and in /usr/local/etc/rc.d/ for third-party applications. The activation of the service is configured in /etc/rc.con
default behavior is configured in /etc/defaults/rc.conf. The scripts responds at least to start|stop|status.

# /etc/rc.d/sshd status sshd is running as pid 552. # shutdown now # Go into single-user mode # exit #
Go back to multi-user mode # shutdown -p now # Shutdown and halt the system # shutdown -r now #
Reboot

The process init can also be used to reach one of the following states level. For example # init 6 for reboot.

* 0 Halt and turn the power off (signal USR2)

 * 1 Go to single-user mode (signal TERM)

* 6 Reboot the machine (signal INT)

* c Block further logins (signal TSTP)

* q Rescan the ttys(5) file (signal HUP)

Reset root password

Linux method 1

At the boot loader (lilo or grub), enter the following boot option:

init=/bin/sh

The kernel will mount the root partition and init will start the bourne shell instead of rc and then a runlevel. Use the command passwd a
password and then reboot. Forget the single user mode as you need the password for that.

If, after booting, the root partition is mounted read only, remount it rw:

# mount -o remount,rw / # passwd # or delete the root password (/etc/shadow) # sync; mount -o remount,ro / #
sync before to remount read only # reboot

FreeBSD method 1

On FreeBSD, boot in single user mode, remount / rw and use passwd. You can select the single user mode on the boot menu (option
seconds at startup. The single user mode will give you a root shell on the / partition.

# mount -u /; mount -a # will mount / rw # passwd # reboot

Unixes and FreeBSD and Linux method 2

Other Unixes might not let you go away with the simple init trick. The solution is to mount the root partition from an other OS (like a resc
password on the disk.

* Boot a live CD or installation CD into a rescue mode which will give you a shell.

* Find the root partition with fdisk e.g. fdisk /dev/sda

* Mount it and use chroot:

# mount -o rw /dev/ad4s3a /mnt # chroot /mnt # chroot into /mnt # passwd # reboot
Kernel modules

Linux

# lsmod # List all modules loaded in the kernel # modprobe isdn # To load a module (here isdn)

FreeBSD

# kldstat # List all modules loaded in the kernel # kldload crypto # To load a module (here crypto)

Compile Kernel

Linux

# cd /usr/src/linux # make mrproper # Clean everything, including config files # make oldconfig # Reuse the old
.config if existent # make menuconfig # or xconfig (Qt) or gconfig (GTK) # make # Create a compressed kernel
image # make modules # Compile the modules # make modules_install # Install the modules # make install #
Install the kernel # reboot

FreeBSD

Optionally update the source tree (in /usr/src) with csup (as of FreeBSD 6.2 or later):

# csup <supfile>

I use the following supfile:

*default host=cvsup5.FreeBSD.org # www.freebsd.org/handbook/cvsup.html#CVSUP-MIRRORS *default prefix=/usr *default base=/va

*default release=cvs delete tag=RELENG_7 src-all

To modify and rebuild the kernel, copy the generic configuration file to a new name and edit it as needed (you can also edit the file G
the build after an interruption, add the option NO_CLEAN=YES to the make command to avoid cleaning the objects already build.

# cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/ # cp GENERIC MYKERNEL # cd /usr/src # make

buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL # make installkernel
KERNCONF=MYKERNEL

To rebuild the full OS:

# make buildworld # Build the full OS but not the kernel # make buildkernel # Use KERNCONF as above if
appropriate
# make installkernel # reboot # mergemaster -p # Compares only files known to be essential # make installworld #
mergemaster -i -U # Update all configurations and other files # reboot

For small changes in the source you can use NO_CLEAN=yes to avoid rebuilding the whole tree.

# make buildworld NO_CLEAN=yes # Don't delete the old objects # make buildkernel
KERNCONF=MYKERNEL NO_CLEAN=yes

Repair grub

So you broke grub? Boot from a live cd, [find your linux partition under /dev and use fdisk to find the linux partion] mount the linux partit
use grub-install /dev/xyz. Suppose linux lies on /dev/sda6:

# mount /dev/sda6 /mnt # mount the linux partition on /mnt # mount --bind /proc /mnt/proc # mount the proc
subsystem into /mnt # mount --bind /dev /mnt/dev # mount the devices into /mnt # chroot /mnt # change root to
the linux partition # grub-install /dev/sda # reinstall grub with your old settings

Processes

Listing | Priority | Background/Foreground | Top | Kill

Listing and PIDs

Each process has a unique number, the PID. A list of all running process is retrieved with ps.

# ps -auxefw # Extensive list of all running process

However more typical usage is with a pipe or with pgrep:

# ps axww | grep cron

586 ?? Is 0:01.48 /usr/sbin/cron -s # ps axjf # All processes in a tree format (Linux) # ps aux | grep 'ss[h]' #
Find all ssh pids without the grep pid # pgrep -l sshd # Find the PIDs of processes by (part of) name # echo $$ # The PID of
your shell # fuser -va 22/tcp # List processes using port 22 (Linux) # pmap PID # Memory map of process (hunt memory
leaks) (Linux) # fuser -va /home # List processes accessing the /home partition # strace df # Trace system calls and signals
# truss df # same as above on FreeBSD/Solaris/Unixware

Priority

Change the priority of a running process with renice. Negative numbers have a higher priority, the lowest is -20 and "nice" have a positi
# renice -5 586 # Stronger priority 586: old priority 0, new priority -5
Start the process with a defined priority with nice. Positive is "nice" or weak, negative is strong scheduling priority. Make sure you know
built-in is used (check with # which nice).

# nice -n -5 top # Stronger priority (/usr/bin/nice) # nice -n 5 top # Weaker priority (/usr/bin/nice) # nice
+5 top # tcsh builtin nice (same as above!)

While nice changes the CPU scheduler, an other useful command ionice will schedule the disk IO. This is very useful for intensive IO
You can select a class (idle - best effort - real time), the man page is short and well explained.

# ionice c3 -p123 # set idle class for pid 123 (Linux only) # ionice -c2 -n0 firefox # Run firefox with best effort and
high priority # ionice -c3 -p$$ # Set the actual shell to idle priority

The last command is very useful to compile (or debug) a large project. Every command launched from this shell will have a lover priorit
echo $$).

FreeBSD uses idprio/rtprio (0 = max priority, 31 = most idle):

# idprio 31 make # compile in the lowest priority # idprio 31 -1234 # set PID 1234 with lowest priority #
idprio -t -1234 # -t removes any real time/idle priority

Background/Foreground

When started from a shell, processes can be brought in the background and back to the foreground with [Ctrl]-[Z] (^Z), bg and fg. List th

# ping cb.vu > ping.log ^Z # ping is suspended (stopped) with [Ctrl]-[Z] # bg # put in background and
continues running # jobs -l # List processes in background [1] - 36232 Running ping cb.vu > ping.log [2] +
36233 Suspended (tty output) top # fg %2 # Bring process 2 back in foreground

Use nohup to start a process which has to keep running when the shell is closed (immune to hangups).

# nohup ping -i 60 > ping.log &

Top

The program top displays running information of processes. See also the program htop from htop.sourceforge.net (a more powerful v
Linux and FreeBSD (ports/sysutils/htop/). While top is running press the key h for a help overview. Useful keys are:

* u [user name] To display only the processes belonging to the user. Use + or blank to see all users

* k [pid] Kill the process with pid.

* 1 To display all processors statistics (Linux only)
 * R Toggle normal/reverse sort.

Signals/Kill

Terminate or send a signal with kill or killall.

# ping -i 60 cb.vu > ping.log & [1] 4712 # kill -s TERM 4712 # same as kill -15 4712 # killall -1 httpd # Kill HUP processes by
exact name # pkill -9 http # Kill TERM processes by (part of) name # pkill -TERM -u www # Kill TERM processes owned by
www # fuser -k -TERM -m /home # Kill every process accessing /home (to umount)

Important signals are:

* 1 HUP (hang up)

* 2 INT (interrupt)

* 3 QUIT (quit)

* 9 KILL (non-catchable, non-ignorable kill)

* 15 TERM (software termination signal)

File System

Disk info | Boot | Disk usage | Opened files | Mount/remount | Mount SMB | Mount image | Burn ISO | Create image | Memory disk | Dis

Permissions

Change permission and ownership with chmod and chown. The default umask can be changed for all users in /etc/profile for Linux or
The default umask is usually 022. The umask is subtracted from 777, thus umask 022 results in a permission 0f 755.

1 --x execute # Mode 764 = exec/read/write | read/write | read 2 -w- write # For: |-- Owner --| |- Group-| |Oth| 4 r--
read
ugo=a u=user, g=group, o=others, a=everyone

# chmod [OPTION] MODE[,MODE] FILE # MODE is of the form [ugoa]*([-+=]([rwxXst])) # chmod 640 /var/log/maillog # Restrict
the log -rw-r----- # chmod u=rw,g=r,o= /var/log/maillog # Same as above # chmod -R o-r /home/* # Recursive remove other
readable for all users # chmod u+s /path/to/prog # Set SUID bit on executable (know what you do!) # find / -perm -u+s -print # Find
all programs with the SUID bit # chown user:group /path/to/file # Change the user and group ownership of a file # chgrp group
/path/to/file # Change the group ownership of a file # chmod 640 `find ./ -type f -print` # Change permissions to 640 for all files
# chmod 751 `find ./ -type d -print` # Change permissions to 751 for all directories
Disk information

# diskinfo -v /dev/ad2 # information about disk (sector/size) FreeBSD # hdparm -I /dev/sda # information about the
IDE/ATA disk (Linux) # fdisk /dev/ad2 # Display and manipulate the partition table # smartctl -a /dev/ad2 # Display the
disk SMART info

Boot

FreeBSD

To boot an old kernel if the new kernel doesn't boot, stop the boot at during the count down.

# unload # load kernel.old # boot

System mount points/Disk usage

# mount | column -t # Show mounted file-systems on the system # df # display free disk space and mounted
devices # cat /proc/partitions # Show all registered partitions (Linux)

Disk usage

# du -sh * # Directory sizes as listing # du -csh # Total directory size of the current directory # du -ks * | sort -n
-r # Sort everything by size in kilobytes # ls -lSr # Show files, biggest last

Who has which files opened

This is useful to find out which file is blocking a partition which has to be unmounted and gives a typical error of:

# umount /home/ umount: unmount of /home # umount impossible because a file is locking home
failed: Device busy

FreeBSD and most Unixes

# fstat -f /home # for a mount point # fstat -p PID # for an application with PID # fstat -u user #
for a user name

Find opened log file (or other opened files), say for Xorg:

# ps ax | grep Xorg | awk '{print $1}' 1252 # fstat -p 1252

USER CMD PID FD MOUNT INUM MODE SZ|DV R/W root Xorg 1252 root / 2 drwxr-xr-x 512 r root Xorg 1252
text /usr 216016 -rws--x--x 1679848 r root Xorg 1252 0 /var 212042 -rw-r--r-- 56987 w

The file with inum 212042 is the only file in /var:

# find -x /var -inum 212042 /var/log/Xorg.0.log

Linux

Find opened files on a mount point with fuser or lsof:

# fuser -m /home # List processes accessing /home # lsof /home COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME
tcsh 29029 eedcoba cwd DIR 0,18 12288 1048587 /home/eedcoba (guam:/home) lsof 29140 eedcoba cwd DIR 0,18 12288
1048587 /home/eedcoba (guam:/home)

About an application:

ps ax | grep Xorg | awk '{print $1}' 3324 # lsof -p 3324 COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE
NAME Xorg 3324 root 0w REG 8,6 56296 12492 /var/log/Xorg.0.log

About a single file:

# lsof /var/log/Xorg.0.log COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME Xorg 3324 root 0w
REG 8,6 56296 12492 /var/log/Xorg.0.log

Mount/remount a file system

For example the cdrom. If listed in /etc/fstab:

# mount /cdrom

Or find the device in /dev/ or with dmesg FreeBSD

# mount -v -t cd9660 /dev/cd0c /mnt # cdrom # mount_cd9660 /dev/wcd0c /cdrom # other

method # mount -v -t msdos /dev/fd0c /mnt # floppy

Entry in /etc/fstab:

# Device Mountpoint FStype Options Dump Pass# /dev/acd0 /cdrom cd9660 ro,noauto 0 0
To let users do it:

# sysctl vfs.usermount=1 # Or insert the line "vfs.usermount=1" in /etc/sysctl.conf

Linux

# mount -t auto /dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom # typical cdrom mount command # mount /dev/hdc -t iso9660 -r /cdrom #
typical IDE # mount /dev/scd0 -t iso9660 -r /cdrom # typical SCSI cdrom # mount /dev/sdc0 -t ntfs-3g /windows #
typical SCSI

Entry in /etc/fstab:

/dev/cdrom /media/cdrom subfs noauto,fs=cdfss,ro,procuid,nosuid,nodev,exec 0 0

Mount a FreeBSD partition with Linux

Find the partition number containing with fdisk, this is usually the root partition, but it could be an other BSD slice too. If the FreeBSD ha
one not listed in the fdisk table, but visible in /dev/sda* or /dev/hda*.

# fdisk /dev/sda # Find the FreeBSD partition /dev/sda3 * 5357 7905 20474842+ a5 FreeBSD #
mount -t ufs -o ufstype=ufs2,ro /dev/sda3 /mnt /dev/sda10 = /tmp; /dev/sda11 /usr # The other
slices

Remount

Remount a device without unmounting it. Necessary for fsck for example

# mount -o remount,ro / # Linux # mount -o ro / # FreeBSD

Copy the raw data from a cdrom into an iso image:

# dd if=/dev/cd0c of=file.iso

Add swap on-the-fly

Suppose you need more swap (right now), say a 2GB file /swap2gb (Linux only).

# dd if=/dev/zero of=/swap2gb bs=1024k count=2000 # mkswap /swap2gb # create the swap area #
swapon /swap2gb # activate the swap. It now in use # swapoff /swap2gb # when done deactivate the
swap # rm /swap2gb
Mount an SMB share

Suppose we want to access the SMB share myshare on the computer smbserver, the address as typed on a Windows PC is \\smbser
/mnt/smbshare. Warning> cifs wants an IP or DNS name, not a Windows name.
Linux

# smbclient -U user -I 192.168.16.229 -L //smbshare/ # List the shares # mount -t smbfs -o username=winuser //smbserver/myshare
/mnt/smbshare # mount -t cifs -o username=winuser,password=winpwd //192.168.16.229/myshare /mnt/share

Additionally with the package mount.cifs it is possible to store the credentials in a file, for example /home/user/.smb:

username=winuser password=winpwd

And mount as follow:

# mount -t cifs -o credentials=/home/user/.smb //192.168.16.229/myshare /mnt/smbshare

FreeBSD

Use -I to give the IP (or DNS name); smbserver is the Windows name.

# smbutil view -I 192.168.16.229 //winuser@smbserver # List the shares # mount_smbfs -I 192.168.16.229

//winuser@smbserver/myshare /mnt/smbshare

Mount an image

Linux loop-back

# mount -t iso9660 -o loop file.iso /mnt # Mount a CD image # mount -t ext3 -o loop file.img /mnt # Mount an image
with ext3 fs

FreeBSD

With memory device (do # kldload md.ko if necessary):

# mdconfig -a -t vnode -f file.iso -u 0 # mount -t cd9660 /dev/md0 /mnt # umount /mnt; mdconfig -d -u 0 #
Cleanup the md device

Or with virtual node:

# vnconfig /dev/vn0c file.iso; mount -t cd9660 /dev/vn0c /mnt # umount /mnt; vnconfig -u /dev/vn0c # Cleanup the
vn device

Solaris and FreeBSD

with loop-back file interface or lofi:

# lofiadm -a file.iso # mount -F hsfs -o ro /dev/lofi/1 /mnt # umount /mnt; lofiadm -d /dev/lofi/1 # Cleanup the lofi
device
Create and burn an ISO image

This will copy the cd or DVD sector for sector. Without conv=notrunc, the image will be smaller if there is less content on the cd. See be

# dd if=/dev/hdc of=/tmp/mycd.iso bs=2048 conv=notrunc

Use mkisofs to create a CD/DVD image from files in a directory. To overcome the file names restrictions: -r enables the Rock Ridge e
systems, -J enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems. -L allows ISO9660 filenames to begin with a period.

