Hydraulics Module

JIGJIGA UNIVERISITY 2015

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

HYDRAULICS MODULE
PREPARED BY:

FIREHYWOT BELAY

EDITED BY:

ABDULAH WABERI

2007/2015

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JJU \HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
DEPARTMENT OF
HYDRAULIC & WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
 Hydraulics Module 2015

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, I would like to say thanks for the almighty of God for everything that he
did for me. Then, I have extended my greater gratitude to Jigjiga University as well
as hydraulic and water resource Engineering department for providing such kind of
an opportunity for instructors to stretch their understanding and knowledge on
different course by preparing module.
I would also like to thanks my staff members and Ato Amanual adane who is
head of hydraulic and water resource engineering department for their contribution
during my work for the successes of this module.

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ABSTRACT
The main objective of this module is creating a chance for students to grasp and
provide full explanation about definition of hydraulic, purposes of hydraulics and to
familiarize the students with open channel flows, flows in a pipe networking, free surface
flows, and application of physical modeling and fundamentals of water hammer analysis.

This paper include, the definition, elements of flow, computation of open channel flow
and define appropriate physical properties and show how these allow differentiation
between solids and fluids as well as between gases and liquids. The overall benefits that
anyone can got from this document is gaining any idea about hydraulics and it‟s
engineering application by reading this document without need of referring another
books.
To help anyone reading better understands, the discussed topics and ideas are
supported by figurative illustrations.

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Table of Contents
HYDRAULICS I ................................................................................................................ 1
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1What is hydraulics? ........................................................................................................ 1
2.0 Fluid properties ............................................................................................................. 3
2.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 3
2.2 Fluids......................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Fluid properties ......................................................................................................... 3
2.4 Viscosity of fluid....................................................................................................... 5
2.4.1 Newton‟s Law of Viscosity ............................................................................................ 6
2.4.2 Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity (mu-µ) ...................................................................... 7
2.4.3 Kinematic Viscosity (nu- ν)............................................................................................ 7
2.5 Compressibility and elasticity of fluids .................................................................... 7
2.6 Newtonian and Non - Newtonian fluids ................................................................... 8
2.7 Surface tension and Capillarity ................................................................................. 9
2.7.1 Surface tension denoted by s (Gk. Sigma) ..................................................................... 9
2.7.2Capillarity or meniscus effect ........................................................................................ 10
2.8 Vapor pressure ........................................................................................................ 11
3.0 Hydrostatics ................................................................................................................ 13
3.1 Objective ................................................................................................................. 13
3.2 Fluid pressures ........................................................................................................ 13
3.2.1 Pascal‟s Law for Pressure at a Point ............................................................................. 13
3.2.1Pressure Distribution PASCAL‟s Law .......................................................................... 15
3.3 Pressure measurement ............................................................................................. 17
3.4 Hydrostatic pressure on plane and curved surfaces ................................................ 23
3.4. 1. Forces on plane surface .............................................................................................. 24
3.4.2. Forces on curved surfaces............................................................................................ 27
3.5Buoyancy and stability of floating bodies ............................................................... 27
3.5.1. Buoyant force (Resultant fluid force in a body) .......................................................... 27
3.5.2. Stability of submerged and floating bodies. ................................................................ 29
4. KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW ................................................................................ 32
4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 32
4.2Dimension Of Flow.................................................................................................. 32
4. 3Velocity & Acceleration in a fluid flow ................................................................. 33
4.4 Describing the pattern of flow ................................................................................ 34
4.5 Types of flow .......................................................................................................... 36
4.6 Continuity Equation ................................................................................................ 37
4.7 Stream function ( ) and velocity potential () ...................................................... 41
5.0 FLUID DYNAMICS .................................................................................................. 48
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 48

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5.2 Equations of motion ................................................................................................ 48

5.2.1 Energy and Head .......................................................................................................... 49
5.3 Bernoulli‟s Equation ............................................................................................... 50
5.3.1 Bernoulli‟s Equation for real fluid................................................................................ 51
5.3.2 Energy correction factor ............................................................................................... 52
5.3.3 Practical Applications of Bernoulli‟s Equation ............................................................ 53
5.4Determination of hydraulic coefficients of orifice................................................... 60
5.6 Impulse-momentum theorem .................................................................................. 64
PROBLEM ON HYDRAULICS I .................................................................................... 66

HYDRAULICS II ............................................................................................................. 67
INTRODUCTION TO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW .......................................................... 67
1.1 Types of flow in open channel ................................................................................ 69
1.2 Geometric elements of open channel section.......................................................... 70
1.3 Most economical channel section ........................................................................... 73
1.4 Specific energy........................................................................................................ 77
1.5 Hydraulic jump ....................................................................................................... 83
2.0 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILITUDE .................................................. 90
2.1: DIMENSIONAL ANALYISIS.............................................................................. 90
2.2 Dimensional homogeneity ...................................................................................... 92
2.3: SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODELS ................................................... 105
2.3.1 SIMILITUDE ............................................................................................................. 105
2.4 TYPES OF MODELS ........................................................................................... 113
3.0 BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY ........................................................................... 115
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 115
3.1 Description of the Boundary Layer .................................................................. 116
3.2 Boundary layer equations ................................................................................ 116
3.3 Boundary layer along a long thin plate and its characteristics ....................... 119
3.4 Laminar boundary layer ................................................................................... 121
3.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer ............................................................................... 123
3.6 Separation of boundary layer ........................................................................... 126
3.7 Drag and lift on a sphere and cylinder ............................................................. 126
Problems ..................................................................................................................... 132
FLOW THROUGH PIPES ............................................................................................. 133
4.1 Major Losses (Head loss in conduits of constant cross-section) .......................... 134
4.2 Minor losses in the pipes....................................................................................... 137
4.3 Pipeline system ..................................................................................................... 144
4.3.1 Pipes in Series............................................................................................................. 144
4.3.2 Equivalent pipes ......................................................................................................... 146
4.3.4 Pipes in Parallel .......................................................................................................... 146
4.4 Branching pipes ................................................................................................... 147
4.5 Pipe Networks ....................................................................................................... 150

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5.0 HYDRAULIC MACHINES ..................................................................................... 156

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 156
5.2 Pump Types .......................................................................................................... 156
5.3 Turbine types ........................................................................................................ 158
5.4 Head on pumps and turbines ................................................................................. 160
5.6 Specific Speed on pump and turbine .................................................................... 161
5.7 Performance on pump and turbine ........................................................................ 162
5.8Characteristics of pump and turbine ...................................................................... 162
5.9 Cavitations ............................................................................................................ 163
PROBLEM ON HYDRAULICS II ................................................................................ 164

OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS ............................................................................... 165

1.0 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS ................................... 165
1.1 Real and ideal flow ............................................................................................... 169
1.2Dimensional Numbers and state of flow. ............................................................... 170
2.0 BASIC HYDRAULICS PRINCIPLES .................................................................... 174
2.1 Geometric Elements of Channel Section .............................................................. 174
2.2 Main Principles ..................................................................................................... 175
2.3 Continuity Principle ............................................................................................. 175
2.4 Energy Principle.................................................................................................... 176
2.5 The critical state of Flow ...................................................................................... 178
2.6 Momentum Principle ........................................................................................... 179
3.0 FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS ............................................................. 182
3.1Critical Flow .......................................................................................................... 182
3.2 Computation of critical flow ................................................................................. 183
3.3 Control section (flow control) ............................................................................... 183
3.4 Flow measurement ................................................................................................ 184
3.5 Uniform Flow....................................................................................................... 185
35.1 Establishment of uniform flow .................................................................................... 185
3.5.2Computation of Uniform flow ..................................................................................... 185
4.0 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF).................................................................. 188
4.1 GENERAL EQUATION FOR GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW ....................... 188
4.2 Classification of Flow Profiles.............................................................................. 190
4.3 GVF Computations ............................................................................................... 192
4.3.1 The direct step method (Direct integration) .............................................................. 192
4.3.2Standard step method................................................................................................. 193
5.0 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF) ......................................................................... 195
5.1 characteristic feature of RVF ................................................................................ 195
5.2 BROAD CRESTED WEIR (BCW) ...................................................................... 196
5.3 SHARP-CRESTED WEIR (SCW) ....................................................................... 196
5.3.1 Round-Crested overflow spillway .............................................................................. 196
PROBLEM ON OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS..................................................... 202

REFERENCES/LITERATURE ...................................................................................... 203

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List of figures

FIGURE 1 VISCOUS DEFORMATION ................................................................................................................ 6

FIGURE 2 VELOCITY GRADIENT ....................................................................................................................... 8
FIGURE 3 CAPILLARITY RISE AND FALL.......................................................................................................... 10
FIGURE 4 DEFINITION SKETCH FOR NORMAL STRESS AT APOINT ................................................................ 14
FIGURE 5 DEFINITION SKETCH TO PRESSURE VARIATION ............................................................................ 15
FIGURE 6 PRESSURE RELATIVE TO THE SURFACE OF A LIQUID .................................................................... 17
FIGURE 7GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF GAGE AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURE ............................................ 18
FIGURE 8 SIMPLE U-TUBE BAROMETER ....................................................................................................... 22
FIGURE 9 INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER ...................................................................................................... 23
FIGURE 10 FORCE ON APLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN WATER ............................................................... 25
FIGURE 11 PRESSURE PRISIM ....................................................................................................................... 26
FIGURE 12 FORCE ON CURVED SURFACE ..................................................................................................... 27
FIGURE 13 BUOYANT FORCE ON ASUBMERGED BODY ................................................................................ 28
FIGURE 14 UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM ............................................................................................................ 30
FIGURE 15 ROTATING OF FLUID ELEMENT ................................................................................................... 43
FIGURE 16 |ORIFICE METER ......................................................................................................................... 57
FIGURE 17 .................................................................................................................... 61
FIGURE 18 TRIANGUAR WEIR ....................................................................................................................... 63
FIGURE 19 ........................................................................................................................... 64
FIGURE 0-1GEOMETRY OF AN OPEN CHANNEL.......................................................................................... 175

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List of Tables

TABLE 1 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC JUMP ........................................................................................... 87

TABLE 2 DIMENSIONS OF VARIOUS PHYSICAL QUANTITIES ......................................................................... 92
TABLE 3 LOSS COEFFICIENTS FOR SUDDEN CONTRACTION........................................................................ 140
TABLE 4 LOSS COEFFICIENT FOR GRADUAL EXPANSION ............................................................................ 142
TABLE 5 VALUES OF LOSS FOR PIPE FITTINGS........................................................................................... 143
TABLE 6 SPECIFIC SPEEDS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF PUMPS AND TURBINES. .......................................... 161

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HYDRAULICS I
1.0 Introduction
Objectives of this section
After studying this chapter the student should understand and:-
 Define Hydraulics
Differentiate Fluid mechanics and Hydraulics
 Application of hydraulics
 Importance of studding Hydraulics

1.1What is hydraulics?
Hydraulics is derived from a Greek Word “Hydraulikos" which means water. It is the
study of water and some engineering fluids, which a hydraulic/civil engineer is called
upon to store, convey or pump. Engineering fluid includes wastewater in waste disposal
and oils in hydraulic control gear.

Activity1.1: What is the difference between Hydraulics and Fluid mechanics?

Hydraulics is often confused with the allied science of fluid mechanics because a
considerable overlap occurs between the two studies. However, fluid mechanics deals
with gases, as well as the common liquids, and to most hydraulic/civil engineers a study
of gas behavior is irrelevant to their professional needs.
The basic aim of hydraulics is to understand and control the occurrence, movement and
use of water for the benefit of society whether it is in lakes, rivers, pipes, drains,
percolating through soils or pounding the coastline as destructive waves. Therefore, the
fundamentals in hydraulic engineering systems involve the application of engineering
principles and methods to the planning, control, transportation, conservation, and
utilization of water.
Fluid mechanics is a branch of mechanics and studies about fluid (liquid + Gasses) while
Hydraulics is a branch of fluid mechanics which studies about engineering liquids i.e.
most of the time Hydraulics is concerned with water.

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Generally, fluid mechanics is about fluid while Hydraulics is concerned with engineering
liquids.
The basic aim to study Hydraulics is to control and understand:-
 Occurrence
 Movement
 Use of water for the benefit of the society.
Activity 1.2: Why do we study Hydraulics?
We study hydraulics:-
 To supply the society with adequate water
 To dispose waste and excess water
 To protect the society from uncontrolled water.
Activity1.3: Where we apply hydraulics?
Hydraulics is applied for different purposes such as:
 Design of wide range of Hydraulic structure (dams, canals weirs etc.) and
machinery (pumps, turbine etc.)
 Design of complex network of pumping and pipe lines for transporting
liquids.
 Power generation
 Flood protection
 Surface and ground water studies
 Flow metering like orifice meter
 Pressure measurement

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2.0 Fluid properties

2.1 Objectives
After studding this chapter the student should understand:-
 Define the nature of fluid
 Physical form of existence of matter
 Physical properties of fluid
 Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid
 Surface tension and capillarity
 Vapor pressure

2.2 Fluids
Matter can be in the form of solid, liquid and gas. However, liquid and gas are both
fluids. Fluids are substances, which deforms continuously under the application of shear
force, no matter how small the force might be. And fluids are characterized by their
ability to flow.
For a fluid at rest, there is no shearing force acting. When a fluid is in motion shear
stresses are developed if the particles of the fluid move relative to one another. When this
happens adjacent particles have different velocities. If fluid velocity is the same at every
point then there is no shear stress produced: the particles have zero relative velocity.
Activity 2.1: What mean by shear force and average shear stress?
Shear force is the component of the force that is tangent to the surface, while average
shear stress is the force component tangent to the surface divided by the area of the
surface.

2.3 Fluid properties

The properties outlines below are general properties of fluids which are of interest in
engineering. The symbol usually used to represent the property is specified together with
some typical values in SI units for common fluids. The dimensions of each unit are also
given in the MLT system.

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The examples of fluid property

 Intensive property
 Extensive property
 Chemical property
 Physical properties
Intensive property:-it is the property of the fluid that is independent of the fluid sample
size.
a) Density - 100litere and 100000litere of water have the same density (1000kg/m3).
b) temperature-100litere and 100000litere of water at the same pressure have the same
temperature.
Extensive property:-It is the property of the fluid that is dependent on the sample size.
 Mass, volume
1liter and 100 liter of water have different masses.
Mass= density * volume
Density of water is 1000kg/m3
So, 1 liter of water has a mass of 1kg and 100 liter of water has 100kg.
Chemical property is about the interaction of fluid with other chemical substances.
Physical properties
It is the property of fluid without reference to any other fluid.
a) Density
The density of the substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of the
substance. It can be expressed in three different ways.
i) Mass density (rho, ρ)
Mass Density, rho, is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume.

Units: Kilograms per cubic meter, kg /m3 (or kg m-3)

Dimensions: ML-3
Typical values:
Water = 1000 kg m-3, Mercury = 13546 kg m-3 Air = 1.23 kg m-3, Paraffin Oil = 800 kg
m-3(At pressure=1.013*10-5 Nm-3 and Temperature = 288.15 K.)

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Density is dependent on temperature and pressure. As the temperature increase the

density slightly decreases. For the liquid the variation is insignificant and can be ignored
but for gas the variation is significant.
ii) Specific weight/ unit weight/unit gravity force, denoted by g(gamma)
It is the weight per unit volume.
γ

SI unit N/m3 (usually KN/ m3)

Dimensionally (ML –2 T-2)
At 40c „g‟ for water is 9.806 / 9.81 KN /m3/ Mercury = 132943 N m-3, Air =12.07 Nm-3
,Paraffin Oil =7851 N m-3
It changes with location on the earth‟s surface depending upon g.
iii) Specific gravity (S) or relative density (rl. dn.)
It is defined as the ratio of mass of a body to mass of an equal volume of a substance
taken as a standard (for liquids water at 40 c).

Units: None, since a ratio is a pure number.

Dimensions: 1.
Typical values: Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.
iv) Specific volume (vs)
It is the volume occupied by a unit mass of a fluid or simply the reciprocal of density.
But, commonly applied to gases.
vs

2.4 Viscosity of fluid

Viscosity is the property of fluid which, by virtue of cohesion and interaction between
fluid molecules offers resistance to shear deformation. Different fluid deform at different
rates under the action of shear stress. Fluids with high viscosity such as syrup deform
relatively more slowly than low viscosity fluid such as water.

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2.4.1 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Consider a fluid confined between two plates which are situated a very short distance y-
apart. The lower plate is stationary whilst the upper plate is moving at a velocity v.
Hence; the fluid in immediate contact with the moving plate has a velocity v and with the
stationary plate has zero velocity. (The experimental observation that the fluid “sticks” to
the solid boundary is very important one in fluid mechanics and is usually referred to as
the no slip condition. All fluids satisfy this condition.)

Figure 1 Viscous Deformation

If distance y and velocity V are not great, the velocity variation (gradient) will be a
straight line. Experiments show that, F is directly proportional to A and V and inversely
proportional to thickness Y.

Similarity of triangles

Fα

Where, A=area of upper plate

Or

If proportionality constant absolute (dynamic) viscosity µ,is introduced.

µ or µ=

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This is equation of Newton‟s law of viscosity

Where:-

τ-the shear stress (N/m2) and dimensionally (ML-1T-2),

- The velocity gradient, or rate of deformation (radian/second),

µ- The coefficient of dynamic (or absolute) viscosity (Ns/m2 or kg/ms) and dimensionally
(ML-1T-1).

2.4.2 Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity (mu-µ)

The Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity, m, is defined as the sheer force, per unit area, (or
shear stress τ), required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a
unit distance away.
µ=

Units: Newton seconds per square meter, N sm-2 or Kilograms per meter per second, kg
m-1s-1

2.4.3 Kinematic Viscosity (nu- ν)

Kinematic Viscosity, is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
ν=

Units: square meters per second, m2s-1

2.5 Compressibility and elasticity of fluids

All fluids are compressible under the application of an external force and when the force
is removed they original volume exhibiting the property that stress is proportional to
volumetric strain.
Bulk modulus (k) =

If the pressure of a volume of fluid is increased by dp, it will cause a volume decrease dv
Volumetric strain =

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K=-

V is original volume
The negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with the increase in pressure.
ρ= m/v
Mass of a certain volume is constant, differentiating.

Then substituting into k=

SI unit is N/m2 and dimensionally (ML-1T-2)

Water with a bulk modulus of elasticity of 2.1*109N/m2 at 200c is 100 times more
compressible than steel, but water is ordinarily considered as incompressible.
Activity 2.2: How compressibility is related to bulk modules of elasticity?

2.6 Newtonian and Non - Newtonian fluids

Even among fluids which are accepted as fluids there can be wide differences in behavior
under stress.
Fluids obeying Newton‟s law where the value of m is constant are known as Newtonian
fluids. If m is constant the shear stress is linearly dependent on velocity gradient.
Fluids in which the value of m is not constant are known as non-Newtonian fluids.

Figure 2 Velocity gradient

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Example 2.5 Classify substance that has the following rate of deformation and
corresponding shear stress.
dv/dy s-1 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
τ kpa 0 2 4 6 8
Solution
Method one
By drawing the graph
9
8 shear stress vs strain
7
shear stree(τ)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

velocity graident(dv/dy)

The graph is street line and passing through the origin.Therefore, the fluid is Newtonian
fluid.
Method two
By finding the slope and considering whether the origin is at zero or not.
µ=

=6.66Ns/m2

The viscosity is constant i.e. there is a linear relationship between the applied shear stress
and the rate of angular deformation or we can say the slop is constant.
At the start shear stress as well as the rate of deformation is zero.
Therefore, the fluid is Newtonian fluid.

2.7 Surface tension and Capillarity

2.7.1 Surface tension denoted by s (Gk. Sigma)

Liquid poses the property of cohesion and adhesion due to molecular attraction. Due to
the property of cohesion, liquid can resist small tensile force at the interface between the
liquid and air, known as surface tension. It is a force, which exerts on the surface of the

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liquid when it is in contact with another fluid or a solid boundary or it is a work that done
to bring enough molecules from inside the liquid to form one new unit area of the
surface.
Mathematically,
Its unit is N/m

Some examples of phenomenon of surface tension are:

 Rain drop
 Birds to drink the water from the pond
 Collection of dust particles to the surface
The value of surface tension depends on factors are:
 Nature of liquid
 Nature of the surrounding matter
 Kinetic energy

2.7.2Capillarity or meniscus effect

If the liquid molecule have greater adhesion than cohesion, then the liquid stick to the
surface of the container with which it is in contact resulting in a capillary rise of the
liquid surface; a predominating cohesion on the other hand causes capillarity depression.
The magnitude of the capillary rise (or depression), h, is determined by the balance of
adhesive force between the liquid and solid surface and the weight of the liquid column
above (or below) the liquid free surface.

Figure 3 Capillarity rise and fall

Water mercury
a) Rise of column of liquid for wetting liquid b) depression of column for non wetting
liquid

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If the diameter of glass tube is d

Surface tension is σ
Angle of contact θ
To establish equilibrium

Weight of column above free surface

2.8 Vapor pressure

The vapor pressure of a liquid is the (generally small) pressure at which the liquid
vaporizes or boils as it changes from the liquid to the gaseous or vapor state. The vapor
pressure is strongly dependent on temperature. Water boils at atmospheric pressure when
the temperature is 1000c and at higher elevations the atmospheric pressure is less; hence,
water evaporates at temperatures lower than 1000C.

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This property usually has no effect on a fluid flow; however, if a flowing liquid
experiences a pressure at any point, which lowers the pressure locally to the vapor
pressure for that temperature, then this vaporization, will take place. In problems
involving siphoning, the result of pressure reduction to the vapor point will be to break
the siphon and interrupt the flow. In other cases the flow will continue, altered in form, as
the phenomenon of cavitations occurs. Cavitations‟ are the rapid formation and collapse
of small vapor bubbles, which are not only disruptive, but are also frequently destructive
as well.
Activity2.3: what is vapor pressure? What is its significance in flow problem? What
do you under standby the term cavitations?

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3.0 Hydrostatics

3.1 Objective
After studding this chapter the students have to know and understand:
 The concept of pressure and prove it has a unique value at any particular
elevation.
 How the pressure varies with depth according to the hydrostatic equation.
 How pressure can be expressed in terms of head.

3.2 Fluid pressures

Fluid exerts a normal force on any boundary it is in contact with. The force applied per
unit area is the pressure.
Area over which the force is applied
Pressure

p=

Units: Newton‟s per square meter, N m-2, kg m-1s -2.

Dimensions: ML-1T -2

3.2.1 Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a Point

By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism which contains a
point P, we can establish a relationship between the three pressures pxin the x direction,
pyin the y direction and psin the direction normal to the sloping face.

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Figure 4 Definition sketch for normal stress at apoint

The fluid is a rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we know that all force
are acting at right angles to the surfaces .i.e. The pressure force can also consider and it
will be the same with others=Pz=PX=Py Pressure at any point is the same in all directions.
This is known as Pascal‟s Law and applies to fluids at rest.
The fluid is a rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we know that all force
are acting at right angles to the surfaces .i.e.
p acts perpendicular to surface ABCD,
px acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and
py acts perpendicular to surface FECD.
And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is zero.
Summing forces in the x-direction:
Force due to px ,
∑Fx =0
FX =PXdYdZ
Component of force in the x-direction due to p,
F x= -pdsdzcosα
Equating the two equation
pxdydz - pdsdzcosα = 0
But ds*cosa=dy
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pxdydz = pdydz
px = p
∑Fy =0
Force due to py
Pydxdz-Pdsdzsina -1/2gdxdydz=0
dssina=dx
Pydxdz-Pdxdz -1/2ᵞdxdydz=0
Py-P -1/2ᵞdy=0 as compared to others dy is small so, 1/2ᵞdy is ignored.
⇒Py=P
The pressure force can also consider and it will be the same with others.
P=Pz=PX=Py
Pressure at any point is the same in all directions. This is known as Pascal‟s Law and
applies to fluids at rest.
As the triangular prism approaches a point, dy approaches zero as a limit and the average
pressures become uniform or even “point pressures”. Then putting dy = 0 in equation, we
obtain p1= p3 and hence p1 = p2 = p3. Therefore, the pressure is independent of its
orientation

3.2.1Pressure Distribution PASCAL’s Law

The pressure variation throughout a fluid at rest can be obtained by again applying
Newton‟s second law to a differential element such as shown in Fig.3.2. Note that the
pressures shown are all compressive. This, by convention, is defined as positive pressure,
since tensile stresses in fluids are relatively rare. The pressure on the left hand face is
taken as P. If the rate of change of pressure (or pressure gradient) in the x direction is
p/x, then the total change in pressure between the left face and the right face is the rate
dP two faces, or (p/x) dx.
P  ( the
of change of pressure times the distance between )dz
dz
z
dz
dP
P P( ) dy
dy
y dxdyd dx
z
x dy
P
Figure 5 Definition sketch to pressure variation

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For fluid element at rest FX=0, Fy=0, Fz=0, the pressure force in the opposite vertical
faces must be equal.
 p.dx 
Fx  0  p dy dz   p   dy dz  0
 x 

p
 0
x
 p.dy 
Fy  0  p 
p dx dz    dx dz  0
 y  

p
 0
y

The preceding two equations show, respectively, that the pressure does not change in the
x and y directions. Thus, the pressure is constant throughout a horizontal plane.
With reference to Fig.3.2 the vertical direction will now be examined. Similar to the
foregoing procedure, if the pressure on the bottom face is taken as P, the pressure on the
top face becomes p + (P/z) dz.
 p 
 Fz  pdx dy   p 
 z
dz  dx dy   dx dy dz  0

p
  
z

It has been shown that p is not a function of x or y. If it is further assumed that the
pressure does not change with time, the relationship may be replaced by the total
differential equation.
dp
 
dz

From the above equation the pressure variation is not a function of x and y. This equation
can now be integrated to give the actual pressure variation in the vertical direction. The
negative sign indicates that as z gets higher up ward, the pressure gets smaller. For
incompressible fluids, (where  = constant) the above equation can be directly used. If the
fluid can be assumed incompressible so that  = constant, this can be integrated to give
P + z = constant
This expression defines what is often referred to as the hydrostatic pressure variation, in
which the pressure increases linearly with decreasing elevation. The constant of

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integration can be absorbed by integrating between two elevations z1 and z2 with

corresponding pressure P1 and P2,

P2
Z
Z2
Si
Pm1
ila Z1
r
Figure 6 Pressure relative to the surface of a liquid
2P
toZ
2

 P  thZ Z
P
1 1

e
P2- P1 =-(z2 - z1) Showing
fo pressure decreases linearly with an increase in elevation.
Since the pressure at theresurface is atmospheric it can be taken to be zero gage pressure.
go
So, the above expressioninwill be P1 = (z2 - z1) But z2-z1=z and substituting,
P1 g= z
pr
And the pressure is proportional
oc to the depth below the free surface. In other words, the
ed
pressure at a point in a stationary liquid is the product of the depth of the point and the
ur
specific weight of the fluid.
e, If a free surface does not exist, for example in a closed
if with liquid, The above equation can be applied in reverse to
container completely filled
th
determine the position eof a line of zero pressure, provided that the actual pressure is
known at some point in pr the container.
es
N.B: The pressure in a homogeneous,
su incompressible fluid at rest depends on the depth
re
of the fluid relative to some reference plane, and it is not influenced by the size or shape
on
of the container in whichththe fluid is held.
e
3.3 Pressure measurement bo
tt
Absolute and gage pressures
o
m
The pressure at a point within a fluid mass can be designated as either an absolute pressure
fa
or a gage pressure. ce
In a region such as outeris space, which is virtually void of gases, the pressure is essentially
ta
zero. Such a condition can ke be approached very nearly in a laboratory when a vacuum pump
n
is used to evacuate a bottle. The pressure in a vacuum is called absolute zero, and all
as
pressures referenced with P, respect to this zero pressure are termed absolute pressures.
th
e
pr
17
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su
re
on
Hydraulics Module 2015

Many pressure-measuring devices measure not absolute pressure but only difference in
pressure. For example, a Bourdon-tube gage indicates only the difference between the
pressure in the fluid to which it is tapped and the pressure in the atmosphere. In this case,
then, the reference pressure is actually the atmospheric pressure. This type of pressure
reading is called gage pressure. For example, if a pressure of 50 kPa is measured with a
gage referenced to the atmosphere and the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, then the
pressure can be expressed as either p = 50 kPa gage or p = 150 kPa absolute.
Whenever atmospheric pressure is used as a reference, the possibility exists that the
pressure thus measured can be either positive or negative. Negative gage pressures are
also termed as vacuum or suction pressures. Hence, if a gage tapped into a tank indicates
a vacuum pressure of 31 kPa, this can also be stated as 70 kPa absolute, or -31 kPa gage,
assuming that the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa absolute.
Water surface in contact with the earth‟s atmosphere is subjected to the atmospheric
pressure, which is approximately equal to a 10.33-m- high column at sea level. In still
water, any element located below the water surface is subjected to a pressure greater than
the atmospheric pressure.

