H2 Chem Notes 9729 PDF
H2 Chem Notes 9729 PDF
I. Mole Concept and Stoichiometry Pg 23
II. Atomic Structure Pg 46
III. Chem Bonding I Pg 711
IV. The Gaseous State Pg 12
V. Energetics Pg 1314
VI. Reaction Kinetics Pg 1519
VII. Dynamic Eqm Pg 20
VIII. Chem Bonding II Pg 21
IX. Intro to Organic Chem Pg 2225
X. Alkanes Pg 2627
XI. Alkenes Pg 2831
XII. Arenes Pg 3235
XIII. Periodicity I Pg 3638
XIV. AcidBase Eqm Pg 3941
Solubility Eqm Pg 42
XV. Halogen Derivatives Pg 4347
XVI. Hydroxy Cmpds Pg 4852
XVII. Carbonyl Cmpds Pg 5356
XVIII. Carboxylic & Derivatives Pg 5761
XIX. Nitrogen Derivatives Pg 6264
XX. Electrochemistry Pg 6568
XXI. Periodicity II Pg 69
XXII. Transition Metals Pg 7073
Qualitative Analysis Notes Pg 7477
1
I. Mole concept and Stoichiometry
mass of 1 atom
Relative atomic mass = 1/12 of the mass of 1 Carbon−12 atom
1
Proton = 1u, Neutron = 1u, Electron = 1840 u
Mole = amt of substance which contains as many elementary entities as in 12 grams of
carbon12
→ 6.02 x 1023 particles
Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio of the atoms in one formula unit of the
compound.
Molecular formula: actual number of atoms present in one formula unit of the compound.
actual yield
Percentage yield = theoretical yield x 100%
Avogadro’s hypothesis: Equal volume of gases under the same conditions of temp &
pressure contain same number of molecules. (except when molecules dimerise [see chapter
III. Chem Bonding])
( ^molar vol. can be found in data booklet!)
Complete combustion of any hydrocarbon
y y
CxHy (g) + (x + 4 ) O2 (g) → xC O2 (g) + 2 H 2 O (l)
Strong acid/base = one that undergoes complete dissociation/ ionisation in aq. Soln
Weak acid/ base = one that undergoes partial dissociation/ ionisation in aq. Soln
→ pH = lg[ H + ]
Type △ pH Indicator
Weak acid Weak base No
marked
△
Redox = Simultaneous reduction & oxidation
→ Loss/ gain of O2
→ Loss/ gain of H
2
→ Loss/ gain of e−
→ ↑/↓ in oxidation no.
OIL Oxidation = Loss of e−
RIG Reduction = Gain in e−
Total N e− gained by reducing agent ↑
Total in ox. no. of one species
= =
Total N e− gained by oxidising agent ↓
Total in ox. no. of another species
Oxidation number assignment rules :
1. Ox. no. of atom in elemental state = 0
2. Ox. no. of H in all compounds = +1 (except in metal hydrides [e.g NaH])
3. Ox. no. of fluorine in all compounds = 1
4. Ox. no. of oxygen = 2 (except peroxides = 1) ( except superoxides = 21 )
(except OF 2 = +2)
5. More electronegative atom = ve ox. no.
Less electronegative atom = +ve ox. no.
6. Monatomic ions: ox. no. = charge
7. Polyatomic ions: ∑ individual ox. no. = charge
8. Uncharged compound: ∑ individual ox. no. = 0
Note: In a covalent bond, ox. no. arises because the more electronegative atom gains both e− , but by a different extent
△
depending on electronegativity
Disproportionation rxn: a species is simultaneously reduced & oxidized in the same rxn to
form 2 different pdts.
Balancing redox eqns in acidic medium
1. Construct the ox. & red. half eqns.
2. Balance the element oxidised/ reduced
3. Balance oxygen atoms (by adding H 2 O molecules)
4. Balance hydrogen atoms (by adding H + ions)
5. Balance overall charge by adding e−
In basic medium
Repeat steps 15 as in acidic medium..
6. Neutralise H + ions by adding required OH − ions to both sides
7. Combine H + ions and OH − ions to form H 2 O
Precipitation rxn: 2 soln rxt to form a ppt of an insoluble salt.
3
II. Atomic S
tructure
Orbital → can accommodate 2 e−
→ has a distinctive geometrical shape
→ energy of orbital = energy of e−
Geometry:
s orbital: p orbital: d orbital: 4 lobed shape
spherical, dumbbell,
nondirectional directional (along
x, y, or z axis)
px , py , pz
dxz , dxy , dyz dx2 −y2 dz 2
Note: In the nth shell,
→ N subshells = n
→ N orbitals = n2
Aufbau principle: e− fill atomic orbitals of the lowest available energy levels before occupying
higher levels
Pauli exclusion principle: each orbital can hold maximum of 2 e− , with opposite spins
E.g
Hund’s rule: orbitals of a subshell must be occupied singly by e− of parallel spins before
pairing to minimise inter electronic repulsion
(except Cr and Cu, see chapter XXII. Transition Metals)
Ground state: when orbitals of lowest available energy levels are occupied
4
Excited state: e− absorbs energy, promoted to higher energy level. Such atoms are unstable,
can emit energy to return to the ground state.
● Formation of anions: e− added to the next lowest available orbital. ( e− occupy 4s
orbital first because 4s < 3d energy level [ when both are still vacant ])
● Formation of cations: e− removed from orbital with highest energy. (occupied 3d
orbital repels 4s orbital to higher energy level, e− taken from 4s first before 3d) (
3d < 4s energy level)
Isoelectronic species = same N e−
Strength of electrostatic attraction:
↑
● N electronic shells ( N shells → greater distance btwn valence e− and nucleus → forces of ↓
attraction)
● ↑ ↑ ↑
Size of nuclear charge ( N protons → nuclear charge → forces of attraction)
● ↑ ↑ ↓
Shielding effect ( N shells → shielding effect → forces of attraction)
Atomic radius: 21 of shortest inter nuclear distance
● ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓
Atomic radius across period ( nuclear charge→ attraction → size of e− cloud )
● Atomic radius ↑
down group ( ↑
N shells ↓ ↑
→ attraction → size of e− cloud )
Ionisation energy: energy req to remove e− from atom [for more accurate definition see
chapter V. Energetics]
● Endothermic
↑ ↑ ↑
● I.E across period ( nuclear charge→ attraction→ I.E ) ↑
● I.E ↓
down group ( ↑
N shells ↓
→ attraction → I.E ) ↓
Irregularity Grp 2 &13 Irregularity Grp 15 & 16
e− higher
1st I.E of B < B e , Al < M g (3p 1st I.E of O < N , S < P (3p e− are paired,
energy than 3s e− ) thus interelectronic repulsion → higher
energy level → I.E ↓
● ↑
Successive I.E ( removal of e− from an increasingly positively charged ion → more
energy req)
Ionic radius: radius of spherical ion.