# mkisofs -J -L -r -V TITLE -o imagefile.iso /path/to/dir

On FreeBSD, mkisofs is found in the ports in sysutils/cdrtools. Burn a CD/DVD ISO image

FreeBSD

FreeBSD does not enable DMA on ATAPI drives by default. DMA is enabled with the sysctl command and the arguments below, or with
following entries:

hw.ata.ata_dma="1" hw.ata.atapi_dma="1"

Use burncd with an ATAPI device (burncd is part of the base system) and cdrecord (in sysutils/cdrtools) with a SCSI drive.

# burncd -f /dev/acd0 data imagefile.iso fixate # For ATAPI drive # cdrecord -scanbus # To find the burner
device (like 1,0,0) # cdrecord dev=1,0,0 imagefile.iso

Linux

Also use cdrecord with Linux as described above. Additionally it is possible to use the native ATAPI interface which is found with:

# cdrecord dev=ATAPI -scanbus

And burn the CD/DVD as above. dvd+rw-tools

The dvd+rw-tools package (FreeBSD: ports/sysutils/dvd+rw-tools) can do it all and includes growisofs to burn CDs or DVDs. The exam
as /dev/dvd which could be a symlink to /dev/scd0 (typical scsi on Linux) or /dev/cd0 (typical FreeBSD) or /dev/rcd0c (typical NetBSD/O
/dev/rdsk/c0t1d0s2 (Solaris example of a character SCSI/ATAPI CD-ROM device). There is a nice documentation with examples on the
18.7http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/creating-dvds.html.

# -dvd-compat closes the disk # growisofs -dvd-compat -Z /dev/dvd=imagefile.iso # Burn

existing iso image # growisofs -dvd-compat -Z /dev/dvd -J -R /p/to/data # Burn directly

Convert a Nero .nrg file to .iso

Nero simply adds a 300Kb header to a normal iso image. This can be trimmed with dd.
# dd bs=1k if=imagefile.nrg of=imagefile.iso skip=300

Convert a bin/cue image to .iso

The little bchunk programhttp://freshmeat.net/projects/bchunk/ can do this. It is in the FreeBSD ports in sysutils/bchunk.

# bchunk imagefile.bin imagefile.cue imagefile.iso

Create a file based image

For example a partition of 1GB using the file /usr/vdisk.img. Here we use the vnode 0, but it could also be 1. FreeBSD

# dd if=/dev/random of=/usr/vdisk.img bs=1K count=1M # mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /usr/vdisk.img -u 0 # Creates device

/dev/md1 # bsdlabel -w /dev/md0 # newfs /dev/md0c # mount /dev/md0c /mnt # umount /mnt; mdconfig -d -u 0; rm
/usr/vdisk.img # Cleanup the md device

The file based image can be automatically mounted during boot with an entry in /etc/rc.conf and /etc/fstab. Test your setup with # /etc/r
delete the md0 device with # mdconfig -d -u 0).

Note however that this automatic setup will only work if the file image is NOT on the root partition. The reason is that the /etc/rc.d/mdc
early during boot and the root partition is still read-only. Images located outside the root partition will be mounted later with the script /et

/boot/loader.conf:

md_load="YES"

/etc/rc.conf:

# mdconfig_md0="-t vnode -f /usr/vdisk.img" # /usr is not on the root partition

/etc/fstab: (The 0 0 at the end is important, it tell fsck to ignore this device, as is does not exist yet)

/dev/md0 /usr/vdisk ufs rw 0 0

It is also possible to increase the size of the image afterward, say for example 300 MB larger.

# umount /mnt; mdconfig -d -u 0 # dd if=/dev/zero bs=1m count=300 >> /usr/vdisk.img # mdconfig -a -t vnode -f
/usr/vdisk.img -u 0 # growfs /dev/md0 # mount /dev/md0c /mnt # File partition is now 300 MB larger

Linux

# dd if=/dev/zero of=/usr/vdisk.img bs=1024k count=1024 # mkfs.ext3 /usr/vdisk.img

# mount -o loop /usr/vdisk.img /mnt # umount /mnt; rm /usr/vdisk.img # Cleanup

Linux with losetup

/dev/zero is much faster than urandom, but less secure for encryption.

# dd if=/dev/urandom of=/usr/vdisk.img bs=1024k count=1024 # losetup /dev/loop0 /usr/vdisk.img # Creates and associates
/dev/loop0 # mkfs.ext3 /dev/loop0 # mount /dev/loop0 /mnt # losetup -a # Check used loops # umount /mnt # losetup -d
/dev/loop0 # Detach # rm /usr/vdisk.img

Create a memory file system

A memory based file system is very fast for heavy IO application. How to create a 64 MB partition mounted on /memdisk: FreeBSD

# mount_mfs -o rw -s 64M md /memdisk # umount /memdisk; mdconfig -d -u 0 # Cleanup the md device md

/memdisk mfs rw,-s64M 0 0 # /etc/fstab entry

Linux

# mount -t tmpfs -osize=64m tmpfs /memdisk

Disk performance

Read and write a 1 GB file on partition ad4s3c (/home)

# time dd if=/dev/ad4s3c of=/dev/null bs=1024k count=1000 # time dd if=/dev/zero bs=1024k

count=1000 of=/home/1Gb.file # hdparm -tT /dev/hda # Linux only
Network

Routing | Additional IP | Change MAC | Ports | Firewall | IP Forward | NAT | DNS | DHCP | Traffic | QoS | NIS | Netcat

Debugging (See also Traffic analysis)

Linux

# ethtool eth0 # Show the ethernet status (replaces mii-diag) # ethtool -s eth0 speed 100 duplex full # Force 100Mbit
Full duplex # ethtool -s eth0 autoneg off # Disable auto negotiation # ethtool -p eth1 # Blink the ethernet led - very
useful when supported # ip link show # Display all interfaces on Linux (similar to ifconfig) # ip link set eth0 up # Bring
device up (or down). Same as "ifconfig eth0 up" # ip addr show # Display all IP addresses on Linux (similar to ifconfig)
# ip neigh show # Similar to arp -a

Other OSes

# ifconfig fxp0 # Check the "media" field on FreeBSD # arp -a # Check the router (or host) ARP entry (all OS) # ping cb.vu #
The first thing to try... # traceroute cb.vu # Print the route path to destination # ifconfig fxp0 media 100baseTX mediaopt full-
duplex # 100Mbit full duplex (FreeBSD) # netstat -s # System-wide statistics for each network protocol

Additional commands which are not always installed per default but easy to find:

# arping 192.168.16.254 # Ping on ethernet layer # tcptraceroute -f 5 cb.vu # uses tcp instead of icmp to trace through
firewalls

Routing

Print routing table

# route -n # Linux or use "ip route" # netstat -rn # Linux, BSD and UNIX # route print
# Windows

Add and delete a route

FreeBSD

# route add 212.117.0.0/16 192.168.1.1 # route delete 212.117.0.0/16 #

route add default 192.168.1.1

Add the route permanently in /etc/rc.conf

static_routes="myroute" route_myroute="-net 212.117.0.0/16 192.168.1.1"

Linux

# route add -net 192.168.20.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 gw 192.168.16.254 # ip route add 192.168.20.0/24 via 192.168.16.254
# same as above with ip route # route add -net 192.168.20.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev eth0 # route add default gw
192.168.51.254 # ip route add default via 192.168.51.254 dev eth0 # same as above with ip route # route delete -net
192.168.20.0 netmask 255.255.255.0

Solaris

# route add -net 192.168.20.0 -netmask 255.255.255.0 192.168.16.254 # route add default 192.168.51.254 1 # 1 = hops
to the next gateway # route change default 192.168.50.254 1

Permanent entries are set in entry in /etc/defaultrouter.

Windows

# Route add 192.168.50.0 mask 255.255.255.0 192.168.51.253 # Route add 0.0.0.0 mask 0.0.0.0
192.168.51.254

Use add -p to make the route persistent.

Configure additional IP addresses

Linux

# ifconfig eth0 192.168.50.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 # First IP # ifconfig eth0:0 192.168.51.254 netmask
255.255.255.0 # Second IP # ip addr add 192.168.50.254/24 dev eth0 # Equivalent ip commands # ip addr add
192.168.51.254/24 dev eth0 label eth0:1

FreeBSD

# ifconfig fxp0 inet 192.168.50.254/24 # First IP # ifconfig fxp0 alias 192.168.51.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 #
Second IP # ifconfig fxp0 -alias 192.168.51.254 # Remove second IP alias

Permanent entries in /etc/rc.conf

ifconfig_fxp0="inet 192.168.50.254 netmask 255.255.255.0" ifconfig_fxp0_alias0="192.168.51.254

netmask 255.255.255.0"

Solaris

Check the settings with ifconfig -a

# ifconfig hme0 plumb # Enable the network card # ifconfig hme0 192.168.50.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 up #
First IP # ifconfig hme0:1 192.168.51.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 up # Second IP
Change MAC address

Normally you have to bring the interface down before the change. Don't tell me why you want to change the MAC address...

# ifconfig eth0 down # ifconfig eth0 hw ether 00:01:02:03:04:05 # Linux # ifconfig fxp0 link
00:01:02:03:04:05 # FreeBSD # ifconfig hme0 ether 00:01:02:03:04:05 # Solaris # sudo ifconfig en0 ether
00:01:02:03:04:05 # Mac OS X Tiger # sudo ifconfig en0 lladdr 00:01:02:03:04:05 # Mac OS X Leopard

Many tools exist for Windows. For example etherchangehttp://ntsecurity.nu/toolbox/etherchange. Or look for "Mac Makeup", "smac".

Ports in use

Listening open ports:

# netstat -an | grep LISTEN # lsof -i # Linux list all Internet connections
# socklist # Linux display list of open sockets # sockstat -4 # FreeBSD application listing # netstat -anp --udp
--tcp | grep LISTEN # Linux # netstat -tup # List active connections to/from system (Linux) # netstat -tupl #
List listening ports from system (Linux) # netstat -ano # Windows

Firewall

Check if a firewall is running (typical configuration only): Linux

# iptables -L -n -v # For status Open the iptables firewall # iptables -P INPUT ACCEPT # Open everything # iptables
-P FORWARD ACCEPT # iptables -P OUTPUT ACCEPT # iptables -Z # Zero the packet and byte counters in all
chains # iptables -F # Flush all chains # iptables -X # Delete all chains

FreeBSD

# ipfw show # For status # ipfw list 65535 # if answer is "65535 deny ip from any to any" the fw is disabled # sysctl
net.inet.ip.fw.enable=0 # Disable # sysctl net.inet.ip.fw.enable=1 # Enable

IP Forward for routing

Linux

Check and then enable IP forward with:

# cat /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward # Check IP forward 0=off, 1=on # echo 1 >

/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward

or edit /etc/sysctl.conf with:

net.ipv4.ip_forward = 1

FreeBSD

Check and enable with:

# sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding # Check IP forward 0=off, 1=on # sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding=1 # sysctl

net.inet.ip.fastforwarding=1 # For dedicated router or firewall Permanent with entry in /etc/rc.conf:
gateway_enable="YES" # Set to YES if this host will be a gateway.

Solaris
# ndd -set /dev/ip ip_forwarding 1 # Set IP forward 0=off, 1=on

NAT Network Address Translation

Linux

# iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o eth0 -j MASQUERADE # to activate NAT # iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -p tcp -d
78.31.70.238 --dport 20022 -j DNAT \ --to 192.168.16.44:22 # Port forward 20022 to internal IP port ssh # iptables -t nat -A
PREROUTING -p tcp -d 78.31.70.238 --dport 993:995 -j DNAT \ --to 192.168.16.254:993-995 # Port forward of range 993-
995 # ip route flush cache # iptables -L -t nat # Check NAT status

Delete the port forward with -D instead of -A.

FreeBSD

# natd -s -m -u -dynamic -f /etc/natd.conf -n fxp0 Or edit /etc/rc.conf with: firewall_enable="YES" # Set to YES to
enable firewall functionality firewall_type="open" # Firewall type (see /etc/rc.firewall) natd_enable="YES" #
Enable natd (if firewall_enable == YES). natd_interface="tun0" # Public interface or IP address to use.
natd_flags="-s -m -u -dynamic -f /etc/natd.conf"

Port forward with:

# cat /etc/natd.conf same_ports yes use_sockets yes unregistered_only # redirect_port tcp

insideIP:2300-2399 3300-3399 # port range redirect_port udp 192.168.51.103:7777 7777

DNS

On Unix the DNS entries are valid for all interfaces and are stored in /etc/resolv.conf. The domain to which the host belongs is also stor
configuration is:

nameserver 78.31.70.238 search sleepyowl.net intern.lab domain

sleepyowl.net

Check the system domain name with:

# hostname -d # Same as dnsdomainname

Windows

On Windows the DNS are configured per interface. To display the configured DNS and to flush the DNS cache use:

# ipconfig /? # Display help # ipconfig /all # See all information including DNS
Flush DNS

Flush the OS DNS cache, some application using their own cache (e.g. Firefox) and will be unaffected.

# /etc/init.d/nscd restart # Restart nscd if used - Linux/BSD/Solaris # lookupd -flushcache # OS X Tiger #

dscacheutil -flushcache # OS X Leopard and newer # ipconfig /flushdns # Windows

Forward queries

Dig is you friend to test the DNS settings. For example the public DNS server 213.133.105.2 ns.second-ns.de can be used for testing. S
client receives the answer (simplified answer).

# dig sleepyowl.net sleepyowl.net. 600 IN A 78.31.70.238 ;; SERVER:

192.168.51.254#53(192.168.51.254)

The router 192.168.51.254 answered and the response is the A entry. Any entry can be queried and the DNS server can be selected w

# dig MX google.com # dig @127.0.0.1 NS sun.com # To test the local server # dig @204.97.212.10 NS MX
heise.de # Query an external server # dig AXFR @ns1.xname.org cb.vu # Get the full zone (zone transfer)

The program host is also powerful.

# host -t MX cb.vu # Get the mail MX entry # host -t NS -T sun.com # Get the NS record over a TCP connection #
host -a sleepyowl.net # Get everything

Reverse queries

Find the name belonging to an IP address (in-addr.arpa.). This can be done with dig, host and nslookup:
# dig -x 78.31.70.238 # host 78.31.70.238 # nslookup
78.31.70.238

/etc/hosts

Single hosts can be configured in the file /etc/hosts instead of running named locally to resolve the hostname queries. The format is sim

78.31.70.238 sleepyowl.net sleepyowl

The priority between hosts and a dns query, that is the name resolution order, can be configured in /etc/nsswitch.conf AND /etc/host.co
Windows, it is usually in:

C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\DRIVERS\ETC
DHCP

Linux

Some distributions (SuSE) use dhcpcd as client. The default interface is eth0.

# dhcpcd -n eth0 # Trigger a renew (does not always work) # dhcpcd -k eth0 # release and shutdown

The lease with the full information is stored in:

/var/lib/dhcpcd/dhcpcd-eth0.info

FreeBSD

FreeBSD (and Debian) uses dhclient. To configure an interface (for example bge0) run:

# dhclient bge0

The lease with the full information is stored in:

/var/db/dhclient.leases.bge0

Use

/etc/dhclient.conf

to prepend options or force different options:

# cat /etc/dhclient.conf interface "rl0" {
prepend domain-name-servers 127.0.0.1; default domain-name "sleepyowl.net";
supersede domain-name "sleepyowl.net"; }Windows

The dhcp lease can be renewed with ipconfig:

# ipconfig /renew # renew all adapters # ipconfig /renew LAN # renew the adapter named "LAN" #
ipconfig /release WLAN # release the adapter named "WLAN"

Yes it is a good idea to rename you adapter with simple names!

Traffic analysis

Bmonhttp://people.suug.ch/~tgr/bmon/ is a small console bandwidth monitor and can display the flow on different interfaces. Sniff with t
# tcpdump -nl -i bge0 not port ssh and src \(192.168.16.121 or 192.168.16.54\) # tcpdump -n -i eth1 net 192.168.16.121
# select to/from a single IP # tcpdump -n -i eth1 net 192.168.16.0/24 # select traffic to/from a network # tcpdump -l >
dump && tail -f dump # Buffered output # tcpdump -i rl0 -w traffic.rl0 # Write traffic headers in binary file # tcpdump -i rl0 -
s 0 -w traffic.rl0 # Write traffic + payload in binary file # tcpdump -r traffic.rl0 # Read from file (also for ethereal # tcpdump
port 80 # The two classic commands # tcpdump host google.com # tcpdump -i eth0 -X port \(110 or 143\) # Check if pop
or imap is secure # tcpdump -n -i eth0 icmp # Only catch pings # tcpdump -i eth0 -s 0 -A port 80 | grep GET # -s 0 for full
packet -A for ASCII

Additional important options:

* -A Print each packets in clear text (without header)

* -X Print packets in hex and ASCII

* -l Make stdout line buffered

* -D Print all interfaces available

On Windows use windump from www.winpcap.org. Use windump -D to list the interfaces. Scan with nmap

Nmaphttp://insecure.org/nmap/ is a port scanner with OS detection, it is usually installed on most distributions and is also available for W
your servers, hackers do it for you...