Figure 7Graphical representation of gage and absolute pressure

Measurement of pressure
All the devices designed for measurement of the intensity of hydraulic pressure are based
on either of the two fundamental principles of measurement of pressure: firstly by
balancing the column of liquid (whose pressure is to be found) by the same or another
column of liquid and secondly by balancing the column of liquid by spring or dead
weight.

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1. Mercury Barometer
The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually accomplished with a mercury
barometer, which in its simplest form, consists of a glass tube closed at one end with the
open end immersed in a container of mercury as shown in Fig. The tube is initially filled
with mercury (inverted with its open end up) and then turned upside down (open end down)
with the open end in the container of mercury. The column of mercury will come to an
equilibrium position where its weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure (which
develops in the space above the column) balances the force due to the atmospheric
pressure. Thus,
Patm =h + Pvapor
Where:  is the specific weight of mercury. For most practical purposes the contribution
of the vapor pressure can be neglected since it is extremely small at room temperatures
(e.g. 0.173 Pa at 20oC).

Pvapor
A

h
Patm

2. Manometer
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns in
vertical or inclined tubes containing one or more liquid of different specific gravities.
Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are called manometers. In using a
manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one
end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure to be determined is applied to the
other end. A manometer to determine this differential pressure is known as differential
pressure manometer.
The mercury barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but there are many
other configurations possible, depending on the particular application. The common types

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of manometers include the piezometer tube, the U-tube manometer, micro- manometer
and the inclined - tube manometer.

i. Piezometer Tube
The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached
to the container in which the pressure is desired, as illustrated in Fig.3.5. Since
manometers involve columns of fluids at rest, the fundamental equation describing their
use is the Eq.
P = h + P0
Which gives the pressure at any elevation within a homogeneous fluid in terms of a
reference pressure p0 and the vertical distance h between p and p0? Remember that in
fluid at rest pressure will increase as we move downward, and will decrease as we move
upward. Application of this equation to the piezometer tube Fig.3.5 indicates that the
pressure PA can be determined by a measurement of h1 through the relationship.
PA =1h1
Where, 1 is the specific weight of the liquid in the container. Note that since the tube is
open at the top, the pressure Po can be set equal to zero (we are now using gage pressure),
with the height h1 measured from the meniscus at the upper surface to point (1). Since
point (1) and point A within the container are at the same elevation, PA =P1.
Also, the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be measured must be a liquid
rather than a gas.
ii. U- Tube Manometer
To overcome the difficulties noted previously, another type of manometer, which is
widely used, consists of a tube formed into the shape of U as is shown in Fig.3.5. The
fluid in the manometer is called the gage fluid. To measure larger pressure differences
we can choose a manometer with higher density, and to measure smaller pressure
differences with accuracy we can choose a manometer fluid which is having a density
closer to the fluid density.
To find the pressure pa in terms of the various column heights, we can use one of the two
ways of manometer reading techniques:
I) Surface of equal pressure(SEP)
II) Step by step procedure(SS)
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a) Start at one end and write the pressure there

b) Add the change in pressure there
+ If next meniscus is lower.
- If next meniscus is higher
c) Continue until the other end of the gage and equate the pressure
at that point
Thus, for the U- tube manometer shown in Fig.3.5, using SS method we will start at point
A and work around to the open end. The pressure at points A and (1) are the same, and as
we move from point (1) to (2) the pressure will increase by 1h1. The pressure at point (2)
is equal to the pressure at point (3), since the pressures at equal elevation in a continuous
mass of fluid at rest must be the same. Note that we could not simply “jump across” from
point (1) to a point at the same elevation in the right – hand tube since these would not be
points within the same continuous mass of fluid. With the pressure at point (3) specified
we now move to the open end where the pressure is zero. As we move vertically upward
the pressure decreases by an amount 2h2. In equation form these various steps can be
expressed as
PA + 1h1 -2h2 = 0
And therefore, the pressure PA can be written in terms of the column heights as
PA = 2h2 -1h1
A major advantage of the U- tube manometer lies in the fact that the gage fluid can be
different from the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be determined. For
example, the fluid in A in Fig. 3.5b can be either a liquid or a gas. If A does contain a
gas, the contribution of the gas column, 1h1, is almost always negligible so that PA p2
and in this instance the above Eq. becomes.
PA = 2h2
Thus, for a given pressure the height, h2 is governed by the specific weight, 2, of the
gage fluid used in the manometer. If the pressure PA is large, then a heavy gage fluid,
such as mercury, can be used and a reasonable column height (not too long) can still be
maintained. Alternatively, if the pressure PA is small, a lighter gage fluid, such as water,
can be used so that a relatively large column height (which is easily read) can be
achieved.
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Figure 8 Simple U-tube barometer

The U- tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference in pressure
between two containers or two points in a given system. Consider a manometer
connected between container A and B as is shown in Fig.3.5. The difference in pressure
between A and B can be found by again starting at one end of the system and working
around to the other end. For example, at A the pressure is PA, which is equal to p1, and as
we move to point (2) pressure increases by 1h1. The pressure at p2 is equal to p3, and as
we move upward to from point (4) to (5) the pressure decreases by 3h3. Finally, P5 = PB,
since they are at equal elevation. Thus,
PA + 1h1 - 3h3 = PB
And the pressure difference is
PA - PB = 2h2 +3h3 - 1h1
When substituting in numbers, be sure to use a consistent system of units!
iii. Differential U-tube: Inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring pressure
differences in liquids. The space above the liquid in the manometer is filled with air
which can be admitted or expelled through the tap on the top, in order to adjust the level
of the liquid in the manometer.

Two common gage fluids are water and mercury. Both give a well –defined meniscus, a
very important characteristic for a gage fluid, and their properties are well known. Of
course, the gage fluid must be immiscible with respect to the other fluids in contact with
it. For highly accurate measurements, special attention should be given to temperature
since the various specific weights of the fluids in the manometer well vary with
temperature.

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iv.Inclined – tube Manometer

To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown in Fig. 3.6 is
frequently used. One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle, and the differential
reading  2 is measured along the inclined tube. The difference in pressure PA – PB can be
expressed as
PA   1h12   2 2 sin    3h3  PB or pA  pB   2 2 sin    3h3   1h1

Where it is to be noted that the pressure difference between points (1) and (2) is due to
the vertical distance between the points, which can be expressed as  2 sin. Thus, for
relatively small angles the differential reading along the inclined tube can be made large
even for small pressure differences. The inclined- tube manometer is often used to
measure small differences in gas pressures so that if pipes A and B contain a gas then
p A  pB   2 2 sin
Or
p A  pB
2 
 2 sin
Where, the contributions of the gas columns h1 and h3 have been neglected. The above
Equation shows that the differential reading  2 (for a given pressure difference) of the
inclined –tube manometer can be increased over that obtained with a conventional U-tube
manometer by the factor 1/sin. Recall that sin 0 as  0.

Figure 9 Inclined tube manometer

3.4 Hydrostatic pressure on plane and curved surfaces

When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the fluid.
The determination of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks, ships,
dams, and other hydraulic structures. We also know that the pressure will vary linearly
with depth if the fluid is incompressible.

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3.4. 1. Forces on plane surface

The magnitude of resultant force and its line of action (pressure center) are determined by
integration, by formula and by using the concept of the pressure prism.
i. Horizontal surfaces
A plane surface in a horizontal position in a fluid at rest is subjected to a constant
pressure. The magnitude of the force acting on one side of the surface is
PdA=PdA=PA

x
A A

The elemental forces PdA acting on A are all parallel. The summation of all elements yields
the magnitude of the resultant force. Its direction is normal to the surface.
To find line of action of the resultant, the moment of resultant is equated to the moment
of the distributed system about any axis (y-axis).
i.e. PAx1=A x PdA
x1 is the distance from the y axis to the resultant.
1
A A
x1= x dA  x p-is constant.

x is the distance to the centroid of the area.

Hence, for a horizontal area subjected to static fluid pressure, the resultant
passes through the centroid of the area.
ii. Inclined surfaces
A plane surface which is inclined to the water surface may be subjected to hydrostatic
pressure. For a plane inclined  0 from the horizontal, the intersection of the plane of area
and the free surface is taken as the x-axis. The y-axis is taken in the plane of the area with
origin 0 at the free surface. Thus, the x-y plane portrays the arbitrary inclined area. For an
element area A at y distance from the origin, the magnitude of the force F acting on it
is

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F = P A = hA = y sin A

Since all such elemental forces are parallel, the integral over the area yields the
magnitude of force, F, acting on one side of the area.
F=  PdA   sin   ydA  sin  Y A   hA  PG . A

=hc.A

Figure 10 Force on aplane surface submerged in water

hc=yc.sin
Y sin   h and p G   h ; The pressure at the centroid of the area.

Hence, the force exerted on one side of a plane area submerged in a liquid is
the product of the area and the pressure at its centroid.
The point on the plane surface where this resultant force acts is known as the center of
pressure. Considering the plane surface as free body we see that the distributed forces
can be replaced by a single resultant force at the pressure center without altering any
reactions or moments in the system.
F   dF   PdA
A

Let xp and yp be distances measured from the y-axis and x-axis to the pressure center
respectively, then
1
F . y p   y. dF , yP   ydF
F
But F= sin A Y and dF  y sin  dA

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1 1 Io
yp   y sin  dA  y dA 
2 2

 sin AY AY AY

2
But, Io = AY +Ig
Ig
yp  Y 
AY
y p  Y  0 , b / c I g is positive.

This shows that center of pressure is below the center of gravity (or centroid).
Where, Ig-is the moment of inertia of the plane with respect to its own centroid.
x p .F   x.dF   x.y sin  .dA
1 1 I xy
Xp 
 Y A sin   xy sin  .dA 
A AY  x. y.dA 
A AY

I xy  X .Y .A  I xyg

I xyg (Product of inertia at (x, y))

X p   X
AY

The pressure prism The pressure prism is an approach, which is developed for
determining the resultant hydrostatic force and line of action of the force on a plane
surface. It is a prismatic volume with its base the given surface area and with altitude at
any point of the base given by p=h. Where h is the vertical distance to the free surface.

Figure 11 Pressure prisim

Force acting on the element area A is:
 F=h A= , which is an element of volume of the pressure prism.
After integrating, F=, the volume of the pressure prism equals the magnitude of the
resultant force acting on one side of the surface. The center of pressure is given by
1 1
   
xp= x.d and yp  y.d .

This shows that the resultant force passes through the centroid of the pressure prism.
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Therefore; the pressure force is the volume of the prism in magnitude acting at the
centroid of the prism normal to the surface.

3.4.2. Forces on curved surfaces

3.4.2.1Horizontal component of Forces on a curved surface

The horizontal component of pressure force on a curved surface is equal to the pressure
force exerted on a vertical projection of the cured surface. The vertical plane of the
projection is normal to the direction of the component.
Thus, the magnitude and the line of action of the horizontal component of force on a
curved surface can be determined by using the relations developed for plane surface.

3.4.2.2Vertical component of force on a curved surface

The vertical component of pressure force on a curved surface is equal to the weight of
liquid vertically above the curved surface and extending up to the free surface and acts
through the center of gravity of the fluid mass within the volume.

Figure 12 Force on curved surface

3.5Buoyancy and stability of floating bodies

3.5.1. Buoyant force (Resultant fluid force in a body)

The buoyant force on a submerged body is the difference between the vertical
components of pressure force on its underside and the vertical component of pressure
force on its upper side. The buoyant force always acts vertically upward. There can be no
horizontal component of the resultant because the projection of the submerged body or
submerged portion of the floating body on a vertical plane is always zero.

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hB PBdA
PDdA
PBdA
hC
O x

PCdA Figure 13 Buoyant force on asubmerged body

Assume a vertical cylindrical element of cross- sectional area dA. As dA is small, the
pressure on the exposed ends of the cylinder may be taken as p1 and p2.
Since p2> p1, there will be an upward force (p2 –p1) dA acting on the cylindrical element.
dFB = (p2 – p1 ) dA = (h2-h1) dA = dv
Where dv = volume of the prism
The entire body may be considered to be made up of small cylindrical elements, then
integrating over the complete body gives
v v
FB   dF B   dv    dv  V

is assumed constant throughout the volume.

V= Volume of the body
Archimedes principle states that the up thrust or the buoyancy on a body immersed in a
fluid is equal to the weight, of the fluid displaced. The up thrust will act through the
center of gravity of the displaced fluid, which is called the center of buoyancy.
By applying Archimedes‟s principle, volumes of irregular solids can be found by
determining the apparent loss of weight when a body is wholly immerse in a liquid of
known specific gravity. Specific gravities of liquids can be determined by observing the
depth of flotation of a hydrometer.

To find the line of action of the buoyant force, moments are taken about a convenient
axis 0.
V x    x. dv x  The distance from the axis to the line of action.

1 v (Centroid of the displaced volume of fluid) i.e. B.

v
x  x.dv

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3.5.2. Stability of submerged and floating bodies.

Three possible conditions of equilibrium of solid body are
1. Stable equilibrium – A small displacement from the equilibrium produces a
righting moment tending to restore the body to the equilibrium position.
2. Unstable equilibrium – A small displacement produces an over turning moment
tending to displace the body further from its equilibrium position
3. Neutral equilibrium - The body remains at rest in any position to which it may be
displaced. No couple.

For a submerged body, the center of buoyancy remains constant. If an object is fully
submerged, whether it is a balloon in air or a submarine in water, it must be designed that
the center of buoyancy lies some distance above the center of gravity.
1. Floating body
The following figure shows a solid body floating in equilibrium (weight acts through G &
the buoyancy through B). Both act in the same straight line. When the body is displaced
from its equilibrium, weight continues to act at G. The volume of liquid displaced
remains constant but the shape of this volume will change and the position of its G and B
will move relative to the body. The displaced fluid is rectangular in section (fig. a) but it
is triangular in fig.b and the center of buoyancy moves to B1. As a result F8 and W are not
in the same straight line producing a turning moment WX that is a righting moment.

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a) b)
Figure 14 Unstable equilibrium
Comparing the above figures, it can be seen that:
1. If M lies above G a righting moment is produced, GM is regarded as positive, and
equilibrium is stable.
2. If M lies below G an overturning moment is produced, GM is regarded as
negative, and equilibrium is unstable.
3. If M and G coincide the body is in neutral equilibrium.
Time of oscillation
Consider a floating body, which is tilted through an angle by an overturning couple as shown
below. Let the overturning couple is suddenly removed. The body will start oscillating.
Thus, the body will be in a state of oscillation as if suspended at the meta- center M. The
only force acting on the body is due to the restoring couple due to the weight w of the
body force of buoyancy FB.

Figure 15 Tilted floating body Restoring couple = W GM sin

d 2
Angular acceleration of the body, =
dt 2
Negative sign has been introduced as the restoring couple tries to decrease the angle .

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d 2
Torque due to inertia = IY-Y ( )
dt 2
But IY-Y = (W/g) K2
Where W=weight of body, K=radius of gyration about Y-Y
d 2
2
Inertia torque = - (W/g) K ( 2 )
dt
Equating the above equations
d 2 2 d 2
W GM sin = - (W/g) K2 ( ) or GM sin = - (K /) ( )
dt 2 dt 2
For small angle , sin  =
d 2 d 2
GM  = - (K2/g) ( ) or (K2
/g) ( ) + GM  = 0
dt 2 dt 2
d 2 Gg 
 2 + 0
dt K2
This is second-degree differential equation, the solution is
GM g GM g
  C1 sin *t  C2 Cos *t
K2 K2

Where, C1 and C2 are constants of integration.

The values of C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions, which are
i) at t=0, =0
ii) at t=(T/2), =0
Where T=time of one complete oscillation
Substituting the first boundary condition, C2=0

Mg T
Substituting the second boundary condition, we get 0= C1 sin *
K2 2
But C1 cannot be equal to zero and so the other alternative is
GM g T
sin *  0  sin 
K2 2
GM g T K2
*   or T  2
K2 2 GM g

This gives the time period of oscillation or rolling of a floating body.

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4. KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Kinematics of fluid deals with the geometry of motion, i.e. space – time relationships of
fluids only without regards to the forces causing the motion.
They are generally deals with velocity & acceleration of fluid, and the description and
visualization of motion.
The concept of a free body diagram, as used in static of rigid bodies in a fluid static is
usually inadequate for the analysis of moving fluids. Instead we frequently find the
concepts of system & control volume to be useful in the analysis of fluid mechanics.
A fluid system refers to a specific mass of fluid within the boundaries defined by a closed
surface. The shape of the system, & so the boundaries, may change with time, as when
liquid flows through a constriction, as a fluid moves& deforms, so the system containing
it moves & deforms.
In contrast, a control volume refers to a fixed region in space, which doesn‟t move or
change shape. It is usually chosen as a region that fluid flows in to & out of it.
The control volume approach is also called the Eulerian approach.
In the Eulerian method the observers concern is to know what happens at any given point
in the space, which is filled by fluid in motion, what are the velocities, acceleration,
pressure, etc at various parts at a given time.
Therefore, Eulerian method is mostly used because it is more useful in the analysis of the
majority of engineering problems.

4.2Dimension Of Flow
A Fluid flow said to be one, two or three-dimensional flow depending up on the number
of independent space coordinate & required to describe the flow.
When the dependent variables (example, velocity, pressure density etc) are a function of
one space co-ordinate say x- coordinate) it is known as one-dimensional flow.
Example of one –dimensional flow (1D): flow through pipes & channels, between
boundaries, etc if the velocity distribution is considered constant at each cross-section.
„‟ One-dimension‟‟ is taken along the central streamline of the flow dependent variables
vary only with x- direction (or s- direction).

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When the dependent variables vary only with two-space coordinates, the flow is known
as two-dimensional flow (2D). Example: Flow over a weir

Generally a, fluid is a rather complex three- dimensional, time dependent phenomenon,

i.e., V= V(x, y, z, t). In almost any flow situation, the velocity field actually contains all
three-velocity components (u, v, w) & each is a function of all three-space coordinates (x,
y, z).
Example of a 3D flow: the flow of air past an airplane wing provides a complex three-
dimensional flow.

4. 3Velocity & Acceleration in a fluid flow

In general, fluids flow from one point in space to another point as a function of time. This
motion of fluid is described in terms of the velocity & acceleration of the fluid particles.
At a given time instant, a description of any fluid property (such as density, pressure,
Velocity, & acceleration) may be given as a function of the fluids location.
i.e. V = u (x, y, z, t)i +v (x, y, z, t)j + w (x, y, z, t)k
An infinitesimal change in velocity ( u ) is given by:
u u u u
 u   x  y   z  t
x y z t

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The acceleration components are given by:

u u u u
ax  u v w 
 x y  z t
v v v v
ay  u  v  w 
x  y  z t
   
az  u  v  w 
 x y y t
ay, ay&az are called total or substantial acceleration in the x, y & z direction, the
components are called convective acceleration excluding the last expression
 u v  
 , ,&  Which are called local acceleration
 t t t 

Total acceleration  a  a x i  a y j  a z k

 Convective acceleration – it is instantaneous space rate of change of velocity,

 Local acceleration: - it is the local time rate of change of velocity,
Example1: A fluid flow is described by the velocity field:
V = 5x 3 j - 15 x2 y j + t k. Evaluate the velocity & acceleration components at pints
(1, 2, 3, 1)

4.4 Describing the pattern of flow

Although fluid motion is complicated, there are various concepts that can be used to help
in the visualization & analysis of flow fields. This pattern of flow may be described by
mean of streamlines, stream tubes, path lines and streamlines.
Stream lines: - it is an imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way that
the tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at those points.

Since the velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the streamlines, there can be no
component of velocity at right angles to the streamlines and hence there is no flow across
the streamlines.

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Since the instantaneous velocity at a point in a fluid must be unique in magnitude &
direction, the same point can‟t pass more than one streamlines. Therefore, streamlines
don‟t cross or intersect each other.
The velocity vector at point p must be tangent to the streamline at that point.

dy v
Therefore,  tan   
dx u
V
u dy vdx  0 ………….Equation of streamlines
Example: - Given the velocity field:
V = 5x3 i – 15x 2 y j
Obtain the equation of the streamlines.
Stream tube: - is a tube imaginated to be formed by a group of streamlines passing
through a small closed curve.
- A fluid can enter or leave a stream tube only at its ends
-

Path line: - a path line is a line traced out by a given single fluid particle as it moves
from one point to another over a period of time.
In steady flow path lines & streamlines are identical.
Streak lines: - A streak line consists of all particles in flows that have previously passed
through a common point. They can be obtained by taking instantaneous photographs of
marked particles that all passed through a given location in the flow field at some earlier
time.

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4.5 Types of flow

A. Classification according to type of fluid
(i) Ideal fluid flow – the fluid is assumed to have no viscosity. The velocity
distribution is thus assumed uniform ---- (idealized)
(ii) Real fluid flow: viscosity is taken in to consideration, which leads to the
development of shear stress b/n moving layers. However, some fluids such as
water are near to an ideal fluid, and this simplifying assumption enables
mathematical methods to be adopted in the solution of certain flow problems.
(iii) Compressible fluid flow: - if variation of pressure results in considerable
changes in volume & density. Gases are generally treated as compressible.
(iv) Incompatible fluid flow - if extremely large variation in pressure is required to
affect very small changes in volume. Liquids are generally treated as
incompressible.
B.Classification according to variation of velocity, displacement and etc
(i) Steady flow: - A flow is said to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid
characteristic such as velocity, pressure, density etc don‟t change with time.
However this characteristic may be different at different points in the flowing
fluid.
v p
  0,  0 , etc
t t
(ii) Unsteady flow: - if at any point in the flowing fluid any one of all of the
characteristics, which describes the behavior of fluids in motion changes with
time.
v p
  0,  0 , etc
t t

(iii) Uniform flow: - this occurs when the velocity both in magnitude & direction
remains constant with respect to distance, i. e it doesn‟t change from point to
point

 v 0
s
Example: flow of fluid under pressure through long tube of constant diameter.

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(iv) Non- uniform flow: - if there is a change in velocity either in magnitude or

direction with respect to distance , then:
v
0
s
(v) Laminar flow: - in laminar flow the particles of fluid move in orderly manners
& the steam lines retain the same relative position in successive cross section.
Laminar flow is associated with low velocity of flow and viscous fluids.
(vi) Turbulent flow: - Here the fluid particles flow in a disorder manner occupying
different relative positions in successive cross section. Turbulent flow is
associated with high velocity flows.
Around 1883, Reynolds established the boundary between the laminar and turbulent
flow, using the dimensionless number called Reynolds‟s number, Re.
VD
Re =

Where V- mean velocity
D- Diameter
- Kinematics viscosity
Reynolds showed that if
Re< 2000 ---- laminar flow
Re> 4000 ----- Turbulent
In b/n 2000 & 4000 it is transition flow.

4.6 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is a mathematical statement of the principle of conservation of
mass. Consider the following fixed region with flowing fluid. Since fluid is neither
created nor destroyed within the region it may be stored that the rate of increase of mass
contained within the region must be equal to the differences b/n the rate at which the fluid
mass enters the region & the rate of which it leaves the region.
Fixed region

Mass of fluid leaving

Mass of fluid the region
entering the region

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However, if the flow is steady, the rate of increase of the fluid mass within the region is
equal to zero; then the rate at which fluid mass enters the region is equal to the rate at
which the fluid mass leaves the region.
Considers flow through a portion of a stream tube:

2 dA2
V2
2
1

dA1
V1
1
At section-1
Area of elementary tube = dA1
Average velocity = V1
Density = 1
 Mass of fluid per unit time flowing past section-1 = 1* dA1* V1 [ kg/s ]
At section-2
Area of elementary tube= dA2
Average velocity = V2
Density = 2
 Mass of fluid flowing per unit of time past section 2 = 2 *dA2 *V2 [ kg/s ]
For steady flow, by the principle of conservation of mass
1 dA1 V1 = 2 dA2 V2
For the entire area of the stream tube:


A1
1 dA1 V1  
A2
 2 dA2 V 2 = constant

If 1 and 2 are average densities at section (1) and (2), then

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1  V1 dA1   2  V2 dA2   VA = constant

A1 A2

1V1A1 = 2V2A2 = VA=constant

This is equation of continuity applicable to steady, one-dimensional flow of compressible
as well as incompressible (1 = 2) flow.
For incompressible flow,  = constant and doesn‟t vary form point to point, 1 = 2
A1V1 = A2V2 = Q = constant
This is continuity equation for steady incompressible flow.
Q is the discharge (or volumetric flow rate or flow) defined as
Q = AV [m2m/s = m3/s = Volume/time]
Q Q
Q = A1V2 = A2V2 --- V1  , V2 
A1 A2
Hence, the velocity of flow is inversely proportional to the area of flow section. This is
useful for most engineering application.
The general equation of continuity for three dimensional (3D) flow can be derived as
follows.
Consider a flow through a rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions: x, y, z

The mass of fluid flowing per unit time through the left face ABCD
  u y z 
The mass of fluid flowing out of the parallelepiped through face A‟B‟C‟D‟:
 ( u )
 ( u  x)yz
x

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The net mass of fluid that remain in the parallelepiped per unit time:
  ( u ) 
  u y z    u y z  ( x)yz 
 x 
 ( u )
  xyz
x

By similar procedure the mass of fluid remaining in the others two pairs of faces (Y, Z –
directions)

Y- direction =   v  x y z
y


Z- direction =   w x y z
z
The net total mass of fluid that remains in the parallelepiped per unit time is :
   u    v   w 
    x y z            1
 x y z 

The mass of fluid in the parallelepiped is:

  x y z 
its rate of increase with time is:


t
 x y z    x y z           2
z

Equating 1 & 2 we get:

    v    w   
  (  u )  
 
  z 
 
  t
 x  y     

  u  v   w
 
 x  
  
  z 
 0
t    y   

(General continuity equation in 3D Flow)

   vt r
 


  V   V z  In Cylindrical coordinate system
t  rr    
 r  
  
 z 
  0
     

For steady flow, 

0
t

 u  v   w (Steady compressible fluid)

 
    
  
   
   0

  x   y   z 

For incompressible flow,  doesn‟t change with x, y, z, and t

 = constant

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u v w
    0 (Continuity equation for incompressible, steady flow in 3D)
x y z

4.7 Stream function ( ) and velocity potential ()

Stream function ( )
Stream function ( ) (psi) is the mathematical postulation such that its differentiation
with respect to x gives the velocity in y-direction (generally taken as –ve) and its
differentiation with respect to y gives the velocity in x-direction.
 
u ; v
y x
Some of the salience characteristics of a stream function are enumerated below:
Since  is a function of x and y, its total differential is
 
d  dx  dy  vdx  udy --------------------------1
x y
Further, for a two-dimensional motion parallel to x-y plane the streamline for an
incompressible fluid is prescribed as:
v dy
 ; udy  vdx  0 ----------------------------------------2
u dx
From equation 1 and 2 it follows that
d  0 or  cons tan t
i.e., the stream function is constant along a streamline. The streamlines are thus lines of
constant stream function. However, the stream function varies from one streamline to
another. Each streamline of flow pattern can be represented as:
 1  C1 ;  2  C 2
Substitute for u and v in terms of stream function in the continuity equation for an
incompressible fluid:
u v
 0
x y
       
    0
x  y y  x 
 2  2
 0
xy xy

This is true. And hence, the stream function satisfies the equation of continuity.

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Let A and B be the two points lying on the streamlines prescribed by stream function 
and  d , respectively. From the figure below, the velocity vector V perpendicular to
line AB has components u and v in the direction of x and y-axis respectively. From
continuity consideration:

Flow across AB = flow across AO + flow across OB

Vds  vdx  udy
The minus sign indicates that the velocity v is acting in the downward direction.
 