↓ ↑
● C ation < P arent atom ( N shells → attraction→ radius) ↓
● Anion < P arent atom (↑ N − → ↑ inter electronic repulsion→ ↓
attraction→ ↑
radius)
Ionic radius of isoelectronic ions ↓ across period. (↑ N → ↑ → ↑
e
● Ef fprotons
nuclear charge
attraction→ ↓ radius)
Electronegativity: ability to attract bonding e− , ~
charge
↓ down grp ( ↑ N → ↓ attraction)
volume
●
↑ across period ( ↑ nuclear charge→ ↑ attraction)
shells
●
5
ΔEN < 0.5 Non polar covalent
6
III. Chem Bonding I
Chemical bonds: forces of attraction between particles.
Octet rule: atoms lose, gain, or share e− until configuration of 8 valence e− is obtained
Exceptions:
e− deficient molecules ( < 8 valence e− )
Radicals ( unpaired v alence e− )
P eriod 3 elements and beyond (existence of
low lying vacant 3d orbitals → can
accommodate > 8 valence e− and expand
beyond octet) (energy req for promotion of e−
from 3s/3p to 3d is not large)
Ionic bonds: electrostatic forces of attraction between 2 oppositely charged ions
Covalent bonds: sharing of e− localised between 2 nuclei
→ electrostatic forces of attraction between shared e− pair and +ve nuclei
Dative bond: shared pair of e− provided by 1 bonding atom
→ must have a lone pair of e− , acceptor atom must have vacant lowlying orbital
DotandCross:
1. Identify central & side atoms (Central atom is the most electronegative one)
2. N valence e− of each atom
3. N bonds to form to achieve octet (particularly side atoms)
4. Show lone pairs
VSEPR: molecular geometry of a species
→ e− pairs are arranged as far as possible to minimise inter electronic repulsion
− − −
● l.p l.p repulsion > l.p b.p repulsion > b.p b.p repulsion
● As electronegativity ↑
, ↑
b.pb.p repulsion, (nearer to nucleus)
7
Note: l.p repulsion > b.p repulsion because the l.p is attracted by only the central positive nucleus, but b.p is attracted by both the
central nucleus and the bonding species ( therefore b.p e− lie further away from central nucleus)
σ & π bonds:
σ bond = h eadtohead overlap, e− density concentrated between the nuclei, along the nuclear axis
π bond = s idetoside overlap, e− cloud above and below the nuclear axis
8
↑
σ bond strength > π bond strength ( degree of overlap)
Single bond → one σ bond
Double bond → one σ bond + one π bond
Triple bond → one σ bond + two π bonds
Bond length: distance between bonding nuclei
↑ ↓
→ bond length = bond strength
Bond strength is equivalent to B.E [for more accurate definition of bond energy, see chapter
V. Energetics]
Is dependent on:
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
● N bonds ( N bonds → N shared e− → attraction→ bond strength)
● ↑
Degree of Ef f overlap ( when size of orbital → orbitals become more diffuse→
↓ ↓
Ef f overlap → bond strength
● ΔEN ( as ΔEN ↑ → ↑ polar→ resultant net dipoles cause additional electrostatic
forces of attraction→ ↑
bond strength)
Ionic with covalent character: electronegative cation polarises the anion→ ↑ degree of
covalency
Covalent with ionic character: large ΔEN btwn bonding atoms → large dipole moment → ↑
degree of ionic character
Polar molecules = molecules with net dipole moment (e.g H 2 O )
Intermolecular forces of attraction:
Instantaneous dipole Permanent dipole Hbonding
induced dipole permanent dipole
9
2Nitrophenol has lower boiling point than 4Nitrophenol
→ ↓
intramolecular Hbonding in 2Nitrophenol→ sites for Hbonding with
↓
other molecules → I.M.F strength
Solubility: Solute is said to be soluble if the energy released from forming intermolecular
bonds with the solvent molecules is sufficient to compensate for the energy required to
overcome the existing solventsolvent and solutesolute intermolecular bonds.
● Simple molecules with same type of I.M.F mix well
● Ionic solids tend to dissolve well in polar solvents (formation of strong iondipole
interactions release a lot of energy)
Crystalline solid: a highlyordered, well defined arrangement of constituents
Ionic lattice:
● Ions held in fixed position, orderly arrangement
● Coordination no. = N nearest neighbours
● Nondirectional
L.E
×
q + q −
~ || r+ + r− || [see chapter V. Energetics]
● Very strong ( high m.p & b.p)
● Conducts electricity in molten/ aq. state (presence of mobile charge carriers which
are the ions)
● Brittle (displacement along cleavage pt→ brings ions of like charge opp one another
→ repulsion)
Giant molecular lattice: atoms held tgt in extensive network covalently
● e.g Diamond (C bonded to 4 other C tetrahedrally)
→ Strong
→ Insulator (lack of delocalised e− )
→ Insoluble
→ High m.p, b.p
Giant Si structure has weaker covalent
bonds than C (orbitals are larger and more
↓
diffused→ Ef f overlap → weaker bonds)
● e.g Graphite (planes of interconnected hexagonal rings) (C bonded to 3C in a trigonal
planar geometry)
→ Strong
→ High m.p, b.p
−
→ Conductor (Single e− that is not involved in bonding→ π e cloud below
& above
−
the planes → delocalised charge carriers that are the e which can conduct electricity
10
parallel to these planes
→ Soft (Van der Waals forces btwn layers)
Simple molecular lattice: molecules attracted to each other by I.M.F
Giant metallic lattice: Lattice of +ve ions surrounded by a sea of delocalised e−
● Strong, depends on:
↑ ↑
→ N valence e− ( N valence e− → bond strength)
↓ ↑
→ Cationic size ( cationic size → bond strength)
● Conductors
: of electricity (presence of delocalised e− → mobile charge carriers)
: of heat ( e− able to take in thermal energy)
● Soft (cations can glide over one another without breaking metallic bonds)
● Dense
● High m.p, b.p
11
IV. The Gaseous State
pV
@ moderately high pressures: RT < ideal
((I.M.F significant) thus recorded p is lower)
pV
@ very high pressures: RT > ideal
(( V f ree = V container −V gas molecules ) as V gas molecules become significant, V container measured
becomes artificially high)
Dalton’s Law: total pressure of nonrxting gases = ∑ ppartial of individual gases
na
Where pa = ntotal
x ptotal
Saturated vapor pressure: N particles leaving = N particles rejoining
→ b.p is when psaturated vapor pressure = pext
12
V. Energetics
rxts
●
ΔH rxn Θ = ∑ nΔH c Θ (rxts)
− ∑ mΔH (pdts)
c
Θ
● ΔH rxn Θ
= ∑ B .E
− ∑ B.E
bonds broken in rxts
bonds f ormed in pdts
= [∑ ΔH (M ) − ∑ ΔH (X − )] − L.E(M X)
● ΔH soln Θ hyd
Θ +
hyd
Θ
Entropy = measure of disorder within a system, or number of ways a system can arrange
itself differently.