# nmap cb.vu # scans all reserved TCP ports on the host # nmap -sP 192.168.16.0/24 # Find out which IP are used and by
which host on 0/24 # nmap -sS -sV -O cb.vu # Do a stealth SYN scan with version and OS detection PORT STATE SERVICE
VERSION 22/tcp open ssh OpenSSH 3.8.1p1 FreeBSD-20060930 (protocol 2.0) 25/tcp open smtp Sendmail smtpd
8.13.6/8.13.6 80/tcp open http Apache httpd 2.0.59 ((FreeBSD) DAV/2 PHP/4. [...] Running: FreeBSD 5.X Uptime 33.120
days (since Fri Aug 31 11:41:04 2007)
Other non standard but useful tools are hping (www.hping.org) an IP packet assembler/analyzer and fping (fping.sourceforge.net). fping
in a round-robin fashion.

Traffic control (QoS)

Traffic control manages the queuing, policing, scheduling, and other traffic parameters for a network. The following examples are simpl
and FreeBSD capabilities to better use the available bandwidth. Limit upload

DSL or cable modems have a long queue to improve the upload throughput. However filling the queue with a fast device (e.g. ethernet)
the interactivity. It is therefore useful to limit the device upload rate to match the physical capacity of the modem, this should greatly imp
about 90% of the modem maximal (cable) speed. Linux

For a 512 Kbit upload modem.

# tc qdisc add dev eth0 root tbf rate 480kbit latency 50ms burst 1540 # tc -s qdisc ls dev eth0 # Status # tc qdisc
del dev eth0 root # Delete the queue # tc qdisc change dev eth0 root tbf rate 220kbit latency 50ms burst 1540

FreeBSD

FreeBSD uses the dummynet traffic shaper which is configured with ipfw. Pipes are used to set limits the bandwidth in units of [K|M]{bit/
bandwidth. Using the same pipe number will reconfigure it. For example limit the upload bandwidth to 500 Kbit.

# kldload dummynet # load the module if necessary # ipfw pipe 1 config bw 500Kbit/s # create a pipe with limited
bandwidth # ipfw add pipe 1 ip from me to any # divert the full upload into the pipe

Quality of service

Linux

Priority queuing with tc to optimize VoIP. See the full example on voip-info.org or www.howtoforge.com. Suppose VoIP uses udp on po
eth0 (could also be ppp0 or so). The following commands define the QoS to three queues and force the VoIP traffic to queue 1 with
default traffic flows into queue 3 and QoS Minimize-Delay flows into queue 2.

# tc qdisc add dev eth0 root handle 1: prio priomap 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 # tc qdisc add dev eth0 parent 1:1
handle 10: sfq # tc qdisc add dev eth0 parent 1:2 handle 20: sfq # tc qdisc add dev eth0 parent 1:3 handle 30: sfq # tc
filter add dev eth0 protocol ip parent 1: prio 1 u32 \
match ip dport 10000 0x3C00 flowid 1:1 # use server port range match ip dst 123.23.0.1 flowid 1:1 # or/and
use server IP

Status and remove with

# tc -s qdisc ls dev eth0 # queue status # tc qdisc del dev eth0 root # delete all QoS

Calculate port range and mask

The tc filter defines the port range with port and mask which you have to calculate. Find the 2^N ending of the port range, deduce the ra
This is your mask. Example for 10000 -> 11024, the range is 1024.

# 2^13 (8192) < 10000 < 2^14 (16384) # ending is 2^14 = 16384 # echo "obase=16;(2^14)-1024" | bc # mask is
0x3C00

FreeBSD

The max link bandwidth is 500Kbit/s and we define 3 queues with priority 100:10:1 for VoIP:ssh:all the rest.

# ipfw pipe 1 config bw 500Kbit/s # ipfw queue 1 config pipe 1 weight 100 # ipfw queue 2
config pipe 1 weight 10 # ipfw queue 3 config pipe 1 weight 1 # ipfw add 10 queue 1 proto
udp dst-port 10000-11024
# ipfw add 11 queue 1 proto udp dst-ip 123.23.0.1 # or/and use server IP # ipfw add 20 queue 2 dsp-port ssh #
ipfw add 30 queue 3 from me to any # all the rest

Status and remove with

# ipfw list # rules status # ipfw pipe list # pipe status # ipfw flush # deletes all rules but default

NIS Debugging

Some commands which should work on a well configured NIS client:

# ypwhich # get the connected NIS server name # domainname # The NIS domain name as configured #
ypcat group # should display the group from the NIS server # cd /var/yp && make # Rebuild the yp database
# rpcinfo -p servername # Report RPC services of the server

Is ypbind running?

# ps auxww | grep ypbind /usr/sbin/ypbind -s -m -S servername1,servername2 # FreeBSD /usr/sbin/ypbind # Linux #

yppoll passwd.byname Map passwd.byname has order number 1190635041. Mon Sep 24 13:57:21 2007 The master
server is servername.domain.net.

Linux

# cat /etc/yp.conf ypserver servername domain domain.net

broadcast

Netcat
Netcathttp://netcat.sourceforge.net (nc) is better known as the "network Swiss Army Knife", it can manipulate, create or read/write TCP
useful examples, there are many more on the net, for example g- loaded.eu[...]http://www.g-loaded.eu/2006/11/06/netcat-a-cou
herehttp://www.terminally- incoherent.com/blog/2007/08/07/few-useful-netcat-tricks.
You might need to use the command netcat instead of nc. Also see the similar command socat.

File transfer

Copy a large folder over a raw tcp connection. The transfer is very quick (no protocol overhead) and you don't need to mess up with
simply make the file available on the server, and get it from the client. Here 192.168.1.1 is the server IP address.

server# tar -cf - -C VIDEO_TS . | nc -l -p 4444 # Serve tar folder on port 4444 client# nc 192.168.1.1 4444 | tar xpf - -C
VIDEO_TS # Pull the file on port 4444 server# cat largefile | nc -l 5678 # Server a single file client# nc 192.168.1.1 5678 >
largefile # Pull the single file server# dd if=/dev/da0 | nc -l 4444 # Server partition image client# nc 192.168.1.1 4444 | dd
of=/dev/da0 # Pull partition to clone client# nc 192.168.1.1 4444 | dd of=da0.img # Pull partition to file
Other hacks

Specially here, you must know what you are doing. Remote shell

Option -e only on the Windows version? Or use nc 1.10.

# nc -lp 4444 -e /bin/bash # Provide a remote shell (server backdoor) # nc -lp 4444 -e cmd.exe # remote shell for Windows

Emergency web server

Serve a single file on port 80 in a loop.

# while true; do nc -l -p 80 < unixtoolbox.xhtml; done

Chat

Alice and Bob can chat over a simple TCP socket. The text is transferred with the enter key.

alice# nc -lp 4444 bob # nc 192.168.1.1 4444

SSH SCP

Public key | Fingerprint | SCP | Tunneling

Public key authentication

Connect to a host without password using public key authentication. The idea is to append your public key to the authorized_keys2 file
example let's connect host-client to host-server, the key is generated on the client. With cygwin you might have to create your home dir
with # mkdir -p /home/USER/.ssh
 * Use ssh-keygen to generate a key pair. ~/.ssh/id_dsa is the private key, ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub is the public key.

* Copy only the public key to the server and append it to the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys2 on your home on the server.

# ssh-keygen -t dsa -N '' # cat ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub | ssh you@host-server "cat - >> ~/.ssh/authorized_keys2"

Using the Windows client from ssh.com

The non commercial version of the ssh.com client can be downloaded the main ftp site: ftp.ssh.com/pub/ssh/. Keys generated by th
converted for the OpenSSH server. This can be done with the ssh-keygen command.

* Create a key pair with the ssh.com client: Settings - User Authentication - Generate New....
* I use Key type DSA; key length 2048.

* Copy the public key generated by the ssh.com client to the server into the ~/.ssh folder.

* The keys are in C:\Documents and Settings\%USERNAME%\Application Data\SSH\UserKeys.

* Use the ssh-keygen command on the server to convert the key:

# cd ~/.ssh # ssh-keygen -i -f keyfilename.pub >> authorized_keys2

Notice: We used a DSA key, RSA is also possible. The key is not protected by a password. Using putty for Windows

Puttyhttp://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/putty/download.html is a simple and free ssh client for Windows.

* Create a key pair with the puTTYgen program.

* Save the public and private keys (for example into C:\Documents and Settings\%USERNAME%\.ssh).

* Copy the public key to the server into the ~/.ssh folder:

# scp .ssh/puttykey.pub [email protected]:.ssh/

* Use the ssh-keygen command on the server to convert the key for OpenSSH:

# cd ~/.ssh # ssh-keygen -i -f puttykey.pub >> authorized_keys2

 * Point the private key location in the putty settings: Connection - SSH - Auth

Check fingerprint

At the first login, ssh will ask if the unknown host with the fingerprint has to be stored in the known hosts. To avoid a man-in-the-middl
the server can send you the server fingerprint which is then compared on the first login. Use ssh-keygen -l to get the fingerprint (on the

# ssh-keygen -l -f /etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub # For RSA key 2048 61:33:be:9b:ae:6c:36:31:fd:83:98:b7:99:2d:9f:cd

/etc/ssh/ssh_host_rsa_key.pub # ssh-keygen -l -f /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub # For DSA key (default) 2048
14:4a:aa:d9:73:25:46:6d:0a:48:35:c7:f4:16:d4:ee /etc/ssh/ssh_host_dsa_key.pub

Now the client connecting to this server can verify that he is connecting to the right server:

# ssh linda The authenticity of host 'linda (192.168.16.54)' can't be established. DSA key fingerprint is
14:4a:aa:d9:73:25:46:6d:0a:48:35:c7:f4:16:d4:ee. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes

Secure file transfer

Some simple commands:

# scp file.txt host-two:/tmp # scp joe@host-two:/www/*.html /www/tmp # scp -r

joe@host-two:/www /www/tmp

In Konqueror or Midnight Commander it is possible to access a remote file system with the address fish://user@gate. However the imp

Furthermore it is possible to mount a remote folder with sshfs a file system client based on SCP. See fuse sshfshttp://fuse.sourceforge.

Tunneling

SSH tunneling allows to forward or reverse forward a port over the SSH connection, thus securing the traffic and accessing ports which
This only works with TCP. The general nomenclature for forward and reverse is (see also ssh and NAT example):

# ssh -L localport:desthost:destport user@gate # desthost as seen from the gate # ssh -R destport:desthost:localport user@gate
# forwards your localport to destination
# desthost:localport as seen from the client initiating the tunnel # ssh -X user@gate # To
force X forwarding

This will connect to gate and forward the local port to the host desthost:destport. Note desthost is the destination host as seen by the g
to the gate, then desthost is localhost. More than one port forward is possible. Direct forward on the gate

Let say we want to access the CVS (port 2401) and http (port 80) which are running on the gate. This is the simplest example, destho
use the port 8080 locally instead of 80 so we don't need to be root. Once the ssh session is open, both services are accessible on the l
# ssh -L 2401:localhost:2401 -L 8080:localhost:80 user@gate

Netbios and remote desktop forward to a second server

Let say a Windows smb server is behind the gate and is not running ssh. We need access to the smb share and also remote desktop to

# ssh -L 139:smbserver:139 -L 3388:smbserver:3389 user@gate

The smb share can now be accessed with \\127.0.0.1\, but only if the local share is disabled, because the local share is listening on por

It is possible to keep the local share enabled, for this we need to create a new virtual device with a new IP address for the tunnel, the s
over this address. Furthermore the local RDP is already listening on 3389, so we choose 3388. For this example let's use a virtual IP of

* With putty use Source port=10.1.1.1:139. It is possible to create multiple loop devices and tunnel. On Windows 2000, o
Windows Vista also forward the port 445 in addition to the port 139. Also on Vista the patch KB942624 prevents the port 445 to be forw
this path in Vista.

* With the ssh.com client, disable "Allow local connections only". Since ssh.com will bind to all addresses, only a single
Now create the loopback interface with IP 10.1.1.1:

* # System->Control Panel->Add Hardware # Yes, Hardware is already connected

# Add a new hardware device (at bottom).

* # Install the hardware that I manually select # Network adapters # Microsoft , Microsoft Loopback Adapter.

* Configure the IP address of the fake device to 10.1.1.1 mask 255.255.255.0, no gateway.

* advanced->WINS, Enable LMHosts Lookup; Disable NetBIOS over TCP/IP.

* # Enable Client for Microsoft Networks. # Disable File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks.

I HAD to reboot for this to work. Now connect to the smb share with \\10.1.1.1 and remote desktop to 10.1.1.1:3388. Debug

If it is not working:

* Are the ports forwarded: netstat -an? Look at 0.0.0.0:139 or 10.1.1.1:139

* Does telnet 10.1.1.1 139 connect?

* You need the checkbox "Local ports accept connections from other hosts".

* Is "File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks" disabled on the loopback interface?
Connect two clients behind NAT

Suppose two clients are behind a NAT gateway and client cliadmin has to connect to client cliuser (the destination), both can login t
running Linux with sshd. You don't need root access anywhere as long as the ports on gate are above 1024. We use 2022 on gate.
locally, the option GatewayPorts is not necessary.

On client cliuser (from destination to gate):

# ssh -R 2022:localhost:22 user@gate # forwards client 22 to gate:2022

On client cliadmin (from host to gate):

# ssh -L 3022:localhost:2022 admin@gate # forwards client 3022 to gate:2022

Now the admin can connect directly to the client cliuser with:

# ssh -p 3022 admin@localhost # local:3022 -> gate:2022 -> client:22

Connect to VNC behind NAT

Suppose a Windows client with VNC listening on port 5900 has to be accessed from behind NAT. On client cliwin to gate:

# ssh -R 15900:localhost:5900 user@gate

On client cliadmin (from host to gate):

# ssh -L 5900:localhost:15900 admin@gate

Now the admin can connect directly to the client VNC with:

# vncconnect -display :0 localhost

Dig a multi-hop ssh tunnel

Suppose you can not reach a server directly with ssh, but only via multiple intermediate hosts (for example because of routing issues). S
to get a direct client - server connection, for example to copy files with scp, or forward other ports like smb or vnc. One way to do this is
forward a port to the server along the hops. This "carrier" port only reaches its final destination on the last connection to the server.

Suppose we want to forward the ssh port from a client to a server over two hops. Once the tunnel is build, it is possible to connect to th
client (and also add an other port forward). Create tunnel in one shell

client -> host1 -> host2 -> server and dig tunnel 5678
client># ssh -L5678:localhost:5678 host1 # 5678 is an arbitrary port for the tunnel host_1># ssh -L5678:localhost:5678 host2 #
chain 5678 from host1 to host2 host_2># ssh -L5678:localhost:22 server # end the tunnel on port 22 on the server

Use tunnel with an other shell

client -> server using tunnel 5678

# ssh -p 5678 localhost # connect directly from client to server # scp -P 5678 myfile localhost:/tmp/ # or copy a file directly
using the tunnel # rsync -e 'ssh -p 5678' myfile localhost:/tmp/ # or rsync a file directly to the server

Autoconnect and keep alive script

I use variations of the following script to keep a machine reacheable over a reverse ssh tunnel. The connection is automatically rebuilt i
multiple -L or -R tunnels on one line.

#!/bin/sh COMMAND="ssh -N -f -g -R 3022:localhost:22 [email protected]" pgrep -f -x "$COMMAND" >

/dev/null 2>&1 || $COMMAND exit 0

1 * * * * colin /home/colin/port_forward.sh # crontab entry (here hourly)

VPN with SSH

As of version 4.3, OpenSSH can use the tun/tap device to encrypt a tunnel. This is very similar to other TLS based VPN solutions like
with SSH is that there is no need to install and configure additional software. Additionally the tunnel uses the SSH authentication like pre
is that the encapsulation is done over TCP which might result in poor performance on a slow link. Also the tunnel is relying on a single (f
technique is very useful for a quick IP based VPN setup. There is no limitation
as with the single TCP port forward, all layer 3/4 protocols like ICMP, TCP/UDP, etc. are forwarded over the VPN. In any case, the follo
the sshd_conf file:

PermitRootLogin yes PermitTunnel yes

Single P2P connection

Here we are connecting two hosts, hclient and hserver with a peer to peer tunnel. The connection is started from hclient to hserver and
end points are 10.0.1.1 (server) and 10.0.1.2 (client) and we create a device tun5 (this could also be an other number). The procedure

* Connect with SSH using the tunnel option -w

* Configure the IP addresses of the tunnel. Once on the server and once on the client.
Connect to the server

Connection started on the client and commands are executed on the server. Server is on Linux

cli># ssh -w5:5 root@hserver srv># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.252 # Executed on the server shell

Server is on FreeBSD

cli># ssh -w5:5 root@hserver srv># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.1 10.0.1.2 # Executed on the server shell

Configure the client

Commands executed on the client:

cli># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.252 # Client is on Linux cli># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.2 10.0.1.1 #
Client is on FreeBSD

The two hosts are now connected and can transparently communicate with any layer 3/4 protocol using the tunnel IP addresses.

