Lecture 2

Contents
1 Settlement ............................................................................................................................................. 2
2 Mode of Occurrence.............................................................................................................................. 2
2.1 Immediate settlement 𝑺𝒊𝑺𝒆 ........................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement𝑺𝒄 ............................................................................................ 2
2.3 Secondary Consolidation Settlement𝑺𝒔 ........................................................................................ 2
3 With respect to permanency .................................................................................................................. 2
3.1 Permanent settlement (irreversible) .............................................................................................. 2
3.2 Temporary settlement (Reversible) ............................................................................................... 2
4 With respect to uniformity .................................................................................................................... 2
4.1 Uniform settlement ....................................................................................................................... 2
4.2 Differential Settlement .................................................................................................................. 2
5 Clay Consolidation Conditions ............................................................................................................. 3
5.1 Normally consolidated clay (NCC)............................................................................................... 3
5.2 Pre-Consolidation Clay (PCC) ...................................................................................................... 3
5.3 Under-Consolidated Clay.............................................................................................................. 3
5.4 Over-Consolidation Ratio ............................................................................................................. 3
5.5 Comparison of NCC and OCC...................................................................................................... 3
5.6 Causes of Settlement and Remedial Measures.............................................................................. 3
6 Calculation of Immediate Settlement (𝑺𝒊) ............................................................................................ 3
6.1 Janbu Bjerrum and Kjaernsli (1956) method ................................................................................ 3
6.2 Schmertmann’s Method .............................................................................................................. 10

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Settlement Analysis
1 Settlement
The total vertical downward deformation of soil resulting from the load is called settlement.
Types of settlement

2 Mode of Occurrence
𝑺
2.1 Immediate settlement ( 𝒊⁄𝑺 )
𝒆
It is that type of settlement which is supposed to take place during application of loading (during
construction period generally in 7 days of commencement of construction)

2.2 Primary Consolidation Settlement(𝑺𝒄 )

It is that part of total settlement which is due to expulsion of pore water pressure from voids and it is time
dependent long term settlement (1-5 Years or more)

2.3 Secondary Consolidation Settlement(𝑺𝒔 )

It starts with the completion of primary consolidation settlement under constant effective stress with no
drainage of water. This settlement occurs only due to rearrangement of particles.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = Si + Sc + Ss

3 With respect to permanency

3.1 Permanent settlement (irreversible)
It is caused by expulsion of water from pores and rearrangement of particles it includes primary and
secondary consolidation settlement.

3.2 Temporary settlement (Reversible)

It occurs due to elastic compression of soils and major part of settlement recovers when load is released.
Immediate settlement falls in this category

4 With respect to uniformity

4.1 Uniform settlement
When all the parts settle by equal amount the settlement is known as uniform settlement. It occurs only
under rigid foundations loaded with uniform pressure and rested on uniform soil deposit which is very rare
possibility.

4.2 Differential Settlement

When different parts of structure settle by different magnitude the settlement is termed as differential
settlement. It may endanger structural stability and may cause catastrophic failure.
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ∆𝑆 = 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆𝑆 𝑆
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝑙 𝑙

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 1 1
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑜
300 500

5 Clay Consolidation Conditions

5.1 Normally consolidated clay (NCC)
A soil is said to be normally consolidated when the pre-consolidation pressure 𝜎̅𝑐 is approximately equal to
the existing effective vertical overburden pressure 𝜎̅𝑜 (i.e. 𝜎̅𝑜 is within +- 10% of𝜎̅𝑐 ) this a NCC has never
been subjected to a stress greater than the existing overburden pressure in the past.

5.2 Pre-Consolidation Clay (PCC)

If pre-consolidation pressure 𝜎̅𝑐 is greater than the existing over burden pressure 𝜎̅𝑜 (i.e.𝜎̅𝑐 > 𝜎̅𝑜 ) then the
soil is called as pre-consolidated or over consolidated clay (OCC).

5.3 Under-Consolidated Clay

Under consolidation can occur, for example, in soils that have only recently been deposited either
geologically or by man. Under these conditions the soil layer has not yet come to equilibrium under the
weight of overburden load that is the pore pressure is in a hydro excess state.

5.4 Over-Consolidation Ratio

OCR is a tool generally used to distinguish amongst NCC, OCC and UCC soils.
This is defined as,
𝑁𝐶𝐶 → 𝑂𝐶𝑅 = 1 ,𝑂𝐶𝐶 → 𝑂𝐶𝑅 > 1 𝑈𝐶𝐶 → 𝑂𝐶𝑅 < 1

5.5 Comparison of NCC and OCC

Please read it by yourself Page # 164 from “Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics” by Prof. Dr. Aziz Akbar.