−
● ΔS = S f inal S initial
● ↑N gas molecules →↑S
● Mixing of particles → S ↑
● ↑T →↑S
Standard Gibbs free energy change : ΔG Θ = ΔH Θ − T ΔS Θ
, ΔG Θ = ΔGpdt Θ − ΔG Θ
rxt
Spontaneous rxn: a rxn that occurs without need for external assistance, irreversible. Said to
be thermodynamically feasible.
● Less stable rxts → more stable pdts
● ΔG Θ < 0 , forward rxn spontaneous (exergonic)
● ΔG Θ > 0 , forward rxn not spontaneous (endergonic)
Limitations:
→ Thermodynamic feasibility = spontaneity, whether it can occur
→ kinetic feasibility = whether the rate of rxn is observable (depends on E activation )
14
VI. Reaction Kinetics
Raterxn = −
d[rxts]
dt or dt
d[pdts]
Instantaneous rate = rate at a particular time
Average rate = final Δconc
Δt
Initial rate = instantaneous rate @ t=0
aA + bB →m
cC + dD, d[D]
n
dt
= dc d[C]
dt
rate = k [A] [B] , where k= rate constant, m & n are orders of rxn wrt to [A] and [B]
respectively
Rate law: eqn that shows dependence of rate on [rxts]
Rate constant: constant of proportionality
↑ ↑ ↑
→ T /catalyst → k → rate
Halflife: time taken, t, for [rxt] to decrease to half of its initial concentration
→ for 1st order rxns, t1/2 = ln2 k
First order rxn: rate = k [A] , t1/2 constant
Second order rxn: rate = k [A][B] or k[A]2 , t1/2 not constant
Zero order rxn: rate independent of [A], rate=k
Pseudo order rxn: concentration of particular rxt remains effectively constant throughout
the rxn
● Presence of large excess of rxt (e.g solvent is a rxt)
● Presence of catalyst ([catalyst] is constant, takes part in the rxt but is regenerated)
As such, rate = k ′[A], where k ′ = k [B]
Overall rxn order Unit for rate constant
0 mol dm −3 s −1
1 s −1
Clock method: measuring t taken for ppt to form (observing visual changes)
Used for:
● Rxting a fixed [pdt]
● Forming a fixed [pdt]
1
rate ~ t
taken f or visual change to occur
Rxn mechanism: collection of elementary steps in the proper sequence
15
Elementary Step: distinct step, describes a single molecular event (cannot be broken down
into simpler steps)
Molecularity of elementary step = N rxting particles
Intermediate: species formed in one step & consumed in the other
Single step rxn: made of 1 elementary step
● Rxn mechanism identical to stoichiometric eqn
● Rate eqn can be deduced directly
Multi step rxn: ≥ 2 steps, different rates
● Rate depends on ratedetermining step (slow step)
Ratedetermining step: step with highest E a
Rxn mechanism rules
1. Must agree with stoichiometric eqn (i.e must sum to give overall eqn, as such
intermediates do not appear)
2. Must be consistent with observed kinetics
Collision theory: Rxting particles must collide in favorable orientation and with sufficient
energy above E a to rxt.
Transition state theory: what happens during collision
Transition state:
1. Cannot be isolated
2. Can form pdts or back to rxts
Kinetic stability vs Thermodynamic stability
16
● ↑
When T , peak moves to higher energies, distribution broadens out
● Area under curve remains constant
● ↑
When T , N molecules with energy ≥ E a increases
Conc vs Temp vs Catalyst
↑
1. Conc → probability of collision with correct collision geometry and sufficient energy
↑
increases→ rxn rate (given that order of rxn w.r.t said rxt =/ 0 )
↑
2. T → K .E ave ↑ → (N molecules energy ↑
≥ E a ) → rate of rxn ↑
Furthermore rate constant, k = Ae
− Ea
RT
, as T ↑ size of ‘k’ ↑
↑
3. Catalyst: rate of rxn w/o undergoing permanent chemical change, provides an alt.
↓ ↑ ↑
pathway for rxn, E a → (N molecules energy ≥ E a ) → rate of rxn
Furthermore rate constant, k = Ae
− , as E ↓ size of ‘k’ ↑
Ea
RT
a
Catalysis
↓
Inhibitor: rate of rxn
Promoter: ↑
Effectiveness of catalyst
Catalyst poison: inhibitor of eff of catalyst
Homogenous catalyst: catalyst & rxts same phase
→ takes part, is converted to intermediates, and is regenerated
Larger E a is replaced by 2 smaller E a
17
Heterogenous catalyst: catalyst & rxts different phase
→ rxt molecules adsorbed onto catalyst surface. (adsorption onto catalyst→
weakening of covalent bonds within rxting particles) → E a ↓
↑
→ [rxting particles] @ catalyst surface
↑
As such, rate of rxn
Diffusion→ Adsorption→ Rxn→ Desorption → Diffusion
Active sites are freed up again for cycle to repeat until all rxts have rxted
Autocatalysis: pdt acts as catalyst
Initially: no catalysis
↓ ↓
Finally: [rxts] → rate
Enzymes: proteins which act as biological catalysts
● Globular proteins with active sites
● Effective
● Specific
● Effective at body temperatures (denatured at high T, inactive at low T)
● Work over a narrow pH range
(substrate + enzyme → enzymesubstrate complex → enzyme + pdts)
At low [substrate], rate of rxn is 1st order wrt to substrate.