Connect two networks

In addition to the p2p setup above, it is more useful to connect two private networks with an SSH VPN using two gates. Suppos
192.168.51.0/24 and netB 192.168.16.0/24. The procedure is similar as above, we only need to add the routing. NAT must be activated
if the gates are not the same as the default gateway of their network.

192.168.51.0/24 (netA)|gateA <-> gateB|192.168.16.0/24 (netB)

* Connect with SSH using the tunnel option -w.

* Configure the IP addresses of the tunnel. Once on the server and once on the client.

* Add the routing for the two networks.

* If necessary, activate NAT on the private interface of the gate.

The setup is started from gateA in netA. Connect from gateA to gateB

Connection is started from gateA and commands are executed on gateB. gateB is on Linux

gateA># ssh -w5:5 root@gateB gateB># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.252 # Executed on the gateB shell gateB>#
route add -net 192.168.51.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev tun5 gateB># echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward # Only needed if
not default gw gateB># iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o eth0 -j MASQUERADE
gateB is on FreeBSD

gateA># ssh -w5:5 root@gateB # Creates the tun5 devices gateB># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.1 10.0.1.2 # Executed on the
gateB shell gateB># route add 192.168.51.0/24 10.0.1.2 gateB># sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding=1 # Only needed if not
default gw gateB># natd -s -m -u -dynamic -n fxp0 # see NAT gateA># sysctl net.inet.ip.fw.enable=1

Configure gateA

Commands executed on gateA: gateA is on Linux

gateA># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.252 gateA># route add -net 192.168.16.0 netmask
255.255.255.0 dev tun5 gateA># echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward gateA># iptables -t nat -A
POSTROUTING -o eth0 -j MASQUERADE

gateA is on FreeBSD

gateA># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.2 10.0.1.1 gateA># route add 192.168.16.0/24 10.0.1.2 gateA>#
sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding=1 gateA># natd -s -m -u -dynamic -n fxp0 # see NAT gateA># sysctl
net.inet.ip.fw.enable=1

The two private networks are now transparently connected via the SSH VPN. The IP forward and NAT settings are only necessary if t
gateways. In this case the clients would not know where to forward the response, and nat must be activated.

RSYNC

Rsync can almost completely replace cp and scp, furthermore interrupted transfers are efficiently restarted. A trailing slash (and the abs
meanings, the man page is good... Here some examples:

Copy the directories with full content:

# rsync -a /home/colin/ /backup/colin/ # "archive" mode. e.g keep the same # rsync -a /var/ /var_bak/
# rsync -aR --delete-during /home/user/ /backup/ # use relative (see below)

Same as before but over the network and with compression. Rsync uses SSH for the transport per default and will use the ssh key if th
SCP. A typical remote copy:

# rsync -axSRzv /home/user/ user@server:/backup/user/ # Copy to remote # rsync -a 'user@server:My\ Documents' My\ Documents #
escape spaces for the remote shell

Exclude any directory tmp within /home/user/ and keep the relative folders hierarchy, that is the remote directory will have the structure
typically used for backups.
# rsync -azR --exclude=tmp/ /home/user/ user@server:/backup/

Use port 20022 for the ssh connection:

# rsync -az -e 'ssh -p 20022' /home/colin/ user@server:/backup/colin/

Using the rsync daemon (used with "::") is much faster, but not encrypted over ssh. The location of /backup is defined by the configura
variable RSYNC_PASSWORD can be set to avoid the need to enter the password manually.

# rsync -axSRz /home/ ruser@hostname::rmodule/backup/ # rsync -axSRz ruser@hostname::rmodule/backup/

/home/ # To copy back

Some important options:

* -a, --archive archive mode; same as -rlptgoD (no -H)

* -r, --recursive recurse into directories

* -R, --relative use relative path names

* -H, --hard-links preserve hard links

* -S, --sparse handle sparse files efficiently

* -x, --one-file-system don't cross file system boundaries

* --exclude=PATTERN exclude files matching PATTERN

* --delete-during receiver deletes during xfer, not before

* --delete-after receiver deletes after transfer, not before

Rsync on Windows

Rsync is available for Windows through cygwin or as stand-alone packaged in cwrsynchttp://sourceforge.net/projects/sereds. This is ve
automated backups. Install one of them (not both) and add the path to the Windows system variables: # Control Panel -> System -> tab
Environment Variables. Edit the "Path" system variable and add the full path to the installed rsync, e.g. C:\Program Files\cwRsync\bin o
the commands rsync and ssh are available in a Windows command shell. Public key authentication
Rsync is automatically tunneled over SSH and thus uses the SSH authentication on the server. Automatic backups have to avoid a user
public key authentication can be used and the rsync command will run without a password.

All the following commands are executed within a Windows console. In a console (Start -> Run -> cmd) create and upload the key as
"user" and "server" as appropriate. If the file authorized_keys2 does not exist yet, simply copy id_dsa.pub to authorized_keys2 and uplo

# ssh-keygen -t dsa -N '' # Creates a public and a private key # rsync user@server:.ssh/authorized_keys2 . # Copy the file
locally from the server # cat id_dsa.pub >> authorized_keys2 # Or use an editor to add the key # rsync authorized_keys2
user@server:.ssh/ # Copy the file back to the server # del authorized_keys2 # Remove the local copy

Now test it with (in one line):

rsync -rv "/cygdrive/c/Documents and Settings/%USERNAME%/My Documents/" \ 'user@server:My\ Documents/'

Automatic backup

Use a batch file to automate the backup and add the file in the scheduled tasks (Programs -> Accessories -> System Tools -> Schedule
create the file backup.bat and replace user@server.

@ECHO OFF REM rsync the directory My Documents SETLOCAL SET CWRSYNCHOME=C:\PROGRAM
FILES\CWRSYNC SET CYGWIN=nontsec SET CWOLDPATH=%PATH% REM uncomment the next line when using
cygwin SET PATH=%CWRSYNCHOME%\BIN;%PATH% echo Press Control-C to abort rsync -av "/cygdrive/c/Documents
and Settings/%USERNAME%/My Documents/" \ 'user@server:My\ Documents/' pause

SUDO

Sudo is a standard way to give users some administrative rights without giving out the root password. Sudo is very useful in a multi use
server and workstations. Simply call the command with sudo:

# sudo /etc/init.d/dhcpd restart # Run the rc script as root # sudo -u sysadmin whoami # Run cmd as an
other user

Configuration

Sudo is configured in /etc/sudoers and must only be edited with visudo. The basic syntax is (the lists are comma separated):

user hosts = (runas) commands # In /etc/sudoers

* users one or more users or %group (like %wheel) to gain the rights

* hosts list of hosts (or ALL)

* runas list of users (or ALL) that the command rule can be run as. It is enclosed in ( )!

* commands list of commands (or ALL) that will be run as root or as (runas)

Additionally those keywords can be defined as alias, they are called User_Alias, Host_Alias, Runas_Alias and Cmnd_Alias. This is use
sudoers example:

# cat /etc/sudoers # Host aliases are subnets or hostnames. Host_Alias DMZ

= 212.118.81.40/28 Host_Alias DESKTOP = work1, work2

# User aliases are a list of users which can have the same rights User_Alias ADMINS = colin, luca,
admin User_Alias DEVEL = joe, jack, julia Runas_Alias DBA = oracle,pgsql

# Command aliases define the full path of a list of commands Cmnd_Alias SYSTEM =
/sbin/reboot,/usr/bin/kill,/sbin/halt,/sbin/shutdown,/etc/init.d/ Cmnd_Alias PW = /usr/bin/passwd [A-z]*, !/usr/bin/passwd root #
Not root pwd! Cmnd_Alias DEBUG = /usr/sbin/tcpdump,/usr/bin/wireshark,/usr/bin/nmap

# The actual rules root,ADMINS ALL = (ALL) NOPASSWD: ALL # ADMINS can do anything w/o a password. DEVEL DESKTOP = (ALL
NOPASSWD: ALL # Developers have full right on desktops DEVEL DMZ = (ALL) NOPASSWD: DEBUG # Developers can debug the
DMZ servers.

# User sysadmin can mess around in the DMZ servers with some commands. sysadmin DMZ = (ALL) NOPASSWD:
SYSTEM,PW,DEBUG sysadmin ALL,!DMZ = (ALL) NOPASSWD: ALL # Can do anything outside the DMZ. %dba ALL = (DBA)
ALL # Group dba can run as database user.

# anyone can mount/unmount a cd-rom on the desktop machines ALL DESKTOP = NOPASSWD: /sbin/mount
/cdrom,/sbin/umount /cdrom

Encrypt Files

OpenSSL

A single file

Encrypt and decrypt:

# openssl aes-128-cbc -salt -in file -out file.aes # openssl aes-128-cbc -d -salt -in
file.aes -out file

Note that the file can of course be a tar archive.

tar and encrypt a whole directory

# tar -cf - directory | openssl aes-128-cbc -salt -out directory.tar.aes # Encrypt # openssl aes-128-cbc -d -salt -in
directory.tar.aes | tar -x -f - # Decrypt
tar zip and encrypt a whole directory

# tar -zcf - directory | openssl aes-128-cbc -salt -out directory.tar.gz.aes # Encrypt # openssl aes-128-cbc -d -salt -in
directory.tar.gz.aes | tar -xz -f - # Decrypt
 * Use -k mysecretpassword after aes-128-cbc to avoid the interactive password request. However note that this is highl

* Use aes-256-cbc instead of aes-128-cbc to get even stronger encryption. This uses also more CPU.

GPG

GnuPG is well known to encrypt and sign emails or any data. Furthermore gpg and also provides an advanced key management system
files encryption, not email usage, signing or the Web-Of-Trust.

The simplest encryption is with a symmetric cipher. In this case the file is encrypted with a password and anyone who knows the passw
keys are not needed. Gpg adds an extention ".gpg" to the encrypted file names.

# gpg -c file # Encrypt file with password # gpg file.gpg # Decrypt file (optionally -o otherfile)

Using keys

For more details see GPG Quick Starthttp://www.madboa.com/geek/gpg-quickstart and GPG/PGP Basicshttp://aplawrence.com/Bas
documentationhttp://gnupg.org/documentation among others.

The private and public keys are the heart of asymmetric cryptography. What is important to remember:

* Your public key is used by others to encrypt files that only you as the receiver can decrypt (not even the one who encr
The public key is thus meant to be distributed.

* Your private key is encrypted with your passphrase and is used to decrypt files which were encrypted with your publi
be kept secure. Also if the key or passphrase is lost, so are all the files encrypted with your public key.

* The key files are called keyrings as they can contain more than one key.

First generate a key pair. The defaults are fine, however you will have to enter at least your full name and email and optionally a comm
to create more than one key with the same name and email. Also you should use a "passphrase", not a simple password.

# gpg --gen-key # This can take a long time

The keys are stored in ~/.gnupg/ on Unix, on Windows they are typically stored in

C:/Documents and Settings/%USERNAME%/Application Data/gnupg/.

~/.gnupg/pubring.gpg # Contains your public keys and all others imported

~/.gnupg/secring.gpg # Can contain more than one private key

Short reminder on most used options:

 * -e encrypt data

* -d decrypt data

* -r NAME encrypt for recipient NAME (or 'Full Name' or 'email@domain')

* -a create ascii armored output of a key

* -o use as output file

The examples use 'Your Name' and 'Alice' as the keys are referred to by the email or full name or partial name. For example I can use
key [Colin Barschel (cb.vu) <[email protected]>]. Encrypt for personal use only

No need to export/import any key for this. You have both already.

# gpg -e -r 'Your Name' file # Encrypt with your public key # gpg -o file -d file.gpg # Decrypt. Use -o or it goes to
stdout

Encrypt - Decrypt with keys

First you need to export your public key for someone else to use it. And you need to import the public say from Alice to encrypt a file for
the keys in simple ascii files or use a public key server.

For example Alice export her public key and you import it, you can then encrypt a file for her. That is only Alice will be able to decrypt it.

# gpg -a -o alicekey.asc --export 'Alice' # Alice exported her key in ascii file. # gpg --send-keys --keyserver subkeys.pgp.net
KEYID # Alice put her key on a server. # gpg --import alicekey.asc # You import her key into your pubring. # gpg --search-keys --
keyserver subkeys.pgp.net 'Alice' # or get her key from a server.

Once the keys are imported it is very easy to encrypt or decrypt a file:

# gpg -e -r 'Alice' file # Encrypt the file for Alice. # gpg -d file.gpg -o file # Decrypt a file encrypted by Alice for you.

Key administration

# gpg --list-keys # list public keys and see the KEYIDS

The KEYID follows the '/' e.g. for: pub 1024D/D12B77CE the KEYID is D12B77CE # gpg --gen-revoke 'Your
Name' # generate revocation certificate # gpg --list-secret-keys # list private keys # gpg --delete-keys NAME # delete a public
key from local key ring # gpg --delete-secret-key NAME # delete a secret key from local key ring # gpg --fingerprint KEYID #
Show the fingerprint of the key # gpg --edit-key KEYID # Edit key (e.g sign or add/del email)
Encrypt Partitions

Linux with LUKS | Linux dm-crypt only | FreeBSD GELI | FBSD pwd only
There are (many) other alternative methods to encrypt disks, I only show here the methods I know and use. Keep in mind that the secu
OS has not been tempered with. An intruder could easily record the password from the keyboard events. Furthermore the data is freely
partition is attached and will not prevent an intruder to have access to it in this state. Linux

Those instructions use the Linux dm-crypt (device-mapper) facility available on the 2.6 kernel. In this example, lets encrypt the partition
however any other partition or disk, or USB or a file based partition created with losetup. In this case we would use /dev/loop0. See file
mapper uses labels to identify a partition. We use sdc1 in this example, but it could be any string. dm-crypt with LUKS

LUKS with dm-crypt has better encryption and makes it possible to have multiple passphrase for the same partition or to change the pa
LUKS is available, simply type # cryptsetup --help, if nothing about LUKS shows up, use the instructions below Without LUKS. First cre
fdisk /dev/sdc. Create encrypted partition

# dd if=/dev/urandom of=/dev/sdc1 # Optional. For paranoids only (takes days) # cryptsetup -y luksFormat /dev/sdc1 # This
destroys any data on sdc1 # cryptsetup luksOpen /dev/sdc1 sdc1 # mkfs.ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1 # create ext3 file system #
mount -t ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1 /mnt # umount /mnt # cryptsetup luksClose sdc1 # Detach the encrypted partition

Attach

# cryptsetup luksOpen /dev/sdc1 sdc1 # mount -t ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1

/mnt

Detach

# umount /mnt # cryptsetup luksClose sdc1

dm-crypt without LUKS

# cryptsetup -y create sdc1 /dev/sdc1 # or any other partition like /dev/loop0 # dmsetup ls # check it, will display: sdc1
(254, 0) # mkfs.ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1 # This is done only the first time! # mount -t ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1 /mnt #
umount /mnt/ # cryptsetup remove sdc1 # Detach the encrypted partition

Do exactly the same (without the mkfs part!) to re-attach the partition. If the password is not correct, the mount command will fail. In this
map sdc1 (cryptsetup remove sdc1) and create it again. FreeBSD

The two popular FreeBSD disk encryption modules are gbde and geli. I now use geli because it is faster and also uses the crypto devic
See The FreeBSD handbook Chapter 18.6http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/disks-encrypting.html for all the details. The geli module
into the kernel:

options GEOM_ELI
device crypto # or as module: # echo 'geom_eli_load="YES"' >> /boot/loader.conf # or do: kldload geom_eli

Use password and key

I use those settings for a typical disk encryption, it uses a passphrase AND a key to encrypt the master key. That is you need both the p
generated key /root/ad1.key to attach the partition. The master key is stored inside the partition and is not visible. See below for typical
Create encrypted partition

# dd if=/dev/random of=/root/ad1.key bs=64 count=1 # this key encrypts the mater key # geli init -s 4096 -K /root/ad1.key
/dev/ad1 # -s 8192 is also OK for disks # geli attach -k /root/ad1.key /dev/ad1 # DO make a backup of /root/ad1.key # dd
if=/dev/random of=/dev/ad1.eli bs=1m # Optional and takes a long time # newfs /dev/ad1.eli # Create file system # mount
/dev/ad1.eli /mnt

Attach

# geli attach -k /root/ad1.key /dev/ad1 # fsck -ny -t ffs /dev/ad1.eli # In doubt check the file system # mount
/dev/ad1.eli /mnt

Detach

The detach procedure is done automatically on shutdown.