Vds  dx  dy  d
x y
i.e. dq  d

Evidently, the stream function can also be defined as the flux or flow rate between two
streamlines. The units of  are m2/s; discharge per unit thickness of flow.
The line joining the points A and B may be AMB or ANB but the discharge between the
two streamlines will remain the same. The quantity of fluid flowing past the line AB‟
would also remain same provided no fluid enters or leaves between the points BB‟.
Apparently, the fluid flow is unaffected by the shape of the line between A and B.
Velocity potential ()
A fluid element in the shape of cube, which is initially at one position, will move to
another position during a short time interval dt.because of generally complex velocity
variation within the field, we expect the element to not only translate from one position
but change in shape (angular deformation). The form of movement may be in the form of:
a) Translation or rotation and

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b) Volume dilation or angular deformation

Translation: - means simply picking up the element and moving a distance during a
small time dt.
Rotation: - is defined as the average angular velocity of two elements originally at right
angles to each other.
Flow is described rotational if every fluid element rotates about its axis which is
perpendicular to the plane of motion.
Consider a rectangular fluid element occupying the position ABCD at a certain time in a
two-dimensional x-y plane in the figure below. The velocity components in the x-
u
direction at points A and D are u and u  dy respectively. Since these velocities are
y
different, there will be an angular velocity developed for the linear element AD. Similarly
v
the velocity components in y-direction at points A and B are v and v  dx
x
respectively, and these different velocities will result in to an angular velocity of the
linear element AB. Apparently during the time interval dt the element AB and AD would
move relative to point A, the fluid element gets displaced and occupies the dotted
position AB‟C‟D‟.

u
Y u dy
y

v
v v dx
x
dθ2 dy
dθ1 u

dx
Figure 15 Rotating of fluid element
Taking the counter clockwise direction as positive:
The angular velocity of element AB about the z-axis is
ωAB= angular displacement of element AB per unit time

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d1

dt

From the figure, tand1 d1= v x dx.dt  (for the horizontal element dx).
dx

d1 v
  AB  
dt x
The angular velocity of element AD about the z-axis is
ωAD= angular displacement of element AD per unit time
d 2

dt

  u y dy.dt 

tan( d 2 )  d 2      u dt
dy y

d 2 u
 AD  
dt y

Average of the angular velocity of line AB (dx element) and line AD (dy element) gives
the rotation ωzof the element ABCD about z-axis.
i.e.,
 v u 
 z  12  
 x  y 
 

Rotations about the other two axes are defined as:

 w v 
 x  1 2   
 y z 

 u w 
 y  12   
 z x 

Angular velocity is a vector quantity:

   xi   y j  z k Where ωx, ωy and ωz -are rotation components

Irrotational flow: occurs when the cross-gradient of the velocity (or shear) are zero or
cancel each other. i.e., the fluid element has a zero angular velocity about its own mass
centre.
i.e.,  v u  = 0 (for two-dimensional flow)
 z  1 2   
 x y 


Velocity potential  (phi) is a function such that its derivative in any direction gives the
velocity in that direction.

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 
i.e., u  ;v  
x y
Lines of constant potential function are termed as equipotential lines.
 is a function of x and y alone, its total differential is
 
d  dx  dy  udx  vdy
x y
for an equipotential line, the potential function  is constant
  dy v
i.e., d  dx  dy  udx  vdy  0 
x y dx u
This prescribes the slope of equipotential line at any point.
For two dimensional(x-y plane), Irrotational flow:
 v u 
 z  1 2     0
 x y 
       
 
  y   x   0
x 
 y   
 2  2
 0
yx xy

For continuity equation:

u v w
  0
x y z
 2  2  2
  0
x 2
y 2
z 2

This equation is known as Laplac’s equation.

The in viscid, incompressible, Irrotational flow fields are governed by Laplace‟s
equation. The above discussion with reference to stream function and velocity potential
function leads us to conclude that:
 Stream function applies to both rotational and irrotational flows. The flow has
only to be steady and incompressible,
 Potential function exists only for irrotational flow,
 For irrotational flow, both stream function and the velocity potential function
satisfies Laplace equation; consequently they are interchangeable. We have the
following important relationships between the stream function and potential
function for a steady, irrotational and incompressible fluid flow.

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  ;   -----------------Cauchy-Riemann equation
u  v 
y x x y

 Orthogonality of streamlines and equipotential lines

Stream function of x and y, its total differential is
 
d  dx  dy
x y

But the stream function  ( x, y) is a constant along a streamline,

  
i.e., d  dx  dy  0 dy v
x y   x 
dx  u
y

The slope of a streamline for constant  is

dy v
 ---------------------i
dx u
Further  is a function of x and y, and therefore its total differential is
 
d  dx  dy
x y

But the potential function  ( x, y) is constant along an equipotential line

i.e.,
 
d  dx  dy  0
x y


dy x u
 
dx  v
y

The slope of an equipotential line for constant  is

dy v
  --------------------------ii
dx u
Combining expressions i and ii
Slope of streamline * slope of equipotential line
v  u
 *     1 --------------------------------*
u  v

This equation is a mathematical statement of the fact that equipotential lines are normal
to the streamlines. The orthognality between the streamlines and equipotential lines
serves to draw a flow net.

Flow Net
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Flow net is a graphical representation of streamlines and equipotential lines for a

potential flow. Flow nets are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional
floe, or even three-dimensional flow. The flow net consists of
 a system of streamlines so spaced that the rate of flow q is the same
between each successive pair of lines, and
 another system of lines normal to the streamlines and so spaced that the
distance between the normal lines equals the distance between adjacent
streamlines.
Streamlines and equipotential lines are drawn between the flow boundaries with the
requirements that they form small squares.

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5.0 FLUID DYNAMICS

5.1 Introduction
In discussing about hydrostatics we were concerned with forces (pressure forces) which
are acting on an object for a liquid at rest and when we deal with kinematics of fluid flow
phenomena related with space time variation (velocity and acceleration) without
considering the effect of force. This relationship of fluid motion is established by the use
of laws of nature.
i) The principle of conservation of mass (the continuity relationship)
ii) Newton‟s laws of motion
iii) The 1st and second lows of thermodynamics

5.2 Equations of motion

The dynamic behavior of fluid motion is governed by a set of equations, known as
equations of motion. These equations are obtained by using the Newton‟s second low,
which may be written as Fx= m.ax
Where, Fx is the net force acting in the x-direction upon a fluid element of
mass m producing an acceleration ax in the x-direction.
The forces which may be present in fluid flow problems are gravity forces F g, pressure
force Fp, force due to viscosity Fv, force due to turbulence Ft, Surface tension Fs, and
force due to compressibility of fluid Fc.
Gravity forces (Fg.) is due to the weight of the fluid. Its component in flow direction
results in acceleration.
Pressure force (Fp): It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area
of the flowing fluid. Acts normal to the surface under consideration and produces
acceleration in the given direction.
Viscous forces (Fv): - Exists in real fluids. It is the shearing resistance generated when
there is relative motion between two layers of fluids. It acts opposite to the direction of
motion, and retards flow.
Surface tension (Fs): This force is important when the depth of flow is extremely small.
Force due to compressibility (Fc): for incompressible fluids, this becomes significant in
problems of unsteady flow like water hammer. In most of flow problems, F sand Fc are

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neglected. Force due to turbulence (Ft): the continuous momentum transfer between
layers in highly turbulent flow results in normal and shear stresses known as Reynolds's
stress. If the changes for the change in forces are small the forces can be taken negligible.
max= (Fg)x+(Fp)x+(Fv)x+(Ft)x
The presence of such a complex system of forces in real fluid flow problems makes the
analysis very complicated.

5.2.1 Energy and Head

A liquid in motion may possess three forms of energy.
1. Potential energy /elevation /positional energy/ because of its elevation above datum
level. If a weight w of liquid is at a height of z above datum
Potential energy = Wz
Potential energy per unit weight = z (meters) = Potential head
2. Pressure energy: When a fluid flows in a continuous stream under pressure it can do
work. If the area of cross – section of the stream of fluid is a, then force due to
pressure p on cross- section is Pa.
If a weight w of liquid passes the cross section.
Volume passing in cross section = W/ρg
Distance moved by liquid = W W = F* S = Pa *
W

WP
ga ga g

Pressure energy per unit weight = P = pressure head.

g
3. Kinetic energy
If a mass of fluid (m) moves at some velocity (v),
Kinetic energy = ½ mv2 = ½ W/g v2
Kinetic energy pr unit weight = v2 = kinetic head
2g
2
Total head = potential head + pressure head + velocity head = Z  P  v
 2g

Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid is the
same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any point. The division of

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this energy between potential, pressure and kinetic energy may vary, but the total remains
constant. In symbols
P v2
Z   cons tan t
 2g

5.3 Bernoulli’s Equation

Consider a cylindrical element of stream tube having cross-sectional area dA length ds
unit weight  as shown in motion along a streamline.

Bernoulli’s assumptions:

 The flow is Steady an

dP incompressible type of
[P  ( )ds]dA flow,
ds ds
 Frictionless and non
viscous flow,
  No shaft work - no pump
PdA
or turbines on the
Z streamline,
dsdA  No transfer of heat -
either added or removed.

The normal forces on the side faces are in equilibrium and as the fluid is assumed non-
viscous, there is no shear stress. The velocity varies along the streamline and there is
acceleration. It is necessary to take into account force due to acceleration when
considering the longitudinal balance of force.
But in the ease of steady flow the velocity doesn‟t vary at a point so that local
 v 
acceleration will be zero   0  but for velocity variation with position convective
 t 
 v 
acceleration will be different from zero V  0  . The forces tending to accelerate the
 s 
fluid mass are pressure force on the two ends of the element,
[ Fs  mas ] Summation of force in the arbitrary„s‟ direction.

 dp 
PdA   p  ds  dA  dp dA
 ds 
Weight in the direction of motion,

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dz
 gdsdAcos   gdsdA   gdAdz
ds

Applying Newton‟s 2nd Law of motion F=ma

dv v v
 dPdA  g dA dz  ds dAV as as   V
ds t s
dp
 gdz  Vdv  0
One-dimension Euler‟s equation


It can be applied for both compressible and incompressible flow.

dp V
 dz  dv  0
 g

For the case of an incompressible fluid  may be treated as constant, the integration gives
dp dV
 
  dz   V g
 Cons tan t

P
 Z
V2
 Cons tan t [Bernoulli‟s Equation]
 2g

Under special conditions the assumption underlying Bernoulli‟s equations can be waived.
1. When streamlines originate from a reservoir,
2. For unsteady flow with gradually changing conditions (E.g. Emptying a reservoir)
the equation may be applied without appreciable error,
3. It may be used for real fluids, by modifying the result experimentally.
The Bernoulli equation is the basis for the solution of a wide range of hydraulics
problems. For two points along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation may be expressed in
the form of:
2 2
P1 v P v
y1   1  y2  2  2
 2g  2g

5.3.1 Bernoulli’s Equation for real fluid

The Bernoulli‟s equation expressed by p
Z 
v2 is determined for an incompressible
 2g

ideal fluid without taking in to account the effects of some other forces as viscous, etc.
In case of real fluid these forces should be introduced so that the equation needs some
modification. The increase in internal energy and the heat transfer from the fluid
represent a loss of useful energy. The total loss per unit mass of fluid is (u2-u1-q).
Energy loss per unit weight in overcoming resistance u2  u1  q (head loss)
hl 
g

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The total energy of flow decreases in the flow direction, and consequently the energy line
has a down ward slope.
2
v1
E HL =
Horizontal 2g
h1 p1 HG head
v2
2

V12/2g GL loss
V22/2g  2g
L p2
P1/
1
P2/ Z 
1
2 Z
2
Z1 Z2 Datu
Datum
mm
The modified Bernoulli‟s equation for upstream section (1) and downstream section
V12 P1 V22 p
(2)   Z   2  Z 2  hl hl= head loss between the two
2g  1
2g 
sections.

5.3.2 Energy correction factor

The velocity distribution at any x-section in real fluid flow is non uniform; on account of
the boundary resistance and consequently the kinetic energy per unit weight given by
V2/2g doesn‟t represent the kinetic energy across the section.
In order to compensate for the discrepancy a coefficient known as energy correction
factor denoted by  is used. The multiplication of  with V2/2g yields the kinetic energy
actually passing a section.
For the figure given, Ideal liquid Real liquid
flow flow
dA

Velocity
distribution
Vavg

The kinetic energy per unit time passing through on elemental area dA is ½ (dAu)u2
u - Velocity at that point
Total kinetic energy passing the section

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
A
1
2
u 3dA And the actual kinetic energy passed on average velocity V passing the section

1
is equal to  V 3 A
2
From the two equation
3
1 u
A  v 
   dA

Kinetic energy correction factor  is a measure of viscous resistance generated in a given

flow, the effect of which is reflected uniform nature of velocity distribution. For a given
pipe, it can be shown that its magnitude is a function of the type of flow and its turbulent
characteristics.
Laminar flow is purely a viscous flow; the value of  is maximum and equals 2.0. But in
case of fully developed turbulent flow in pipes,  is independent of Reynolds number and
may be considered to have almost constant value (1.01 to 1.15) depending on surface
roughness and Reynolds number. Lower value is appreciable for velocity rough surface
and high Reynolds number.
V12 p1 V2 p
1   Z1   2 2  2  Z 2  h
2g  2g 

For an identical velocity distribution at two sections, 1 = 2, and if accuracy is not
required in non-uniform velocity distribution = 1

5.3.3 Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli‟s equation is applicable in all problems of incompressible fluid flow where
energy considerations are involved. In addition, it is practically applied for flow
measurement using the following measuring devices.

1. Venturimeter (tube) (G.B Venturi (1746 –1822) Italian Eng)

It is a device used for measuring rate of flow in a pipeline and it consists of three
components:

i) A converging entrance cone of angle of about 200

ii) A cylindrical portion of short length called the “throat”

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iii) A diverging section known as diffuser, of cone angle 50 to 70 to ensure a

minimum loss of energy, but where this is unimportant the angle may be as
large as 140.
The entrance tube and exit tube diameter are the same as that of the pipe line in to which
it is inserted and the length of throat is equal to the throat diameter.

Assuming that the fluid is ideal (So that energy is not dissipated in overcoming frictional
resistance) and that the velocities V1 and V2 at the inlet and throat respectively, are
uniformly distributed over the cross section (so that the energy correction factor  is 1).
Applying Bernoulli‟s equation between points (1) and (2) on a central stream line and
assuming no frictional resistance,
V12 P V2 P
 1  Z1  2  2  Z 2
2g  2g 
For an incompressible fluid, continuity of flow at section 1 and 2 is,
Q = A1V1 = A2V2

V2 
A1
V1
……………………….(a)
A2

If A1> A2, V1 < V2 i.e. KE at section 2 (throat) > KE at section 1(the entrance)
P at throat <P at entrance
For a horizontal Venturimeter,

V2  V1 P  P2
2 2
 1 ......( b)
g
2g
A2 P1  P2
Substituting equ ( a ) in to eqn (b) V1  2g
V1  A1 
2 2
 P  P2 A A
2
1
2
2
g

   1  1

2 g  A2 
 

 g
Theoretical Discharge
1  P1  P2 
V1  2
*2g * 
 g 

 A1   

 A  1 54
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The theoretical discharge can be

A1 A2 P1  P2
Qt  A1 V1t  2g
A 21  A2
2  g

converted to actual discharge (Qa) by multiplying

A1 A2 P1  P2
Qa  Cd * Qt  CdA1 V1t  Cd 2g
A 2
1  A2
2  g

The differential pressure is evaluated from manometry, and for figure.5.4

P1 P2
s  ys  xs  sm ( y  x)  s
 
P1  P2 sm
 x(  1)
 s

For vertical or inclined Venturi meter, the actual discharge can be computed similarly.
2.Pitot tube (Total head tube) / (Henri Pitot)
Pitot tube is a device used for measuring velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a
channel. In its elementary form a Pitot tube consists of an L-shaped tube with open ends.
It‟s may be aligned in open channel or pipe flow measurement as indicated below.
Stagnation pressure
For a figure below it has been seen that the central streamline terminates at B the
entrance to the Pitot tube. This is on account of the inability of the streamline to take a
sudden turn. The fluid flowing along the central streamline, therefore, stops moving as it
reaches the point B. Hence the velocity of flow at this point is zero. This point is known as
stagnation point.
Applying the Bernoulli’s equation at points A and B, we obtain
If the measurement is made on an open channel flow the surface will be exposed to the
air and there is no static head from the surface, and if measurement is made on pipe flow
there will be static head at A.

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Applying Bernoulli‟s equation to point A in the undisturbed flow region and the
stagnation point B we have
2 2
VO PO VA P
  ZO   A  ZA
2g  2g 
2
PO VA P
   A
 2g 
PO  PA
2
VA

2g 

VA
2

PO  PA 
2 g  VA  2g (
PO  PA
)  2 gh sin ce
PO  PA
 h
  

A perfect Pitot tube should obey this equation exactly, but all actual instruments must be
calibrated and a correction factor applied to make allowance for the small effects of nose
shape and other characteristics.
Practically it is difficult to read h from a free surface. To overcome this difficulty, the
static tube and the Pitot tube may combine in one instrument (differential U-tube).
For finding the velocity at any point in a pipe by Pitot tube, the following arrangements
are adopted.
1. Pitot tube along with a vertical piezometer tube as shown in Fig.5.6
2. Pitot tube connected with piezometer tube as shown in Fig.5.7
3. Pitot static tube, which consists of two circular concentric tubes one inside the
other with some annular space in between as shown in Fig.5.8. The outlets of
these two tubes are connected to the differential manometer where the difference
of pressure head is measured by knowing the difference of the levels of the
manometer liquid hm.

h
Piezometer Pitot
Tube tube
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The Pitot tube measures the velocity of only a filament of liquid, and hence it can be used
for exploring the velocity distribution across the pipe cross-section. The total flow rate
can be calculated from a single reading only if the velocity distribution across the cross-
section is already known. The static tube measures the static pressure, since there is no
velocity component perpendicular to its opening and the impact tube measures both the
static and impact pressure (due to kinetic energy). Impact tube head = pressure head +
velocity head.
3. Orifices
An orifice is an opening (usually circular) in the wall of a tank or in a plate normal to the
axis of a pipe, the plate being either at the end of the pipe or in some intermediate
location and used for measuring rate of flow out of a reservoir (tank) or through a pipe.
a. Orifice flow in pipes, Orifice meter or orifice plate
The Venturi meter described earlier is a reliable flow-measuring device. Furthermore, it
causes little pressure loss. For these reasons it is widely used, particularly for large-
volume liquid and gas flows. However, this meter is relatively complex to construct and
hence expensive. Especially for small pipelines, its cost seems prohibitive, so simpler
devices such as orifice meters are used.

Figure 16 |Orifice meter

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The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in it. There is a
pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another just downstream.

Applying the Bernoulli equation between at 1 (upstream of plate) and 2 (at the orifice)

2 2
P1 V P v
 1  2  2 Since the orfice is horizontal Z1  Z 2
 2g  2g
V1  V2 P2  P1
2 2

2g 
A 
Using continuity equation A1v1  A2 V2  V2   1  V1
 A2 
v1   A1 / A2  2 v1 P2  P1
2 2

2g 
 1  ( A1 / A2 ) 2  p  p1  p2  p1  2g
v1
2
   2  V1    *
 2g      1  ( A1 / A2 )
2

The theoretical discharge Q will therefore be,

Q = A1V1 =A1  p2  p1 
*
2
p 1  ( A1 / A2 ) 2

The actual discharge will be less than the theoretical since the effective flow area near P2
tapping will be less than A2, the fluid forming a neck or vena contracta. In addition,
there will be some loss of energy between point 1 and 2.
The actual discharge can be determined by determining coefficient of discharge.
b. Flow through a reservoir opening (orifice flow)
For a reservoir at water level h above orifice opening shown in the following figure. The
reservoir is assumed to be very large as compared to size of the opening, so that the
velocities of all points in the reservoir are negligibly small.

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Applying Bernoulli‟s equation and neglecting losses between A and B (taking the datum
V2
level at the center of the orifice), 0 + 0 + h =  0 0
2g

V= 2 gh (Theoretical velocity). Where h is the depth of center of orifice below the

free surface. Evidently, the velocity of efflux is equal to the velocity of free fall from the
surface of reservoir. This is known as Torricelli’s theorem. In real fluid flows, there is
always some loss of energy due to viscous effects and accordingly the actual velocity will
be less than the theoretical velocity.
Hydraulic Coefficients for flow through orifices
1) Coefficient of contraction, Cc = Area of jet at vena contracta
Area of orifice

2) Coefficient of velocity, Cv = Actual velocity at vena contracta  V

Theoretical velocity 2 gh

3) Coefficient of discharge, Cd = Actual disch arg e

Theoretical disch arg e

Theoretical discharge, Qt= Ao 2 gh

Where Ao = Area of orifice (Area of jet at C)

Actual velocity, Va = Cv 2 gh
As shown in the figure, the paths of the particles of the liquid converge on the orifice so
that the area of the issuing jet is less than the area of the orifice. In the plane of the
orifice, the particles have a component of velocity towards the center so that at C the
pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure. It is only at B a little outside the orifice that
the paths of the particles become parallel.

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The section through B, which is the section of least cross-section and hence of maximum
contraction, is called the vena contracta. Area of vena contracta, AB = CcAo (The
actual area of the jet is the area of the vena contracta not the area of the orifice.)
Therefore, Actual discharge Qa = Actual area of jet * Actual velocity
Qa  CcAo * Cv 2 gh

It is customary to combine the two coefficients into a discharge coefficient Cd.

(Cd = Cv Cc) Qa = Cd A0 2 gh

5.4Determination of hydraulic coefficients of orifice

Determination of Cd
By measuring area A0, the head h and the discharge Qa (by gravimetric or volumetric
means), Cd is obtained using the above equation. Determination of either Cv or Cc then
permits determination of the other by the equation Cd = Cv Cc.
Determination of Cc and Cv
1) Trajectory method
The equation for the trajectory may be obtained by applying Newton‟s equation of
uniformly accelerated motion to a particle of the liquid passing from the nozzle to point
P, whose coordinates are (x, y) in time t. Then x = Vxot and z = Vzot - 1/2gt2. Evaluating t
from the first equation and substituting in the second gives
Vz 0 g
z  x 2
x2
Vx 0 2Vx 0

If the jet is initially horizontal, as in the flow from a vertical orifice, Vx0 = V0 and Vz0 = 0,
the above equation is reduced in to;

V0 = x g Then Cv = V0  V0

x

x
2z Vt 2 gH 2 z / g 2 gh 4 zh

2) Pitot tube method

Pitot tube can be set at the vena contracta so that actual velocity Va is determined.
3) Calipers method
The diameter of the jet at the vena contracta can be approximately measured using an
outside caliper. However, this method is not precise and is less satisfactory than other
methods

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Types of Orifice
The following figure shows common types of orifice with their coefficient of discharge.

Fig
ure 17

The orifices are classified based on of their size, shape, nature of discharge and
shape of the upstream edge.
1.Depending upon their size: -small orifice and large orifice; If the head of liquid from
the center of the orifice is more than five times the depth of the orifice, the orifice is
called small orifice. If it less than five times it is known as large orifice.
2.Depending upon shape: - as circular, triangular, rectangular and trapezoidal
3.Depending upon shape of edge: - as sharp edged and round or bell mouthed orifice.
(Fig.5.14)
4. Depending up on the nature of discharge: - as free discharging & drowned or
submerged orifice; the submerged orifices are further classified as fully submerged and
partially submerged orifice
3. Unsteady orifice flow from reservoirs
The volume discharged from the orifice in time t is Qt, which must just equal the
reduction in volume in the reservoir in the same time increment t. AR(-y), in which AR
is the surface area of the reservoir at level y above the orifice.

y

Equating the two expressions:

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Qt  AR (y )
Solving for t and int egrating yields
A (y )
t  R
Q
y 2 A y
o y1 Q
t
dt   R

but Q  C d Ao 2 gy
 AR
y y
1 / 2
 t 
C d Ao 2g
2 AR 1/ 2 1/ 2
t  (y y ) This is the time for the liquid to fall from y1 to y 2 .
1 2
C d A0 2g
5.5Weirs
Open channel flow may be measured by a weir or obstruction in the channel that causes
the liquid to back up behind it and flow over it or through it. There may be sharp crested
or broad crested based on their length along the channel section.

a) Rectangular weir
The following figure shows rectangular notch of crest length (L) and working under a
head H.

By Torricelli’s theorem, the velocity of a particle discharged at any level h is 2 gh and

will therefore vary from top to bottom of notch. Considering a horizontal strip at depth h
and of thickness h

Discharge through strip dQ = 2 gh * Lh

H
2
Total discharge Qt  L h 
1/ 2
2g dh L 2g H 3 / 2
0
3

This is the theoretical discharge through a rectangular notch.

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The value of Q given by the above equation is too high because no account has been
taken of energy lost and also because, as shown below there will be a substantial
reduction in the width and depth of the notch cross section because of the curved path
lines of the liquid.

2
Therefore, Actual discharge Qa, Qa  Cd L 2 g H 3 / 2
3
From experiment, Cd = 0.62
Qa = 1.831LH3/2
c) Triangular weir (V-notch)

Figure 18 Trianguar weir

Since the velocity of flow through the notch varies from top to bottom, consider a strip of
thickness h at a depth h below the surface. If the velocity of approach is small:
Head producing flow = h
Velocity through strip = V = 2 gh

If width of strip = b, Area of strip = bh

Discharge through strip = Q = Vbh
The width b depends on h and is given by b = 2(H - h) tan

Q  (2 g )h1 / 2 x 2( H  h) tan  * h
 2 2 g tan  ( Hh1 / 2  h 3 / 2 )h

Integrating between the limits h = 0 and h = H

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H
Q  2 2 g tan   ( Hh
1/ 2
 h3 / 2
) dh
0

2 2 5/  H
 2 2 g tan   Hh 3 / 2  h 2

3 5 0
8
 2 g tan H 5 / 2

15
This is the theoretical discharge.
8
Actual discharge = Cd*Q = Cd 2 g tan H 5 / 2
15
From experiment Cd = 0.58, Qa = 1.37 tan H5/2,
For 900 V-notch, Qa = 1.37 H5/2

5.6 Impulse-momentum theorem

It is often important to determine the force produced on a solid body by fluid flowing
steadily over it. For example, the force on a pipe bend caused by the fluid flowing
through it; the force exerted by jet of fluid striking against a solid surface; thrust on a
propeller. All these forces are hydrodynamic forces and they are associated with a
change in the momentum of the fluid.
The magnitude of such a force is determined by Newton’s second law of motion, by
modifying the law to suit particularly to the steady flow of a fluid called the steady flow
momentum equation. Moreover, the fluid may be compressible or incompressible and the
flow with or without friction. Consider a stream tube shown below with the following
assumptions

 The c/s of stream tube is sufficiently small so that the velocity may be considered
uniformly distributed
 The flow is steady i.e. the stream tube remains stationary with respect to the fixed
coordinate axis.

Figure 19
Newton‟s second law

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F=m*a
dv
F=m
dt
F * dt = m * dv
 Momentum principle expresses that the rate of change of momentum is equal to
the net force acting on the fluid mass.
Momentum of fluid entering section 1 –1 in a time t in the x –direction
=  * dQ * t * V1(x)
Momentum leaving section 2- 2 in time t
=  * dQ * t * V2 (x)
From momentum principle
dFx = P dQ t [v2 ( x)  v1 ( x)]
t

dFx = dQ [V2 (x) – V1 (x)]

dFx = net force exerted on the fluid in the x –direction.
The total force in the x –direction is given by

Fx  A
dFx   A
dQ v2 ( x)  
A
dQ v1 ( x)

  A
 (v2 dA2 ) v2 ( x )  
A
 (v1dA1 ) v1 ( x )

Assuming the fluid is incompressible

Fx = V2 A2 (V2 (x) - PV1A1 V1 (x)
Fx =  Q [V2(x) – V1(x)]
Similar equations for y and z directions may be written
Fy = Q [V2(y) – V1(y)]
Fz = Q [V2(z) – V1(z)]

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PROBLEM ON HYDRAULICS I
1. Why do we study Hydraulics?
2. Where we apply hydraulics?
3. What mean by shear force and average shear stress?
4. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by v=2/3y-y2 in which v is the velocity
in m/s at a distance y meters above the plate, determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=0.15
Take v=1.015*10-3m2/s & s=0.85

5. Write the types of flow according to variation of velocity, displacement and

differentiate them.
6. A fluid of constant density flows at a rate of 15 l/s along a pipe of 100mm diameter.
This pipe further branch to pipe BC and BD each with 25 mm and a third pipe BE of
50mm diameter. The flow through BC is three times the flow through BE and the
velocity through BD is 4 m/s. Find the discharge in the three branches BC, BD and BE
and the velocity in AB, BC and BE (assume steady flow).