At high [substrate], rate of rxn is 0 order wrt to substrate. (active sites become saturated)
Note: such phenomenon is similar to heterogeneous catalysis
18
Experimental techniques:
1. Sampling → quenching → titrating
Withdraw fixed vol of sample at steady intervals, and quench by (adding large vol of
cold water, or excess of quenching agent that rxts immediately with all rxts or
catalyst) then titrate to determine instantaneous concentration present
2. Measuring color intensity ( concentration ~ color intensity )
Measure color intensity (absorbance) at steady intervals, and conc of colored species
is determined by comparing to calibration curve (color intensity of solns of known
concentrations)
3. Measuring gas vol.
4. Measuring electrical conductivity ( N ions ~ conductivity )
5. Measuring pressure ( V gas ~ N gas )
Measure change in ppartial of rxt or pdt to determine rate
19
VII. Dynamic Eqm
20
VIII. Chem Bonding II
Hybridisation: mixing of atomic orbitals to generate a set of equivalent orbitals
sp = s + p (linear)
2
sp = s + 2p (trigonal planar)
3
sp = s + 3p (tetrahedral)
↑
Greater scharacter of sp x orbital → B.E
Bond lengths:
Resonance: same arrangement of nuclei, diff arrangement of e − , delocalisation of e − . The
resonance hybrid is the average of two canonical forms (resonance structures)
Note: drawing of resonant structures is not in syllabus
● Equivalent bond strengths
● Equivalent bond lengths
21
IX. Intro to O
rganic Chem
Hydrocarbons
● Aliphatic (open chains)
● Alicyclic (closed ring)
● Aromatic (benzene ring)
Functional group: made up of atom/ grp of atoms that are responsible for the molecule’s
chemical characteristics
Homologous series: family of cmpds with same functional grps
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of C
Name meth eth prop but pent hex hept oct non dec
Class Homologous series Func grp Formula Eg
(methane)
alkene C n H 2n
(Ethene)
alkyne C n H 2n−2
(Ethyne)
(2chloropropane)
halogenoarene
(chlorobenzene)
X = (Cl, Br, I)
(methanol)
phenol
(phenol)
(ethanal)
22
ketone RCOR′
(propanone)
ester RCOOR′
(methyl ethanoate)
acyl halide RCOX
X = (Cl, Br, I) (ethanoyl chloride)
(ethanamide)
amino acid N H 2 CH(R)COOH
( Aminoethanoic acid)
nitrile RCN
(propanenitrile)
Homolytic fission: breaking of covalent bond, 1 e − goes to each of the atoms, forming free
radicals
Heterolytic fission: breaking of covalent bond, both e − goes to same atom, forming +ve and
ve ions
Degree of subst: N alkyl/aryl grps bonded to the alpha carbon (C α )
Suffix priority:
C arboxylic acid > ester > acid halide > amide > nitrile > aldehyde > k etone > alcohol > amine
23
Substitution reaction: 1 atom/ grp of atoms replaced by another atom/ grp of atoms. 2 rxts
react to give 2 pdts
(e.g: Free radical subst [see chapter X. Alkanes]
Electrophilic Subst of arenes [see chapter XII. Arenes]
Nucleophilic Subst of RX [see chapter XV. RX])
Elimination reaction: removal of atoms/ grp of atoms from adjacent carbon atoms to form
multiple bonds
(e.g: Elimination of alkene [see chapter XI. Alkenes])
Hydrolysis: rxn where H 2 O breaks a bond
(e.g: acid hydrolysis of ester [see chapter XVIII. Carboxylic & Derivatives]
Condensation: 2 molecules rxt, form bigger molecule, elimination of small molecules (like
H 2 O/HCl )
(e.g: condensation of ROH and RCOOH [see chapter XVI. Hydroxy Cmpds]
Redox rxn
Rearrangement rxn: migration of atom/ grp of atoms from one site to another within same
molecule
Steric hindrance: when presence of a substituent hinders the approach of an attacking rxt
↓
and prevents rxn/ rxty of a particular site
Isomerism: same molecular formula, diff arrangement of atoms
Note: Metamerism and Tautomerism are not in syllabus
Cistrans isomerism: form of geometric isomerism, arises due to restricted rotation (ring/
double bond)
For alkenes, each C attached to the double bond must have 2 diff grps attached
Cisisomer: 2 identical grps on the same side of the double bond (for alkenes)
24
Transisomer: 2 identical groups on opp side of double bond (for alkenes)
● If N C=C is x , N max of cistrans isomers is 2 x
For cyclic cmpds: ≥ 2 carbon
atoms have 2 diff grps attached
Enantiomerism: optical isomerism, same molecular formula, same structural formula, diff
spatial arrangement
● Molecule with n chiral centres have max 2 n stereoisomers
● Nonsuperimposable mirror image
● No plane of symmetry
● ≥ 1 chiral
centre ( sp 3 hybridised) usually
Physical properties Identical, but rotate planepolarised light in opp
directions
Chemical properties Similar, except when interacting with another
chiral molecule
Biological properties Different biological properties
Racemic mixture: equimolar ratio of both enantiomers
Diastereoisomers: stereoisomers that are not mirror images
Meso cmpd: molecules superimposable on mirror image, with chiral centres (this is due to a
plane of symmetry)
Molecules with x chiral centres, y double bonds that cause cistrans isomerism,
max N stereoisomers = 2 (x+y)
Catalytic converter: p
ollutionreducing unit which turns the harmful chemicals in vehicle
exhausts into harmless gases
.
25
X. Alkanes
CH3 − CH 3
Saturated vs Unsaturated: single vs double/triple bond
Note: not in syllabus, but an extremely useful tool to have in hand (in later topics you will appreciate it more)
Alkanes are
● nonpolar ( ΔEN very low)
● I.M.F predominantly idid
26
● ↑ ↓ ↓
As branching , b.p (as the s urface area:volume ratio , strength of idid I.M.F ) ↓
→ however m.p indeterminate, depends on the effect of packing in a solid
● Insoluble in water
● Less dense than water (density 0.8 g cm −1 ) ≈
● Unreactive (unaffected by polar reagents)
→ relatively strong CH & CC bonds
→ saturated (no areas of high e − density)
Rxns of alkanes:
● Combustion [see Chapter I. Mole Concept]
● Halogenation
This is the Free Radical Substitution mechanism
Then (a),(b),(a),(b),.....
Termination:
Note: only trace amts of uv light req because after initiation the rxn propagates itself (a),(b),(a)...
27
XI. Alkenes
Cis trans isomerism exceptions:
Relative stability of cistrans isomers
→ cis < trans
( steric crowding in cis → repulsive forces between the electron clouds of the
↓
groups→ stability )
Relative m.p/ b.p of cistrans isomers
→ cis has higher b.p than trans (slightly polar molecule→ increased dipoledipole
interactions)
→ trans has higher m.p than trans (trans packs better in a lattice structure)
Preparation of alkenes
→
● RX Alkene + H X [see Chapter XV. Halogen Derivatives]
→
● ROH Alkene + H 2 O [see Chapter XVI. Hydroxy Cmpds]
Zaitsev’s rule: If more than 1 alkene can be formed by elimination reaction, the more stable
↑ ↑
alkene is the major pdt. ( N alkyl substituents = stability )
28
Reactions of alkenes:
● Electrophilic Addition
Mechanism:
Where the electrophile (in this case B r2 ) attacks in the first step
The next most abundant nucleophilic species attacks in the second step
● Stereochemistry: +ve carbon in the second step is sp2 hybridised, planar,
therefore chance of attack from either side is equal. If new chiral centre is
generated, a racemic mixture of enantiomers is expected.