# umount /mnt # geli detach /dev/ad1.eli

/etc/fstab

The encrypted partition can be configured to be mounted with /etc/fstab. The password will be prompted when booting. The following se
example:

# grep geli /etc/rc.conf geli_devices="ad1" geli_ad1_flags="-k /root/ad1.key" # grep geli /etc/fstab

/dev/ad1.eli /home/private ufs rw 0 0

Use password only

It is more convenient to encrypt a USB stick or file based image with a passphrase only and no key. In this case it is not necessary to
around. The procedure is very much the same as above, simply without the key file. Let's encrypt a file based image /cryptedfile of 1 GB

# dd if=/dev/zero of=/cryptedfile bs=1M count=1000 # 1 GB file # mdconfig -at vnode -f /cryptedfile # geli init
/dev/md0 # encrypts with password only # geli attach /dev/md0 # newfs -U -m 0 /dev/md0.eli # mount
/dev/md0.eli /mnt # umount /dev/md0.eli # geli detach md0.eli
It is now possible to mount this image on an other system with the password only.

# mdconfig -at vnode -f /cryptedfile # geli attach /dev/md0 # mount

/dev/md0.eli /mnt

SSL Certificates
So called SSL/TLS certificates are cryptographic public key certificates and are composed of a public and a private key. The certificates
the endpoints and encrypt the data. They are used for example on a web server (https) or mail server (imaps). Procedure

* We need a certificate authority to sign our certificate. This step is

usually provided by a vendor like Thawte, Verisign, etc., however we can also create our own.

* Create a certificate signing request. This request is like an unsigned certificate (the public part) and already contain
The certificate request is normally sent to the authority vendor for signing. This step also creates the private key on the local machine.

* Sign the certificate with the certificate authority.

* If necessary join the certificate and the key in a single file to be used by the application (web server, mail server etc.).

Configure OpenSSL

We use /usr/local/certs as directory for this example check or edit /etc/ssl/openssl.cnf accordingly to your settings so you know where th
are the relevant part of openssl.cnf:

[ CA_default ] dir = /usr/local/certs/CA # Where everything is kept certs = $dir/certs # Where the issued
certs are kept crl_dir = $dir/crl # Where the issued crl are kept database = $dir/index.txt # database index
file.

Make sure the directories exist or create them

# mkdir -p /usr/local/certs/CA # cd /usr/local/certs/CA # mkdir certs crl newcerts private # echo "01" >
serial # Only if serial does not exist # touch index.txt

If you intend to get a signed certificate from a vendor, you only need a certificate signing request (CSR). This CSR will then be signed b
time (e.g. 1 year). Create a certificate authority

If you do not have a certificate authority from a vendor, you'll have to create your own. This step is not necessary if one intend to use a
To make a certificate authority (CA):
# openssl req -new -x509 -days 730 -config /etc/ssl/openssl.cnf \ -keyout CA/private/cakey.pem -out
CA/cacert.pem

Create a certificate signing request

To make a new certificate (for mail server or web server for example), first create a request certificate with its private key. If your applicat
private key (for example UW-IMAP does not), then disable encryption with -nodes.
# openssl req -new -keyout newkey.pem -out newreq.pem \ -config /etc/ssl/openssl.cnf # openssl req -
nodes -new -keyout newkey.pem -out newreq.pem \ -config /etc/ssl/openssl.cnf # No encryption for the
key

Keep this created CSR (newreq.pem) as it can be signed again at the next renewal, the signature onlt will limit the validity of the certific
created the private key newkey.pem.

Sign the certificate

The certificate request has to be signed by the CA to be valid, this step is usually done by the vendor. Note: replace "servername" with
the next commands.

# cat newreq.pem newkey.pem > new.pem # openssl ca -policy policy_anything -out

servernamecert.pem \ -config /etc/ssl/openssl.cnf -infiles new.pem # mv newkey.pem
servernamekey.pem

Now servernamekey.pem is the private key and servernamecert.pem is the server certificate.

Create united certificate

The IMAP server wants to have both private key and server certificate in the same file. And in general, this is also easier to handle
securely!. Apache also can deal with it well. Create a file servername.pem containing both the certificate and key.

* Open the private key (servernamekey.pem) with a text editor and copy the private key into the "servername.pem" file.

* Do the same with the server certificate (servernamecert.pem).

The final servername.pem file should look like this:

-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY----- MIICXQIBAAKBgQDutWy+o/XZ/[...]qK5LqQgT3c9dU6fcR+WuSs6aejdEDDqBRQ -----END

RSA PRIVATE KEY----- -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
MIIERzCCA7CgAwIBAgIBBDANB[...]iG9w0BAQQFADCBxTELMAkGA1UEBhMCREUx -----END CERTIFICATE-----

What we have now in the directory /usr/local/certs/:

* CA/private/cakey.pem (CA server private key)

* CA/cacert.pem (CA server public key)

* certs/servernamekey.pem (server private key)

* certs/servernamecert.pem (server signed certificate)

 * certs/servername.pem (server certificate with private key)

Keep the private key secure!

View certificate information

To view the certificate information simply do:

# openssl x509 -text -in servernamecert.pem # View the certificate info # openssl req -noout -text -in server.csr #
View the request info # openssl s_client -connect cb.vu:443 # Check a web server certificate

CVS

Server setup | CVS test | SSH tunneling | CVS usage

Server setup

Initiate the CVS

Decide where the main repository will rest and create a root cvs. For example /usr/local/cvs (as root):

# mkdir -p /usr/local/cvs # setenv CVSROOT /usr/local/cvs # Set CVSROOT to the new location (local) # cvs init #
Creates all internal CVS config files # cd /root # cvs checkout CVSROOT # Checkout the config files to modify them # cd
CVSROOT edit config ( fine as it is) # cvs commit config cat >> writers # Create a writers file (optionally also readers)
colin ^D # Use [Control][D] to quit the edit # cvs add writers # Add the file writers into the repository # cvs edit checkoutlist
# cat >> checkoutlist writers ^D # Use [Control][D] to quit the edit # cvs commit # Commit all the configuration changes

Add a readers file if you want to differentiate read and write permissions Note: Do not (ever) edit files directly into the m ain cvs, but rat
it and check it in. We did this with the file writers to define the write access.

There are three popular ways to access the CVS at this point. The first two don't need any further configuration. See the examples on C
use them:

* Direct local access to the file system. The user(s) need sufficient file permission to access the CS directly and there is
addition to the OS login. However this is only useful if the repository is local.
* Remote access with ssh with the ext protocol. Any use with an ssh shell account and read/write permissions on the
CVS directly with ext over ssh without any additional tunnel. There is no server process running on the CVS for this to work. The ssh lo

* Remote access with pserver (default port: 2401/tcp). This is the preferred use for larger user base as the users are
pserver with a dedicated password database, there is therefore no need for local users accounts. This setup is explained below.
Network setup with inetd

The CVS can be run locally only if a network access is not needed. For a remote access, the daemon inetd can start the pserver with th
/etc/inetd.conf (/etc/xinetd.d/cvs on SuSE):

cvspserver stream tcp nowait cvs /usr/bin/cvs cvs \ --allow-root=/usr/local/cvs pserver

It is a good idea to block the cvs port from the Internet with the firewall and use an ssh tunnel to access the repository remotely.

Separate authentication

It is possible to have cvs users which are not part of the OS (no local users). This is actually probably wanted too from the security po
named passwd (in the CVSROOT directory) containing the users login and password in the crypt format. This is can be done with the a

Note: This passwd file is the only file which has to be edited directly in the CVSROOT directory. Also it won't be checked out. More info

# htpasswd -cb passwd user1 password1 # -c creates the file # htpasswd -b passwd user2
password2

Now add :cvs at the end of each line to tell the cvs server to change the user to cvs (or whatever your cvs server is running under). It lo

# cat passwd user1:xsFjhU22u8Fuo:cvs

user2:vnefJOsnnvToM:cvs

Test it

Test the login as normal user (for example here me)

# cvs -d :pserver:[email protected]:/usr/local/cvs login Logging in to

:pserver:[email protected]:2401/usr/local/cvs CVS password:

CVSROOT variable

This is an environment variable used to specify the location of the repository we're doing operations on. For local use, it can be jus
repository. For use over the network, the transport protocol must be specified. Set the CVSROOT variable with setenv CVSROOT string
export CVSROOT=string on a sh, bash shell.
# setenv CVSROOT :pserver:<username>@<host>:/cvsdirectory For example: # setenv CVSROOT /usr/local/cvs # Used locally
only # setenv CVSROOT :local:/usr/local/cvs # Same as above # setenv CVSROOT :ext:user@cvsserver:/usr/local/cvs # Direct
access with SSH # setenv CVS_RSH ssh # for the ext access # setenv CVSROOT :pserver:[email protected]:/usr/local/cvs #
network with pserver
When the login succeeded one can import a new project into the repository: cd into your project root directory

cvs import <module name> <vendor tag> <initial tag> cvs -d :pserver:[email protected]:/usr/local/cvs import MyProject
MyCompany START

Where MyProject is the name of the new project in the repository (used later to checkout). Cvs will import the current directory content

To checkout:

# cvs -d :pserver:[email protected]:/usr/local/cvs checkout MyProject or # setenv CVSROOT

:pserver:[email protected]:/usr/local/cvs # cvs checkout MyProject

SSH tunneling for CVS

We need 2 shells for this. On the first shell we connect to the cvs server with ssh and port-forward the cvs connection. On the second s
normally as if it where running locally.

on shell 1:

# ssh -L2401:localhost:2401 colin@cvs_server # Connect directly to the CVS server. Or: # ssh -L2401:cvs_server:2401
colin@gateway # Use a gateway to reach the CVS

on shell 2:

# setenv CVSROOT :pserver:colin@localhost:/usr/local/cvs # cvs login Logging in to

:pserver:colin@localhost:2401/usr/local/cvs CVS password: # cvs checkout MyProject/src

CVS commands and usage

Import

The import command is used to add a whole directory, it must be run from within the directory to be imported. Say the directory /
subdirectories to be imported. The directory name on the CVS (the module) will be called "myapp".

# cvs import [options] directory-name vendor-tag release-tag # cd /devel # Must be inside the project to
import it
# cvs import myapp Company R1_0 # Release tag can be anything in one word

After a while a new directory "/devel/tools/" was added and it has to be imported too.
# cd /devel/tools # cvs import myapp/tools Company R1_0

Checkout update add commit

# cvs co myapp/tools # Will only checkout the directory tools # cvs co -r R1_1 myapp # Checkout myapp at release
R1_1 (is sticky) # cvs -q -d update -P # A typical CVS update # cvs update -A # Reset any sticky tag (or date, option) #
cvs add newfile # Add a new file # cvs add -kb newfile # Add a new binary file # cvs commit file1 file2 # Commit the two
files only # cvs commit -m "message" # Commit all changes done with a message

Create a patch

It is best to create and apply a patch from the working development directory related to the project, or from within the source directory.

# cd /devel/project # diff -Naur olddir newdir > patchfile # Create a patch from a directory or a file # diff -Naur oldfile
newfile > patchfile

Apply a patch

Sometimes it is necessary to strip a directory level from the patch, depending how it was created. In case of difficulties, simply look at th
and try -p0, -p1 or -p2.

# cd /devel/project # patch --dry-run -p0 < patchfile # Test the path without applying it # patch -p0 <
patchfile # patch -p1 < patchfile # strip off the 1st level from the path

SVN

Server setup | SVN+SSH | SVN over http | SVN usage

Subversion (SVN)http://subversion.tigris.org/ is a version control system designed to be the successor of CVS (Concurrent Versions Sy
similar to CVS, but many shortcomings where improved. See also the SVN bookhttp://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.4/. Server setup

The initiation of the repository is fairly simple (here for example /home/svn/ must exist):

# svnadmin create --fs-type fsfs /home/svn/project1

Now the access to the repository is made possible with:

* file:// Direct file system access with the svn client with. This requires local permissions on the file system.

* svn:// or svn+ssh:// Remote access with the svnserve server (also over SSH). This requires local permissions on the fil
2690/tcp).
 * http:// Remote access with webdav using apache. No local users are necessary for this method.

Using the local file system, it is now possible to import and then check out an existing project. Unlike with CVS it is not necessary to cd
simply give the full path:

# svn import /project1/ file:///home/svn/project1/trunk -m 'Initial import' # svn checkout

file:///home/svn/project1

The new directory "trunk" is only a convention, this is not required. Remote access with ssh

No special setup is required to access the repository via ssh, simply replace file:// with svn+ssh/hostname. For example:

# svn checkout svn+ssh://hostname/home/svn/project1

As with the local file access, every user needs an ssh access to the server (with a local account) and also read/write access. This me
small group. All users could belong to a subversion group which owns the repository, for example:

# groupadd subversion # groupmod -A user1 subversion # chown -R

root:subversion /home/svn # chmod -R 770 /home/svn

Remote access with http (apache)

Remote access over http (https) is the only good solution for a larger user group. This method uses the apache authentication, not the
typical but small apache configuration:

LoadModule dav_module modules/mod_dav.so LoadModule dav_svn_module modules/mod_dav_svn.so LoadModule

authz_svn_module modules/mod_authz_svn.so # Only for access control

<Location /svn>
DAV svn # any "/svn/foo" URL will map to a repository /home/svn/foo SVNParentPath /home/svn
AuthType Basic AuthName "Subversion repository" AuthzSVNAccessFile /etc/apache2/svn.acl
AuthUserFile /etc/apache2/svn-passwd Require valid-user </Location>

The apache server needs full access to the repository:

# chown -R www:www /home/svn

Create a user with htpasswd2:

# htpasswd -c /etc/svn-passwd user1 # -c creates the file

Access control svn.acl example

# Default it read access. "* =" would be default no access [/]* = r [groups] project1-developers =
joe, jack, jane # Give write access to the developers [project1:] @project1-developers = rw

SVN commands and usage

See also the Subversion Quick Reference Cardhttp://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/csobaniec/Papers/svn-refcard.pdf. Tortoise SVNhttp://torto

Windows interface. Import

A new project, that is a directory with some files, is imported into the repository with the import command. Import is also used to add a d
an existing project.

# svn help import # Get help for any command

# Add a new directory (with content) into the src dir on project1 # svn import /project1/newdir
http://host.url/svn/project1/trunk/src -m 'add newdir'

Typical SVN commands

# svn co http://host.url/svn/project1/trunk # Checkout the most recent version

# Tags and branches are created by copying # svn mkdir http://host.url/svn/project1/tags/ #
Create the tags directory # svn copy -m "Tag rc1 rel." http://host.url/svn/project1/trunk \
http://host.url/svn/project1/tags/1.0rc1 # svn status [--verbose] # Check files status into
working dir # svn add src/file.h src/file.cpp # Add two files # svn commit -m 'Added new class file' # Commit the changes with
a message # svn ls http://host.url/svn/project1/tags/ # List all tags # svn move foo.c bar.c # Move (rename) files # svn delete
some_old_file # Delete files

Useful Commands

less | vi | mail | tar | dd | screen | find | Miscellaneous

less

The less command displays a text document on the console. It is present on most installation.

# less unixtoolbox.xhtml

Some important commands are (^N stands for [control]-[N]):

* h H good help on display

* f ^F ^V SPACE Forward one window (or N lines).

* b ^B ESC-v Backward one window (or N lines).

 * F Forward forever; like "tail -f".

* /pattern Search forward for (N-th) matching line.

* ?pattern Search backward for (N-th) matching line.

* n Repeat previous search (for N-th occurrence).

* N Repeat previous search in reverse direction.

* q quit

viVi is present on ANY Linux/Unix installation (not gentoo?) and it is therefore useful to know some basic commands. There are two modes: command mode and insertion mo
accessed with [ESC], the insertion mode with i. Use : help if you are lost.