7. What are the Bernoulli‟s assumptions for the fluid motion?

8. Water flows through the horizontal branching pipe shown below in fig at a rate. If
viscous effects are negligible, determine the water speed at section (2), the pressure at
section (3) and the flow rate at section (4).

9. In the fluid dynamic which method governs the fluid motion?

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HYDRAULICS II

INTRODUCTION TO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Course objectives: - at the end of the course students will be expected to:
o Differentiate between open channel & pipe flows
o Understand fluid phenomenon application to design various hydraulic structures
o Acquaint laminar & turbulent flows, boundary layer theory, velocity-shear stress
relationship
WHAT IS OPEN CHANNEL
Open channel: - It may be defined as a passage in which liquid flows with its upper
surface exposed to the atmosphere. e.g.:- curvets, spillways, and similar human made
structures
Differences b/n the flow in pipes & open channel flow
Open channel flow
 Is exposed to atmospheric pressure.
 The cross-sectional area of the Pipe Flow
flow is variable. (that depends on  Is closed channel
many parameters of the flow)  The top surface is covered by solid
 The force causing motion is boundary
gravity.  It is not exposed to atmospheric
Pressure.

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EL Hf

Y1 HGL V2
EL
2g
HGL
Y1
Y2
Y2

Z2 Z1
Z2

Figure 2. 1 pipe flow & open channel flow

Where HGL - Hydraulic grade line (coincide with water surface)
EGL - Energy grade line
Hf - head loss due to friction
V2/2g - velocity head

Types of channels
 Natural channels: These channels naturally exist without the influence of human
beings. E.g. Rivers, streams, tidal estuaries, aqueducts.
 Artificial channels: Such channels are formed by man‟s activity for various
purposes. E.g. irrigation channel, navigation channel, sewerage channel, culverts,
power canal…… etc.
 Prismatic channel: - channels with constant shape and slope.
 Non-prismatic channels: - channels with varying shape and slope.
 Open channel:-A channel without any cover at the top.
 Closed channel:-The channel having a cover at the top.

ACTIVITY1.1
What is open channel?
What are the different types of channel? Give example in each case.

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1.1 Types of flow in open channel

The flow in a channel classified in to the following type, depending on the change in
the depth of flow with respect to space and time.
a) Steady flow & Unsteady flow
b) Uniform flow &Non uniform flow
c) Steady uniform flow &Un steady uniform flow
d) . Unsteady uniform flow
Time as criteria
Steady flow & Unsteady flow
When the flow characteristic (such as depth of flow, flow velocity and the flow rate at
any cross section) do not change with respect to time, the flow in a channel is to be
steady.

V p y
Mathematically, t  0 , t  0 and t  0

The flow is said to be un steady flow when the flow parameter vary with time.

V p y
0 0 0
Mathematically, t , t and t

Space as a criterion
Uniform flow & Non uniform flow
Flow in a channel is said to be uniform if the depth, slope, cross-section and velocity
remain constant over a given length of the channel.

V y
0 0
Mathematically, s , and  s

Flow in channel is said to be non-uniform (varied) when the channel depth varies
continuously from one section to another.

V y
0 0
Mathematically, s , and  s

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Time and space as a criteria

Steady uniform flow: - The depth of flow does not change during time interval and
space under consideration.
Unsteady uniform flow: - This is a flow in which the depth is varying time but not with
space.
Unsteady non uniform flow: - Is the flow in which the depth is varying with space and
time.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Explain briefly the following:
1. Steady and Un steady flow
2. Uniform and non uniform flow
3. State the condition under which uniform and non uniform flows are produced.

1.2 Geometric elements of open channel section

Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that can be defined entirely by the
geometry of the section and the depth of flow. The most used geometric properties include:

1. Depth of flow(y): it the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel to the
free surface.
2. Top width (T): it is the width of channel section at free surface.
3. Stage (h): is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.
4. Wetted perimeter (p): it is the length of the channel boundary which is in contact
with water.
5. Wetted area (A): is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of
flow.
6. Hydraulic radius(hydraulic mean depth)(R) : it is the ratio of wetted area to its
wetted perimeter
A
R=
P
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7. Hydraulic depth(D): the ratio of wetted area to the top width,

A
D=
T
8. Section factor (Z): is the product of the wetted area and the two-third power of the
hydraulic radius
1
A  A3  2 2

Z=A D =A =   =A R 3
T T 

9. Conveyance (K) :
2 1
1
Q=VA………………………….V= R 3 S 2
n
2 1
1 3 2
Q=A R S
n
2 1
1 2
=A R 3 S
n
1
=K S 2 S= bed slope
2
1
K= A R3 n= Mannings constant
n

= CA R c= Chezy‟s constant

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X
Hf (Z)

Sw

Y0

S0 Wsinө
0
W
L

Figure 2. 2 Geometric elements of open channel flow

Where S0- bed slope of channel

Sw- Water surface slope
S- Slope of EGL
W – Weight of water
0 – Shear force
L- Length of channel
Uniform flow is the result of exact balance between the gravity and friction force

Wsin =  o .P.L…………………………….(1)

A L sin =  o .P.L

But sin  = hf/L = S, solving for  o ,

A
 o = .S  R.S ………………………………… (2)
P
Where - unit weight of the water
The shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity,
or o= kV2…………………………………..……..(3)
Therefore, kv2=RS

V2= RS ,
k

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
Let  C 2 -constant (b/c &k- are constant)
k

V  C RS . ……………………………………………….... (4)
This is the Chezy –formula
C= chezy coefficient (chezy‟s resistance factor)
V= Average velocity of flow

Manning Formula
1 2 1
V= R 3 S0 2 ………………………………………………(5)
n

 The best as well as most widely used formula for uniformly for uniform
flow.
n- is the roughness coefficient.

A relation between the Chezy‟s C and Manning‟s n may be obtained by comparing eqn
(4) & (5)
1

R6
C …………………………………………..(6)
n

 The value of n ranges from 0.009 (for smooth straight surfaces) to 0.22
(for very dense flood plain forests).
What is hydraulic efficiency channel (most economical channel) means?
 A channel section is said to be efficient (economical) if it gives the maximum
discharge for the given shape, area and roughness.

1.3 Most economical channel section

Most economical rectangular channel section
Let B and Y be the base width and depth of flow respectively

A=BY………………………….(i)

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P=B=2Y……………………….(ii)
From eqn. (i), B=A/Y
Substituting in (ii) P=A/Y+2Y………….(iii)
For maximum Q, P- is minimum.
dp d
0 ( A / Y  2Y )  0
dY dY

A 20
Y
 A  2Y 2  B * Y
So, B=2Y (or Y=B/2)
Thus the rectangular channel is most efficient and economical when the depth of water is
one half of the width of the channel and the discharge flow will be maximum.
EXAMPLE -1
1 .A rectangular channel is to be dug in the rocky portion of a soil. Find its most
economical cross-section if its to convey 12 m3/s of water with an average velocity of 3
m/s. Take chezy constant C=50
Given
3
Q=12 m /s
V=3 m/s
C=50
Solution
The geometric relations for optimum discharge through a rectangular channel are

Then
When B,Y and R are base width, depth of flow and hydraulic radius respectively
Now
From this equation solve for depth of flow

Therefore base width of flow

Hydraulic radius,

Also chezy formula

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Hence

Most economical trapezoidal channel section

But for most economic section

EXAMPLE-2
An irrigation channel of trapezoidal section has side slope, m=2 and carries a discharge
of 15m3/s on a longitudinal slope of 1 in 5000. The channel is to be lined for which the
value of friction coefficient in Manning‟s formula is n=0.012. Find the dimension of the
most economic section of the channel.

GIVEN
Side slope m=2

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Discharge Q=15m3/s
Longitudinal slope S=1:5000
Manning´s coefficient n=0.012
SOLUTION

ACTIVITY1.3
What do you mean by most economical section of an open channel? How is it
determined?
What are the conditions for the rectangular channel of best section?
Show that the hydraulic mean depth of a trapezoidal

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1.4 Specific energy

? What is specific energy?

 Specific energy is the energy per unit weight of flowing liquid above the channel
bottom.
For any cross section, shape, the specific energy ( E) at a particular section is defined as
the energy head to the channel bed as datum. Thus,
V2
E  Y  ……………………………………………..(1)
2g
(- is kinetic energy correction factor 1)

EGL

ET1

ET2
Z1
Datum
Z2

Figure 2. 3specific energy at a particular section

For a rectangular channel, the value of flow per unit width is Q/B=q, and average
velocity
qB q
V Q  
A BY Y
Therefore eqn (1) becomes:
2
q y 

E  y   y  q …………………………………… (2)
2

2g 2 gy 2

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q2
( E  y )Y 2  (For the case of constant q)………………………… (3)
2g

A plot of E Vs Y is a hyperbola like with asymptotes (E-Y) =0 i.e. E=Y and y=0. Such a
curve is known as specific energy diagram.

Y2

Sub critical
section

Yc
Super critical
Y1
Ec E0
E

Figure 2. 4specific energy

For a particular q, we see there are two possible values of Y for a given value of E. These
are known as Alternative depths (for e.g. Y1 & Y2 on fig. above)
 The two alternative depths represent two totally different flow regimes slow &
deep on the upper limp of the curve (sub critical flow) & fast and shallow on the
lower limb of the curve.(super critical flow)
? What is critical depth
 Depth of flow at which specific energy is minimum is called critical depth.
The velocity of flow at critical depth is known as critical velocity.
For example, a relation for critical depth in a wide rectangular channel can be found by
differentiation E of eqn.2 with respect to Y to find the value of Y for which E is a
minimum.
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dE q2
 1  3 …………………………………………….. (4)
dY gy

And when E is a minimum Y=Yc and dE  0 , so that

dy

q2
0  1  q 2  gyc ………………………………. (5)
3
3
gYc
Substituting q= vy = VC*Yc, gives
Vc  gyc
2

q
 Vc  gyc  ……………………………………….. (6)
yc
It may be expressed as:
1
Vc 2 q2  3
yc     ……………………………………….. (7)
g  g 
2
V y
From eqn (7) c  c , hence,
2g 2
2
Vc
E c  E min  y c   y c  1 y c  3 y c ……………… (8)
2g 2 2

And yc  2 Emin ……………………………………………………………..(9)

3

From eqn. (7): q max  gyc ……………………………………….………….(10)

3

For non rectangular cross section the specific energy eqn.

Q2
E  y …………………………………………………….. (11)
2gA 2
[V=Q/A]
To find the critical depth,
dE Q 2 dA
 1 3 ………………………………………………….. (12)
dy gA dy
From fig 1.3 (b) dA = dy*T (at Yc, T= Tc)
Therefore the above equation becomes:

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2
Qmax Tc
3
 1 …………………………………………………………….. (13)
gAc
The critical depth must satisfy this equation
3
gA
From eqn. (13) Q  c 2
and substitute in eqn. (11) then
Tc

Ac
Ec  y c  …………………………………………………………..(14)
2Tc

Q 2T
eqn.(13) can be solved by trial & error for irregular section by plotting f ( y ) 
gA3
and critical depth occurs for the value of y which makes f(y)=1
What are sub critical, critical, and super critical flow?
 Sub critical flow:-when the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the critical
depth(Yc) in this case Fr <1
 Critical flow is one in which specific energy is minimum. A few corresponding to
critical depth also known as critical flow.
 Super critical flow:-when the depth of flow in a channel is less than critical depth
(Yc) in this case Fr>1.
If specific energy curve for Q- constant is redraw alongside a second curve of depth
against discharge for constant E, will show the variation of discharge with depth.

yc

q qmax
For a given constant discharge
i) The specific energy curve has a minimum value Ec at point C with a
corresponding depth Yc known as critical depth.

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ii) For any other value of E there are two possible depth of flow known as
alternative depth one of which is termed sub critical (y>Yc) and the other
supercritical (Y<Yc).
a) For a given constant specific energy ( fig.1.5(b))
i) the depth discharge curve shows that discharge is a maximum at the
critical depth
ii) For all other discharges there are two possible depth of flow ( sub- &
super critical) for any particular value of E,
From eqn. (13) above if we substitute
Q= AV (continuity equation), we get
Q 2T
1
gA3

A 2V 2T V 2T
1 1
gA3 gA
but A/T = D ( Hydraulic depth), then [ D=Y for rectangular section)
V2
 1  V  gy ……………………………(*)
gy
V
 1  Froude number at critical state.
gy

V
F ……………………………………….(**)
gy

Thus, i) F= 1critical flow

ii) F< 1 sub critical flow
iii) F>1 Super critical
ACTIVITY1.4
What is specific energy and specific energy curve?
What do you understand by critical depth of an open channel when the flow in it is not
uniform?

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Examples
1. For constant specific energy of , calculate the maximum discharge that may
occur in a rectangular channel 5m width.
Given

Solution
For constant specific energy discharge is maximum

2. Most efficient rectangular channel, which is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0064, is to

carry 20m3/s of water. Determine the width of the channel when the flow is in critical
condition. Take n=0.015.
Given

Solution

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1.5 Hydraulic jump

What is hydraulic jump?
 A flow phenomenon which occurs when supercritical flow has its velocity
reduced to sub critical. There is sudden rise in water level at the point where
hydraulic jump occurs
e.g (Rapidly varied flow).

Y2
V2
V1
Y1
Lj

Figure 2. 5 hydraulic jump on horizontal bed flowing over a spill way

Where V1-velocity before jump
V2 –velocity after jump
Y1 –water depth before jump
Y2 –water depth after jump
Lj –length of jump

Purposes of hydraulic jump:-

i) To increase the water level on the d/s of the hydraulic structures
ii) To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward force due to the
increased depth of water,
iii) To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective head
causing flow,
iv) For aeration of drinking water
v) For removing air pockets in a pipe line
vi) Reduce downstream erosion
vii) Very useful & effective for mixing fluids
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Analysis of hydraulic jump

Assumptions
a. The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due to
friction is negligible,
b. The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope. The weight
component in the direction of flow is negligible.
c. The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken as a control
volume & it is assumed the just before & after the control volume, the flow is
uniform & pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
Let us consider a small reach of a channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs.
The momentum of water passing through section (1) per unit time is given as:
p1 rQV1
  QV1 ……………………………………….(i)
t g
Momentum at section (2) per unit time is:
p2 rQV2
  QV2 ………………………………………….(ii)
t g
Rate of change of momentum b/n section 1 & 2
P
 Q (V2  V1 ) ……………………………………….(iii)
t
The net force in the direction of flow = F1-F2 ………………..(iv)

F1  A1Y1 , F2  A2 Y2
 Y 1 & Y 2 are the center of pressure at section (1) & (2)

Therefore F1-F2 =M =Q (V2-V1)

Q
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2  (V2  V1 ) ……………………………………(v)
g
From continuity eqn. Q= A*V, V= Q/A, so

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 
Q  Q
Q
A1Y 1  A2 Y 2    
g  A2 A1 
 
2
Q 1 
A1Y 1  A2 Y2   A  1 A .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( iv)
g  2 1

Rearranging this eqn.:

 Q2   Q2 
  A1Y 1     A2 Y 2 
 gA1   gA2  = Constant. …………… (vii)
M1 M2
M1and M2 are the specific forces at section (1) & (2) indicates that these forces
are equal before & after the jump.
Y1= initial depth
Y2 = sequent depth
Hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel
A1=By1 the section has uniform width (B)
A2= By2
Y1 Y
Y 1 ,Y 2  2
2 2
Now from eqn. (Vii) above:
Q2 y 
 By2 *  y2 
Q
 By1  1  
gBy1  2  gBy2  2
Q2 By12 Q2 By22
   .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( viii)
gBy1 2 Bgy2 2
Flow per unit width of q= Q/B Q=qB, then eqn. (viii) becomes
q 2 B 2 By12 q 2 B 2 By22
  
Bgy1 2 Bgy2 2

q 2  1 1  y22  y12
   ………………………………… (.ix)
g  y1 y2  2

2q 2
 y1 y2
y  y12
2
2 
g  y2  y1 

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2q 2
 y1 y 2 ( y1  y 2 )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( x)
g
2q 2
y 2 y12  y1 y 22   0.......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .........( xi)
g
This is quadratic eqn. & the solution is given as

 y2
2
 y  2q
2
y1    2  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .( xii)(a)
2  2 gy2
 y1 2
2q 2
y2    y1   .......... .......... .......... .......... ........( b)
2  2 gy2

8q 2
y1  y2 (1  1  3 )......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( c)
2 gy2

y 8q 2
y2  1 (1  1  3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ...( xii)(d )
2 gy1

The ratio of conjugate depths;

y1 8q 2
 1 (1  1  3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......( xii)(e)
y2 2 gy2

y2 8q 2
 1 (1  1  3 .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ( f )
y1 2 gy1
q
V1 V2 y2 q
F1  , F2  
gy1 gy2 gy2 gy23

y1 1
Therefore  (1  1  8F22 )......... .......... .....( g )
y2 2
y2 1
 (1  1  8F12 .......... .......... .......... .......... ..( h)
y1 2

Energy dissipation in a Hydraulic Jump

The head loss hl.f caused by the jump is the drop in energy from section (1) to (2) or:
hlf= E = E1 - E2
 V2   V2 
  y1  1    y2  2 .......... .......... .......... .........( 1)a
 2g   2g 

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 q2   q2 

  y1  
2 

  y2  .......... .......... .......... ......( b)
2 
 2 gy1   2 gy2 

2q 2
From eqn. (x) substituting:  y1 y2 ( y1  y2 ) in to this eqn. & by rearranging:
g

hlf  E 
 y2  y1 
3
.......... .......... .......... .......... ......( 2)
4 y1 y2
Therefore power lost =  Q hlf (kw)…………………(3)
ACTIVITY1.5
What is mean by hydraulic jump in open channel and how it occurs?

Types of Hydraulic jump

Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude number and depth ratio.
Table 1 Classification of hydraulic jump
F1 Y2/y1 Classification
<1 1 Jump impossible
1-1.7 1-2 Undular jump (standing wave)

1.7-2.5 2-3.1 Weak jump

2.5-4.5 3.1-5.9 Oscillating jump
4.5-9.0 5.9-12 Steady jump (45-70% energy loss)
>9.0 >12 Strong or chopping jump (=85% energy loss)

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Examples

A 3∙6m wide rectangular channl conveys of water with a velocity of .

a. Is there a condition for hydraulic jump occur? If so calculate the height, length
and strength of the jump.
b. What is loss of energy?
Given

Solution

a.

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b. Loss of energy for rectangular channel

Exercises
1. A rectangular channel which is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0064 is to carry 20m3/s of
water. Determine the width of the channel when the flow is in critical condition. Take
C=66
2.An irrigation canal of trapezoidal section having side slope 2 in 3 is to carry a flow of
10m3/s on a longitudinal slope of 1 in 5000. The canal is lined for which the value of
frictional coefficient in Manning‟s formula is n=0.012. Find the dimension of the most
economical section
3. Determine the side slope of the most hydraulically efficient triangular section. . Show
that the head loss in a hydraulic jump formed in a rectangular channel may be expressed
as
ΔE= (V1 –V2)3/ [2g (V1 +V2)]
4. A rectangular channel there occurs a jump corresponding to Froude number (F=2.5).
Determine the critical depth and head loss in terms of the initial depth y1.
5. A trapezoidal channel having bottom width 10m and side slope 2:1(H:V) carries a
discharge of 100m3/s. Find the depth conjugate to the initial depth of 1m before the
jump. Also determine the loss of energy in the jump.

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2.0 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND SIMILITUDE

Introduction
Dear students, in this unit you will learn about the basic concepts of dimensional
analysis, similitude and hydraulic models. The unit divided into two sections. In the
first section you will introduce to the principle of dimensional homogeneity and its
application. In the second section you will learn about similitude and hydraulic
models.

Objectives

On completion of this unit you are expected to:

 Understand the concept and application of dimensional homogeneity
of dimensional homogeneity
 Understand dimensional analysis and know its uses.
 Be capable of solve and prove equations using the two methods of
dimensional analysis.
 Know and explain the different types of hydraulic similarities.
 Classify and explain the different types of hydraulic models.

2.1: DIMENSIONAL ANALYISIS

Introduction
Dear students in this section our aim is to understand dimensional analysis but first you
are expected to know the principles that dimensional analysis work. The working
principle of dimensional analysis is dimensional homogeneity. Therefore, we first define
dimensional homogeneity to reinforce your understanding. And then we see about
dimensional analysis.
Definition:
What are dimensions?
Physical quantities can be
 Fundamental quantities
 Mass

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 Length
 Time
 Temperature (Only for compressible fluids)
 Derived quantities this are quantities which are expressed in terms of
fundamental quantities.
The dimension of any physical quantities can be expressed as,
 Fundamental dimension
 Mass [M]
In M-L-T system
 Length [L]
 Time [T]
 Temperature (Only for compressible fluids)
OR
 Force [F]
In F-L-T system
 Length [L]
 Time [T]
 Temperature (Only for compressible fluids)
The two systems are related by the Newton‟s Second Law of Motion:

Dimensionally,

 Derived dimensions these are dimensions which are expressed in terms of

Fundamental dimension. For example, velocity is defined as the distance moved
per unit time and therefore its dimensions can be derived as

Likewise, the dimensions of other physical quantities may be obtained. Table 2.1
gives the dimensions of various physical quantities used in mechanics in both
systems.

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Table 2 Dimensions of various physical quantities

S.No Quantity Symbol Dimensions
. M-L-T F-L-T
1 Length L L L
2 Time T T T
3 Mass m M M
4 Force F M L T -2 F
-1
5 Velocity V LT L T -1
6 Acceleratio a L T -2 L T -2
n
7 Area A L2 L2
8 Discharge Q L3 T -1 L3 T -1
-1 -2
9 Pressure P ML T FL-2
10 Power P ML2T-3 FLT-1
-3
11 Density  ML FT2L4
12 Unit γ ML-2 T -2 FL3
gravity
force
13 Dynamic  M L-1T-1 FTL2
viscosity
14 Kinematic  L2 T-1 L2 T-1
viscosity
15 Surface  MT-2 FL-1
Tension
16 Bulk K ML-1 T-2 FL-2
modulus of
elasticity

Activity 2.1
State and define the two types of dimensions

2.2 Dimensional homogeneity

A physical equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the quantities on both

sides of the equation have identical dimension.
A dimensionally homogeneous equation is applicable to all system of units. On the other
hand, a dimensionally non homogeneous equation is applicable only to the system of
units for which it had derived. Let us consider the following two equations:
A)
B)

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Eq. (A) is dimensionally homogeneous. This can be proved by substituting the

dimensions of each term.

On the other hand, Eq. (B) is dimensionally non-homogeneous substitute the dimensions
Left hand side

Note. The quantities which are dimensionless are represented by [1].

As the dimensions of the two sides are not the same, the equation is non-homogeneous.
Eq. (B) is only applicable to SI-system. It cannot be used in FPS. In fact, the manning
formula in FPS system is given by

Activity 2.2
What is the criterion for a given physical equation to be dimensionally
homogeneous?

Application of the principle of dimensional homogeneity to determine the dimensions

of a physical quantity
(1) To determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.

The dimensions of a physical quantity can be determined using the principle of

dimensional homogeneity. Let us now determine the dimensions of the kinetic
energy (E) from the equation:

Substitute the dimension of the right-hand side,

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Example 2.1 Find the dimension of the following quantities in both M-L-T and F-L-T
system:
(a) Discharge
(b) Momentum
(c) Power
(d) Torque
Solution

Since forces are not involved, the discharge is a kinematic quantity. Its
dimensions in both the systems are the same.

- (M-L-T SYSTEM)

Substituting the dimensions of M in terms of F

- (F-L-T SYSTEM)

Similarly solve for (c) & (d)

(2) To convert units from one system to another system.
The principle of dimensional homogeneity can be used to convert units from one
system to the other system. For example, let us convert the pressure from
to .we know

Or

And

Also

Or

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Therefore, the pressure in can be converted into by multiplying it with

0.145. In other words,

Exercise 2.1 show that

(3) To check whether a given equation is Homogeneous and convert it to the

other system if non-homogeneous
The principle of dimensional homogeneity can be used to check whether a given
equation is dimensionally homogeneous. If the equation is not dimensionally
homogeneous, it can be made applicable to the other system by first determining
the dimension of the coefficient. For example, the equation

As proved before, is dimensionally non-homogeneous.

The dimension of the coefficient

Because,

Since N is pure constant depending only upon the type of surface, its value is the
same in both MKS and FPS (foot-Pound-Second) system. In order to make the

above equation applicable to FPS the numerator 1 in the coefficient will be

changed. We know Remembering that the unit of time same in

both system.

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Therefore, the equation in F.P.S. system is

Exercise 2.2 The following equations are applicable in SI system. Find the dimensions of
the constants and their corresponding value in FPS system.
(a)
(b)
(c)

(4) Dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis is the method of analysis based on the mathematics of the

dimension of quantities.
In dimensional analysis, from a general understanding of fluid phenomenon, one
first predicts the physical parameters that will influence the flow, and then by
grouping these parameters in dimension combinations, a better understanding of
the flow phenomena is made possible.
Uses Of dimensional analysis

 It can be used to obtain a functional relationship among the variables in

terms of non-dimensional parameters.
 Dimensional analysis reduces the number of experiments required in a
particular investigation.
 Dimensional analysis helps in obtaining a systematic form of the variables
involved in a particular fluid phenomenon.
 It gives a sound and orderly arrangement of the variables involved in the
problem.
 Deriving equations expressed in terms of non- dimensional parameters to
show the significance of each parameter.
However, dimensional analysis does not give the complete relationship. It gives
only a general qualitative expression. Investigations have to be done to obtain the
complete expression. The numerical values of the coefficients are usually
obtained from experimental investigations.

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The following two methods of dimensional analysis are commonly used:

(a) Rayleigh‟s method
(b) Buckingham‟s -theorem.

(a) Rayleigh’s method

In this method, the functional relationship is expressed in an exponential form. If

is some function of independent variables, etc.the function
relationship can be written as

Where stands for „a function of‟, It does not imply anything about the form of
the function.
Any function can be expressed as a series of terns each being made up of the
product of variables brought to suitable powers. Thus

In which k is dimension less coefficient which can be determined either from the
physical characteristics of the problem or from experiments, The exponents a, b, c
etc. are determine from the principle of dimensional homogeneity, the exponents
of the dimensions on both sides must be same
By equating the exponents on both sides, a set of simultaneous equations is
obtained. The exponents can be determined by solving these simultaneous
equations. Since there are only three fundamental dimensions, only 3
simultaneous equations are found. If the number of exponents involved in the
relationship is more than 3, some of the exponents can be expressed in terms of
others. The non-dimensional parameters are then formed by grouping the
variables with like exponents.
Example 2.2
Obtain an expression for drag force on stationary sphere of diameter D in a fluid of
density viscosity as a function of non-dimensional group. Let the velocity of the fluid
be V

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Solution
Step-1
Write the functional relation as

Step-2
Then write the equation in exponential form.

Step-3
Using the M-L-T system, substitute the dimension of the various quantities in the
above equation.

For dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of each dimension must be the same
on both sides. Equating the exponents,

Note.
Since there are only 3 equations with 4 unknowns, we should express any 3
unknowns in terms of the fourth. Although any 3 unknowns can be expressed in
terms of the fourth, the aim should be to get the required form of the expression.
An attempt should be made to get the non-dimensional forms in terms of well-
known parameters such as Reynolds’s and Froude’s number.
Expressing a, b and c in terms of d,

Therefore,

It may be noted that is the Reynolds number

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Thus

Or

Activity 2.3
Show each steps of solving equations using Rayleigh‟s method?

Exercise 2.5
The velocity V through an orifice depends upon the diameter of the orifice, the
head H over the crest, the acceleration due to gravity g, the density , the viscosity
and the surface tension . Show that

(b) Buckingham’s –Theorem

The Rayleigh method of dimensional analysis becomes cumbersome when a large

number of variables are involved. The Buckingham –Theorem may be used in
such problems.

The Buckingham –Theorem states that if there are variables in a

dimensionally homogenous equation and if these variables contain
fundamental dimensions (such as, M, L, T), they may be grouped into
non-dimensional parameters. Buckingham called these non-dimensional
parameters as –terms.