● Markovnikov's rule: when assymetrical alkenes goes through electrophilic
addn, the more stable carbocation intermediate is formed. The more stable
a carbocation, the faster it is formed.
→ alkyl groups are e − donating, thus they help to disperse the +ve charge
on the +ve carbon, thus they are stabilising groups.
↑ ↑
N alkyl substituents = stability
1. “Halogenation”
2. “Halogenation”
3. “Halogenation”
29
4. “Hydration”
● Oxidation
1. Mild oxidation
2. Strong oxidation
Cleave the double bond, and add O atom to both ends.
e.g:
In acidic medium:
Note: H 2 SO4 is used instead of H Cl for acidification because C l − wld be oxidised by K M nOa
30
In alkaline medium:
Note: oxidation and reduction mechanisms are not in syllabus. Just need to know the reagents and conditions
● Reduction
31
XII. Arenes
Note: in this chapter I may use the Kekule structure for benzene sometimes, but note that you should always draw the resonant
structure only
2
Resonance: all C atoms are sp hybridised, thus unhybridized porbitals can overlap
sideways, continuously. This results in a cloud of delocalised e −
→ equal bond strength
→ equal bond length
Resonance provides stability therefore addition rxns which involve destruction of the double
bond and thus the resonance structure, are not favored
→ as such subst rxns that maintain delocalisation of e − preferred
Rxns of arenes:
● Electrophilic subst
Mechanism:
+
Where A represents an electrophile
1. Generation of Electrophile, A + (this step isn't shown above)
2. Electrophilic attack of A + (step 1, slow step)
3. Regeneration of catalyst (step 2, fast step)
Note: this is an overly simplified illustration, refer to below for more detailed mechanisms
1. Nitration
32
1. Generation of Electrophile, N O2 +
In the first step:
Bronsted Lowry acid = proton donor………………….……………….( H 2 SO4 )
Bronsted Lowry base = proton acceptor………………………………( H N O3 )
2. Electrophilic attack
2. Halogenation
Mechanism: (electrophilic attack similar to the above displayed in nitration, but
generation of electrophile is different)
+
1. Generation of Electrophile, B r
Lewis Acid = e − pair acceptor………………………………………..( F eX 3 )
Lewis Base = e − pair donor……………………………………………..( X ) 2
33
3. Alkylation
Almost exactly similar to halogenation, except that electrophile is C H 2 +
4. Acylation
+
Almost exactly similar to halogenation, except that electrophile is C H 3 CO
● Combustion
● Reduction (catalytic hydrogenation)
Rxn of Alkylbenzenes:
● Free radical subst (similar to alkanes [see Chapter X. Alkanes])
● Side chain oxidation (only possible if C atom attached to benzene ring is not 3 °
substituted)
34
Activating grps Deactivating grps
↑
Substituents that rxty of the compound ↓
Substituents that rxty of the compound
↑
compared to the original benzene ring, by compared to t he original benzene ring, by
e − density on the ring. ↓
e − density on the ring.
Such groups work via inductive/ resonance effect
Note: the activating and deactivating groups can be found in the data booklet
2,4 directing groups: directs attacking substituents to the 2,4 C relative to its position
3 directing groups: directs attacking substituents to the 3 C relative to its position
Inductive effect: donation/ withdrawal of e − through
σ bond due to ΔEN
35
XIII. Periodicity I
Across the period
↓
atomic radii
↑
First I.E except Grp 2&13 or Grp 15&16
EN ↑
[see Chapter II. Atomic Structure]
NaAl strong metallic bonding, Si strong giant covalent, P 4 − C l idid
I.M.F
↑ − C l , slight conductivity for Si
2
Electrical conductivity from NaAl, nil for P 4 2
Element Na Mg Al Si P S
(blue flame)
● (orange flame)
● (white flame)
●
●
●
●
Hydration:
● (vigorous)
● (slow)
● (req hot H 2 O )
36
●
Period 3 oxides:
N a2 O M gO Al2 O3 S iO2 P 4 O10 S O3
solid liq
Rxns of period 3 oxides
Hydration rxns:
●
●
●
●
Acidbase rxns:
●
●
●
●
●
●
N aCl M gCl2 AlCl3 S iCl4 P Cl5
Ionic Simple molecular
Electrostatic forces idid
37
Rxns of Period 3 Chlorides
Hydration rxns:
● ............................................(pH 7)
●
(pH 6.5)
● AlCl3 + 3H 2 O → Al(OH)3 + 3HCl (lim amt of H 2 O )
...(pH 3)
● ..................................(pH 2)
● (lim amt of H 2 O )
( adding more H 2 O )
( when H 2 O in excess) ............(pH 2)
38
XIV. Acidbase e
qm
Acid
Strength: extent of dissociation in aq
Conc: amt/ vol
Basicity: N H atoms ionisable per molecule
Base
Strength: extent of ionisation in aq
−
pH = lg[H + ]
−
pOH = lg[OH − ]
pH + pOH = 14
Ionic pdt of water,
K w = [H + ][OH − ] or [H 3 O + ][OH − ]
×
K w = 1.0 10 −14 mol 2 dm −6
−
pK w = lgK w
= pH + pOH
= 14
For neut. soln,
pH = pOH = 7
the constant values above only apply at 25 ° C
Kw ↑as T ↑, because H O + H O ⇔ H O
2 2 3
+
+ OH − is endothermic
Weak acids:
H A ⇔ H + + A −
+
][A − ] [H O + ][A − ]
K a = [H [HA] or 3 [HA]
−
pK a = lgK a
For weak polyprotic acids:
K a1 > K a2 > K a3 because successive dissociations involve acidic species that are
increasingly more ve, thus donation of H + more difficult
For weak acid, H A at C o mol dm −3 ,
H A ⇔ H + + A −
Conc HA H + A −
Initial Co
Eqm ( Co − x ) x x
+
][A − ] 2 2
−
[H
As such K a =
[HA]
= (Cx o x) = Cx o
Thus [H + ] = √K a C o , pH = lg √K a C o −
Assumptions:
1. [H + ] from selfionisation of H 2 O negligible
2. x << C o
When dilute strong acids are involved, self ionisation of H 2 O is nonnegligible
39
(When such happens, assume [H + ]water = 1.0 × 10 − mol dm − (at 25 °C ).