The editors nano and pico are usually available too and are easier (IMHO) to use. Quit

* :w newfilename save the file to newfilename

* :wq or :x save and quit

* :q! quit without saving

Search and move

* /string Search forward for string

* ?string Search back for string

* n Search for next instance of string

* N Search for previous instance of string

* { Move a paragraph back

* } Move a paragraph forward

* 1G Move to the first line of the file

* nG Move to the n th line of the file

* G Move to the last line of the file

 * :%s/OLD/NEW/g Search and replace every occurrence
Delete copy paste text

* dd (dw) Cut current line (word)

* D Cut to the end of the line

* x Delete (cut) character

* yy (yw) Copy line (word) after cursor

* P Paste after cursor

* u Undo last modification

* U Undo all changes to current line

mail

The mail command is a basic application to read and send email, it is usually installed. To send an email simply type "mail user@domain
then the mail content. Terminate and send the email with a single dot (.) in a new line. Example:

# mail [email protected] Subject: Your text is full of typos "For a moment, nothing happened. Then, after a
second or so, nothing continued to happen." .EOT #This is also working with a pipe:

# echo "This is the mail body" | mail [email protected]

This is also a simple way to test the mail server.

tar

The command tar (tape archive) creates and extracts archives of file and directories. The archive .tar is uncompressed, a compressed
.tgz or .tar.gz (zip) or .tbz (bzip2). Do not use absolute path when creating an archive, you probably want to unpack it somewhere else.
are: Create

# cd / # tar -cf home.tar home/ # archive the whole /home directory (c for create) # tar -czf home.tgz home/ # same
with zip compression # tar -cjf home.tbz home/ # same with bzip2 compression

Only include one (or two) directories from a tree, but keep the relative structure. For example archive /usr/local/etc and /usr/local/www a
archive should be local/.

# tar -C /usr -czf local.tgz local/etc local/www # tar -C /usr -xzf local.tgz # To untar the local dir
into /usr # cd /usr; tar -xzf local.tgz # Is the same as above
Extract
# tar -tzf home.tgz # look inside the archive without extracting (list) # tar -xf home.tar # extract the archive here (x for extract)
# tar -xzf home.tgz # same with zip compression (-xjf for bzip2 compression)
# remove leading path gallery2 and extract into gallery # tar --strip-components
1 -zxvf gallery2.tgz -C gallery/ # tar -xjf home.tbz home/colin/file.txt # Restore a single file

More advanced

# tar c dir/ | gzip | ssh user@remote 'dd of=dir.tgz' # arch dir/ and store remotely. # tar cvf - `find . -print` > backup.tar #
arch the current directory. # tar -cf - -C /etc . | tar xpf - -C /backup/etc # Copy directories # tar -cf - -C /etc . | ssh
user@remote tar xpf - -C /backup/etc # Remote copy. # tar -czf home.tgz --exclude '*.o' --exclude 'tmp/' home/

ddThe program dd (disk dump or destroy disk or see the meaning of dd) is used to copy partitions and disks and for other copy tricks. Typical usage:

# dd if=<source> of=<target> bs=<byte size> conv=<conversion>

Important conv options:

* notrunc do not truncate the output file, all zeros will be written as zeros.

* noerror continue after read errors (e.g. bad blocks)

* sync pad every input block with Nulls to ibs-size

The default byte size is 512 (one block). The MBR, where the partition table is located, is on the first block, the first 63 blocks of a disk a
sizes are faster to copy but require also more memory. Backup and restore

# dd if=/dev/hda of=/dev/hdc bs=16065b # Copy disk to disk (same size) # dd if=/dev/sda7 of=/home/root.img bs=4096
conv=notrunc,noerror # Backup / # dd if=/home/root.img of=/dev/sda7 bs=4096 conv=notrunc,noerror # Restore / # dd bs=1M
if=/dev/ad4s3e | gzip -c > ad4s3e.gz # Zip the backup # gunzip -dc ad4s3e.gz | dd of=/dev/ad0s3e bs=1M # Restore the zip #
dd bs=1M if=/dev/ad4s3e | gzip | ssh eedcoba@fry 'dd of=ad4s3e.gz' # also remote # gunzip -dc ad4s3e.gz | ssh
eedcoba@host 'dd of=/dev/ad0s3e bs=1M' # dd if=/dev/ad0 of=/dev/ad2 skip=1 seek=1 bs=4k conv=noerror # Skip MBR
# This is necessary if the destination (ad2) is smaller.

Recover

The command dd will read every single block of the partition. In case of problems it is better to use the option conv=sync,noerror so d
write zeros at the destination. Accordingly it is important to set the block size equal or smaller than the disk block size. A 1k size seem
disk has bad sectors and the data should be recovered from a partition, create an image file with dd, mount the image and copy the co
option noerror, dd will skip the bad sectors and write zeros instead, thus only the data contained in the bad sectors will be lost.
# dd if=/dev/hda of=/dev/null bs=1m # Check for bad blocks # dd bs=1k if=/dev/hda1 conv=sync,noerror,notrunc | gzip | ssh \ #
Send to remote root@fry 'dd of=hda1.gz bs=1k' # dd bs=1k if=/dev/hda1 conv=sync,noerror,notrunc of=hda1.img # Store into an
image # mount -o loop /hda1.img /mnt # Mount the image # rsync -ax /mnt/ /newdisk/ # Copy on a new disk # dd if=/dev/hda
of=/dev/hda # Refresh the magnetic state
# The above is useful to refresh a disk. It is perfectly safe, but must be unmounted.

Delete

# dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/hdc # Delete full disk # dd if=/dev/urandom of=/dev/hdc # Delete full disk better # kill
-USR1 PID # View dd progress (Linux) # kill -INFO PID # View dd progress (FreeBSD)

MBR tricks

The MBR contains the boot loader and the partition table and is 512 bytes small. The first 446 are for the boot loader, the bytes 446 to
table.

# dd if=/dev/sda of=/mbr_sda.bak bs=512 count=1 # Backup the full MBR # dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/sda bs=512 count=1 # Delete MBR
and partition table # dd if=/mbr_sda.bak of=/dev/sda bs=512 count=1 # Restore the full MBR # dd if=/mbr_sda.bak of=/dev/sda bs=446
count=1 # Restore only the boot loader # dd if=/mbr_sda.bak of=/dev/sda bs=1 count=64 skip=446 seek=446 # Restore partition table

screen

Screen (a must have) has two main functionalities:

* Run multiple terminal session within a single terminal.

* A started program is decoupled from the real terminal and can thus run in the background. The real terminal can be clo

Short start example

start screen with:

# screen

Within the screen session we can start a long lasting program (like top).

# top

Now detach with Ctrl-a Ctrl-d. Reattach the terminal with:

# screen -R -D

In detail this means: If a session is running, then reattach. If necessary detach and logout remotely first. If it was not running create it an
# screen -x

Attach to a running screen in a multi display mode. The console is thus shared among multiple users. Very useful for team work/debug!

Screen commands (within screen)

All screen commands start with Ctrl-a.

* Ctrl-a ? help and summary of functions

* Ctrl-a c create an new window (terminal)

* Ctrl-a Ctrl-n and Ctrl-a Ctrl-p to switch to the next or previous

window in the list, by number.

* Ctrl-a Ctrl-N where N is a number from 0 to 9, to switch to the corresponding window.

* Ctrl-a " to get a navigable list of running windows

* Ctrl-a a to clear a missed Ctrl-a

* Ctrl-a Ctrl-d to disconnect and leave the session running in the background

* Ctrl-a x lock the screen terminal with a password

The screen session is terminated when the program within the running terminal is closed and you logout from the terminal.

Find

Some important options:

* -x (on BSD) -xdev (on Linux) Stay on the same file system (dev in fstab).

* -exec cmd {} \; Execute the command and replace {} with the full path

* -iname Like -name but is case insensitive

* -ls Display information about the file (like ls -la)

* -size n n is +-n (k M G T P)

* -cmin n File's status was last changed n minutes ago.

# find . -type f ! -perm -444 # Find files not readable by all # find . -type d ! -perm -111 # Find dirs not accessible by all # find
/home/user/ -cmin 10 -print # Files created or modified in the last 10 min. # find . -name '*.[ch]' | xargs grep -E 'expr' # Search
'expr' in this dir and below. # find / -name "*.core" | xargs rm # Find core dumps and delete them (also try core.*) # find / -name
"*.core" -print -exec rm {} \; # Other syntax
# Find images and create an archive, iname is not case sensitive. -r for append # find . \( -iname "*.png" -o -
iname "*.jpg" \) -print -exec tar -rf images.tar {} \; # find . -type f -name "*.txt" ! -name README.txt -print # Exclude
README.txt files # find /var/ -size +10M -exec ls -lh {} \; # Find large files > 10 MB # find /var/ -size +10M -ls # This is
simpler # find . -size +10M -size -50M -print
# find /usr/ports/ -name work -type d -print -exec rm -rf {} \; # Clean the ports
# Find files with SUID; those file are vulnerable and must be kept secure # find / -type f -user root -
perm -4000 -exec ls -l {} \;

Be careful with xarg or exec as it might or might not honor quotings and can return wrong results when files or directories contain sp
xargs -0" instead of "| xargs". The option -print0 must be the last in the find command. See this
findhttp://www.hccfl.edu/pollock/Unix/FindCmd.htm.

# find . -type f | xargs ls -l # Will not work with spaces in names # find . -type f -print0 | xargs -0 ls -l # Will
work with spaces in names # find . -type f -exec ls -l '{}' \; # Or use quotes '{}' with -exec

Miscellaneous

# which command # Show full path name of command # time command # See how long a command takes to execute # time
cat # Use time as stopwatch. Ctrl-c to stop # set | grep $USER # List the current environment # cal -3 # Display a three month
calendar # date [-u|--utc|--universal] [MMDDhhmm[[CC]YY][.ss]] # date 10022155 # Set date and time # whatis grep #
Display a short info on the command or word # whereis java # Search path and standard directories for word # setenv
varname value # Set env. variable varname to value (csh/tcsh) # export varname="value" # set env. variable varname to
value (sh/ksh/bash) # pwd # Print working directory # mkdir -p /path/to/dir # no error if existing, make parent dirs as needed #
mkdir -p project/{bin,src,obj,doc/{html,man,pdf},debug/some/more/dirs} # rmdir /path/to/dir # Remove directory # rm -rf
/path/to/dir # Remove directory and its content (force) # cp -la /dir1 /dir2 # Archive and hard link files instead of copy # cp -lpR
/dir1 /dir2 # Same for FreeBSD # cp unixtoolbox.xhtml{,.bak} # Short way to copy the file with a new extension # mv /dir1 /dir2
# Rename a directory # ls -1 # list one file per line # history | tail -50 # Display the last 50 used commands

Check file hashes with openssl. This is a nice alternative to the commands md5sum or sha1sum (FreeBSD uses md5 and sha1) which

# openssl md5 file.tar.gz # Generate an md5 checksum from file # openssl sha1 file.tar.gz # Generate an sha1 checksum
from file # openssl rmd160 file.tar.gz # Generate a RIPEMD-160 checksum from file

Install Software

Usually the package manager uses the proxy variable for http/ftp requests. In .bashrc:

export http_proxy=http://proxy_server:3128 export

ftp_proxy=http://proxy_server:3128
List installed packages

# rpm -qa # List installed packages (RH, SuSE, RPM based) # dpkg -l # Debian, Ubuntu
# pkg_info # FreeBSD list all installed packages # pkg_info -W smbd # FreeBSD show which package smbd belongs to #
pkginfo # Solaris

Add/remove software

Front ends: yast2/yast for SuSE, redhat-config-packages for Red Hat.

# rpm -i pkgname.rpm # install the package (RH, SuSE, RPM based) # rpm -e pkgname # Remove package

Debian

# apt-get update # First update the package lists # apt-get install emacs # Install the package emacs #
dpkg --remove emacs # Remove the package emacs # dpkg -S file # find what package a file belongs
to

Gentoo

Gentoo uses emerge as the heart of its "Portage" package management system.

# emerge --sync # First sync the local portage tree # emerge -u packagename # Install or upgrade a
package # emerge -C packagename # Remove the package # revdep-rebuild # Repair dependencies

Solaris

The <cdrom> path is usually /cdrom/cdrom0.

# pkgadd -d <cdrom>/Solaris_9/Product SUNWgtar # pkgadd -d SUNWgtar # Add downloaded package (bunzip2

first) # pkgrm SUNWgtar # Remove the package

FreeBSD

# pkg_add -r rsync # Fetch and install rsync. # pkg_delete /var/db/pkg/rsync-xx # Delete the rsync
package

Set where the packages are fetched from with the PACKAGESITE variable. For example:

# export PACKAGESITE=ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages/Latest/ # or
ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-6-stable/Latest/
FreeBSD portshttp://www.freebsd.org/handbook/ports.html

The port tree /usr/ports/ is a collection of software ready to compile and install (see man ports). The ports are updated with the program

# portsnap fetch extract # Create the tree when running the first time # portsnap fetch update # Update the port tree
# cd /usr/ports/net/rsync/ # Select the package to install # make install distclean # Install and cleanup (also see man
ports) # make package # Make a binary package of this port
# pkgdb -F # Fix the package registry database

Library path

Due to complex dependencies and runtime linking, programs are difficult to copy to an other system or distribution. However fo
dependencies, the missing libraries can be copied over. The runtime libraries (and the missing one) are checked with ldd and managed

# ldd /usr/bin/rsync # List all needed runtime libraries # ldconfig -n /path/to/libs/ # Add a path to the shared libraries
directories # ldconfig -m /path/to/libs/ # FreeBSD # LD_LIBRARY_PATH # The variable set the link library path

Convert Media

Sometimes one simply need to convert a video, audio file or document to another format. Text encoding

Text encoding can get totally wrong, specially when the language requires special characters like àäç. The
command iconv can convert from one encoding to an other.

# iconv -f <from_encoding> -t <to_encoding> <input_file> # iconv -f ISO8859-1 -t UTF-8 -o

file.input > file_utf8 # iconv -l # List known coded character sets

Without the -f option, iconv will use the local char-set, which is usually fine if the document displays well. Unix -
DOS newlines

Convert DOS (CR/LF) to Unix (LF) newlines and back within a Unix shell. See also dos2unix and unix2dos if you have them.

# sed 's/.$//' dosfile.txt > unixfile.txt # DOS to UNIX # awk '{sub(/\r$/,"");print}' dosfile.txt > unixfile.txt #
DOS to UNIX # awk '{sub(/$/,"\r");print}' unixfile.txt > dosfile.txt # UNIX to DOS

Convert Unix to DOS newlines within a Windows environment. Use sed or awk from mingw or cygwin.

# sed -n p unixfile.txt > dosfile.txt # awk 1 unixfile.txt > dosfile.txt # UNIX to DOS (with a cygwin shell)

PDF to Jpeg and concatenate PDF files

Convert a PDF document with gs (GhostScript) to jpeg (or png) images for each page. Also much shorter with convert and mogrify (from
GraphicsMagick).

# gs -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -sDEVICE=jpeg -r150 -dTextAlphaBits=4 -dGraphicsAlphaBits=4 \

-dMaxStripSize=8192 -sOutputFile=unixtoolbox_%d.jpg unixtoolbox.pdf # convert unixtoolbox.pdf
unixtoolbox-%03d.png # convert *.jpeg images.pdf # Create a simple PDF with all pictures # convert image000* -
resample 120x120 -compress JPEG -quality 80 images.pdf # mogrify -format png *.ppm # convert all ppm images to png
format
Ghostscript can also concatenate multiple pdf files into a single one. This only works well if the PDF files are "well behaved".

# gs -q -sPAPERSIZE=a4 -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -sDEVICE=pdfwrite -sOutputFile=all.pdf \ file1.pdf file2.pdf ... # On Windows use
'#' instead of '='

Convert video

Compress the Canon digicam video with an mpeg4 codec and repair the crappy sound.

# mencoder -o videoout.avi -oac mp3lame -ovc lavc -srate 11025 \ -channels 1 -af-adv force=1 -lameopts
preset=medium -lavcopts \ vcodec=msmpeg4v2:vbitrate=600 -mc 0 vidoein.AVI

See sox for sound processing.

Copy an audio cd

The program cdparanoiahttp://xiph.org/paranoia/ can save the audio tracks (FreeBSD port in audio/cdparanoia/), oggenc can encode in
converts to mp3.