Mathematically, if a variable depends upon the variable the

functional equation may be written as

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This equation may be written as

Where is a constant and represents some function. In this equation, there are
variables. If there fundamental dimensions, then according to Buckingham
theorem,

Obviously, the number of –terms is n-m.

Each –term contains primary variable, which are also called the repeating
variables. The repeating variables appear in all –terms. In addition to these
repeating variables, each –terms contains one more variable of the remaining
variables. Thus, if are taken as repeating variables,

Where are constants to be determine as explained later.

While selecting repeating variables, the following points should be kept in:
(a) Repeating variables must contain jointly all the fundamental
dimensions involved in the phenomenon. Usually the fundamental
dimensions are M, L and T. Therefore, 3 repeating variables must contain
together M, L and T. However, if only two dimensions are involved, there
will be 2 repeating variable and they must contain together the two
dimensions involved.
(b) The repeating variables must not form the non-dimensional parameters
amongst themselves.
(c) A geometrical property (such as length), a fluid property (such as mass
density) and flow characteristics (such as velocity) are generally most
suitable as repeating variables.

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Example 2.3 Show that the frictional factor in an incompressible fluid flowing through
pipe is expressed as

Where
.

Solution
The functional relationship can be written as

Or

Thus,

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As the reciprocal of a non-dimensional parameter is also non-dimensional, the expression

of can be written as

Similarly, writing the dimensions in the expression for

Equating exponents of

Therefore,

Likewise,

Equating the exponents,

Therefore,
It may be noted that the non-dimensional variable, such as itself becomes the

Thus the functional relationship becomes

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Or ….Ans.

Example 2.3 Show that a discharge over a spillway can be expressed as

Where,

Solution the functional relationship can be written as

Thus

Equating the exponent of L and T,

Thus,

Similarly,

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Equating the exponent of L and T,

Thus,

Likewise,

Equating the exponent of L and T,

The functional relationship becomes

Or

Activity 2.4
What are the points should be considered while selecting repeating Variables?

SELF-TEST EXERCISE
GIVE SHORT ANSWER

1. State the principal application of dimensional homogeneity.

2. State Buckingham‟s theorem. What is the advantage of Buckingham‟s
method over Rayleigh‟s method of dimensional analysis

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3. State the uses of dimensional analysis

4. What are the different uses of dimensional homogeneity in fluid mechanics

WORK OUT

1. Determine if the following equations are dimensionally homogenous

(a)
(b)
2. Show that the discharge formula for a rectangular weir can be written as

Where b is width of weir, H is head causing flow, g is the acceleration due to

gravity and K is constant.

2.3: SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODELS

Introduction
It is known that even with modern computing facilities, many complex problems still
challenge complete theoretical analysis. A combination of past experience, theory and
dimensional analysis will provide partial or complete solution to a number of problems.
However, there still remain many problems, which are tractable only through
experimentation. This will be done through model studies of proposed hydraulic
structures and machines. So in this section we deal with the laws of similarity as applied
to hydraulic structures.
In model analysis, investigations are made on a model which is similar to the full size
structure known as proto type. Model testing is done to obtain useful quantitative or
quantitative information that can be safely utilized in the design of the prototype.
A thorough knowledge of the principles of hydraulic similitude is essential in proper
design, construction and operation of model.

2.3.1 SIMILITUDE

A model will yield useful quantitative information about the characteristics of the
prototype if it is similar to its prototype. Complete similarity can be obtained between the
model and its prototype if the two systems are geometrically, kinematically and
dynamically similar.

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Models which are completely similar with their prototype are known as TRUE
MODELS. But if it is not possible to maintain geometric similarity between the model
and the prototype the model is called DISTORTED MODEL.
TYPES OF SIMILARITY
(a) GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY
It is the similarity of the shape (scale factor). It is obtained when the solid
boundaries that control the follow of fluid are geometrically similar. The model is
a geometric reduction of the prototype and is accomplished by maintaining a fixed
ratio of all homologous lengths between the model and prototype. These physical
quantities are length, area, diameter, volume, etc.

Activity 2.5
What is meant by geometric similarity?

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(b) KINEMATIC SIMILARITY

It is the similarity of motion. For kinematic similarity to exist, the streamline

pattern in the model must be the same as in its prototype. The ratios of kinematic
quantities representing the flow characteristics such as, time, velocity,
acceleration, and discharge must be the same at all corresponding points.

Activity 2.6
What is meant by kinematic similarity?

(c) DYNAMIC SIMILARITY

It is the Similarity of forces involved in motion. Dynamic Similarity is attained if the

ratio of homologous forces in the model and prototype are kept constant.

The conditions required for complete similarity are developed form the Newton 2 nd law
of motion

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The forces acting may be any one or a combination of several of the following: viscous,
pressure, gravity, elasticity, surface tension, inertia forces etc.
 Forces (viscous  pressure  gravity  elasticity  surface tension)p m p a p

 Forces (viscous  pressure gravity  elasticity  surface tension)m mm am
      


F  Fv  Fg  Fs  Fp  Fe  RESULTANT   F  m. a
i

NOTE: Newton’s Law: Inertia force is equal and opposite of the resultant forces.
 F  m.a p Fi p
p
 
 F  m
m.a m Fi m
However, in practice, a mode is designed to study the effects of only a few dominant
forces. Dynamic similarity requires that the ratios of these forces be kept the same
between the model and prototype.
In problems of fluid flow, the inertia force will always exist and hence it is customary to
find out the force ratios with respect to the inertia forces, thus:

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The above six equations are dimensionless groups. The significance of the dimensionless
ratios is discussed below:

Activity 2.7
What is meant by dynamic similarity?

a) REYNOLDS NUMBER (phenomenon governed by viscous force)

A fluid in motion always involves inertia forces. If the inertial forces and viscous forces
(example pipe flow) can be considered to be the only forces that govern the motion, the
ratio of these forces acting on homologous particles in a model and its prototype is
defined by the Reynolds number.

The Reynolds number is important when the viscous force is predominant. It is generally
used to correlate meter coefficient, pipe friction coefficient and drag coefficient, etc.
For dynamically similitude model and prototype:

NOTE: D is taken as L for pipe

flow.

b) FROUDE NUMBER: (phenomenon governed by gravity force)

When inertial forces and gravity forces are considered to be the only dominant forces in
the fluid motion, the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces acting on the homologous
elements of the fluid in the model and prototype are considered as follows:

The Froude number is important in open channel flow. It is useful in study of hydraulic
jump, in design of hydraulic structures and ships, etc.
For dynamically similitude model and prototype:
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N.B

c) WEBER NUMBER (phenomenon governed by surface tension)

The surface tension is a measure of energy level on the surface of a liquid body. The
force is of primary importance in hydraulic engineering practice in the study of small
surface waves or control of evaporation from a large body of water, such as water storage
tank / reservoir.
In river and harbor models reduction of scale often leads to appreciable viscous and
capillary effects in the shallow regions of flow. The depth of flow in such cases should be
sufficiently large so that capillary effects are negligible.
The ratio of Inertia to Surface tension forces in prototype and model is:

Fi V 2 L2 V2
 
Fs L 
L
The square root of this dimensionless ratio is known as WEBER NUMBE (We):
V
We=

L

It is applied at the leading edge of a very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface. Like:
 Capillary movement of water in solids.
 Flow of liquid at a very small depth over a surface.
 Flow over weir at very small heads.
 Spray of liquid from the exit of discharging tube resulting in the formation of
drops of liquids.
d) MACH NUMBER (phenomenon governed by elastic forces)

The Mach number can be regarded as the ratio of inertia and elastic forces. Is important
in compressible fluid flow problems at high velocities, such as high velocity flow in pipes
or motion of high speed projectiles and missiles, also important in

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 Aerodynamic testing
 Flow gases exceeding the velocity of sound.
 Water hammer problems. (Design of surge tanks).
The ratio of Inertia forces & elastic forces in prototype and model is:

The square root of this dimensionless number is known as

Mach number (M). Thus:
V V
M  
E C

This is for fluid velocity (or velocity of the body through a stationary fluid) to that
of a sound wave in the same medium.
C is the sonic velocity (or celerity) in the given medium.
e) EULER NUMBER (Phenomenon governed by pressure forces.)

The ratio of Inertia forces to pressure forces for both prototype and model is given by:
Fi V 2 L2 V 2
 
Fp PL2 P

The square root of this dimensionless number is known as EULER NUMBER .
Thus:
V V V
Eu   
2P
2 g  P 
P
   

The Euler number is important in the flow problems in which a pressure gradient exists.
For complete dynamic similarity to exist between the model and the prototype and its
model, all the above mentioned parameters should be satisfied. It is impossible to obtain
complete dynamic similarity because no two fluids are known to have the requisite
properties to satisfy all conditions. Fortunately, in most engineering problems, all
conditions are not required to be satisfied because some of the forces (a) may not act, (b)
may be insignificant, (c) may oppose each other and thus cancel out. Usually 2 or 3 types
of forces may be predominant. A sound knowledge of the fluid phenomenon is essential
to ascertain the forces that are significant in a particular phenomenon.
Example 2.4 The general expression for discharge of a centrifugal pump is

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The performance of a new design of the pump is to be studied by testing a

the pump is to run at
Solution

Now

Or

Example 2.5 The drag on a sphere is expressed as

A Sphere of diameter D when placed in water moving with a velocity of 2 m/s

experiences a drag of 6N. Determine the drag on another sphere of diameter 2D placed in
a wind tunnel at the corresponding velocity. Take

Solution
For dynamic similarity,

Or

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2.4 TYPES OF MODELS

In general hydraulic models can be classified under two broad categories
(a) Undistorted models
(b) Distorted models
(a) Undistorted Models: - if a model is geometrically similar to its prototype, it is
known as undistorted models. i.e., the scale ratios for the corresponding linear
dimension are the same.
(b) Distorted models: - if one or more terms of the models are not identical with the
prototype it is known as distorted models. The distortion may be geometrical, or
material or hydraulic quantities or a combination of these.
 Geometrical distortion,
The distortion can be either of dimensions or that of configuration.
 When different scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse, &
vertical dimensions; then it is known as distortion of dimensions.

It is adopted in river models where a different slope ratio for depth is adopted.

 Distortion of configuration results when the general configuration of the

model doesn‟t have resemblance with its prototype.
If a river model has different bed slope ratio, this is distortion of
configuration.
 Material distortion is occurred when the physical properties of the material used
in the model and prototype are different.
 Distortion of hydraulic quantities is occurred for certain uncontrollable hydraulic
quantities such as time, discharge etc.
The following are some of the reasons for adopting distorted models:
a) To maintain accuracy in vertical measurements;
b) To maintain turbulent flow;
c) To obtain suitable bed material & its adequate movement;
d) To obtain suitable roughness condition;
e) To accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water
supply & time.

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Activity 2.8
State and explain the two types of hydraulic models

SELF-TEST EXERCISE
GIVE SHORT ANSWER
1. What do you understand by hydraulic similitude? State the conditions for
perfect similitude.
2. State the reasons for adopting distorted models.
3. State and explain the different types of distortion.

WORK OUT
1. A 1:10 scale model of water supply piping system is to be tested at 200C to
determine the total head loss in the prototype that carries water at 850C. The
prototype is designed to carry 5.0m3/s discharge with 1m diameter pipes.
Determine the model discharge and model velocity. Discuss how losses
determined from the model are converted to proto type loss.
2. An over flow spillway is designed to be 100m high and 120mlong, carrying a
discharge of 1200 m3/5 under an approaching head of 2.75m. The spillway
operation is to be analyzed by a 1:50 model in a hydraulic laboratory.
Determine
a) The model discharge,
b) If the discharge coefficient at the model crests measures 2.12, what is
the prototype crest discharge coefficient?
c) If the velocity at the outlet of the model spill way measures 25m/s,
what is the prototype velocity?
3. A 1:50 scale model is constructed to a study a gate prototype that is designed
to drain a reservoir. If the model reservoir is drained in 5.2 min, how long
should if take to drain the reservoir?

4. A 1 m long 1:50 model is used to study the wave force on a prototype of a sea
wall structure. If the total wave force measured on the model is 2.27 N and the
velocity scale is 1: 10, determine the force per unit length of the prototype.

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3.0 BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

INTRODUCTION

When real fluid flows pass a solid boundary, a layer of fluid which comes in contact with
the boundary surface adheres to it on account of viscosity; since this layer of fluid can‟t
slip away from the boundary surface it attains the same velocity as that of the boundary.
In other words, at the boundary surface there is no relative motion between the fluid and
the boundary. This condition is known as no slip condition. If the boundary is moving,
the fluid adhering to it will have the same velocity as that of the boundary. However, if
the boundary is stationary, the fluid velocity at the boundary surface will be zero. Thus at
the boundary surface the layer of the fluid undergoes retardation. This retarded layer of
the fluid further causes retardation for the adjacent layers of the fluid, there by
developing a small region in the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in which the
velocity of flowing fluid increases gradually from zero at the boundary surface to the
velocity of the main stream. This region is known as boundary layer.

In the boundary region since there is larger variation of velocity in a relatively small
distance there exists a fairly large velocity gradient ) normal to the boundary surface.
As such in this region of boundary layer even if the fluid has small viscosity, the
corresponding shear stress τ = µ( ), is of appreciable magnitude. Further away from the
boundary this retardation due to the presence of viscosity is negligible and the velocity
there will be equal to that of the main stream. The flow may thus be considered to have
two regions, one close to the boundary in the boundary layer zone in which due to larger
velocity gradient appreciable viscous forces are produced and hence in this region the
effect of viscosity is mostly confined, and second outside the boundary layer zone in
which the viscous forces are negligible and hence the flow may be treated as non-viscous
or in viscid.

In 1904 prendtl developed the concept of the boundary layer. He provides an important
link between ideal- fluid flow and real-fluid flow. For fluids having relatively small
viscosity, the effect of internal friction in a fluid is appreciable only in a narrow
region surrounding the fluid boundaries. From this hypothesis, the flow outside the
narrow region near the solid boundaries can be considered as ideal flow or potential
flow. Relation with the boundary- layer region can be computed from the general
equations for vitreous fluids, but use of the momentum equation permits the
developing of approximate equation for boundary- layer growth.

Activity:-3.1.1
 What is the difference between idea-fluid and real-fluid?

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3.1 Description of the Boundary Layer

It was assumed that the shearing action was occurring in a fluid sandwiched between a
moving belt and a stationary solid surface. The fluid was thus bounded on two sides. It
may have occurred to the reader that such a situation is not common in Hydraulic
engineering. Some flow (e.g. the flow of air around a building) are bounded on one side
only, while others (e.g. the flow through a pipe are completely surrounded by a stationary
solid surface To develop the boundary layer concept, it is helpful to begin with a flow
bounded on one side only consider, therefore, a rectilinear flow passing over a stationary
flat plate which lies parallel to the flow as shown in (Fig 3.1):

Transition

Turbulent
Figure 2. 6 Development of a boundary layer
The incident flow (i.e. the flow just upstream of the plate) has a uniform velocity U∞. As
the flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid immediately adjacent to the
plate decelerates (due to viscous friction) and comes to rest. This follows from the
postulate that in viscous fluids a thin layer of fluid actually „adheres‟ to a solid surface.
There is then a considerable shearing action between the layer of fluid on the plate
surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is therefore forced to decelerate
(though it is not quite brought to rest) creating a shearing action with the third layer of
fluid, and so on. As the fluid passes further along the plate, the zone in which shearing
action occurs tends to spread further out words. This zone is known as a „boundary layer‟
outside the boundary layer the flow remains effectively free of shear, so the fluid here is
not subjected to viscosity- related forces. The fluid flow outside a boundary layer may
therefore be assumed to act like an ideal fluid.

3.2 Boundary layer equations

Activity:-3.1.2
 Why it is needed to quantify the boundary layer phenomena?

The boundary layer thickness, δ, is the distance in the y-direction from the solid
surface to the outer edge of the boundary layer. The usual convention is to assume
that the edge of the boundary layer occurs where:

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The displacement thickness, δ*, is the distance by which a streamline is displaced

due to the boundary layer. Consider the velocity distribution at a section in the
boundary layer (Fig 3.2). In side boundary layer, the velocity is everywhere less
than in the free stream. The discharge through this cross section is
correspondingly less than the discharge through the same cross-sectional area in
the free stream. This deficit in discharge can be quantified for unit width and an
equation may then be developed for δ*.
Deficit of discharge through an element
Defect through whole boundary layer section

Figure 2. 7 Velocity distribution in a boundary layer

In the free stream an equivalent discharge would pass through a layer of depth δ*, so

The momentum thickness, θ, is analogous to the displacement thickness. It may be

defined as the depth of a layer in the free stream, which would pass a momentum flux
equivalent to the deficit due to the boundary layer.
Mass flow through element
Deficit of momentum flux
Deficit through whole boundary layer section
In the free stream, an equivalent momentum flux would pass through a layer of depth, θ, and
unit width, so that

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The definition of kinetic energy thickness follows the same pattern, leading to the
equation:

The momentum integral equation is used to relate certain boundary layer parameters so
that numerical estimates may be made. Consider the longitudinal section through a
boundary layer (Fig 3.3), the section is bounded on it outer side by a streamline, BC, and
is l m wide. The discharge across CD is

U B C

o
A D

L
Figure 2. 8 Longitudinal section through a boundary layer
The momentum flux (= density x discharge x velocity):

As BC is a streamline, the discharge across AB must be the same are that across CD:

The incident velocity at AB is , so the momentum flux is:

Boundary layers are actually very thin, so it is reasonable to assume the velocities are in the X –
direction. The loss of momentum flux is due to the frictional shear force ( ) at the solid surface.
Therefore:

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The negative sign follows from the fact that the frictional resistance acts in the opposite sense to
the velocity. The equation may be rearranged to give:

The frictional shear at the solid surface is not a constant, but varies with X, due to the growth of
the boundary layer. The shear force may therefore be expressed as:

Where: - is the shear stress between the fluid and the solid surface. The momentum integral
equation is therefore:

Example 3.1.01:- The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given as:
= , in which = ( )
Compute the ratio of displacement thickness to boundary layer thickness ( ) and the momentum thickness
to boundary layer ( ).

Solution:-
 = = =
Therefore: - =
 θ= = =
Therefore:-

3.3 Boundary layer along a long thin plate and its characteristics

Consider a long thin plate held stationary in the direction parallel to the flow in a stream of
velocity are shown in Fig 3.4. The plate is said to be held at zero incidence to the velocity of
flow and the velocity of flow is known as „free stream velocity‟ or „ambient velocity‟ or
„potential velocity‟ .At the leading edge of the plate the thickness of the boundary layer is zero,
but on downstream, for the fluid in contact with the boundary the velocity of flow is reduced to
zero and at some distance δ from the boundary the velocity is nearly . Hence a velocity

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gradient is set up which develops shear resistance to the flow and retards the motion of the fluid.
Near the leading edge of the plate the fluid is retarded in thin layer. In other words, the boundary
layer near the leading edge is relatively thin. As this retarded layer of fluid moves downstream,
due to continued action of shear resistance more and more fluid is retarded. Thus the thickness of
the boundary layer δ goes on increasing in the downstream direction as shown in Fig 3.4

Activity:-3.1.3
 What are the factors which influence the thickness of the boundary layer formation along
a flat smooth plate?

Figure 2. 9 Boundary layer & velocity distribution at successive points along a flat
plate

As the boundary layer develops up to a certain portion of the plate from the leading edge the flow
in the boundary layer exhibits all the characteristics of laminar flow. This is so irrespective of
whether the flow of the incoming stream is laminar or turbulent. This is known as laminar
boundary layer. If the plate is sufficiently long, then beyond some distance from the leading edge
the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and the flow in the boundary layer exhibits the
characteristics between theses of laminar and turbulent flow. This region of the boundary layer is
usually small and is known are transition region.
After the transition region the flow in the boundary layer becomes turbulent. In this portion of the
boundary layer there is a rapid increase in its thickness and it is known as turbulent boundary
layer. If the plate is very smooth, even in the region of turbulent boundary layer, there is a very
thin layer just adjacent to the boundary in which the flow is laminar. This thin layer is commonly
known as laminar sub layer, and its thickness in represented by .
The velocity distribution in a laminar boundary layer is parabolic ; and for
turbulent boundary layer the velocity distribution has been found to follow approximately either
the one-seventh power law or it is logarithmic .For laminar sub layer the
velocity distribution is parabolic, but since its thickness is usually very small, a linear
distribution can be assumed.

The change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent mainly depend on the velocity of flow
U∞ of the approaching stream of fluid, the length X measured along the plate from the lending
edge, the mass density ρ of fluid and its dynamic viscosity μ. As such the Reynolds number R ex
(the suffix X indicating that it is calculated with the distance x are the characteristic
length) becomes a significant parameter in indicating the change of boundary layer from laminar

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to turbulent. The value of Rex at which the boundary layer may change from laminar to turbulent
varies from 3 x 105 to 6 x105.

Activity:-3.1.4
 Change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent is also affected by several other factors
rather than state in the above, state some of them?

3.4 Laminar boundary layer

For the laminar boundary layer prandtl assumed that (trinomial velocity distribution)

For an assumed distribution which satisfiers the boundary conditions u = 0, y =0 and u =

U∞, Y =  , the boundary – layer thickness as well as the shear at the boundary can be
determined. The velocity distribution is assumed to have the same for at each value of X,
,
When δ is unknown
The prandtl assumption satisfy the boundary condition shear stress equation can be
written

At the boundary

Then equate the two expressions for  0 yield

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And rearranging gives

Since  is a function of X only in this equation integrating gives:

If  =0 for x = 0, the constant of integration is zero Solving for leads to

In which, is a Reynolds number based on the distance x from the leading edge of
the plate.

Activity:-3.1.5
What do you understand from the above equation?

Substituting the value  in to:-

The shear stress varies inversely as the square root of x and directly as the three halves power of
the velocity. The drag on one side of the plate of unit width is

→Laminar boundary layer occur (NR) L < 5 x 105

And drag coefficient

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The drag can be expressed in terms of a drag coefficient CD Times the stagnation pressure
and the area of plate l (per unit breath)

3.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer

The momentum equation can be used to determine turbulent boundary- layer growth and
shear stress along a smooth plate in a manner analogous to the treatment of the laminar
boundary layer. The universal velocity- distribution law for smooth pipes provides the
best basis, but the calculations are involved. A simpler approach is used prandtl one-
seventh- power law .it is , in which y is measured from the wall of the pipe and
is the pipe radius. Applying it to flat plates produces

And

The method used to calculate the laminar boundary layer gives

By equating the expressions for shear stress, the differential equation for boundary layer thickness
 is obtained as

After integrating and then assuming that the boundary layer is turbulent over the whole length of
the plate so that the initial conditions x = 0,  = 0 can be used.

Solving for δ gives

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The thickness increases more rapidly in the turbulent boundary layer, in it the thickness increases
as, , but in the laminar boundary layer  varies as x1/2.
To determine the drag on a smooth flat plate  is eliminated in shear stress equation

And

Then

The drag per unit width on one side of the plate is

In terms of the drag coefficient:

Assumed a logarithmic velocity distribution for the flow in the boundary layer and obtained the
semi- empirical relation as noted below

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Example 3.1.02
A fluid of density 1000 and kinematic viscosity (v) 1* flow over a flat plate at a
free stream velocity of 10
Calculate the boundary layer thickness and shear stress at:-
a) 35mm from the leading edge.
b) 1500mm from the leading edge.

Solution:-
a) Re=
Note that Re is low enough to allow the laminar boundary layer, so:

, where

b)
Note that Re is high enough to allow the turbulent boundary layer, so:-

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3.6 Separation of boundary layer

On a long flat plate the boundary layer continues to grow in the downstream direction,
regardless of the length of the plate, when the pressure gradient remains zero, with the
pressure decreasing in the downstream direction, as in the conical reducing section the
boundary layer tends to be reducing in thickness.
For adverse pressure gradients, for that pressure increasing in the downstream direction,
the boundary layer thickness rapidly increases. The adverse gradient and the boundary
shear decrease the momentum in the boundary layer, and if both act over a sufficient
distance, they cause the boundary layer to come to rest. This phenomenon is called
separation of the boundary layer.

Figure 2. 10 Boundary layer separation along a flat plate

Activity:-3.1.6
At least write three methods of controlling flow separation?

3.7 Drag and lift on a sphere and cylinder

Take an airfoil immersed in a fluid moving with velocity V

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Figure 2. 11 Lift &Drag forces in airfoil immersed in water

F = f (A, μ, V, ρ, K)
K = Bulls modules of elasticity of the fluid

Analyzing the above equation then dimensional analyses established the following relation ship

Then, Drag force:-

Lift force

Where: - CD =Drag coefficient

CL =Lift coefficient
F is the resultant force

Where:-

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Example 3.1.03
Experiments have been conducted in a wind tunnel with a wind speed of on a flat plate of size 2m
long and 1m wide. The specific weight of air is the plate is kept at such an angle that the
coefficient of lift and drag are 0.75 and 0.15 respectively. Determine:-
a. Lift force
b. Drag force
c. Resultant force, and
d. Power exerted by the air stream on the plate
Solution:-

a. Lift:

b. Drag:

c. Resultant force:

Inclined at an angle of θ with the velocity of air such that:

d. Power exerted by the air stream is:

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On a sphere
At very low Reynolds number, there is no flow separation from a sphere, the wave is laminar and
the drag is predominantly friction drag. Stokes has shown analytically, for very low Reynolds
number flows where inertia forces may be neglected, that drag force on a sphere of dynamometer,
D, moving at speed, V, through a fluid of Viscosity,  is given by

And

Therefore,
On Cylinder
Two type of flow condition prevail when the fluid move around on stationary cylindrical
members
Rotating uniform flow around a cylinder
Irotating flow of constant Circulation around a cylinder.

(a)

Figure 2. 12 Circulation and lift in (b)

flow about a cylinder

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Where:-
R= Raider of cylinder
V = Uniform flow of fluid
V1 =Velocity at angle 
V2 = velocity when the circulation  is there around cylinder
Then:-

For stagnation points

The magnitude of the lift exerted on the cylinder due to the composite flow pattern may be determined by
integrating over the entire surface of the cylinder, the components of the pressure forces on elementary
surface areas normal to the direction of uniform flow. Applying Bernoulli‟s equation between any point in
the unaffected flow and any point on the surface of the cylinder, the pressure at any point on the cylinder
is obtained as

In which P0 is the pressure in the uniform flow at some distance a head of the cylinder by substituting the
value U from the above expediting

The lift acting on an elementary surface area of the cylinder is given by:

In which L is the length of the cylinder. The negative sign has been introduced because the pressure force
is always directed towards the surface, and hence for being positive its component is negative being
in the vertical down ward direction the total FL exerted on the cylinder is obtained by integration

Which is reduces to a simple relationship:-

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Example 3.1.04:- A cylinder 1.2m in diameter is rotated about its axis in air having a velocity of 128km per hour.
A lift of 5886N per meter length of the cylinder is developed on the body. Assuming ideal fluid theory, find the
rotational speed and the location of the stagnation points. Given
Solution:-
The lift on the cylinder is given as:

And
Thus by substitution, we have:

But:

Where: - angular velocity and N is the rotational speed of the cylinder in r.p.m (revolution per minute). Thus
we have

For the stagnation point, we have

Or

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Problems
1. Assuming that the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by:-

=
Calculate:-
a) Displacement thickness ( )
b) Momentum thickness (θ)
c) Kinetic energy thickness ( )
2. If at a certain section, free stream velocity was observed to be 10 and the
thickness of the boundary layer as 25mm then calculate the energy loss per unit length
due to the formation of the boundary layer. Take
3. A plate 25mm long and 1.25m wide is moving under water in the direction of its length.
The drag force on the two sides of the plate is estimated to be 8500N. calculate:
a) The velocity of the plate
b) The boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate, and
The distance at which the laminar boundary layer existing at the leading edge
transforms into turbulent boundary layer. Take for water: ρ= 1000 , v=1*
4. A smooth flat plate 3m wide and 30m long is towed through still water at 20oC at a
speed of 6 . Determine the total drag on the plate and the drag on the first 3m of
the plate. ( .
5. A submarine can be assumed to have cylindrical shape with round nose. Assume its
length to be 50m and diameter 5.0m, determine the total power required to overcome
boundary friction if it cruises at 8 velocity in sea water at ,
.
6. The vertical component of the landing speed of the parachute is 6 . Treat the
parachute as an open hemisphere (figure below) and determine its diameter if the total
weight to be carried is 1200N. take and

Figure 2. 13 Assumed shape of the parachute

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CHAPTER 4

FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Introduction

Pipes were introduced in the earliest days of the practice of hydraulics. Their common place use
today makes it of great importance that the laws governing the flow in them should be fully
understood.