7 3
Initial Co
Eqm ( Co − y ) y y
As such
[BH + ][OH − ]
2 2
y y
Kb = [B] = (C o y) = C o −
−
Thus [OH ] = √K b C o , pOH = lg √K b C o −
Assumptions:
1. x << C o
Conjugate acidbase pairs:
×
K a of acid K b of conjugate base = K w
K of base × K of conjugate acid = K
b a w
pK w = pK a + pK b
N ionised molecules
Degree of ionisation , α = N initial molecules
( at eqm)
Conc [HA] ⇔ [H + ] + [A − ]
Initial Co
Change αC o + αC o + αC o
Eqm C o (1 − α) αC o αC o
α 2 C o
Ka = 1 α −
For weak acid, α ≈ 0 , thus
√
Ka
α= Co
40
Salt hydrolysis
+ −
Salt: an ionic cmpd formed from acidbase rxns ( [Base] [Acid] )
Hydrolysis occurs if
● Anion from weak acid is a strong conjugate base (e.g C H 3 COO − )
● Cation from weak base is a strong conjugate acid (e.g N H 4 + )
Buffer solns: one which resists ΔpH upon addn of a small amt of acid/ base
Mixture of a weak acid + one of its salt Mixture of a weak base + one of its salt
(e.g C H 3 COOH & CH 3 COO − N a + ) (e.g N H 3 & N H 4 Cl )
C H 3 COOH ⇔ C H 3 COO − + H + N H 3 + H 2 O ⇔ N H 4 + + OH −
→
C H 3 COO − N a + C H 3 COO − + N a + →
N H 4 Cl N H 4 + + C l −
C H 3 COO − from complete ionisation of N H 4 + from complete ionisation of N H 4 Cl
C H 3 COO − N a + oppresses forward rxn of oppresses forward rxn of
C H 3 COOH ⇔ C H 3 COO − + H + N H 3 + H 2 O ⇔ N H 4 + + OH −
Addn of small [H + ] : Addn of small [H + ] :
→
C H 3 COO − + H + C H 3 COOH →
N H 3 + H + N H 4 +
Since [CH 3 COO − ] large, all [H + ] removed, Since [N H 3 ] large, all [H + ] removed,
≈
≈
pH constant pH constant
Addn of small [OH − ] :
Addn of small [OH − ] :
→
C H 3 COOH + OH − C H 3 COO − + H 2 O →
N H 4 + + OH − N H 3 + H 2 O
Since [CH 3 COOH] large, all [ OH − ] Since [N H 4 + ] large, all [ OH − ] removed,
removed, ≈
pH constant
≈
pH constant
[A − ]
pH = pK a + lg( [HA] ) (buffer solns involving weak acids)
+
pOH = P K b + lg( [BH ]
[B] ) (buffer solns involving weak bases)
Buffer capacity: ability to resist ΔpH
● Absolute capacity: depends on absolute concentration of conjugate acid/ base
present
[salt]
● Relative capacity: max buffer capacity when ( [acid base] ) = 1
/
pH = pK a or pK b
[salt]
Effective buffer range: 0.1 ≤ [acid/ base] ≤ 10
41
XIV. Solubility e
qm
N O3 − are all soluble
Halides, X − usually
sol. except with Ag + /Cu +
S O4 2− usually
sol. except with B a 2+ /Ca 2+
b+
K sp of M a X b (s) = [M (aq)] [X (aq)]
a a − b
Ksp measures conc of ions in a saturated soln
Solubility: max amt of solute which can dissolve in given amt of solvent at a particular temp
I onic pdt > K sp , precipitation
42
XV. Halogen Derivatives
R − X
Halogen containing organic cmpds, X : (Cl, Br, I)
Physical properties of RX:
● Polar
● B.p higher than corresponding alkane
● ↑ ↑ −
size of Rgrp → id id I.M .F
● ↑size of X → ↑ id − id I.M .F
● Solubility ↓
as N
C atoms↑
Rxns & preparations of RX:
43
44
(Special case for N H 3 : If N H 3 is not in excess, polyalkylation takes place
45
Mechanism for RX:
●
(Rate determining step is bimolecular. Rate is dependent on both [Nphile] & [RX])
Factors affecting rxty : strength of CX bond (faster if weaker) & degree of steric
hindrance.
Degree of e − def iciency, δ + on the C atom doesnt affect rxty as much as B.E(CX).
●
(Rate determining step is unimolecular. Rate is dependent on only [RX])
Factors affecting rxty : strength of CX bond (faster if weaker) & carbocation stability
Choice of S N 1 vs S N 2 mechanism
(for more subst C atom, alkyl substituents provide steric hindrance to backside attack of
46
nucleophile, → S N 1 preferred)
(for more subst C atom, alkyl substituents disperse +ve charge on +ve C atom, thus
stabilising the carbocation, → S N 1 preferred)
Halogenoarenes:
Electrophilic subst of halogenoarene occurs instead [see Chapter XII. Arenes]
Distinguishing tests:
Note: color of halide ppts can be found in data booklet
47
XVI. Hydroxy C
mpds
Alcohols: org cmpds with OH grp
Preparation of alcohols:
● Hydration of alkene [see Chapter XI. Alkenes]
Industrial method:
● Reduction of Carboxylic Acid & Carbonyl Cmpds [see Chapter XVII. Carbonyl cmpds
and see Chapter XVIII. Carboxylic Acids & Derivatives]
● Nucleophilic subst of RX [see Chapter XV. Halogen Derivatives]
Rxns of alcohols:
● Combustion
● CO bond fission (Nucleophilic Subst)
Mechanism:
● Elimination (dehydration)
48
Special case for “gemdiols”: two OH grps bound to the same C atom
Elimination to form ketones
● Oxidation
1. Primary alcohols
2. Secondary alcohols
3. Tertiary alcohols can’t be oxidised
4.