# cdparanoia -B # Copy the tracks to wav files in current dir # lame -b 256 in.wav out.mp3 # Encode in mp3 256
kb/s # for i in *.wav; do lame -b 256 $i `basename $i .wav`.mp3; done # oggenc in.wav -b 256 out.ogg # Encode
in Ogg Vorbis 256 kb/s

Printing

Print with lpr

# lpr unixtoolbox.ps # Print on default printer # export PRINTER=hp4600 # Change the default printer # lpr -
Php4500 #2 unixtoolbox.ps # Use printer hp4500 and print 2 copies # lpr -o Duplex=DuplexNoTumble ... # Print
duplex along the long side # lpr -o PageSize=A4,Duplex=DuplexNoTumble ...

# lpq # Check the queue on default printer # lpq -l -Php4500 # Queue on printer hp4500 with verbose # lprm - #
Remove all users jobs on default printer # lprm -Php4500 3186 # Remove job 3186. Find job nbr with lpq # lpc
status # List all available printers # lpc status hp4500 # Check if printer is online and queue length
Some devices are not postscript and will print garbage when fed with a pdf file. This might be solved with:

# gs -dSAFER -dNOPAUSE -sDEVICE=deskjet -sOutputFile=\|lpr file.pdf

Print to a PDF file even if the application does not support it. Use gs on the print command instead of lpr.

# gs -q -sPAPERSIZE=a4 -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -sDEVICE=pdfwrite -sOutputFile=/path/file.pdf

Databases

PostgreSQL

Change root or a username password

# psql -d template1 -U pgsql > alter user pgsql with password 'pgsql_password'; # Use username instead of "pgsql"

Create user and database

The commands createuser, dropuser, createdb and dropdb are convenient shortcuts equivalent to the SQL commands. The new user i
; use as root with pgsql the database super user:

# createuser -U pgsql -P bob # -P will ask for password # createdb -U pgsql -O bob bobdb # new bobdb is
owned by bob # dropdb bobdb # Delete database bobdb # dropuser bob # Delete user bob

The general database authentication mechanism is configured in pg_hba.conf Grant remote access

The file $PGSQL_DATA_D/postgresql.conf specifies the address to bind to. Typically listen_addresses = '*' for Postgres 8.x.

The file $PGSQL_DATA_D/pg_hba.conf defines the access control. Examples:

# TYPE DATABASE USER IP-ADDRESS IP-MASK METHOD host bobdb bob 212.117.81.42 255.255.255.255
password host all all 0.0.0.0/0 password

Backup and restore

The backups and restore are done with the user pgsql or postgres. Backup and restore a single database:

# pg_dump --clean dbname > dbname_sql.dump # psql dbname < dbname_sql.dump

Backup and restore all databases (including users):

# pg_dumpall --clean > full.dump # psql -f full.dump postgres

In this case the restore is started with the database postgres which is better when reloading an empty cluster.
MySQL

Change mysql root or username password

Method 1

# /etc/init.d/mysql stop or# killall mysqld # mysqld --skip-grant-tables

# mysqladmin -u root password 'newpasswd' # /etc/init.d/mysql start

Method 2

# mysql -u root mysql mysql> UPDATE USER SET PASSWORD=PASSWORD("newpassword") where user='root'; mysql> FLUSH
PRIVILEGES; # Use username instead of "root" mysql> quit

Create user and database (see MySQL dochttp://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.1/en/adding-users.html)

# mysql -u root mysql mysql> CREATE USER 'bob'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'pwd'; # create only a user mysql> CREATE
DATABASE bobdb; mysql> GRANT ALL ON *.* TO 'bob'@'%' IDENTIFIED BY 'pwd'; # Use localhost instead of %
# to restrict the network access mysql> DROP DATABASE bobdb; # Delete database
mysql> DROP USER bob; # Delete user mysql> DELETE FROM mysql.user WHERE user='bob and host='hostname'; # Alt. command
mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;

Grant remote access

Remote access is typically permitted for a database, and not all databases. The file /etc/my.cnf contains the IP address to bind to. Typi
address = out.

# mysql -u root mysql mysql> GRANT ALL ON bobdb.* TO bob@'xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx' IDENTIFIED BY 'PASSWORD'; mysql> REVOKE
GRANT OPTION ON foo.* FROM bar@'xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx'; mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES; # Use 'hostname' or also '%' for full access

Backup and restore

Backup and restore a single database:

# mysqldump -u root -psecret --add-drop-database dbname > dbname_sql.dump # mysql -u root -psecret -D dbname <
dbname_sql.dump

Backup and restore all databases:

# mysqldump -u root -psecret --add-drop-database --all-databases > full.dump # mysql -u root -psecret < full.dump

Here is "secret" the mysql root password, there is no space after -p. When the -p option is used alone (w/o password), the password is
prompt.
SQLite

SQLitehttp://www.sqlite.org is a small powerful self-contained, serverless, zero-configuration SQL database. Dump and restore

It can be useful to dump and restore an SQLite database. For example you can edit the dump file to change a column attribute or type an
This is easier than messing with SQL commands. Use the command sqlite3 for a 3.x database.
# sqlite database.db .dump > dump.sql # dump # sqlite database.db < dump.sql # restore

Convert 2.x to 3.x database

sqlite database_v2.db .dump | sqlite3 database_v3.db

Disk Quota

A disk quota allows to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user or (or member of group) can use. The quotas are
system basis and are enforced by the kernel. Linux setup

The quota tools package usually needs to be installed, it contains the command line tools.

Activate the user quota in the fstab and remount the partition. If the partition is busy, either all locked files must be closed, or the system
usrquota to the fstab mount options, for example:

/dev/sda2 /home reiserfs rw,acl,user_xattr,usrquota 1 1 # mount -o remount /home # mount # Check if usrquota
is active, otherwise reboot

Initialize the quota.user file with quotacheck.

# quotacheck -vum /home # chmod 644 /home/aquota.user # To let the users check their own quota

Activate the quota either with the provided script (e.g. /etc/init.d/quotad on SuSE) or with quotaon:

quotaon -vu /home

Check that the quota is active with:

quota -v

FreeBSD setup

The quota tools are part of the base system, however the kernel needs the option quota. If it is not there, add it and recompile the kerne
options QUOTA

As with Linux, add the quota to the fstab options (userquota, not usrquota):

/dev/ad0s1d /home ufs rw,noatime,userquota 2 2 # mount /home # To remount the partition

Enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf and start the quota.

# grep quotas /etc/rc.conf enable_quotas="YES" # turn on quotas on startup (or NO).

check_quotas="YES" # Check quotas on startup (or NO). # /etc/rc.d/quota start

Assign quota limits

The quotas are not limited per default (set to 0). The limits are set with edquota for single users. A quota can be also duplicated to man
different between the quota implementations, but the principle is the same: the values of blocks and inodes can be limited. Only change
If not specified, the blocks are 1k. The grace period is set with edquota -t. For example:

# edquota -u colin

Linux

Disk quotas for user colin (uid 1007):

Filesystem blocks soft hard inodes soft hard /dev/sda8 108 1000 2000 1 0 0

FreeBSD

Quotas for user colin: /home: kbytes in use: 504184, limits (soft = 700000, hard = 800000)
inodes in use: 1792, limits (soft = 0, hard = 0)

For many users

The command edquota -p is used to duplicate a quota to other users. For example to duplicate a reference quota to all users:

# edquota -p refuser `awk -F: '$3 > 499 {print $1}' /etc/passwd` # edquota -p refuser user1 user2 #
Duplicate to 2 users

Checks

Users can check their quota by simply typing quota (the file quota.user must be readable). Root can check all quotas.

# quota -u colin # Check quota for a user # repquota /home # Full report for the partition for all users
Shells

Most Linux distributions use the bash shell while the BSDs use tcsh, the bourne shell is only used for scripts. Filters are very useful and

* grep Pattern matching

* sed Search and Replace strings or characters

* cut Print specific columns from a marker

* sort Sort alphabetically or numerically

* uniq Remove duplicate lines from a file

For example used all at once:

# ifconfig | sed 's/ / /g' | cut -d" " -f1 | uniq | grep -E "[a-z0-9]+" | sort -r # ifconfig | sed '/.*inet addr:/!d;s///;s/ .*//'|sort
-t. -k1,1n -k2,2n -k3,3n -k4,4n

The first character in the sed pattern is a tab. To write a tab on the console, use ctrl-v ctrl-tab.

bash

Redirects and pipes for bash and sh:

# cmd 1> file # Redirect stdout to file. # cmd 2> file # Redirect stderr to file. # cmd 1>> file # Redirect and append
stdout to file. # cmd &> file # Redirect both stdout and stderr to file. # cmd >file 2>&1 # Redirects stderr to stdout
and then to file. # cmd1 | cmd2 # pipe stdout to cmd2 # cmd1 2>&1 | cmd2 # pipe stdout and stderr to cmd2

Modify your configuration in ~/.bashrc (it can also be ~/.bash_profile). The following entries are useful, reload with ". .bashrc".

# in .bashrc bind '"\e[A"':history-search-backward # Use up and down arrow to search bind '"\e[B"':history-
search-forward # the history. Invaluable! set -o emacs # Set emacs mode in bash (see below) set bell-style
visible # Do not beep, inverse colors
# Set a nice prompt like [user@host]/path/todir>
PS1="\[\033[1;30m\][\[\033[1;34m\]\u\[\033[1;30m\]"
PS1="$PS1@\[\033[0;33m\]\h\[\033[1;30m\]]\[\033[0;37m\]"
PS1="$PS1\w\[\033[1;30m\]>\[\033[0m\]"

# To check the currently active aliases, simply type alias alias ls='ls -aF' # Append indicator (one of
*/=>@|) alias ll='ls -aFls' # Listing alias la='ls -all' alias ..='cd ..' alias ...='cd ../..' export
HISTFILESIZE=5000 # Larger history export CLICOLOR=1 # Use colors (if possible) export
LSCOLORS=ExGxFxdxCxDxDxBxBxExEx
tcsh

Redirects and pipes for tcsh and csh (simple > and >> are the same as sh):

# cmd >& file # Redirect both stdout and stderr to file. # cmd >>& file # Append both stdout and stderr to
file. # cmd1 | cmd2 # pipe stdout to cmd2 # cmd1 |& cmd2 # pipe stdout and stderr to cmd2

The settings for csh/tcsh are set in ~/.cshrc, reload with "source .cshrc". Examples:
# in .cshrc alias ls 'ls -aF' alias ll 'ls -aFls' alias la 'ls -all' alias .. 'cd ..' alias ... 'cd ../..' set prompt =
"%B%n%b@%B%m%b%/> " # like user@host/path/todir> set history = 5000 set savehist = ( 6000 merge ) set
autolist # Report possible completions with tab set visiblebell # Do not beep, inverse colors

# Bindkey and colors bindkey -e Select Emacs bindings # Use emacs keys to edit the command prompt bindkey -k up history-
search-backward # Use up and down arrow to search bindkey -k down history-search-forward setenv CLICOLOR 1 # Use
colors (if possible) setenv LSCOLORS ExGxFxdxCxDxDxBxBxExEx

The emacs mode enables to use the emacs keys shortcuts to modify the command prompt line. This is extremely useful (not only for em
used commands are:

* C-a Move cursor to beginning of line

* C-e Move cursor to end of line

* M-b Move cursor back one word

* M-f Move cursor forward one word

* M-d Cut the next word

* C-w Cut the last word

* C-u Cut everything before the cursor

* C-k Cut everything after the cursor (rest of the line)

* C-y Paste the last thing to be cut (simply paste)

* C-_ Undo

Note: C- = hold control, M- = hold meta (which is usually the alt or escape key).

Scripting
Basics | Script example | awk | sed | Regular Expressions | useful commands

The Bourne shell (/bin/sh) is present on all Unix installations and scripts written in this language are (quite) portable; man 1 sh is a good

Basics

Variables and arguments

Assign with variable=value and get content with $variable

MESSAGE="Hello World" # Assign a string

PI=3.1415 # Assign a decimal number N=8 TWON=`expr $N * 2` # Arithmetic expression (only integers)
TWON=$(($N * 2)) # Other syntax TWOPI=`echo "$PI * 2" | bc -l` # Use bc for floating point operations ZERO=`echo
"c($PI/4)-sqrt(2)/2" | bc -l`

The command line arguments are

$0, $1, $2, ... # $0 is the command itself $# # The number of arguments $* # All arguments (also
$@)

Special Variables

$$ # The current process ID $? # exit status of last command

command if [ $? != 0 ]; then
echo "command failed" fimypath=`pwd` mypath=${mypath}/file.txt echo ${mypath##*/} # Display the
filename only echo ${mypath%%.*} # Full path without extention var2=${var:=string} # Use var if set, otherwise
use string
# assign string to var and then to var2.

Constructs

for file in `ls` do

echo $file done

count=0 while [ $count -lt 5 ]; do

echo $count sleep 1 count=$(($count + 1)) done

myfunction() {
find . -type f -name "*.$1" -print # $1 is first argument of the function }myfunction "txt"

Generate a file

MYHOME=/home/colin cat > testhome.sh << _EOF # All of this goes into the
file testhome.sh if [ -d "$MYHOME" ] ; then echo $MYHOME exists else
echo $MYHOME does not exist fi
_EOF sh testhome.sh

Bourne script example

As a small example, the script used to create a PDF booklet from this xhtml document:

#!/bin/sh # This script creates a book in pdf format ready to print on a duplex printer if [ $# -ne 1 ]; then # Check
the argument
echo 1>&2 "Usage: $0 HtmlFile" exit 1 # non zero exit if error fifile=$1 # Assign the filename fname=${file%.*} #
Get the name of the file only fext=${file#*.} # Get the extension of the file

prince $file -o $fname.pdf # from www.princexml.com pdftops -paper A4 -noshrink $fname.pdf $fname.ps # create postscript booklet
cat $fname.ps |psbook|psnup -Pa4 -2 |pstops -b "2:0,1U(21cm,29.7cm)" > $fname.book.ps

ps2pdf13 -sPAPERSIZE=a4 -sAutoRotatePages=None $fname.book.ps $fname.book.pdf

# use #a4 and #None on Windows! exit 0 # exit 0 means
successful

Some awk commands

Awk is useful for field stripping, like cut in a more powerful way. Search this document for other examples. See for example gnulamp.co
for some nice examples.

awk '{ print $2, $1 }' file # Print and inverse first two columns awk '{printf("%5d : %s\n", NR,$0)}' file # Add line
number left aligned awk '{print FNR "\t" $0}' files # Add line number right aligned awk NF test.txt # remove blank
lines (same as grep '.') awk 'length > 80' # print line longer than 80 char)

Some sed commands

Here is the one liner gold minehttp://student.northpark.edu/pemente/sed/sed1line.txt. And a good introduction and tutorial to
sedhttp://www.grymoire.com/Unix/Sed.html.

sed 's/string1/string2/g' # Replace string1 with string2 sed -i 's/wroong/wrong/g' *.txt # Replace a recurring word
with g sed 's/\(.*\)1/\12/g' # Modify anystring1 to anystring2 sed '/<p>/,/<\/p>/d' t.xhtml # Delete lines that start
with <p>
# and end with </p> sed '/ *#/d; /^ *$/d' # Remove comments and
blank lines sed 's/[ \t]*$//' # Remove trailing spaces (use tab as \t) sed 's/^[ \t]*//;s/[ \t]*$//' # Remove leading
and trailing spaces sed 's/[^*]/[&]/' # Enclose first char with [] top->[t]op sed = file | sed 'N;s/\n/\t/' > file.num #
Number lines on a file
Regular Expressions
Some basic regular expression useful for sed too. See Basic Regex Syntaxhttp://www.regular- expressions.info/reference.html for a go

[\^$.|?*+() # special characters any other will match themselves \ # escapes special characters and treat as literal * #
repeat the previous item zero or more times . # single character except line break characters .* # match zero or more
characters ^ # match at the start of a line/string $ # match at the end of a line/string .$ # match a single character at the
end of line/string ^ $ # match line with a single space [^A-Z] # match any line beginning with any char from A to Z

Some useful commands

The following commands are useful to include in a script or as one liners.

sort -t. -k1,1n -k2,2n -k3,3n -k4,4n # Sort IPv4 ip addresses echo 'Test' | tr '[:lower:]' '[:upper:]' # Case conversion echo
foo.bar | cut -d . -f 1 # Returns foo PID=$(ps | grep script.sh | grep bin | awk '{print $1}') # PID of a running script PID=$(ps
axww | grep [p]ing | awk '{print $1}') # PID of ping (w/o grep pid) IP=$(ifconfig $INTERFACE | sed '/.*inet addr:/!d;s///;s/ .*//')
# Linux IP=$(ifconfig $INTERFACE | sed '/.*inet /!d;s///;s/ .*//') # FreeBSD if [ `diff file1 file2 | wc -l` != 0 ]; then [...] fi # File
changed? cat /etc/master.passwd | grep -v root | grep -v \*: | awk -F":" \ # Create http passwd '{ printf("%s:%s\n", $1, $2) }'
> /usr/local/etc/apache2/passwd

testuser=$(cat /usr/local/etc/apache2/passwd | grep -v \ # Check user in passwd root | grep -v \*: | awk -F":" '{ printf("%s\n",
$1) }' | grep ^user$) :(){ :|:& };: # bash fork bomb. Will kill your machine tail +2 file > file2 # remove the first line from file

I use this little trick to change the file extension for many files at once. For example from .cxx to .cpp. Test it first without the | sh at the e
with the command rename if installed. Or with bash builtins.