Water is conveyed from its source, normally in pressure pipelines, to water treatment plants
where it enters the distribution system & finally arrives at the consumer. In addition oil, gas,
irrigation water, sewerage can be conveyed by pipeline system.

Some loss of energy is inevitable in the flow of any real fluid. In the case of flow in a horizontal
uniform pipeline, this is evidenced by the fall of pressure in the direction of flow. Predicting the
energy loss per unit length is essential to efficient pipeline design.

The prime concern in the analysis of real flows is to account for the effect of friction. The effect
of friction is to decrease the pressure, causing a pressure „losses compared to the ideal,
frictionless flow case. The loss will be divided into major losses (due to friction in fully
developed flow in constant area portions of the system) & minor losses (due to flow through
valves, elbow fittings & frictional effects in other non-constant –area portions of the system).

Figure 2. 14 Flow in the pipes (circular pipe)

P V2 P V2
z1  1  1  z2  2  2  hL ……………………………………….4.1
 2g  2g
hL = Head loss (major + minor)

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Activity 4.1: Define the term pipe flow?

4.1 Major Losses (Head loss in conduits of constant cross-section)

Referring to Figure 4.1 and for equilibrium in steady flow, the summation of forces acting on any fluid
element must be equal to zero, i.e.  F  0,
p1 A  p2 A  W sin    o ( pL)  0
( z1  z2 )
sin  
L
 o - average shear stress (average shear force per unit area) at the conduit wall, is defined by:
P
1
 o    o dP ……………..………………………… (4.2)
P0

 o - is the local shear stress1 acting over a small incremental portion dP of the wetted perimeter.

p1 A  p2 A  AL
z2  z1    PL  0
o
L
p1 p2 PL
  ( z2  z1 )   o 0
  A
p1 p2 PL
 z1   z2   o …………………………………… (4.3)
  A
Form the above equations (5.1) and (5.3)

PL  p1  p 
hL   o    z1    2  z2 
A     
L
hL   o ………………………………………… (4.4)
Rh
This equation is applicable to any shape of uniform cross-sections, regardless of whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. For smooth-walled conduits, where wall roughness may be neglected, it may be
assumed that the average shear stress  o is a function of , , & some characteristic linear
dimension, which will here be taken as hydraulic radius R. Thus:

 o = (, , , R)

The local shear stress varies from point to point around the perimeter of all conduits (irrespective of whether the wall is
smooth or rough), except for the case of a circular pipe flowing full where the shear stress at the wall is the same at all points of
the perimeter.

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By dimensional analysis:

 RhV 
 o   V 2     V 2 (Re) and let  (Re) = ½ Cf (dimensionless term)
  

V2
o  Cf  ………………………………………………. (4.5)
2

L V2
From equation (4.4): hL  C f ..…………………………….. (4.6)
Rh 2 g

(Applied for any shape of smooth walled conduits).

For circular conduits (pipe) flowing full, R= ¼ D, Therefore,

L V2 L V2
hL  C f 4  f ………………………………… (4.7)
D 2g D 2g

Where, f  4C f  8 Re  …………………………..…………… (4.8)

Equation (4.7) is applicable for both smooth-walled and rough walled conduits. It is known as
pipe –friction equation, and commonly referred to as the Darcy-Weisbach equation. Friction
factor, f, is dimensionless and is also some function of Reynolds number. The exact form of
 Re  and numerical values for Cf and f must be determined by experiments or other means.
For laminar flow (Recall chapter three)

v 64
f  64  ( for la min ar flow) ………………….. (4.9))
DV Re

 64  L V
2
Head loss: hf    * …………………………………… (4.10)
 Re  D 2 g

Experimental Investigation on friction losses in Turbulent flow

In fully developed turbulent flow, the pressure drop, p, due to friction in a horizontal constant area pipe

depends upon the diameter, D, the pipe length, L, the pipe roughness,, the average velocity, V , the fluid
density, ρ, and the fluid viscosity, .

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By dimensional analysis p   (V , D,  , ,  )

P   L  
   , , 
V 2
 vD D D 
hL L  
   Re, 
V g2
D  D

hL L  
 1  Re, 
V 2g D 
2
D

  
 f  1  Re,  ……………………………………… (4.11)
 D

 Blasius had concluded that there were two types of pipe friction in turbulent flow. The first is the
smooth pipes where the viscosity effects predominate so that the friction factor is dependent
solely on the Reynolds number (f= (Re). He deduced the following expression for the friction in
smooth pipes:

0.316
f  4
………………………………………… (4.12)
Re
The second type was relevant to rough pipes where the viscosity & roughness effects influence the flow
& the friction factor (f) is dependent both on the Reynolds number & a parameter of relative roughness
(/D).L.F Moody prepared a chart for determining friction factor for rough pipes experimentally by

plotting f versus Re curve for each value of . (See Moody Chart)
D
The moody chart, the various flows it represents, may be divided into four zones: the laminar flow zone;
a critical zone where values are uncertain because the flow might be either laminar or turbulent; a
transition zone. Where f is a function of both Reynolds number and relative pipe roughness; and a zone
of complete turbulence (fully rough pipe flow), where the value of f is independent of Reynolds number
and depends solely upon the relative roughness.

There is no sharp line of demarcation between the transition zone and the zone of complete turbulence.
The dashed line that separates the two zone was suggested by R. J. S. Pigott; the equation of this line is
Re= 3500 . On the other hand side of the equation of this line is corresponding to the curve and
( D)
not the grid.

The Colebrook has developed the formula:

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 
 0.809 ln  D   …………………………………… (4.13)
1 2.523
f 3.7 Re f 
 

A simplified form of this equation is provided with restriction placed on it:

 6  12 
1.325 10   10 
f    D  …………………………… (4.14)

2
 5.74  5000  Re  10 
n( 3.7 D  R 0.9 
8
 

(For Rough pipes)

 Head loss in pipes is given by:

L V2
hL  f (For all pipes rough, smooth, laminar, & turbulent)
D 2g

Activity 4.2: Define the term: Major energy losses in a pipe.

Example 4.1 : a water flow through a pipe of diameter 300 mm with a volume of 5 m/s.if the coefficient
of fraction given by f=0.015+ , where Re is the Reynolds number , find the head loss due to friction
for length of 10 m, take kinematic viscosity of water as 0.01 stokes.
Solution: Diameter of the pipe, D=300mm=0.3, V=5 m/s , l=10 m, viscosity of water ,v= 0.01
stokes=0.01*10-4 m2/s, (take , 1 stoke=1 cm2/s=10-4m2/s)
Head loss due to friction hf;
Coefficient of friction, f=0.015+ ,

But the Reynolds number, Re = = =1.58*106

Therefore, f=0.015+ =0.0161,

Therefore head loss due to friction, =

, hf= 2.735 m (Ans)

4.2 Minor losses in the pipes

Loss due to the local disturbances of the flow conduits such as changes in cross-section; bend, elbows,
valves, joints, etc are called minor losses. In case of a very long pipe, these losses may be insignificant in
comparison with the fluid friction in the length considered.

i. Loss of head at entrance

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A poorly designed inlet to a pipe can cause an appreciable head loss. Referring to Figure 5.2 it may be
seen that, a cross section with maximum velocity and minimum pressure at B. This minimum flow area is
known as the vena contracta.

Figure 2. 15 Condition at entrance

It is seen that the loss of energy at entrance is distributed along the length AC, a distance of several
diameters. The increased turbulence and vortex motion in this portion of the pipe cause the friction loss to
be much greater than in a corresponding length where the flow is normal, as it is shown by the drop of the
total-energy line. Of this total loss, a small portion hf would be due to the normal pipe friction (See figure
4.2). Hence, the difference between this and that total, or he' is the true value of the extra loss caused at
entrance.
The loss of head at entrance may be expressed as
2

h '
e k V
e …………………………………….. (4.15)
2g

Where V is the mean velocity in the pipe, and ke is the loss coefficient

Figure 2. 16 Entrance loss coefficients

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ii. Loss of head at submerged discharges: (leave of pipe), (hd‟)

When the fluid with a velocity V is discharged from the end of a pipe in to a large reservoir, (v = 0), the
entire kinetic energy of the coming flow is dissipated.

This may be shown by writing an energy equation between (a) and (b) in Figure4.4 Taking the datum
plane through (a) and recognizing that the pressure head of the fluid at (a) is y, its depth below the
surface, H a  y  0  V 2 2 g and H c  0  y  0 . Therefore,

V2
hd'  H a  H c  ……………………………….. (4.16)
2g

Figure 2. 17 Submerged discharge loss

iii. Loss due to contraction (hc)

a) Sudden contraction
There is a marked drop in pressure due to increase in velocity and to the loss of energy in turbulence. The
loss of head for sudden contraction may be represented by

V22
hc'  kC …………………………………. (4.17)
2g

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Figure 2. 18 Loss due to sudden contraction

Table 3 Loss coefficients for sudden contraction

D2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
D1
KC 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00

b) Gradual contraction

In order to reduces high losses, abrupt changes of cross section should be avoided. This is accomplished
by changing from one diameter to the other by means of a smoothly curved transition or by employing the
frustum of a cone. With a smoothly curved transition a loss coefficient kc as small as 0.05 is possible. For
conical reducers, a minimum kc of about 0.10 is obtained, with a total cone angle of 20-400. Smaller or
larger total cone angle results in higher values of kc.

A nozzle at the end of a pipe line is a special case of gradual contraction. The head loss through a nozzle
at the end of a pipeline is given by equation (4.17), where kc is the nozzle loss coefficient whose value
commonly ranges from 0.04 to 0.20 and vj is the jet velocity. The head loss through a nozzle cannot be
regarded as a minor loss because the jet velocity head is usually quite large.

iv. Loss due to Expansion (he)

a) Sudden Expansion

Both the figures in Figure 5.6, drawn to scale from test measurements for the same diameter
ratios and the same velocities, and show that the loss due to sudden expansion is greater than the
loss due to a corresponding contraction. This is so because of the inherent instability of flow in

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an expansion where the diverging paths of the flow tend to encourage the formation of eddies
within the flow. Moreover, separation of the flow from the wall of the conduit induces pockets of
eddying turbulence outside the flow region. In converging flow, there is a dampening effect on
eddy formation, and the conversion from pressure energy to kinetic energy is quite efficient.
After the flow enters expanded pipe, there is excessive turbulence and formation of eddies which
causes loss of energy. The loss due to sudden enlargement in a pipe line system can be calculated
with the application of energy and momentum equations by neglecting the small shear force
exerted on the walls of between sections 1 and 2 (figure4.6) for steady incompressible turbulent
flow.

Figure 2. 19 Loss due to sudden enlargement

Rate of momentum between section (1) & (2)


p1 A2  p2 A2  ( A2V22  A1V12 )
g
Energy relation between section (1) & (2)
p1 v12 p v2
  2  2  he
 2g  2g
p1  p2
Solving for in each equation and equating the results

v22  v2v1 v22  v12
  he
g 2g
And noting that from continuity equation A1V1 = A2V2 and that
A1V21 = (A1V1) V1 = (A2V2)V1

Substituting in the above equation

2 2
(V  V ) 2  D 2  V 2  D 2  V 2
 h  1 2  1  12  1   22  1 2 …………………………….. (4.18)
'
x
2g  D2  2 g  D1  2g

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b) Gradual Expansion

To minimize the loss accompanying a reduction in velocity a diffuser may be used. Diffuser is a curved
outline, or it may be a frustum of cone. In figure (4.7) the head loss will be some function of the angle of
divergence and also of the ratio of two areas, the length of the diffuser being determined by these two
variables.

Figure 2. 20 Loss due to gradual enlargement

In flow through a diffuser, the total loss may be considered as made up of two components. One is the
ordinary pipe-friction loss, which may be represented by
f V2
he   . dL .
D 2g
The total loss for gradual expansion pipe is the sum of these two losses, marked k ' . It has been seen that
the loss due to a sudden enlargement is very nearly represented by V1  V2  2 g . The loss due to a
2

gradual enlargement is expressed as

h k
' ' V1  V2 2 …………………………………….. (4.19).
2g
Where K‟ loss coefficient which is a function of cone angle

Table 4 Loss coefficient for gradual expansion

K‟ 0.4 0.6 0.95 1.1 1.18 1.09 1.0 1.0
 200 300 400 500 600 900 1200 180

v. Loss in pipe fittings

V2
The loss of head in pipe fittings is expressed as h f  k f where v is the velocity in a pipe of the
2g
nominal size of the fitting. Typical values are given below.

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Table 5 values of loss for pipe fittings

Fitting K
Globe valve, wide open 10
Angle valve, wide open 5
Close –return bend 2.2
T-through side outlet 1.8
Short-radius elbow 0.9
Medium radius elbow 0.75
Long radius elbow 0.60
Gate valve, wide open 0.19
Half open 2.06
Pump foot value 5.60
Standard branch flow 1.80

vi. Losses in bend & Elbow

In flow around a bend or elbow, because of centrifugal effects, there is an increase in pressure along the
outer wall and a decrease in pressure along the inner wall. Most of the loss of head in a sharp bend may
be eliminated by the use of a vaned elbow. The vane tends to impede the formation of the secondary flow
that would otherwise occur.

The head loss produced by a bend or elbow is:

V2
hb  k b . …………………………. (4.19)
2g

Kb - depends on the ratio of curvature r to pipe diameter D.

Figure 2. 21 secondary flows in bend

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Figure 2. 22 Vaned elbow

Activity 4.3: a) Define the term: Minor losses in a pipe.

b) Discuss on all types of losses that can be considered as minor losses.
c) Derive the formula for calculating loss of head due to :
i)Sudden enlargement , and
ii) Sudden contraction.

4.3 Pipeline system

4.3.1 Pipes in Series

When two pipes of different sizes or roughness are so connected that the fluid flows through one pipe&
then through the other, they are said to be connected in series. A typical series pipe problem, in which
head H may be wanted for a given discharge or the discharge wanted for a given H, is illustrated in figure
5.12 and the continuity equations establish the following two simple relations that must be satisfied.

Q  Q1  Q2  Q3  ...  Qn .
hL  hL1  hL 2  hL 3  ...

Figure 2. 23 Pipes connected in series

Applying the energy equation from A to B, including all losses, gives:

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2
PA VA p V2
 ZA   B  B  Z B  hi  h f 1  he' h f 2  hd '
 2g  2g
V2 L V V  V2
H  0  0  0  0  0  ki 1  f1 1 1  1
2
  2
L V V
 f2 2 2  2
2 2

2g D1 2 g 2g D2 2 g 2 g
V1 D1  V2 D2
2 2
From continutyequation. :
2 4 4
V2     f L2
2
 D1  D  
H  1 ki  f1 1  1   D1
L
     1  
D1   D2   2

2g  D2  D2   D2 

Example 4.2: three pipes of diameters 300, 200 and 400 mms and length of 450m, 255mm, and
315 m respectively are connected in series. And the difference in water surface levels in two
tanks is 18m. Determine the rate of flow of water if coefficients of friction are 0.0075, 0.0078
and 0.0072 respectively considering:
i. Minor losses also and
ii. Neglecting Minor losses

Solution: pipe 1: =450 m =300mm=0.3 m =0.0075

=255m =200mm=0.2 =0.0078
=315 mm =400 mm=0.4 =0.0072
i. Considering Minor losses: let V1, V2 and V3 be the velocity 1st, 2nd and 3rd pipes
respectively. From continuity consideration, we have

= =

= = * = * = *

and = = * = * = *

=0.5625
We know that hf = + + + + + +

18= + + + + +

18= +(0.5+45+2.53+201.4+2.847+7.176+0.316)

= 259.77 or

V1= =1.116 m/s

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4.3.2 Equivalent pipes

Series pipes can be solved by the method of equivalent lengths. Two pipe systems are said to be
equivalent when the same head loss produces the same discharge in both systems. From Equation (4.7)

2
L 8Q1 f 2 L 2 8Q 2 2
hf 1  f 1 51 for a second pipe hf2 = 5
D1  2 g D2  2 g

For two pipes to be equivalent,

hf1 = hf2, Q1 = Q2
f 1 L1 f L
 5
 2 52
D1 D2

5 ……………………………..(4.24)
f1  D2 
L 2  L1 
 D 
f2  1 

Activity 4.4: What is an equivalent pipe?

4.3.4 Pipes in Parallel

A combination of two or more pipes connected as in figure 5.13 so that the flow is divided among the
pipes and then is joined again, is a parallel – pipe system. In series pipe system the same fluid flows
through all the pipes and the head losses are cumulative, but in parallel pipe – system the head losses are
the same in each of the lines the discharge are cumulative.

Figure 2. 24 Parallel pipe system

P P 
hf1 = hf2 = hf3 = A  Z A   B  Z B 
   
Q = Q 1 + Q2 + Q3

Two types of problems occur:

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1) If the head loss b/n A & B is given, Q is determined.

2) If the total flow Q is given, then the head loss & distribution of flow are determined.

Size of pipes, properties, and roughness are assumed to be known. Since this type of problem is more
complex, as neither the head loss nor the discharge for any one pipe is known. The procedure is:
1) Assume discharge Q‟1 through pipe 1,
2) Solve for h‟f1, using assumed discharge,
3) Using h‟f1, find Q‟2 & Q‟3
4) With the three discharges for a common head loss, now assume that the given Q is split up among
the pipes in the same proportion as Q‟1, Q‟2 & Q‟3, Thus,
Q1 ' Q2' Q3'
Q1 = Q, Q2 Q, Q3  Q
 Q'  Q'  Q'
5) Check the correctness of these discharges by computing hf1, hf2, & hf3 for the computed Q1 , Q2
& Q3

→ Q –Q1 – Q2 – Q3 = 0

Activity4.5: what are the differences between pipes in series and pipes in parallel?

4.4 Branching pipes

Let us consider three pipes connected to three reservoirs as in fig. below & connected together or
branching at the common junction point J. We shall assume that all the pipes are sufficiently long that
minor losses & velocity heads may be neglected. The continuity & energy eqn. require that the flow
entering the junction equal the flow leaving it& that the pressure head at J (with open piezometer tube
water at elevation P) be common to all pipes.
There being no pumps, the elevation of p must lay b/n the surfaces of reservoirs A& C. If p is level with
the surface of reservoir B then water must flow in to B & Q1 = Q2 + Q3
If P is below the surface of reservoir B then the flow must be out of B & Q1 +Q2 = Q3

Figure 2. 25 Branching reservoirs

Therefore, for the situation of the above figure, we have the following governing conditions:

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1) Q1 = Q2 + Q3 or Q1 + Q2 = Q3
2) Elevation of p is common to all.
a. Length, diameter, & friction factors are required.
b. The flow is steady & minor losses neglected
c. Three basic equations to solve these problems are:-
i. Continuity equations
ii. Bernoulli‟s equation
iii. Darcy- Weisbech equation

 Total rate of in flow at junction = total rate of out flow (continuity equation)

 Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3

D1, L1, V1, Q1 hf1 D2, L2, V2, Q2, hf2 D3, L3, V3, Q3, hf3
Elevation, Z1, Reservoir, A Z2, Reservoir, B Z3, Reservoir. C
Junction of elevation

pj pj
Zj, pressure head = total head at junction = + Zj
 
 Applying Bernoulli‟s eqn b/n the junction point & each of reservoirs,
pj
If + Zj > Z2 & Z3


pj
Z1 = ( + Zj) + hf1 (*) (1)

-- - - - - - - -- -- -----------------

=>
pj
Z2 + hf2 = ( + Zj ) -------------------------- (**) (2)

pj
Z3 + hf3 = ( + Zj) --------------------------- (***) (3)

=> If the head of reservoir A is greater than head at junction, the flow is in to the junction from A &
out of the junction to B&C
=> Q1 = Q2 + Q3 -------------------------- * (4)
  
D12 V1 = D22 V2 + D32 V3 ------------- (5)
4 4 4
2 2
=> D1 V1 = D2 V2 + D32 V3 ----------------------
(6)
 There are three types of problem fouling of branching pipes :-

Case 1: Given all pipes data (L, D, f, Z1, Z2 & Q1), find Z3, Q2 & Q3?
2
L1 v1
=> Solution: first hf1 can be calculated directly (hf1 = f1 )
D1 2 g
pj
Then ( + Zj ) piezometric head at junction can be determine


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 From eqn ( 2 ) hf2 & Q2 can be determined

 Q3 can be detrained from eqn (4) continuity eqn
 Then from eqn (3) hf3 and finally Z3 can be determined

Case 2: Given a pipe data, the surface elevation of two reservoirs (A& C) and the flow the second pipe,
Q2, find Z2 and Q1, Q3?
 From eqn (1) & iii) (hf1 + hf3) = (Z1 - Z3) (hf1 + hf3) is known & (Q1 - Q3) or (Q3 – Q1) is known.
 Assume trail values of hf1 & hf3 & from these compute the discharge Q1 + Q3 & compare with
(Q1 - Q3)
 Repeat the procedure until the two values are equal.
 From then, piezometric head at junction can be determined
pj
 From hf2 & ( + Zj)  Z2 can be determined.

Case:3 Given a pipe lengths , diameters, and the elevation of all the three reservoirs , find Q1 Q2, Q3,

 In this case, the direction of the flow is not known clearly.

 Assume the elevation of B (Z2) is equal to the piezometric head (Zp) & (i.e. no flow into and out of pipe
2)
 From Zp the head losses hf1 & hf3 determined, and then Q1 & Q3 can be obtained
 If Q1 > Q3, then Zp must be increased to satisfy continuity eqn at J, causing water to flow into reservoir
B, and we will have Q1= Q2 + Q3
 If Q1<Q3, then Zp must be lowered, causing water to flow out of reservoir B, & we will have Q1 + Q2 =
Q3
Example 4.3: (flow through the branched pipes):the water level in the two reservoir A and B are 104.5m
and 100m respectively above the datum. A pipe joints each to a common points D, where a pressure is
98.1KN/m2 gauge and height is 83.5 m above the datum. Another pipe connects D to another tank C. what
will be the height of water level in C assuming the same value diameters of the pipes AD, BD and CD are
300 mm, 450 mm 600 mm respectively and their length are 240m, 270m, 300m respectively
Solution: for pipe AD: =300mm=0.3m, =240m
For pipe BD: =450 mm=0.45m = 270
For pipe CD : =600mm= 0.6 m = 300m
Friction coefficient for each pipe, f=0.0075
Pressure at D, = 93.1 KN/m2 height of water level in tank C: the
Pressure head at D= = =10 mm of water
Therefore the piezomertic head at D=83.5+10=93.5m
Head loss between A and D =104.5-93.5=11 m
Head loss between B and D = 100-93.5=6.5 m
Using Darcy weisbach formulae equation we get

For pipe AD: 11= =

Or =

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=3m/s

For pipe:BD: 6.5= =

= or

= 2.66m/s
From continuity terms, we get
+ =

Or = * * + * *

= * *3+ * *2.66=0.635m3/s

Therefore velocity of pipe CD, = = =2.24 m/s

Head loss in pipe CD= = =3.84 m

Therefore water level in tank C= 93.5-3.84=89.66 m (Ans)
Exercise
1) The following figure shows three reservoirs connected by pipes. Each pipe is 300 mm in diameter
and 1500 m long. Assuming coefficient of friction for f=0.01. Find the discharge in each pipe,

4.5 Pipe Networks

A group of interconnected pipes forming several loops or circuits as shown in fig 5.15 is called a network
of pipes. Such network of pipes is commonly used for municipal water distribution systems in cities. The
main problem in pipe network is to determine the distribution of flow through the various pipes of the
network such that all the conditions of flow are satisfied and all the circuits are then balanced.

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Figure 2. 26 Pipe network

The following conditions of basic relation of continuity and energy should be satisfied in network of
pipes:

1) The flow in to any junction must equal the flow out of it (continuity principle).
2) In any loop, the loss of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal to the loss of head
due to flow in anticlockwise direction. (∑hf = 0)
3) The Darcy-Weisbach eqn of pipe-friction laws must be satisfied, (i.e. proper relation b/n the head
loss and discharge must be maintained for each pipe). Minor losses may be neglected if the pipe
lengths are large. However, if the minor losses are large, they may be taken into account by
considering them in terms of the head loss due to friction in equivalent pipe lengths. According to
Darcy-Weisbach eqn the loss of head hf through any pipe discharging at the rate Q can be
expressed as:

h f  rQ n
Where r is proportionality factor, which can be determined for each pipe knowing the friction factors f,
the length L and the diameter D of the pipe.
fL fL
r  , and n is an exponent having a numerical value
2 g ( / 4) D
2 5
12.1D 5
ranging from 1.72 to 2.
The pipe network problems are in general complicated and can‟t be solved analytically. As such, methods
of successive approximations are used.
The Hardy-Cross Method is one of the commonly used methods that is used for solving flows in a pipe
network.

Steps:
1. Assume a most suitable distribution of flow that satisfies continuity equation at each junction.
2. With the assumed values of Q, compute the head losses for each pipe using h f  rQ equation.
n

3. Consider different loops and compute the net head loss around each circuit considering the head
loss in clockwise flows as positive and in anti-clockwise flows as negative. For a correct
distribution of flow, the net head loss around each loop should be equal to zero, so that the circuit
will be balanced. However, in most of the cases, for the assumed distribution of flow the head

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loss around the circuit will not be equal to zero. The assumed flows are then corrected by
introducing a correction Q for the flows, until the circuit is balanced. The value of the correction
Q to be applied to the assumed flows of the circuit may be obtained as follows:
For any pipe if Q0 is the assumed discharge and Q is the correct discharge, then,
Q = Q0 + Q
and the head loss for the pipe is
h f  rQ n  r (Qo  Q) n
Thus, for a complete circuit,
h f   rQ n   r (Qo  Q) n  0
By expanding the terms in the brackets by binomial theorem
 rQ n
  r[(Qo  nQo
n n 1
Q  .....]  0
For small Q compared with Q0, all the series after the second can be dropped. Therefore,
 rQ n
  rQo   rnQo
n n 1
Q  0

 rQ  Q rn Q
n 1 n 1
0 Q 0
For each loop, solve for Q in the networks as:
  rQ0 Q0   rQ0n   hf
n 1

Q   
 rn Q 0
n 1
 rn Q 0
n 1
 nhf
Q0
This is the correction to the assumed discharge (Q0).

4. Corrections are now applied to each pipe & to all loopy. For pipes common to two loops or
circuits, a correction from both the loops will be required to be applied. Clockwise direction is
considered as positive & anticlockwise as negative direction.
5. With the corrected flows in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made for all the loops and
process is repeated until the corrections Q become negligible.

Activity 4.7: what are the conditions that must be satisfied in pipe net work?

Examples
1. The following figure shows a network in which Q and hf refers to discharges and pressure drops
respectively .subscripts 1,2,3,4 and 5 designate respectively values in a pipe length AC,BC, CD, DA and
AC. Subscripts A, B, C and D designate discharge entering or leaving the junction points A, B, c and D
respectively.
By sticking to the valves given in the figure find the following discharges , , , and and
pressure drops , and give this computed value at their respective places on a net sketch of the net
work along with flow directions.
Solution: At junction, ∑Q=0

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That is Discharge entering the junction =discharge leaving the junction

At junction D: = +
100= 40+
=100-40=60
At junction A: = + +
60=20+30+
=60-20-30=10
At junction C: + + =
40+10+ = 30
=30-40-10=-20
At junction B: + =
30+20=
=50m3/s
For each elementary circuit, ∑ =0
Circuit A= B
+ - - =0
60-40- =0
=20
Circuit A=B
- +
+20-120=
Therefore =100 m
2) Find the discharge in each pipe of the net work shown in the figure (a) the value of the value of the
constant K corresponding to heading to the head loss equation =K are also shown in the figure.
Solution: for the first trial, the discharge as shown in figure (b) is assumed. The calculation for the
correction ∆Q and the correction discharge are given in the table below.
It may be noted that if the ∆Q is positive, it is to be added to the assumed flows. Thus a clock wise flow
will increase and a counter clock wise flow decrease in
magnitude.