Special case of oxidation: iodoform test
49
3. (condensation rxn w RCOX)
Phenol: OH group directly attached to a benzene ring
(Phenols are acidic, because the negative charge on the O atom in the conjugate base can
delocalise into the benzene ring. This disperses the ve charge on the O atom and thus
stabilises the conjugate anionic base, and thus phenols are acidic)
Rxns of phenols
● Condensation rxn w Acyl Halides (acylation)
50
● Acid base rxn ( Amongst Phenol and Alcohols, only RCOOH acidic enough to react with N a2 CO3 )
● Combustion
● Redox rxn with Na(s)
● Complexation with F eCl3 (aq) to give violet coloration
Not necessary to know how to draw the complex, just need to know of the violet coloration
● Electrophilic substitution ( Recall OH is an activating grp. → Esub occurs without harsh cond)
1. (Halogenation of the benzene ring)
(white ppt observed)
2. (Nitration of the benzene ring)
51
52
XVII. Carbonyl Cmpds
(C=O) group
Physical properties:
Soluble if < 5 C atoms
Preparation:
● Oxidation from ROH [see Chapter XVI. Hydroxy cmpds]
● Oxidation from Alkenes [see Chapter XVI. Alkenes]
● Electrophilic sub of benzene [see Chapter XVII: Arenes]
Rxns:
● Nucleophilic Addn
Mechanism:
Step1 : Generation of nucleophile
→
K CN (aq) K + (aq) + C N − (aq)
Step 2: Nucleophilic attack
Step 3:
53
Thus rate = k [Carbonyl cmpd][CN ]
−
The cyanohydrin is a racemic mixture of enantiomers. (equal chance of attack from
both sides of the sp 2 hybridised C atom in step 2)
Further rxn of cyanohydrins:
A. hydrolysis
B. reduction
● Reduction
54
● Condensation (addn elimination rxn with 2,4DNPH)
(orange ppt observed)
● Oxidation (only for aldehydes)
1. Fehling’s test
(red brown C u2 O (s) ppt observed) (works only for aliphatic aldehydes)
2. Tollen’s test
(silver mirror observed)
3. Ox by KMNO4/ K2Cr2O7
(Decolorization of purple KMnO4 observed) (K2Cr2O7 orange→ green)
55
Special case of Oxidation of Methyl Ketones: Iodoform test
(yellow ppt CHI3 observed)
Another special case of Oxidation of Ketones can be seen in aromatic ketones
Aromatic carbonyl cmpds:
↓ rxty towards rxns, since carbonyl C is less e− deficient ( e− on benzene ring delocalise onto
C=O structure)
56
XVIII. Carboxylic A
cid & Derivatives
Physical properties of RCOOH:
● Not very volatile, I.M.F stronger due to Hbonding
● Soluble if N C atoms ≤ 4
● Benzoic acid soluble in hot water, forms white crystalline solid when cooled
Preparation of RCOOH:
● Oxidation of alkene [see Chapter XI. Alkenes]
Ox of carbonyl cmpds [see Chapter XVII. Carbonyl cmpds]
● Hydrolysis of RCN [see Chapter XV. RX]
Hydrolysis of Acyl halides [see Chapter XVIII. Carboxylic Acid & Derivatives]
Rxns of RCOOH:
57
●
58
RCOOH is generally immune to oxidation, except
Why is RCOOH acidic?
59
●
60
Rxns of Esters
●
Note: esters are considered inert in our syllabus, apart from being able to be hydrolysed
61
XIX. Nitrogen Derivatives
Derivatives of ammonia
N is sp 3 hybridised
Physical properties of amine:
● Small amine molecules are soluble in water (presence of Hbonds)
Aromatic amines dissolve in org cmpds
Why are amines basic?
available l.p on N atom for coordination with a proton
Factors that affect basicity
● The availability of that lp for coordination w a proton
● Ease in which protonated amine can undergo solvation with water and so become
stabilised
Rank in terms of basicity:
Presence of e − donating
alkyl grps increase availability of lp for donation
For aromatic amines, the lp delocalises into the benzene ring, and is unavailable for
donation
Preparation of amines:
● Reduction of amides [see Chapter XIX. Nitrogen Derivatives]
● Hydrolysis of amides [see Chapter XIX. Nitrogen Derivatives]
● Reduction of nitrobenzene
62
Rxns of amines:
● Acidbase rxn
Amine: Amine salts:
Larger amines insol. Very Soluble
Organic soluble Organic Insoluble
Volatile Non Volatile
● Nucleophilic subst with RX [see Chapter XV. RX]
● Condensation rxn with acyl halides [see Chapter XVIII. Carboxylic Derivatives]
● Electrophilic subst of phenyl amine
(white ppt observed)
Amides
Physical properties of amides:
● Less volatile due to presences of Hbonds
● Soluble due to Hbonds
Amides lack basicity, because the lp on N atom delocalises over the entire amide
structure → lp no longer located on a single atom as an intensely ve region of space→
unavailable for coordination w a proton
Rxns of amides:
● Hydrolysis
1. Acidic medium, heat
2. Basic medium, heat
● Reduction
63
Amino Acids
In solid state, zwitterionic structure exists
Very strong ionic bonds among zwitterions
Soluble in water, insoluble in nonpolar solvents
Amphoteric (acidic part is N H 4 + , basic part is C OO − )
Isoelectric pt: pH at which [zwitterion] is maximum, amino acid does not migrate under the
effect of an electric field
Rxns of amino acids:
● Participates in reactions identical to amines and carboxylic acids [see Chapter XVII.
Carboxylic Acids]
Rxns of proteins:
● Undergo acidic/ basic hydrolysis
(acidic hydrolysis)
64
XX. Electrochem
AN OX Anode attracts anions, oxidation
RED CAT Cathode attracts cations, reduction
Electrolyte: conductor of electricity via flow of charge carried by its ions
Electrode potential : p.d across a cell consisting of electrode and the standard hydrogen
electrode. Dependent on temperature, [ions], partial pressure
As such, standard conditions, as said in Chapter V. Energetics, are used for electrochem.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode: reference electrode
E Θ /V
(arbitrarily assigned 0V)
65
E Θ /V
Θ
Magnitude of E : measure of tendency of forward rxn
Voltaic cells = electrochemical cells
(cathode, redn)
(anode, ox)
1. Zn(s) loses 2 e− , entes soln as Z n 2+ (aq)
2. C u 2+ (aq) gains 2 e− , reduced to Cu(s)
3. 2 e− travels via wire from Zn to Cu
66
Salt bridge:
Contains an electrolytic soln whose ions dont rxt with other ions in the cell/ w the
electrodes
The ions in the salt bridge migrate to neutralise charge buildups due to redox rxns at
both electrodes
Used to complete the circuit and maintain charge neutrality
−
Standard cell potential, E Θ cell = E Θ cathode E Θ anode
Θ
E cell +ve: spontaneous, thermodynamically feasible
Θ
E ve: not spontaneous
−
cell
ΔG = nF E Θ , n= N moles of e − transf erred , F= 96500 C mol −1 (v alue of F can be found in Data Booklet)
Θ
Hydrogen fuel cell:
Electrolysis: supplying e − to make a non spontaneous rxn occur
Selective discharge: if more than one species can be discharged, we need to compare the
electrode potential of the competing species.
Using LCP, weigh external factors that are not as in standard conditions, and
determine if E cathode/anode value should be higher or lower than given E Θ
(if reduction favored more, E cathode/anode becomes less ve/ more +ve)
(if oxidation favored more, E cathode/anode becomes less/ more ve)
67
Faraday’s first law: the mass of substance and or volume of gas liberated during electrolysis
is dependent on charge passed through the cell.