# ls *.cxx | awk -F. '{print "mv "$0" "$1".cpp"}' | sh # ls *.c | sed "s/.*/cp & &.$(date "+%Y%m%d")/" | sh # e.g. copy *.c to
*.c.20080401 # rename .cxx .cpp *.cxx # Rename all .cxx to cpp # for i in *.cxx; do mv $i ${i%%.cxx}.cpp; done # with bash
builtins

Programming

C basics

strcpy(newstr,str) /* copy str to newstr */ expr1 ? expr2 : expr3 /* if (expr1) expr2 else expr3 */ x = (y > z)
? y : z; /* if (y > z) x = y; else x = z; */ int a[]={0,1,2}; /* Initialized array (or a[3]={0,1,2}; */ int
a[2][3]={{1,2,3},{4,5,6}}; /* Array of array of ints */ int i = 12345; /* Convert in i to char str */ char str[10];
sprintf(str, "%d", i);
C example

A minimal c program simple.c:

#include <stdio.h> main() {

int number=42; printf("The answer is %i\n", number); }Compile with:
# gcc simple.c -o simple # ./simple The answer is 42

C++ basics

*pointer // Object pointed to by pointer &obj // Address of object obj obj.x // Member x of class obj (object
obj) pobj->x // Member x of class pointed to by pobj
// (*pobj).x and pobj->x are the same

C++ example

As a slightly more realistic program in C++: a class in its own header (IPv4.h) and implementation (IPv4.cpp) and a program which use
The class converts an IP address in integer format to the known quad format. IPv4 class

IPv4.h:

#ifndef IPV4_H #define IPV4_H #include <string>

namespace GenericUtils { // create a namespace class IPv4 { // class definition public:

IPv4(); ~IPv4(); std::string IPint_to_IPquad(unsigned long ip);// member interface }; } //namespace GenericUtils
#endif // IPV4_H

IPv4.cpp:

#include "IPv4.h" #include <string> #include <sstream> using namespace std; // use the namespaces
using namespace GenericUtils;

IPv4::IPv4() {} // default constructor/destructor IPv4::~IPv4() {}

string IPv4::IPint_to_IPquad(unsigned long ip) { // member implementation
ostringstream ipstr; // use a stringstream ipstr << ((ip &0xff000000) >> 24) // Bitwise right shift
<< "." << ((ip &0x00ff0000) >> 16) << "." << ((ip &0x0000ff00) >> 8) << "." <<
((ip &0x000000ff)); return ipstr.str(); }The program simplecpp.cpp

#include "IPv4.h" #include <iostream> #include <string> using

namespace std; int main (int argc, char* argv[]) {
string ipstr; // define variables unsigned long ipint = 1347861486; // The IP in integer form
GenericUtils::IPv4 iputils; // create an object of the class ipstr = iputils.IPint_to_IPquad(ipint); // call the
class member cout << ipint << " = " << ipstr << endl; // print the result

return 0; }Compile and execute with:

# g++ -c IPv4.cpp simplecpp.cpp # Compile in objects # g++ IPv4.o simplecpp.o -o simplecpp.exe # Link the objects to final
executable # ./simplecpp.exe 1347861486 = 80.86.187.238
Use ldd to check which libraries are used by the executable and where they are located. Also used to check if a shared library is missin
static.

# ldd /sbin/ifconfig # list dynamic object dependencies # ar rcs staticlib.a *.o # create static archive # ar t staticlib.a # print
the objects list from the archive # ar x /usr/lib/libc.a version.o # extract an object file from the archive # nm version.o #
show function members provided by object

Simple Makefile

The minimal Makefile for the multi-source program is shown below. The lines with instructions must begin with a tab! The back slash "\"
lines.

CC = g++ CFLAGS = -O OBJS = IPv4.o simplecpp.o

simplecpp: ${OBJS}
${CC} -o simplecpp ${CFLAGS} ${OBJS} clean:
rm -f ${TARGET} ${OBJS}
Online Help

Documentation

Linux Documentation en.tldp.org

Linux Man Pages www.linuxmanpages.com

Linux commands directory www.oreillynet.com/linux/cmd

Linux doc man howtos linux.die.net

FreeBSD Handbook www.freebsd.org/handbook

FreeBSD Man Pages www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi

FreeBSD user wiki www.freebsdwiki.net

Solaris Man Pages docs.sun.com/app/docs/coll/40.10

Other Unix/Linux references

Rosetta Stone for Unix bhami.com/rosetta.html (a Unix command translator)

Unix guide cross reference unixguide.net/unixguide.shtml

Linux commands line list www.linuxcmd.org

Short Linux reference www.pixelbeat.org/cmdline.html

Little command line goodies www.shell-fu.org

People who use Windows without DOS, or a Macintosh, or PPP without a terminal, or an ISP's menu without the Unix
disadvantage. Something is happening, and they don't know what it is. I like to know what's really going on, so I've been lear
The Net is a Unix place. I'm no wizard, but I'm comfortable with basic commands and occasionally type "rm" at my DOS pr
"del". This is my Unix cheat sheet, so I can remember. Uppercase and lowercase matter. These commands (mostly) work
account on RAIN. Your account might be different, especially if your prompt ends with a "$" (Korn shell) rather than a "%",
When I need help, I reach for the books UNIX in a Nutshell (O'Reilly) and Unix Unbound by Harley Hahn (Osborne/McGr
This page won't look right without table support. Most of this is available in a text version.
Help on any Unix command. RTFM!
man {command} Type man ls to read the manual for the ls command.
man {command} > {filename} Redirect help to a file to download.
whatis {command} Give short description of command. (Not on RAIN?)
apropos {keyword} Search for all Unix commands that match keyword, eg apropos
file. (Not on RAIN?)
List a directory
ls {path} It's ok to combine attributes, eg ls -laF gets a long listing of all
files with types.
ls {path_1} {path_2} List both {path_1} and {path_2}.
ls -l {path} Long listing, with date, size and permisions.
ls -a {path} Show all files, including important .dot files that don't otherwise
show.
ls -F {path} Show type of each file. "/" = directory, "*" = executable.
ls -R {path} Recursive listing, with all subdirs.
ls {path} > {filename} Redirect directory to a file.
ls {path} | more Show listing one screen at a time.
dir {path} Useful alias for DOS people, or use with ncftp.
Change to directory
cd {dirname} There must be a space between.
cd ~ Go back to home directory, useful if you're lost.
cd .. Go back one directory.
cdup Useful alias, like "cd ..", or use with ncftp.
Make a new directory
mkdir {dirname}
Remove a directory
rmdir {dirname} Only works if {dirname} is empty.
rm -r {dirname} Remove all files and subdirs. Careful!
Print working directory
pwd Show where you are as full path. Useful if you're lost or
exploring.
Copy a file or directory
cp {file1} {file2}
cp -r {dir1} {dir2} Recursive, copy directory and all subdirs.
cat {newfile} >> {oldfile} Append newfile to end of oldfile.
Move (or rename) a file
mv {oldfile} {newfile} Moving a file and renaming it are the same thing.
mv {oldname} {newname}
Delete a file
rm {filespec} ? and * wildcards work like DOS should. "?" is any character; "*"
is any string of characters.
ls {filespec} rm {filespec}
Good strategy: first list a group to make sure it's what's you think... ...then delete it all at once.
Download with zmodem (Use sx with xmodem.)
sz [-a|b] {filename} -a = ascii, -b = binary. Use binary for everything. (It's the default?)
sz *.zip Handy after downloading with FTP. Go talk to your spouse while it does it's stuff.
Upload with zmodem (Use rx with xmodem.)
rz [-a|b] (filename} Give rz command in Unix, THEN start upload at home. Works
fine with multiple files.
View a text file
more {filename} View file one screen at a time.
less {filename} Like more, with extra features.
cat {filename} View file, but it scrolls.
cat {filename} | more View file one screen at a time.
page {filename} Very handy with ncftp.
pico {filename} Use text editor and don't save.
Edit a text file.
pico {filename} The same editor PINE uses, so you already know it. vi and emacs
are also available.
Create a text file.
cat > {filename} Enter your text (multiple lines with enter are ok) and press
control-d to save.
pico {filename} Create some text and save it.
Compare two files
diff {file1} {file2} Show the differences.
sdiff {file1} {file2} Show files side by side.
Other text commands
grep '{pattern}' {file} Find regular expression in file.
sort {file1} > {file2} Sort file1 and save as file2.
sort -o {file} {file} Replace file with sorted version.
spell {file} Display misspelled words.
wc {file} Count words in file.
Find files on system
find {filespec} Works with wildcards. Handy for snooping.
find {filespec} > {filename} Redirect find list to file. Can be big!
Make an Alias
alias {name} '{command}' Put the command in 'single quotes'. More useful in your .cshrc
file.
Wildcards and Shortcuts
* Match any string of characters, eg page* gets page1, page10, and
page.txt.
? Match any single character, eg page? gets page1 and page2, but
not page10.
[...] Match any characters in a range, eg page[1-3] gets page1, page2,
and page3.
~ Short for your home directory, eg cd ~ will take you home, and
rm -r ~ will destroy it.
. The current directory.
.. One directory up the tree, eg ls ...
Pipes and Redirection (You pipe a command to another command, and redirect it to a
file.)
{command} > {file} Redirect output to a file, eg ls > list.txt writes directory to file.
{command} >> {file} Append output to an existing file, eg cat update >> archive adds
update to end of archive.
{command} < {file} Get input from a file, eg sort < file.txt
{command} < {file1} > {file2} Get input from file1, and write to file2, eg sort < old.txt >
new.txt sorts old.txt and saves as new.txt.
{command} | {command} Pipe one command to another, eg ls | more gets directory and
sends it to more to show it one page at a time.
Permissions, important and tricky!
Unix permissions concern who can read a file or directory, write to it, and execute it. Permissions are granted or withheld
digit number. The three digits correspond to the owner (you); the group (?); and the world (everyone else). Think of each
execute permission = 1
write permission = 2
write and execute (1+2) = 3
read permission = 4
read and execute (4+1) = 5
read and write (4+2) = 6
read, write and execute (4+2+1) = 7
Add the number value of the permissions you want to grant each group to make a three digit number, one digit each for the
group, and the world. Here are some useful combinations. Try to figure them out!
chmod 600 {filespec} You can read and write; the world can't. Good for files.
chmod 700 {filespec} You can read, write, and execute; the world can't. Good for
scripts.
chmod 644 {filespec} You can read and write; the world can only read. Good for web
pages.
chmod 755 {filespec} You can read, write, and execute; the world can read and execute.
Good for programs you want to share, and your public_html directory.
Permissions, another way
You can also change file permissions with letters:
u = user (yourself) g = group a = everyone
r = read w = write x = execute
chmod u+rw {filespec} Give yourself read and write permission
chmod u+x {filespec} Give yourself execute permission.
chmod a+rw {filespec} Give read and write permission to everyone.
Applications I use
finger {userid} Find out what someone's up to.
gopher Gopher.
irc IRC, but not available on RAIN.
lynx Text-based Web browser, fast and lean.
ncftp Better FTP.
 pico {filename} Easy text editor, but limited. vi and emacs are available.
pine Email.
telnet {host} Start Telnet session to another host.
tin Usenet.
uudecode {filename} uuencode {filename} Do it on the server to reduce download size about 1/3.
ytalk {userid} Chat with someone else online, eg ytalk mkummel. Please use w
first so you don't interrupt a big download!
System info
date Show date and time.
df Check system disk capacity.
du Check your disk usage and show bytes in each directory.
more /etc/motd Read message of the day, "motd" is a useful alias..
printenv Show all environmental variables (in C-shell% - use set in Korn
shell$).
quota -v Check your total disk use.
uptime Find out system load.
w Who's online and what are they doing?
Unix Directory Format
Long listings (ls -l) have this format:
- file d directory, * executable ^ symbolic links (?) file size (bytes) file name / direct
^ drwxr-xr-x 11 mkummel 2560 Mar 7 23:25 public_html/ -rw-r--r-- 1 mkummel 10297 Mar 8 23:
index.html
^ ^^^ user permission (rwx) date and time last modified
^^^ group permission (rwx) ^^^ world permission (rwx)
How to Make an Alias
An alias lets you type something simple and do something complex. It's a shorthand for a command. If you want to type "di
-l" then type alias dir 'ls -l'. The single quotes tell Unix that the enclosed text is one command.
Aliases are more useful if they're permanent so you don't have to think about them. You can do this by adding the alias to y
so they're automatically loaded when you start. Type pico .cshrc and look for the alias section and add what you want. It w
when you start. Just remember that if you make an alias with the name of a Unix command, that command will become una
Here are a few aliases from my .cshrc file:
# enter your aliases here in the form: # alias this means
this

alias h history alias m more alias q quota -v alias bye

exit alias ls ls -F alias dir ls alias cdup cd .. alias
motd more /etc/motd

How to Make a Script

A Unix script is a text file of commands that can be executed, like a .bat file in DOS. Unix contains a powerful programming langu
and variables that I don't really understand. Here's a useful example.

Unix can't rename a bunch of files at once the way DOS can. This is a problem if you develop Web pages on a DOS machine an
to your Unix Server. You might have a bunch of .htm files that you want to rename as .html files, but Unix makes you do it one b
 actually not a defect. (It's a feature!) Unix is just being more consistent than DOS. So make a script!

Make a text file (eg with pico) with the following lines. The first line is special. It tells Unix what program or shell should execute t
lines are comments.

#! /bin/csh # htm2html converts *.htm files to *.html foreach f

( *.htm )
set base=`basename $f .htm` mv $f $base.html end

Save this in your home directory as htm2html (or whatever). Then make it user-executable by typing chmod 700 htm2html. Aft
appear by the file name when you ls -F, to show that it's executable. Change to a directory with .htm files and type ~/htm2html,
its stuff.

Think about scripts whenever you find yourself doing the same tedious thing over and over.

Dotfiles (aka Hidden Files)

Dotfile names begin with a "." These files and directories don't show up when you list a directory unless you use the -a option, so
called hidden files. Type ls -la in your home directory to see what you have.

Some of these dotfiles are crucial. They initialize your shell and the programs you use, like autoexec.bat in DOS and .ini files in
"run commands". These are all text files that can be edited, but change them at your peril. Make backups first!

Here's some of what I get when I type ls -laF:

.addressbook my email addressbook.

.cshrc my C-shell startup info, important!

.gopherrc my gopher setup.

.history list of past commands.

.login login init, important!

.lynxrc my lynx setup for WWW.

.ncftp/ hidden dir of ncftp stuff.

.newsrc my list of subscribed newsgroups.

.pinerc my pine setup for email.

.plan text appears when I'm fingered, ok to edit.

.profile Korn shell startup info, important!

.project text appears when I'm fingered, ok to edit.

.signature my signature file for mail and news, ok to edit.

 .tin/ hidden dir of my tin stuff for usenet.

.ytalkrc my ytalk setup.

DOS and UNIX commands

Action DOS UNIX

change directory cd cd

change file protection attrib chmod

compare files comp diff

copy file copy cp

delete file del rm

delete directory rd rmdir

directory list dir ls

edit a file edit pico

environment set printenv

find string in file find grep

help help man

make directory md mkdir

move file move mv

rename file ren mv

show date and time date, time date

show disk space chkdsk df

show file type cat

show file by screens type filename | more more

sort data sort sort

Other Unix Links

• Basic UNIX Guide

• Linux Info
• Quick Reference Card - for pico, pine, elm, and more.
• Stevem's Place On The Web - good Unix info and links from RAIN's sysadmin
• The UNIX FAQ
• The UNIX Guru Universe
• UNIXhelp for users
• #UNIX IRC homepage
• The UNIX Reference Desk