5.6 Causes of Settlement and Remedial Measures

Please read it by yourself Page # 249 from “Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics” by Prof. Dr. Aziz Akbar.

6 Calculation of Immediate Settlement (𝑺𝒊 )

6.1 Janbu Bjerrum and Kjaernsli (1956) method
𝑞𝐵
𝑆𝑖 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇1 (1 − 𝜇2 )
𝐸
Where 𝜇𝑜 , 𝜇1 =Dimensionless settlement factors from Figure 9.3 (Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics)
𝑞 =Net contact pressure causing settlement
𝐵 =Width of the loaded area or footing, same units as of 𝑆𝑖
𝐸 =Undrained modulus of soil. Same units as of 𝑞 (From Table 9.4, 9.5 and Figure 9.4)
𝜇 =Poisson’s ratio of soil (See Table 9.6)
Here 𝑆𝑖 is average settlement of foundation. To find the settlement of foundation at the corner, edge and
center, use coefficients given in Table 9.7.

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4
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 Example

Compute the immediate settlement for the conditions shown below.

Solution

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝛾 × 𝐿 × 𝑊 × 𝐻 = 120 × 100 × 50 × 5 = 3,000,000𝑙𝑏𝑠

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 (𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛) = 8,000,000 − 3,000,000
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 5,000,000𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 5,000,000
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝜎𝑜 = 𝐿×𝑊
= 50×100
= 1,000𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝐿 𝐻
Form Figure 10.3: For 𝐵 = 2, 𝐵 = 1 the settlement factors come out to be 𝜇1 = 0.51, 𝜇2 = 0.98

From Figure 10.4 for PI=40, OCR=2 value of K=400

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𝐸 = 400 × 𝑆𝑢 = 400 × 1,000 = 400,000𝑝𝑠𝑓
Let 𝜇 = 0.5 then
𝑞𝐵
𝑆𝑖 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇1 (1 − 𝜇2 )
𝐸
1000×50
𝑆𝑖 = 0.51 × 0.98 × (1 − 0.52 )
400,000

𝑆𝑖 = 0.05𝑓𝑡
𝐻 1
Using Table 10.6 for 𝐿
=2

𝑆𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 0.45 × 0.05 = 0.0225𝑓𝑡

𝑆𝑖 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 0.7 × 0.05 = 0.035𝑓𝑡

𝑆𝑖 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 1.3 × 0.05 = 0.02 = 0.065𝑓𝑡

Example

Given the following data estimate the settlement of raft foundation

𝜎𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 134𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑅𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 𝐵 × 𝐿 = 33.5𝑚 × 33.9𝑚
Measured 𝑆𝑖 = 18𝑚𝑚 soil is layered clay with one sand seam from ground surface to sand stone bedrock
at 14m, mat placed at 3.0m below GSL.
𝐸 = 42.5𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 3𝑚 𝑡𝑜 − 6𝑚
𝐸 = 60.0𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 6𝑚 𝑡𝑜 − 14𝑚
𝐸 = 500.0𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘
Use 𝜇 = 0.35

Solution

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 𝐻1 𝐸1 +𝐻2 𝐸2 3×42.5+8×60.0
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐻1 +𝐻2
= 3+8
= 55.23𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐻 = 14 − 3 = 11𝑚 (from base to sand stone)

𝐿 𝐻 𝐷
Average settlement at center from Figure 10.3, For = 0.848, = 0.328 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.0896
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵

𝜇𝑜 = 0.98, 𝜇1 = 0.20
𝑞𝐵
𝑆𝑖 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇1 (1 − 𝜇2 )
𝐸

33.5×134
𝑆𝑖 = 0.98 × 0.20 × × (1 − 0.352 )
55239

𝑆𝑖 = 13.7𝑚𝑚 ≈ 14𝑚𝑚
For settlement at center=14x1.3=17.8mm

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6.2 Schmertmann’s Method
This is a technique proposed by Schmertmann’s in 1970 and later modified in 1978 for the calculation of
immediate settlement of foundations laying over the sohesionless soils. The method is based on two
assumptions.
1) The greatest vertical strain in the soil beneathc the centre of a loaded foundation of width B occurs
at depth 𝐵⁄2 below a square foundation and at depth of 𝐵 below a long foundation.
2) Significant stresses caused by the foundation loading can be regarded as insignificant at depth
greater than 𝑧 = 2.0𝐵 for a square footing and 𝑧 = 4.0𝐵 for a strip footing.
This method involves the use of a vertical strain influence factor, 𝐼𝑧 , whose value varies with depth. Values
of 𝐼𝑧 for a net foundation pressure increase,∆𝑃, equal to eth effective overburden pressure at depth 𝐵⁄2 are
shown in Figure 9.5.