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1. Trial for the first trial the values given in figure

Pipe K Assumed Hf=K ∑Hf ∑K ∑ ∆Q0= Correct

Circuit Q0-1 2K (6)/(8) ed Q
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
AB 5 +6.0 5* =+180.0 2*5*6.0=60.0 +4.77
(1) BC 3 +2.0 3* = 12.0 +128 2*3*2.0=12.0 104 -1.23 -0.34
CA 4 -4.0 -4* =-64.0 2*4*4=32 _5.23

BD 1 +1.0 1* =1.0 2*1.0*1.0=2.0 +2.11

(2) DC 2 -3.0 -2* =-18.0 -29.0 2*2*3.0=12.0 26.0 +1.11 -1.89
CB 3 -2.0 -3* =-12.0 2*3*2.0=26.0 +0.34

Corrected Discharge for AB=6.0-1.23=+4.77

Corrected Discharge for BC=2.0-1.23- (+1.11)=-0.34
Corrected Discharge for CA= -4.00-1.23=5.23

(b)
(a)

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Figure 2 (C)

2nd Trial for the second trial the values given in fig 2 © are assumed and the process is
repeated.
Pipe K Assumed Hf=K ∑Hf ∑K ∑ ∆Q0= Correct
Circuit Q0-1 2K (6)/(8) ed Q
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
AB 5 +4.77 5* =+113.76 2*5*4.77=47.7 +4.73
(1) BC 3 -0.34 3* = -12.0 +4 2*3*0.34=2.04 91.58 -0.04 -0.55
CA 4 -5.23 -4* =-109.41 2*4*5.23=41.84 -5.27

BD 1 +2.11 1* =4.45 2*1.0*2.11=4.22 +2.28

(2) DC 2 -1.89 -2* =-7.14 -2.34 2*2*1.89=7.56 1.82 +0.17 -1.72
CB 3 =0.34 -3* =-+0.34 2*3*0.34=2.04 +0.55

3rdTrial the values given in figure 2 (D)

Pipe K Assumed Hf=K ∑Hf ∑K ∑ ∆Q0= Correct
Circuit Q0-1 2K (6)/(8) ed Q
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
AB 5 +4.73 5* =+111.86 2*5*4.73=47.30 +4.71
(1) BC 3 -0.55 3* = -0.91 -0.14 2*3*0.55=3.30 91.76 -0.02 -0.56
CA 4 -5.27 -4* =-111.09 2*4*5.27=42.16 -5.29

BD 1 +2.28 1* =+5.20 2*1.0*2.11=4.56 +2.27

(2) DC 2 -1.72 -2* =-5.92 +0.1 2*2*1.89=6.88 14.74 +0.01 -1.73
CB 3 +0.55 -3* =-+0.91 9 2*3*0.34=3.30 +0.56

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5.0 HYDRAULIC MACHINES

5.1 Introduction
The function of a hydraulic machine is to affect an exchange of energy between a mechanical
and a fluid system. In civil engineering the only classes of hydraulic machine with which we are
directly concerned are pumps & turbines.
Pumps are a means of adding energy to water. They convert mechanical energy (imparted by
rotation) in to water (hydraulic) energy used in lifting water to higher elevations. The mechanical
energy is provided by an electric motor.
Turbines are a means of taking energy out of water. They convert water (hydraulic) energy in to
mechanical energy (shaft power). The shaft power developed is used in running an electric
generator directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine, thus producing electrical power.

5.2 Pump Types

There are two main categories of pumps:
 Positive displacement pumps
 Roto-dynamic pumps
Positive displacement pumps
Positive displacement pumps usually deliver only small discharges irrespective of the head
pumped against. Typical examples of this type of pumps include:
 Reciprocating pump
 Rotary pump
Reciprocating pump:- This type of pump is often used for domestic water supplies in
developing countries for lifting ground water. In its usual form it consists of a ram, piston, and
valve arrangement.
The piston moves up & down in a cylinder (see figure 6.1). When the lever is pushed downwards
the piston rises, lifting water above it through the outlet. At the same time it sucks water up the
well through the non-return valve & fills the cylinder. When the lever is raised the non-return
valve close & the piston descends allowing water to flow through another valve in to the upper
part of the cylinder. The process is then repeated.
Rotary pump: - Rotary pump contains two gears or rotors, which mesh together as they rotate
in opposite directions. Pressure is generated by the intermeshing gears, which operate with
minimum clearance. Water becomes trapped between the gears and forced in to the delivery
pipe.

Figure 2. 27 Figure 2. 28 Rotary pump

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This form of pump is eminently suited to handling small discharges (<30 l/s) and viscous liquids.
Roto-dynamic Pumps
Roto-dynamic pumps rely on rotational movement for their pumping action. A rotating element,
known as impeller, imparts velocity to a liquid and generates pressure. An outer fixed casing,
shaft, & diving motor complete the pump unit.
Roto-dynamic pumps are the most widely used types of pumps in civil Engineering. Its field of
employment ranges from public water supply, drainage, & irrigation to the very special
requirements of suction dredging & the transport of concrete or sludge.
There are three main categories of roto-dynamic pumps based on the way water flows through
them:
 Centrifugal (radial flow) pumps
 Axial flow pumps
 Mixed them pumps
Centrifugal pumps: - Centrifugal pumps are the most widely used of all the roto-dynamic
pumps. They are named because of the fact that the pressure head created is largely attributable
to centrifugal action. They may be designed to handle up to a head of 120m.
Water is drawn in to the pump from a source of supply through a short length of pipe called the
suction (see fig. 18). Water enters at the center or eye of the impeller, is picked up by the vanes,
and forced outwards in a radial direction. The water is collected by the pump casing & guided
towards the outlet called the delivery.

Figure 2. 29 centrifugal pump

In order that energy shall, not be wasted and efficiency there by lowered, it is essential to convert
as much as possible of the considerable velocity head at exit from the impeller in to useful
pressure head. Normally, this is achieved by shaping the outer casing in spiral form so that the
sectional area of flow around the periphery of the impeller is gradually expanded.
Axial flow pumps: - This type of pump is well suited to situations where a large discharge is
required to be delivered against a low head. The maximum operating head is between 9 and 12m.

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Axial flow pumps consist of a propeller housed inside a tube that acts as a discharge pipe. The
power unit turns the propeller by means of a long shaft running down the middle of the pipe &
this lifts the water up the pipe.

Figure 2. 30 Axial flow pump

Water enters axially and the impeller imparts a rotational component, the actual path followed by
a particle being that of a helix on a cylinder. Head is developed by the propelling action of the
vanes, centrifugal effects playing no part.
Mixed flow pumps:- Mixed flow pumps occupy an intermediate position between the
centrifugal & axial flow types and so combines the best features of both pump types.
Flow is part radial & part axial, the impeller being shaped accordingly. The path traced by a fluid
particle is that of a helix on a cone. The head range is up to about 25m.
Mixed flow pumps are efficient at pumping larger quantities of water than centrifugal pumps and
are more efficient at pumping to higher pressures than axial flow pumps.

5.3 Turbine types

The possible combination of head and discharge at hydroelectric sites is extremely varied and is
reflected in a corresponding diversity of turbine design. There are two main categories of
turbine:
 Impulse turbines
 Reaction turbines
Impulse turbines
An impulse turbine is one in which the pressure energy of the water is converted to velocity
energy before it impinges on a rotational element over a limited portion only of the periphery,
there being no subsequent change in pressure. Impulse machines today are of the Pelton wheel
turbines, also called tangential flow turbines, and are suitable for high heads in excess of 300 m.
A typical Pelton turbine arrangement is shown in fig 6.5. The nozzle discharges in to the
atmosphere a high velocity jet which impinges on a series of buckets mounted on the periphery
of a wheel, also called runner. The torque exerted by the impact and deviation of the jet causes
the wheel to rotate. Its energy usefully expended, water leaves the buckets at a relatively low
velocity and is directed towards the discharge channel.

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Figure 2. 31 pelton turbine

The turbine must be set a sufficient height above the maximum tail water level if free discharge
is to be ensured.
Reaction turbines
In a reaction turbine, the initial pressure-velocity conversion is only partial, so that water enters
the rotating element throughout the entire periphery and all the flow passages run full. Modern
reaction turbines are of two types: Francis & Propeller (Kaplan), catering for medium and low
heads respectively.
Francis turbines:- Francis turbines are like a centrifugal pump in reverse (see fig 21). The
runner was shaped like a centrifugal impeller, flow being predominantly radial with the radii at
entry and exits the same for all flow paths.
Water is directed in to the runner by means of a spiral casing and a number of aerofoil-shaped
blades, called guide blades, spaced evenly around the periphery. These guide blades are
adjustable, the amount of opening being controlled by the turbine governor. The role of the guide
blades is to guide the flow in to the runner with the minimum amount of turbulence, as well as to
regulate the discharge and hence power output.

Figure 2. 32 Francis turbine

The head range for Francis turbine is from 30 m to about 450 m. As this is the most common
head available, this type of turbine enjoys a great numerical superiority over other types.
The velocity head at discharge from the runner may amount to 20 %, or more, of the available
head and as with centrifugal pumps it is clearly important to convert as much as possible of this
otherwise wasted energy to useful pressure head. This can be accomplished by means of an
expanding passage, called a draft tube, which finally discharges the water at a relatively low
velocity to the tail water.
Kaplan turbines:- Kaplan turbines are like axial flow pumps in reverse (see fig 21). They
operate at low heads, usually less than 60 m, and high discharges.

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They have blades on their runners that can be twisted to different angles in order to work at high
efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions.

Figure 2. 33 kaplan turbine

5.4 Head on pumps and turbines

Head on pumps
The total head on a pump is the excess of the outlet head over the inlet head. Each of these heads
may be regarded as being composed of elevation head, pressure head, and velocity head.
Referring to fig 22, the total head on a pump may be expressed by:

Where, Hs & Hd are the static suction and delivery lifts respectively, and HLs & HLd are the
energy head losses (friction + minor) in suction and delivery branches, respectively. If the pump
is situated below the level of the water surface in the suction well, Hs is negative.

Figure 2. 34 Head on pump

Head on turbines
The net head on a turbine is the head available for doing work, that is to say, the difference
between the total head (elevation + pressure + velocity head) at inlet and outlet.
Referring to fig 23, the net head on a reaction turbine situated at some distance from the intake is
given by:

Where, HG is the gross head (intake surface level to tail water level) and H L is the energy head
loss in the supply pipeline.

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Figure 2. 35 Head on turbine

5.6 Specific Speed on pump and turbine

It is useful to have a common basis on which different types of pump or turbine design can be
compared in respective of size. The parameter known as specific speed has been introduced for
this purpose, and the respective definitions could be as follows:
The specific speed of a pump is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar pump of such a
size that it delivers 1 m3/s against 1 m head. It is expressed by:

The specific speed of a turbine is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar turbine of such
a size that it produces 1 kW under 1 m head. It is expressed by:

It can be noted that the specific speed is independent of the dimensions and therefore relates to
shape rather than size. Thus, all pumps or turbines of the same shape have the same specific
speed.
The valve of specific speed is mainly used for selection of a suitable type of pump or turbine for
a particular site. The following table gives guidelines on this purpose.

Table 6 Specific speeds for different types of pumps and turbines.

Machine type ns (rpm) Comments
High head – small discharge
Centrifugal 10 – 80
Medium head - medium
Mixed flow 70 – 180
Pumps

discharge
Axial flow 150 – 320
Low head – large discharge
High head – small discharge
Pelton 10 – 40
Turbines

Medium head - medium

Francis 35 – 400
discharge
Kaplan 300 – 1000
Low head – large discharge

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5.7 Performance on pump and turbine

Losses & efficiencies

Pump efficiencies are usually of the order of 80 %, whereas turbine efficiencies are rarely less
than 90 %, the difference being largely accounted for by the generally greater size of turbines
and the more efficient flow passages.
The energy losses that occur within a pump or turbine are attributable to volumetric, mechanical,
and hydraulic losses.
The volumetric loss ( :- arises from the slight leakage QL (from the high pressure side to the
low pressure side) in the small clearances that must be provided between the rotating element
and the casing.

The mechanical loss : - is a result of power loss due to mechanical friction at bearings and
fluid shear in the clearances.

The hydraulic loss :- arises from head loss in the flow passages due to friction and eddies.

5.8Characteristics of pump and turbine

Pump characteristics As the discharge is nearly the primary factor, it is customary for the
performance curves to consist of the three curves of head, power input, and efficiency, drawn to
common baseline of discharge.
Each design of pump has its own characteristic behavior. Fig 24 shows the performance curves
for the centrifugal and axial flow pumps. The curves are drawn for a particular operating speed.
Turbine characteristics As turbine output must be varied to suit the electrical demand it is
customary to design the machine so that optimum efficiency occurs at about three-quarters of full
load. Efficiency and power output are usually plotted against speed for a constant head.

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Figure 2.
36 Figure 2. 37 turbine characteristics

5.9 Cavitations
Capitation occurs in both pumps and turbines. The primary cause of capitation is a low pressure
and this usually be brought about by a high local velocity. Capitation is a harmful phenomenon
and influences the design of the machines. It also imposes severe limitations on the machine
setting, that is to say the permissible suction lift in the case of pumps and the height above the
tail water in the case of turbines.
With pumps, the most vulnerable points for attack are the impeller vane tips at discharge. It is a
result of high water velocities (low pressure) created near entry in to an impeller. Here, vapor
bubbles or cavities tend to form which are then carried forward by the flow to a region of higher
pressure near the exit where they collapse violently, causing pitting and severe damage to the
impeller blades.
Capitation also occurs in turbine runners in a similar manner. High velocities at the turbine inlet
produce cavities which then collapse close to the runner blades near the exit.
Apart from the physical damage caused by capitation, the reduction of the effective volume of
the flow passages due to the presence of water vapor results in a smaller discharge and a sharp
drop in efficiency. Additional evidence is the noise and vibration produced by the collapse of the
vapor bubbles.

Figure 2. 38 cavitation in a pump impeller

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PROBLEM ON HYDRAULICS II
1. What do you mean by most-economical section of an open channel? How is it
determined?
2. Define the term major losses and minor losses in pipe. Also drive Darcy weisbach
formula for calculating loss of head due to friction in a pipe.
3. Define dimensional analysis and model analysis.
4. Define dimensional homogeneity?
5. Define water hammer?
6. What is the role of pumps and turbines in energy conversion and when do we use this
device appropriately.
7. A trapezoidal channel has a width of 8m and a side slopes of 1H: 3V. The depth of flow
of water is 2.4m and the slope of the bed is 1 in 4000. Determine the discharge by the two
uniform flow formulas. Take C=60.
8. Reservoirs A, B and C have constant water levels of 150, 120 and 90 m respectively
above Datum and are connected by pipes to a single junction J at elevation 125 m. The
length (L), Diameter (D), friction factor ( f) and minor-loss coefficient (K) of each pipe
are given below.

Pipe L (m) D (m) f K

JA 1600 0.3 0.015 40
JB 1600 0.2 0.015 25
(a) Calculate the
JC 2400 0.25 0.025 50
flow in each pipe.
(b) Calculate the reading of a pressure gauge attached to the junction J.Ans (P=168Kpa)
9. By dimentional analysis, show that the power P developed by a hydraulic turbine is given
by:

10. In 1:30 model of a spillway, the velocity and discharge are 1.5m\s. and 2m3\s. Find the
corresponding velocity and discharge in the prototype.

11. The head loss in the pipe network shown below has the form hL=rQ2. For all pipe
segments, r=1. Estimate the flow in each pipe by Hardy cross method.
A B

E D C

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OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS

1.0 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND ITS CLASSIFICATIONS

Introduction:
The aim of the course open channel hydraulics is to present a review of the main principles of
hydraulics and to apply them in Hydraulic/Irrigation Engineering.
DESCRIPTION OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Open channel: is a conduit for flow, which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary, exposed to the
atmosphere.
The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow. Open channel is a
conduit for flow which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary exposed to the atmosphere. The two
kinds of flows, i.e. open channel and pipe flow, are similar in many ways but differ in one
important aspect. Open channel flow must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has none, since
the water must fill the whole conduit. A free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. Pipe flow
being confined in closed conduit, exerts no direct atmospheric pressure but hydraulic pressure. In
the case of the flowing fluid in open channel, the motion is usually caused by gravity effects and
the pressure distribution within the fluid is generally hydrostatic2.

Figure 3. 1 Comparision between pipe flow and open channel flow

Questions:
1. Where is the HGL in case of the open channel flow?
2. What is the influence of the change in cross–section of the pipe?
3. Is a half–filled pipe flow open channel flow or pipe flow?

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The two kinds of flows are compared in fig 1 shown on the left side is pipe flow. Two
piezometer tubes are installed on the pipe at section 1 and 2.
The water levels in the tubes are maintained by the pressure in the pipe at elevations represented
by the so–called hydraulic grade line.
The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is indicated in the corresponding
tube by the height (y) of the water column above the centerline of the pipe.
The total energy in the flow of the section with reference to a datum line is the sum of the
p V2
elevation z of the pipe center line, the peizometric height of and the velocity head , where
 2g
v is the mean velocity of flow. The energy is represented in the figure by what is called the
energy grade line or a simply energy line.
The loss of energy that result when water flow from section 1 to section 2 is represented by hf. A
similar diagram for open channel flow is shown on the right side of fig 1 For simplicity, it is
assumed that the flow is parallel and has a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of the
channel is small. In this case, the water surface is the hydraulic grade line, and the depth of the
water corresponds to the peizometric height.
Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve problems
of flow in open channels than in pressure pipes. Reasons:
- In open channels the position of the free surface is likely to change with respect to time
and space.
- Depth of flow (y), discharge (Q), and bottom slope (S) and slope of the free surface are
interdependent.
- Physical condition of open channels varies more widely than that of pipes,
- Cross section of open channel is widely variable and even might not be rigid, Selection of
fiction coefficient is difficult and it varied with the position of the free surface,
Some examples of open channel flow include
- Storm sewer (partially filled sewers),
- Flow in rivers,
- Flow in irrigation canals,
- Gutters along residential streets and etc.

Types of flows
Open channels flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The
following classification is made according to the change in flow depth with respect to time and
 dy dy 
space  ,  .
 dt dx 
Steady flow and unready flow: Time as the criterion
Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if it can be
assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a fixed point. In steady
flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) do not vary with time at the
spatial point in the flow. In steady flow streamline is also the path followed by an individual
water particle.
The flow is unsteady if the depth changes with time. In most open channel problems it is
necessary to study flow behavior only under steady conditions. If, however, the change in flow
condition with respect to time is of major concern.

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The flow should be treated as unsteady. In floods and surges, for instance, which are typical
examples of unsteady flow, the stage of flow changes instantaneously as the wave pass by, and
the time element becomes vitally important in design of control structures. In unsteady flow the
flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) vary with time at the spatial points in
the flow.
Examples of unsteady flow:
- Oscillatory sea waves,
- Dam breaks flood waves,
- Surges due to gate operation, Floods.
For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by
Q = VA
Where v is the mean velocity and A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the direction of the
flow, since the mean velocity is defined as the discharge divided by the cross-sectional area. In
most problems of steady flow the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel under
consideration; in other words the flow is continuous.
Q = V1 A1 = v2A2 = - - - -
This is the continuity equation for a continuous steady flow.
Where the discharge of a steady flow is non-uniform along the channel, that is, where water runs
in or out along the course of the flow. This type of flow is called spatially varied or
discontinuous flow. Spatially constant flow occurs when the density and average velocity are the
same in all points in a flow field. If these quantities change along or across the flow lines the
flow is spatially variable. Examples are side channel spillways, roadside gutters, and the flow in
uniform canal of constant slope receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main drainage channels
and feeding channels in irrigation systems).
Uniform flow and varied flow: space as the criterion
Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the
channel. A uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth
changes with time.
Steady uniform flow is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics. The
depth of flow does not change during the time interval under consideration. The establishment of
unsteady uniform flow would require that the water surface fluctuate from time to time while
remaining parallel to the channel bottom. Obviously, this is a practically impossible condition.
The term “uniform flow” is therefore, used here after only to steady uniform flow.
Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be
either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term “unsteady flow” is used
hereafter to designate unsteady varied flow exclusively.
Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly and gradually varied. The flow is rapidly
varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance; otherwise, it is
gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as a local phenomenon; examples are the
hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.
For clarity, the classification of open-channel flow is summarized as:

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Uniform flow

Steady Flow
Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Varied Flow
Rapidly Varied (non-
Flow
uniform) Flow
Unsteady uniform flow
(Quasi uniform flow)
Gradually varied
Unsteady Flow unsteady Flow

Unsteady Flow (i.e.

unsteady varied flow)
Rapidly varied unsteady
flow

Figure 3. 2 Classificastion of open channel flows

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1.1 Real and ideal flow

Real flow implies viscosity and frictional (viscous) effects. Ideal flow is hypothetical, ideal flow
assumes no friction, which means that the velocity is zero. There are no frictional effects
between moving fluid layers or between these layers and boundary walls; there is no energy
dissipation due to friction.

Incompressible and compressible flow

Incompressible flow assumes a constant density in time and space. Also liquids are slightly
compressible; it is assumed that they are incompressible. Compressible flows consider liquids
that undergo changes in their density due to changes in absolute pressure and/or temperature.

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1.2Dimensional Numbers and state of flow.

Forces that may act on a fluid element include those due to gravity Pg, pressure Pp, viscosity Pv,
and elasticity PE. if an element is at a liquid gas interface, there are forces due to surface tension
PT, If the summation of all forces on a fluid element does not add up to zero, the element will
accelerate according to Newton‟s law. Such an unbalanced force system can be transformed into
a balanced system by adding an inertial forced P1(=m.a), which is equal and opposite to the
resultant of the acting forces.
Thus, generally,
PG + Pp + PE + PT = Resultant = - PI
F = m *a = Pi
Thus: PG + Pp + Pv + PE + PT + PI = 0
These forces may be expressed in simplest terms as:σ

Gravity: PG  mg  gL3
Pressure: Pp  p  A  p  L2
Viscosity:  du  V 
Pv     A     L2   VL
 dy  L
Elasticity: PE  Ev A  Ev L2
Surface tension: PT  L
Inertia: L
PI  ma  L3 2
 L4 T  2
T
In many flow problems some of these forces are either not present or insignificant. The state or
behavior of open channel flow is governed basically by the effects of viscosity and gravity
relative to the inertia forces of the flow. The surface tension, forces due to pressure and
elasticity of water may affect the behavior of flow.
Effect of viscosity: Depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertia, the flow may be
laminar, turbulent, or transitional. The basis for this classification is a dimensionless parameter
known as the Reynolds number (Re), which is given by the ratio of these two forces:
Inertia P V 2 L2 VL VL
Re=  I   
Vis cos ity PV VL  
VL
Therefore, Re 

Where v = characteristic velocity of flow, often taken as the average velocity of flow,
L = characteristic length. In open channel thus, the characteristic length commonly used
is the hydraulic radius, which is the ratio of the flow area (A) to the wetted
A
perimeter (P), ( R  ) .
P
This dimensionless number Re is more interesting in pipe flow because in pipe flow the
significant forces are inertia and fluid friction due to viscosity. In a flow through a completely
filled pipe, gravity does not change the flow pattern.
The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are so strong relative to the inertial forces that viscosity
plays a significant part in determining flow behavior. In laminar flow, the water particles appear
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to move in definite smooth paths, or streamlines, and infinitesimally thin layers of fluid seem to
slide over adjacent layers.
The flow is turbulent if the viscous forces are weak relative to the inertial forces. In turbulent
flow the water particles move in irregular paths, which are neither smooth nor fixed but which in
the aggregate still represent the forward motion of the entire stream.
Between the laminar and turbulent status there is a mixed or transitional state.
An open channel flow is laminar if the Reynolds number Re is small and turbulent if Re is large.
Numerous experiments have shown that the flow in pipe changes from laminar to turbulent in the
range of Re between the critical value 2,000 and a value as high as 50,000. In this experiment the
diameter of the pipe was taken as the characteristic length in defining the Reynolds number.
When the hydraulic radius is taken as the characteristic length, the corresponding range is from
500 to 12,500 since the diameter of a pipe is four times its hydraulic radius.
A  ( D / 2) 2 D
R   
P D 4
For pipe flow
Flow R taken as characteristic length D taken as characteristic length
Laminar R<500 R< 2000
Transitional 500  R  12, 500 2000  R  50,000
Turbulent 12,500 < R 50,000 <R
The laminar, turbulent, and transitional states of open channel flow can be expressed by a
diagram that shows a relation between Reynolds number and the friction factor of the
Darcy.Weisbach formula. Such a diagram, generally known as the Stanton diagram, has been
developed for flow in pipes. For practical purposes, the transitional range of Re for open channel
flow may be assumed to be 500 to 2,000.
For open channel flow
Flow R taken as characteristic length
Laminar Re < 500
Transitional 500  Re  2000
Turbulent 2000 < Re

Effect of gravity: the effect of gravity upon the state of flow is represented by a ratio of inertial
forces to gravity forces.

PI L2V 2 V 2
Fr 
2
 
PV gL3 gL Fr2=

This ratio is given by the Froude Number, defined as:

V
Fr 
gL
Where, V is the mean velocity of flow in m/s, g is acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 and L is a
characteristic length in m. In open channel flow the characteristic length is made equal to the
hydraulic depth (D), which is defined as the cross-sectional area of the water normal to the
direction of flow in the channel divided by the width of the free surface. For rectangular channels
this is equal to the depth of the flow section.

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In some handbooks this number is written as Fr2 = V2/gL.

When Fr2 is equal to unity equation 1-4 gives:
V  gD
And the flow is said to be critical state. If Fr2 is less than unity, or V  gD , the flow is sub
critical. In this state the role played by gravity force is more pronounced; so the flow has low
velocity and is often described as tranquil and streaming.
If Fr2 is greater than unity, or V  gD , the flow is supercritical. In this state the inertia
forces become dominant; so the flow has high velocity and is usually described as rapid,
shooting, and torrential.
Systems involving gravity and inertia forces include the wave action by a ship, the flow in open
channels, the forces of a stream on a bridge pier, the flow over a spillway or a jet from an orifice
and other cases where gravity is the dominant force.

Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

Owing to the presence of free surface and to the friction along the channel wall, the velocities in
open channel are not uniformly distributed. The measured maximum velocity in ordinary
channels usually appear to occur below the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the depth,
the closer the banks the deeper the maximum.
As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocities over the channel section, the velocity head
of an open channel flow is generally greater than the value computed according to the expression
V2/2g, where V is the mean velocity. In practice usually average velocity across the flow is taken
and correction coefficients are applied. A correction coefficient called Coriolis coefficient
(energy coefficient)  is used in computations when energy principle is used, i.e. the velocity
head will be expressed as V2/2g. Experimental data indicate that the value of  varies from
1.03 to 1.36 for fairly straight prismatic channels. Non-uniform distribution of velocity also
affects computation of momentum (mv = QgV), where  is momentum coefficient or
Boussinesq coefficient generally 1.01 <<1.12 for straight prismatic channels. For channels of
regular cross section and fairly straight alignment the effect of non-uniform velocity on velocity
head and momentum is small especially in comparison with the uncertainty involved in the
computation. Therefore,  and  are assumed to be unity.

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Figure 3. 3 velocity and pressure distribution in open channel flows

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2.0 BASIC HYDRAULICS PRINCIPLES

2.1 Geometric Elements of Channel Section
Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that can be defined by the geometry of
the section and depth of flow.
Depth of flow(y) is the vertical distance of lowest point of channel section from the free surface.
Stage is the elevation of the free surface above a datum.
Top width (T) is the width of channel section of free surface.
Water area (A) is the cross-sectional area normal to the flow.
Wetted perimeter (P) is the length of intersection of water surface contact plane.
Hydraulic radius(R) it is the ratio of water area to wetted perimeter.
Hydraulic depth (D) it is the ratio of water area to top width.
Section factor (z) it is the product of water area and square root of Hydraulic depth.
Open channels can be natural (rivers, streams, estuaries) or artificial (canals, flumes, chutes,
culverts, drops, open-flow tunnels). The channel geometry can be prismatic (constant So and
constant A) or non-prismatic. The geometry is defined by its cross-section and water depth
(y).Some conventions for naming of canal geometric parameters are given underneath

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B
s

1 Y
m

B
Figure 0-1Geometry of an open channel

Water depth (y) : Vertical distance bottom to surface (measured on a vertical plane)
Section depth (d) : Normal distance from bottom to surface, depth perpendicular to the
bottom (measured on a plane perpendicular to the canal bottom)
Area (A) : area normal to flow direction
Wetted perimeter (P) : length of line of wetted intersection
Hydraulic radius (R) : R = A/P
Hydraulic depth (D) : D = A/BS = Area A/top width BS
Total energy (E) : E= z + y + αv2/2g (for small slopes θ with y = d)
Specific energy (ES) : ES energy in relation to lowest point in a section ES = y + αv2/2g
Velocity (V) : v = Q/A
Velocity head : αv2/2g = αQ2/2gA2
Froude number : Fr2 = αQ2BS/gA3
Friction Slope : Sf = Q2n2/A2R4/3 (Manning)
Friction Slope : Sf = Q2/C2A2R ( Chezy)

2.2 Main Principles

To any situation in hydraulics we can apply three principles:
A Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)
B Principle of conservation of energy (in case all energy “losses” are known)
C, momentum principle (in case all external forces are known)

2.3 Continuity Principle

In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:
 
Q  V1 A1  V2 A2
A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,

V = the mean velocity in sections 1 and 2
If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A = Q/V)
remains constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section.
This means for uniform flow a constant water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from
an exact balance between the force of gravity and the frictional resistance.