Q = I t, I = current, t = time
Q = ne F , ne = amt of e − in mol
Faraday’s second law: amt of charge req to discharge 1 mol of an element depends on the
charge on the ion.
68
XXI. Periodicity II
Group 2 trend down the group:
Atomic radius ↑
EN ↓
m.p
First I.E ↓
Metallic Character ↑
E Θ More ve
Thermal decomposition:
→
M CO3 (s) M O(s) + C O2 (g)
↑
Why does thermal stability down the grp?
↓
charge density→ ability to distort e − cloud and
−
polarise C O bond
↓
Therefore more heat req to break covalent CO bond,
↑
causing decomp temp
Group 17 trend down the group:
Bondlength ↑
EN ↓
M.p, b.p ↑
First I.E ↓
E Θ Less +ve
Thermal stability of HX:
↓ stability down the group
Find B.E from data booklet
Thermal stability is dependent on HX bond strength. B.E(HX) down the group becomes less
endothermic.
↑ ↓
As the size of halogens → valence orbital more diffuse→ E f f overlap
↓
Furthermore ΔEN → polarity ↓
69
XXII. Transition Metals
Physical properties
● Hard, high densities
● High m.p & b.p
(Valence 3d & 4s e− are close in energy, both available for delocalisation into the sea
of e− → strong metallic bonding)
(Dips at Mn & Zn because stable 3d 5 & 3d 10 configuration respectively less available
for delocalisation
● Good conductors (sea of mobile e− )
● ↑ ↑
Atomic radii relatively constant. (While nuclear charge , 3d4s repulsion also)
● ↑ ↑
I.E relatively constant. (While nuclear charge , 3d4s repulsion also)
Chemical properties
dblock sblock
Variable ox states Fixed ox states
colored white
Catalytic action No catalytic action
Stable complexes Less able to form complexes
Why variable ox states? :
Valence 3d & 4s e− are close in energy, both available for bond formation → can form
different no. of ionic/covalent bonds, ox state varies.
H ighest possible ox state = N unpaired d e − + 4s e −
70
Catalysis:
● Heterogenic
availability of 3d e − for bond formation w the rxt molecules or the availability of low
lying vacant orbitals which can accept e − pairs from rxt molecules
availability of partially filled 3d subshell which allows for ready transfer of e − to and
from rxt molecules, facilitating formatn of weak bonds w rxt molecules
● Homogenic
ability to exist in variable ox states
ease in which it can be converted from one ox state to the other
facilitates formatn & decomp of intermediate cmpds btwn transition metal ions and
rxts
Complex: a central metal ion/ atom linked to 1 or more surrounding ions/ molecules by dative
covalent bonds.
N bonds exceeds ox state of the metal ion
Ligand: ion/ molecule w lp to donate unto lowlying orbital of central metal ion/ atom
Dative covalent bond: bond formatn btwn filled orbitals overlapping w vacant orbitals
Coordination no. = N coordinate bonds formed with ligands
Monodentate ligand:
Can form 1 coordinate bond
Bidentate ligand:
Can form 2 coordinate bonds
Hexadentate ligand:
Can form 6 coordinate bonds
(e.g [Cu(edta)] 2− )
Why transition metals form complexes?
● Low lying vacant orbitals to accomodate l.p from ligands to form coordinate bonds
● Relatively small & highly charged → high charge density → able to attract lp from
ligands
Coord no. Shape e.g
[Ag(CN )2 ] −
[CuCl2 ] −
4 tetrahedral [N i(CO)4
[Zn(N H 3 )4 ] 2+
[CoCl4 ] 2−
[Cu(CN )4 ] 3−
[Cu(N H 3 )4 ] 2+
71
[CuCl4 ] 2−
[F e(CN )6 ] 4−
[N i(N H 3 )6 ] 2+
Why are transition metals colored?
Originally, all 5 dorbitals are degenerate (same energy level)
In complexes, they split and have 2 different energy levels
dxz , dxy , dyz dx2 −y2 dz 2
Tetrahedral complexes: Octahedral complexes:
Ligands approach btwn the x,y,z axes, and Ligands approach along the x,y,z axes, and
thus repel the 3dz 2 & 3dx2 −y2 orbitals that thus repel the 3dz 2 & 3dx2 −y2 orbitals that
have electron density situated along the have electron density situated along the
axes, to lower energy levels, compared to axes, to higher energy levels, compared to
the 3dxz , 3dxy , 3dyz orbitals situated the 3dxz , 3dxy , 3dyz orbitals situated
between the axes between the axes
Electrons from the lower energy levels can absorb light energy and be promoted (dd
transition) to the higher energy level vacant 3d orbitals
The energy of the light absorbs corresponds to a certain wavelength and thus color. The
color observed is the complement of the color absorbed (opp each other on the color
wheel)
Factors affecting color of transition metal complexes:
Identity of the metal & its ox state
Nature of the Ligands attached
72
Rxns of transition metals:
● Precipitation rxns [see Chapter XIV. Solubility eqm]
● Redox rxns (refer to the Data booklet for half eqns)
● Ligand exchange: ligands forming the complex of higher K stab replacing those
forming the complex of lower K stab
K stab : stability constant, measure of how stable Complex A is vs Complex B.
(e.g )
Ligand strength:
H 2 O < N H 3 < S 2 O3 2− < C N − < edta 4−
73
Qualitative A
nalysis
(Tests for gases can be found in the Data Booklet)
Thermal decomposition:
1. Ammonium salts
N H 4 Cl ⇔ N H 3 + H Cl
Pungent N H 3 (g) evolved, white solid on upper end of base
2. Nitrates
a. 2KN O3 → 2KN O 2 + O2
O2 (g) evolved relights glowing splint
b. 2Cu(N O3 )2 → 2CuO + 4N O 2 + O2
Blue solid turned black. O2 (g) evolved. Pungent N O2 (g) turned F eSO4 (aq) brown
c. Z n(N O3 )2 → Z nO + 2N O 2 + 21 O2
Z nO (s) yellow residue remained, turned white upon cooling. Pungent 2N O2 evolved.
O2 evolved.
3. Carbonates
→
a. C uCO3 C uO + C O2
Green solid turned black. C O2 (g) evolved
b. 2N aHCO3 → N a CO 2 3 + C O2 + H 2 O
C O2 (g) evolved.
Triply charged cations:
E.g [F e(H 2 O)6 ] 3+ + 3H 2 O ⇔ [F e(OH)3 (H 2 O)3 ](s) + 3H 3 O + (aq)
Acidic enough to rxt with N a2 CO3 , a weak base
Amphoteric Hydroxides: Al, Zn, Cr
74
Junction Test:
75
76
77