The procedure consists of dividing the sand below the footing into 𝑛 layers of
thickness ∆𝑧1 , ∆𝑧2 , ∆𝑧3 , … … … … , ∆𝑧𝑛 . If soil conditions permit it is simpler if the layer can be made of
equal thickness ∆𝑧. The vertical strain in a layer is taken as equal to the increase in vertical stress at the
center of the layer, i.e. ∆𝑃 multiplied by 𝐼𝑧 , which is then divided by the product of 𝐶𝑟 and a factor 𝑥.

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Hence
𝑛
𝐼𝑧
𝑆𝑒 = 𝐶1 𝐶2 ∆𝑃 ∑ ∆𝑧
𝑥𝐶𝑟 𝑖
𝑖=1

𝐶𝑟 = cone penetration resistance (MPa)

𝑥= 2.5 for square footing and 3.5 for strip footing
𝐼𝑧 = the strain influence factor, valued for each layer at its center, and obtained from a diagram (Fig. 11.4)
𝜎′
𝐶1 = a correction factor for depth of foundation=1.0 − 0.5 ∆𝑃𝑣 (1.0 for a surface footing)
𝑡
𝐶2 = a correction factor for creep =1 + 0.2 log10 0.1 (t=time in years after the application of foundation
loading for which the settlement value is required.
0.5
∆𝑃
𝐼𝑧 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 0.5 + 0.1 ( ′ )
𝜎𝑣𝑝

Where
′
𝜎𝑣𝑝 = effective vertical overburden pressure at a depth of 0.5𝐵 for a square foundation and at a depth of
1.0B for a long foundation

For a square footing (𝐿⁄𝐵 = 1)

𝑧𝑐
𝐼𝑧 = 0.1 + (𝐼 − 0.1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 0.5𝐵
0.5𝐵 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
2 𝑧𝑐
𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 (2 − ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 > 0.5𝐵
3 𝐵
For a strip footing (𝐿⁄𝐵 > 10)
𝑧𝑐
𝐼𝑧 = 0.2 + (𝐼 − 0.2) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 < 𝐵
𝐵 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
1 𝑧𝑐
𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 (4 − ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 > 𝐵
3 𝐵

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 Example

A foundation of 1.5m square will carry a load of 300kPa and will

be founded at a depth of 0.75m in a deep deposit of granular soil.
The soil has unit weight of 20 𝑘𝑁⁄ 2 and if the groundwater
𝑚
level occurs at a depth of 1.25m below the surface of the soil,
determine the value for the settlement of the soil the center of the
foundation by Schmertmann’s method. The variation of 𝐶𝑟 with
depth is given below.

Solution

′
For a square footing significant depth extends to 2.0B and 𝜎𝑣𝑝 is taken as the effective vertical overburden
′
pressure at a depth of 0.5B below the foundation, i.e. in this example, 0.75m, so that 𝜎𝑣𝑝 =
20(0.75 + 0.75) = 30𝑘𝑃𝑎
Net foundation pressure increase=∆𝑃 = 300 − 20 × 0.75 = 285𝑘𝑃𝑎
Hence
0.5
∆𝑃
𝐼𝑧 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 0.5 + 0.1 ( ′ )
𝜎𝑣𝑝

285 0.5
𝐼𝑧 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 0.5 + 0.1 ( ) = 0.81
30
For square foundation x=2.5
Now
Layer no. ∆𝑧𝑖 (𝑚) Depth below 𝐶𝑟 (𝑀𝑃𝑎) 𝐼𝑧 𝐼𝑧 ∆𝑧𝑖
foundation to 𝑥𝐶𝑟
centre of layer
(m)
1 0.5 0.25 4.8 0.33 0.011
2 0.5 0.75 4.8 0.81 0.034
3 1.0 1.5 6.4 0.53 0.033
4 1.0 2.5 9.6 0.18 0.088
Total=0.09

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 𝜎𝑣′ 15
𝐶1 = 1.0 − 0.5 = 1 − [0.5 × ] = 0.97
∆𝑃 285
Assume that 𝐶2 = 1.0, then
𝑛
𝐼𝑧
𝑆𝑒 = 𝐶1 𝐶2 ∆𝑃 ∑ ∆𝑧
𝑥𝐶𝑟 𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑆𝑒 = 0.97 × 285 × 0.09 = 24.9 ≈ 25𝑚𝑚

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