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Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more difficult. In
unsteady open channel flow the water surface will change over a certain distance
X  X 2  X 1 . and during a certain time t .
During t : Inflow-Outflow = Storage
Q t  y x BS
As the velocity and the discharge will change over a distance.
x : Q  Q2  Q1  Q / x  x.
The discharge Q will vary with time t and with the distance along the canal.
If y is the water depth and Bs the width at the water surface, then the increase of volume between
the sections 1 and 2 during time t : Q t  Vo1  y Bs x.
The two terms derived are equal in magnitude, but different in sign:
Q y
 BS 0
x t
This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.

2.4 Energy Principle

The energy equation and the momentum equation are used in addition to the continuity equation
in analyzing fluid-flow situations. They are both derived from Newton‟s second law of motion.
The equation may then be integrated for particular assumptions regarding the relation between
density and pressure to obtain the energy equation.

Figure 3. 4 a Force components on a fluid praticle in the direction of streamline

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In figure 2.a let S be a streamline in steady flow, and consider the forces acting on a fluid particle
in the direction S of the streamline. The element has a prismatic cross-sectional area A and
length s – a frictionless fluid is assumed in order to eliminate all shear in the fluid (i.e. ideal
flow is assumed instead of real flow). On the upstream end the element the force is PA, in
which P is the pressure intensity at the center of the face. The force on the downstream end of the
element is:-
 dP 
P  s  A , And acts in the negative direction. Any forces acting on the sides of the
 ds 
element are normal too the streamline do not enter the equation. The only other force acting is
due to gravity and is AS, acting vertically down ward. The component in the S-direction is: -
AS Cos. by substituting in to  FS  mas .
 dP  
PA   P   S  A  A  S cos  A S as
 ds  g
2 2
v v
Z1  y1   1  Z 2  y2   2  h f
2g 2g
This is Energy equation for parallel or gradually varied flow.
Consider now a prismatic channel. The line representing the elevation of the total head of flow is
the energy line.
The slope of the line is known as the energy gradient, denoted by Sf. The slope of the water
surface is denoted by Sw and the slope of the channel bottom by So = tan . In uniform flow, Sf=
Sw = So = tan .

Figure 3. 5 Energy in gradually varied open channel flowSpecific Energy and Critical
Depth

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The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit weight of water with respect to the channel
p
bottom. The piezometric head related to the bottom is  Z  y (with Z = 0)

This is the water depth. Therefore, the specific energy is the sum of the water-depth (y) and the
velocity head, if the streamlines are straight and parallel.
V2
ES  y  
2g
For a given section and constant discharge (Q), the specific energy is a function of water-depth
Q
only, since V  .
A
Q2
 Es  y 
2 g y 2 BS2
When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy for a given channel section and
discharge, a specific-energy curve is as shown below.

This curve has to limbs AC and BC. The limb AC approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically
towards the right. The limb BC approaches the line OD as it extends upward and to the right.
Line OD is a line that passes through the origin and has an angle of inclination equal to 45o. At
any point P on this curve, the ordinate represents the depth, and the abscissa represents the
specific energy. Which is equal to the sum of the pressure head y and the velocity head? V 2 2 g.

2.5 The critical state of Flow

The critical state of flow is defined as the state of flow at which the specific energy is a
minimum for a given discharge or it is the condition for which the Froude number (Fr2) is equal
to unity.

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V2 V
ES  y  For Q 
2g A

Q2
ES  y 
2g A2

Differentiating with respect to y and noting that Q is a constant.

d ES Q 2 dA
 1
dy g A 3 dy
dA
The differential water area dA near the free surface (figure 2-5) is equal to BS dy Now  BS .
dy

A
And the hydraulic depth D  . So the above equation becomes.
BS

dES Q 2 Bs Q2
 1  1 
dy gA3 gA2 D

Q
But V  . Substituting
A
dES V 2 A2 V2
 1  1  ES min imum
dy gA2 D gD
dE
At the critical state of flow the specific energy is a minimum, or  0 . The above equation,
dy
therefore, gives.
v2 D

2g 2
This is the criterion for critical flow, which states that at critical state of flow, the velocity head is
V
equal to half the hydraulic depth. The above equation may also be written  1,
gD

2.6 Momentum Principle

The momentum equation is developed from Newton‟s second low of motion by summing up the
resultant force on a free body of fluid on one side of the equation and by developing the other
side of the equation into an equivalent expression in terms of rates of in flow and outflow of
momentum.

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According to Newton's second law of motion the change of momentum (dmv) per unit time, is
equal to the resultant of all external forces acting on a body (body of water flow in a channel in
our case).
d (mv )
F 
dt
The momentum passing a section A per unit time (t = 1sec):
Mv= * (A. V) V

dt

v
A

Where, A*V represent the volume passing per unit time.

Mv = QV
Or including the momentum coefficient (Boussinesq coefficient)
Mv =  *  * Q * v
Q2
Mv =  *  *
A
Consider a channel section of mild slope and analyzes the forces acting.

F wsin

Ff F

W 
Thus, F =  (2v2 – 1v2) implies
F = F1 –F2 + w sin  - Ff =  (2 v2 - 1v1)
F1 and F2 are the resultant pressure forces acting on the two sections and w is the weight of the
water between the two sections. Ff is the total friction force acting along the surface of the body.
The slope is mild assume sin  So = 0
W sin  = 0
The force F1 is gAy+, where A is the cross- sectional area and of y+ the depth of the center of
gravity of the area A (the depth of centroid of the cross sectional area measured below the
surface of flow).For rectangular section of small slope

F = g by (½y) (y+ = ½ y)
(Remark for canals with large slope F = g bdcos ½ dcos = ½ g bd2 cos2)
Therefore, substituting
W sin  = o
F1 = g A1y1+

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F2 = gA2y2+
F1 – F2 + w sin - Ff =  (2v2 - 1v1)
 g A1y1+-g A2 y2+ - Ff = Q (2v2 - 1 v1)
  
 - Ff = g A2y2+ - g A1y1+Q2  2  1 
 A2 A1 
  Q 2    Q2 
 - Ff = g  A2 y 2     A1 y1  1 
 A2 g   gA1 
Ff   1Q 2    Q2 
   A1 y1     A2 y 2   2 
pq  gA1   gA2 
The term between brackets is called the momentum function (M) or in general:
Q2
M = A y+ + 
qA
Ff
= M1 – M 2
sq
For a given discharge Q, channel shape and coefficient  the function, M depends only on the
water depth y.
With = 0 and Ff = 0 the equation becomes:
Q2
M1  M 2 +
A1 y1 +  = A2 y2 + 
+ Q2 +
The momentum function M =y A +
 2
gA1 gA2 gA

  2 
consists of two terms. The second term   is the momentum of the flow passing through the
 gA 
channel section per unit time per unit weight of water, and the first term (Ay+) is the force per
unit weight of water. Since both terms are essentially force per unit weight of water, their sum
may be called the specific force.

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3.0 FLOW COMPUTATION FORMULAS

3.1Critical Flow
Critical flow is a flow at which the discharge is maximum.
- The flow regime is neither sub critical nor super critical
- The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge.
Characteristics of Critical flow
1. The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge,
2. The discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy,
3. The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge,
1 Q2
d ( Ay   )
dm 2 gA
 0
dy dy
4. The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope,
v2 

2g 2
5. The Froude number is equal to unity,
Q 2 Bs v 2
 1
g . A3 qD
If the critical state of flow exists throughout the entire length of the channel or over a reach of
the channel, the flow in the channel is critical flow. The slope of a channel that sustains a given
discharge at a uniform and critical depth is called the critical slope (Sc). A slope of the channel
less than the critical slope will cause a slower flow of sub critical state for the given discharge, as
will be shown later, and hence, is called a mild or sub critical slope. The slope greater than the
critical slope will result in a faster flow of supercritical state, and is called a steep or supercritical
slope.
The two major applications of critical flow theory are
- Flow control
- Flow measurement

The section factor for critical flow computation

Take the criterion for a critical state of flow
v2 D

2g 2
Substituting v = Q/A gives
Q2 D
2

2 gA 2
Q2 Q
  A2 D  A D
g g
But Z = A D is the section factor for critical flow computation

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Q Q
 Z  (When  is not assumed to be unity Z = )
g g

Q =Z g

3.2 Computation of critical flow

Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity (yc&vc)
when the discharge and the channel section are known. if critical depth and channel section are
known, the critical discharge can be determined from the relation.
g
Q  Z g or Q  .

Methods to compute critical flows are
1. Numerical method: using computer
2. Algebraic method: For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be
determined by an algebraic computation using the basic equations.
3. Method of design chart: the design chart for determining the critical depth can be used with
great expediency.
The slope of a channel that sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical depth is called the
critical slope (Sc).
A slope of the channel less than the critical slope will cause a slower flow of sub critical state for
the given discharge and hence, is called a mild or sub critical slope.
A slope greater than the critical slope will result in a faster flow of supercritical state, and is
called a steep or supercritical slope
Application of critical flow
 The establishment of explicit relationship (one to one
relationship) between the stage (water level) and the discharge of flow.
 Suitable for gauging station since it is always suitable site for
developing the discharge rating curve.
 At critical state of flow a definitive stage discharge relationship
can be established and represented by t he equation
g
Q  Z g or Q  . , This equation theoretically independent of the channel roughness

and other uncontrolled circumstances. Therefore, the critical flow section is a control section

3.3 Control section (flow control)

The control of flow in an open channel or at a structure means the establishment of explicit
relationship (one to one relationship) between the stage (water level) and the discharge of flow.
When the control of flow is achieved at a certain section of a channel or structure, this section is
called the control section.
Control sections occur at entrances and exits to channels and at changes in channels slopes,
under certain conditions. Example of a control section is for example a reservoir (pool) created
by a dam and the water flowing over the dam through an overflow spillway. Different flow
conditions might occur in the channel downstream of the spillway.

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Flow control structures like

 Fixed weir
 Orifice

3.4 Flow measurement

It was mentioned in the preceding article that, at a critical control section, the relationship
between the depth and the discharge is explicit, independent of channel roughness and other
uncontrollable circumstances such an explicit relationship between stage –discharge relationship
offers a theoretical basis for the measurement of discharge in open channels
Methods to measure the flow are
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 Continuous method
 Single or calibration method
Flow measurement structures like
 All weirs
 Flumes

3.5 Uniform Flow

Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics
1. The depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel are constant;
2. The energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; i.e. their slopes are all
equal Sf = Sw= So
3. Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is practically
nonexistent.

35.1 Establishment of uniform flow

When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters resistance as it flows downstream.
A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is balanced by the gravity forces, i.e., the head
loss due to turbulent flow is exactly balanced by the reduction in potential energy due to the
uniform decrease in the elevation of the channel..
The depth of uniform flow is called the normal depth.

3.5.2Computation of Uniform flow

For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be computed
approximately by one of a number of semi empirical uniform flow equations
 The two popular equations to compute uniform flow are
 Chezy equation Q = C AR1/2 S1/2
 Manning equation Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2
Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of energy line
(m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy‟s C.
The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is completely empirical in
nature. In application of the Manning equation, it is essential that the system of units being used
be identified and that the appropriate coefficient is used.
An equation for uniform flow rate
 Manning‟s Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2
 Chezy Q = C AR1/2 S1/2
In Manning equation the parameter 1/n AR 2/3 and in the Chezy equation the parameters CAR1/2
are called the conveyance of a channel section. It is measure of the carrying capacity of a
channel section; since it is directly proportional to Q.
Conveyance of a channel section increases within increase in hydraulic Radius R or with
decrease in the wetted perimeter.
K  R  1/P Q = 1/n AR2/3 S1/2
Q = 1/n K S1/2
Q
1/n AR2/3 = 1 / 2
S
Q
CAR1/2 = 1 / 2
S

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Factors affecting Manning’s (n)

- Surface roughness
- Vegetation
- X- sectional irregularity
- Irregular alignment of channel
The channel section having the least wetted perimeter for a given area has a maximum
conveyance; such a section is known as the best hydraulic section.
In Manning‟s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for uniform flow
computation. There is only one possible depth for maintaining uniform flow, provided that the
value of AR2/3 always increases with increase in depth, which is true in most cases. This depth is
the normal depth.
When n and S are known at a channel section, from the equation there can be only one discharge
for maintaining a uniform flow through the section, provided that AR2/3 always increases with
increase of depth. This discharge is the normal discharge.
In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q, the shape of
the channel, bottom slope and n are known and yn must be estimated.
In such cases, an explicit solution is not possible and problem must be solved by
 Trial and error (Algebraic method)
 Numerical method (using computer)
 Design chart (using graph)
Compound section
- Channel formed by elementary channels
- Assume the longitudinal slope for all sub section to be the same and have different mean
velocity depending up on the roughness and depth
- The over banks have large size roughness than the deeper main channel
- If the y<h the calculation of discharge is simple
- If flow is over flow to flood plain (y>h) discharge calculation is complicated as the
calculation may give a smaller R, for the whole stream & discharge is underestimated,
- Underestimation occurs for the range h<y<ym where Ym is the depth of flow to avoid
underestimation
- For y >ym the calculation of discharge for the whole section is adequate.
- For h<y<ym, the channel has to be divided into sub area and discharge is determined for
each subdivision.
Methods of discharge estimation
1. The discharge is calculated as sum of the partial discharge in sub area
2. By considering the whole section as one unit (portion ABCDEFGH) = Qw
 The larger of the two is adopted as the discharge at depth y.

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For calculating QP two approaches are

1. Posey’s method: - in this case the imaginary lines are considered as boundary for deeper
portion only.
2. Zero shear method: Ignore the imaginary section either in deeper or shallow section,
Design of unlined alluvial canals
For a uniform flow in a canal, Q = 1/n AR2/3S1/2
Some of the considerations to design canal are
Canal section
 Trapezoidal section is more appropriate
 Rectangular section also in use special situation ( lined , rock cut, steep chute)
 The slope are designed to withstand seepage forces under critical condition such as
i. Canal running full with banks saturated due to rainfall
ii. The sudden draw down of canal supply
iii. For lined canal the slope roughly corresponds to the angle of
response of natural soil. (Ranges from 1.0 to 1.5 rarely 2)
Longitudinal slope
 Fixed on the base of topography
 The velocity is also the constraint
Permissible velocity
 To minimize the cost of the canal highest velocity is recommended but it
should be safe.
 High velocity may cause scouring of the canal, therefore the highest
velocity allowed in the channel without causing scour or erosion of the
channel called permissible velocity
 Permissible velocity in the unlined canal is neither scouring nor silting.
 The range of permissible velocity0.3 ( for sandy soil) to 10m/s(steel lined)
 It‟s depend on the nature of the boundary
Free board
 The level above the full water level
 For the case of flood protection
 The amount of free board provided depends on the canal size, location,
velocity and depth of flow.

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4.0 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW (GVF)

In uniform flows the cross section through which water flow remains constant. Also the velocity
remains the same, in magnitude and direction. In varied flow the cross section changes in the
flow direction, the water depth changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow may be
either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term "unsteady flow” is used
for unsteady varied flow exclusively. Varied flow may be further classified as either rapidly or
gradually varied.
The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short distance;
otherwise, it is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as local phenomenon
examples are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.
 Gradually varied flow is a steady flow, whose depth varies gradually along the channel.
This means that 3 conditions are meet.
 The hydraulic flow characteristics remain constant in time;
 The streamlines are practically parallel meaning the hydrostatic pressure prevails,
 Bed friction is assumed to be equal to the friction in uniform flow (Manning,
chezy). Also, the uniform- flow formula may be used to evaluate the energy slope
of GVF at a given channel
The head loss at a section is the same as for a uniform flow having the same velocity and
hydraulic radius of the section.
Basic assumptions:
 The slope of the channel is small
 The velocity distribution of the channel is fixed
 The channel is prismatic
 The conveyance K and section factor Z are exponential function of the depth of flow
 The roughness coefficient is independent of the depth of flow

Therefore, when the depth of flow in an open channel flow varies with longitudinal distance, the
flow is termed as gradually varied. Such situations are found both upstream and downstream of
control sections. In this chapter the theory and analysis of gradually varied flow are considered.

4.1 GENERAL EQUATION FOR GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW

The main forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity, hydrostatic force due to
change in depth and friction. The first three forces represent the kinetic and potential energy,
while the forth dissipates useful energy into the useless kinetic energy of turbulence and
eventually into heat due to action of viscosity. The total energy of an elementary volume of
water is given as: The main forces involved in open channel flow
 Inertia,
 Gravity,
 Hydrostatic force due to change in depth and
 Frictional force.
V2
E = Z + Y +  Where: Z + Y is the potential energy head above a datum
2g
V2
 Is the kinetic energy head (v = mean velocity in the section).
2g

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Each term of the equation represents energy. The gradually varied flow equation is derived by
assuming that for gradually varied flow the change in energy with distance is equal to the friction
loss. For the general equation other losses than friction, like eddy, bend and/or bridge losses are
not included. Therefore, at any section, the total energy is
V2
E =Z+Y+
2g
Where y = dept of flow, Z = elevation of the channel bottom above a datum and assuming  = 1
and cos = 1 (slope channel is small sin So). Differentiating this equation with respect to the
longitudinal distance x yields:
 V2   v2 
d  Z  Y   d  
 2 g 
  
dE 2g dy dz
 
dx dx dx dx dx
dE
The term is the change of energy with longitudinal distance or the friction slope.
dx
dE
Define,   Sf
dx
It should be noted that the friction loss dE is always a negative quantity in the direction of flow
(unless outside energy is added)
dZ
The term is the change of elevation of the bottom of the channel with respect to distance or
dx
dZ
the bottom slope. Define,   So
dX
It should be noted that the slope is defined as the site of the slope angle and that it is assumed
positive if it descends in the direction of flow and negative if it ascends. But the change in the
bottom elevation dz is a negative quantity where the slope descends. Thus, the slope of the
 v2 
d  
dZ  2g 
channel bottom So = sin  = - For a given flow rate Q, the term becomes
dx dx
 v2 
d  
 2 g    Q 2 dA dy   Q T dy
2

dx qA3 dy dx qA3 dx
dy
= Fr 2
dx
 v2 
d  
   
dE 2g dy dz
Substituting, in  yields
dx dx dx dx
2 dy dy
 S f   Fr   So
dx dx
 So  Sf  dy
dx

1  Fr
2

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dy So  Sf
 
1  Fr
2
dx
This equation is called the general equation of gradually varied flow (also known as dynamic
equation of GVF). It describes the variation of the depth of flow in a channel of arbitrary shape
 dE 
as a function of So, Sf and Fr2. Sf represents the slope of the energy line   . For uniform flow
 dx 
the bed slope (So) and the friction slope (Sf) are parallel. The friction slope (Sf) for non-uniform,
gradually varied flow is not parallel to the bottom slope, but is evaluated using Manning‟s the
Chezy‟s (Colebrook–white) equation. There is no general explicit solution (although particular
solutions are available for prismatic channels). Numerical methods are normally used.
Note that
dE
  Sf
dx
dZ
  So
dx
dEs
 So  Sf
dx

4.2 Classification of Flow Profiles

Surface profiles for gradually varied flow conditions in wide rectangular channels are analyzed
dy So  Sr
by using the expression: 
dx 1  Fr 2
The term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface relative to the channel bottom. If dy/dx
is positive, the depth is increasing in downstream direction (x). When the channel bottom is
going down in the direction of flow, So is positive. Similarly Sf in downstream direction is
always positive; the energy is decreasing in downstream direction.
For uniform flow Sf = So, which means dy/dx is zero and the water surface parallel to the bottom.
For a given discharge Q, Sf and Fr2 are functions of depth (y) only, e.g.
n 2Q 2 P 4 / 3
Sr 
A10 / 3

Q 2 Bs
Fr 2 
gA3
Both parameters decrease with increasing A and hence increasing y; S f = So when y = yo
(uniform flow). Hence:
Sf > So When y < yo Fr2 > 1 when y < yc
Sr < So when y > yo Fr2 < 1 when y > yc

These inequalities are used to find the sign of dy/dx for any condition. For gradually varied flow
the surface profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of dy/dx is found for each region.
Surface water profile can be classified based on bed slope as:

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Type of slope Bed slope Depth symbol

Horizontal So = 0 Yn=∞ Type H
slope
Mild slope 0 < So < Sc Yn>Yc Type M
Critical slope So = Sc Yn=yc Type C
Steep slope So > Sc Yn<yc Type S
Adverse slope So < 0 It means the channel is Type A
(negative) rising in the direction of or N
flow
A or N means does not exist

Surface water profile can be classified based on range of depth as:

Region 1 y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 yn < y < yc
Region3 y < yn and y < yc
GENERALLY IN SHORT THE SURFACE PROFILE CAN BE SUMMERISED AS
ABOUT MILD (M) SLOPE
TYPE M1 =Y>Yn>Yc
TYPE M2 =Yn>Y>Yc For so<sc,
TYPE M3 =Yn>Yc>Y yn>yc
ABOUT STEEP SLOPE(S)
TYPE S1=Y>Yc>Yn
TYPE S2=Yc>Y>Yn
TYPE S3=YC>YN>Y Forso>sc,yc>yn

ABOUT CRITICAL SLOPE(C)

TYPE C1=Y>Yc and
Yc=Yn
TYPE C2=Yc=Y=YN for so=sc,
TYPE C3=Y<Yc and yn=yc
Yc=Yn

ABOUT HORIZONTAL SLOPE(H)

TYPE H1=does not exist
TYPE H2=Y>Yc For so=o,
TYPE H3=Yc>Y yn=∞

ABOUT ADVERSE SLOPE(A)

TYPE A1=N.A
TYPE A2=Yc<Y For so<0,
TYPE A3=Yc>Y yn=none

N.B If depth of flow (y) is greater than andYc the type of curve is called backwater curve.
If depth of flow (y) is less than Yn and Yc the type of curve is called backwater curve.

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If depth of flow (y) is between Yn and Yc the type of curve is called drawdown curve.

4.3 GVF Computations

The flow computation is needed to analyze problems such as
1. Determination of effect of a hydraulic structure on the channel
2. Inundation of load due to a dam structure or weir construction
3. Estimation of flood zone
Methods for computation
a. Direct integration
b. Numerical method
c. Graphical method

4.3.1 The direct step method (Direct integration)

The direct step method is a simple method applicable to prismatic channels. Depths of flow are
specified and the distances between successive depths are calculated. The equation may be used
to determine directly (with means explicit) the distance between given differences of depth y  .
The equation may be rewritten in finite difference form as:
1 Fr 2
Δx  * Δy
So  Sr
The equation can also be written as:
E s 2  E s1
Δx 
So  Sr
Es is the specific energy. In the computation Sf is calculated for the depths y1 and y2 and the
average is taken, which is denoted by Sfm.

Figure 3. 6 flow in open channel

The hydraulic elements are independent of the distance along the (prismatic) channel. An
approximate analysis can be achieved by dividing the channel in a number of successive, short
reaches. For each of the reaches the water depth at the beginning can be estimated.
Next the length of reaches can be calculated (step by step) from one end of the reach to the other
end. The Chezy or Manning formula is applied to average conditions in each reach to provide an
estimate of Sfm and So, with the depth and velocity at one end of the reach given, the length can

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be computed. Depths of flow are specified and the distances between successive depths are
calculated.
For the computations are needed:
 Discharge Q
 Depth of flow y
 Area A
 Hydraulic radius R
 Roughness coefficient n or C
 Coefficient of Coriolis
For the given data, the computations are carried out in tables.

Graphical Integration
This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a numerical procedure.
dy So  Sf

dx 1  Fr 2
dx 1  Fr 2

dy So  Sf
1 Fr 2
x y2

 dx  
o y1 So  Sf
dy

1  Fr 2
y2 2 y
dx
L  x 2  x1   dy  dy
y1 So  Sf y1 dy

Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2 and with corresponding depths of flow y1
and y2. The distance along the channel is X. If a graph of y against f(y) is plotted, then the area
under the curve is equivalent to X. The value of the function f(y) may be found by substitution of
A, P, So and Sf for various values of y and for a given Q. Hence, the distance X between the
given depths (y1 and y2) may be calculated (numerical integration) or measured (graphical
integration).this numerical/graphical method gives the distance from depth.
By this method the largest errors are found in the area with the strongest curvature. This is the
region near the control point(s). The accuracy can be improved by varying the steps x as a
function of the curvature. This method has broad application. It applies to flow in prismatic as
well as non-prismatic channels of any shape and slope. The procedure is straightforward and
easy to follow. It may become very laborious when applied to actual field problems.

4.3.2Standard step method

The standard step method is carried out step by step from station to station. The distance between
the stations is given, and the procedure is to determine the depth of flow at the stations.

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For the computation are needed:

1. Discharge Q
2. Length of the reach  ?
3. Area A as function of y
4. Hydraulic radius R as function of y
5. Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
6. Carioles coefficient 

The total heads at the two end sections are:

1. Prismatic Cannels
α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 2 1  Z2  E 2  2  E1  Sf * Δx
2g 2g
ΔEs  So  Sf  * Δx
2. Natural Channels

α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 2 1  Z2  E 2  2  E1  Δx
2g 2g
v2
ΔEs  h f  hc   S f * x  
2g
Z = stage, level of water surface above datum in m
Compare E2-2 and E2-1; if the difference is not within prescribed limits (e.g. 0.01m),
Re-estimate Z2 and repeat until agreement is reached. The computation of the flow profile by the
standard step method is arranged in tabular form.

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5.0 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW (RVF)

Rapidly varied flow (RVF is a flow that changes abruptly of flow profile (virtually broken)
pronounced curvature of streamlines.
Example: Hydraulic Jump
Hydraulic drop

5.1 characteristic feature of RVF

The following characteristic features of RVF should be noted.
- Pronounced curvature  hydrostatic pressure distribution cannot be assumed
Rapid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance.
Effect of boundary friction, which would play a primary role in a GVF, is
comparatively small and in most cases insignificant.
- In RVF the velocity-distribution coefficients  and  are much greater than unity and
cannot be accurately determined.
- Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid boundaries. (Because
profiles could be broken).

Approach to the problem

The theory that assumes Parallel flow, Hydrostatic distribution of pressure does not apply in
RVF computation.
For RVF of continuous flow profile a mathematical equation of flow can be established, based
on an in viscid and potential flow condition.
Approach to the solution of such equation include
Graphical method (e.g. flow-net analysis)
Numerical method (e.g. method of relaxation)
The physical concepts of the aspects of the flow will be interpreted qualitatively using energy
principle, momentum principle, geometry plus sometimes dimensional analysis.
Three isolated cases of RVF are discussed here.
- Flow over spillway
- Hydraulic jump
- Flow under gate

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Flow over spillways

Spillway: is a structure over or through a dam for discharging flood flows; overflow channel;
opening built into a dam or the side of a reservoir to release (to spill) excess floodwater.

SHARP-CRESTED WEIR (SCW) VS BROAD CRESTED WEIR (BCW)

5.2 BROAD CRESTED WEIR (BCW)

 Overflow structure with horizontal crest above which the deviation from a hydrostatic
pressure distribution because of centripetal acceleration may be neglected.
 Stream-lines are parallel and straight
 Criteria 0.5  H1/L0.07
- If 0.07 H1/L the energy loss above the crest cannot be neglected
- 0.5  H1/L so that he hydrostatic pressure distribution can be assumed
- Where L = length of the weir crest in the direction of flow, H1 total energy head
over the weir crest.

5.3 SHARP-CRESTED WEIR (SCW)

 Overflow structure (H1/L > 15)
 The crest length in the direction of the flow is short enough not to influence the H-Q
relationship of a weir
 In practice, 0.002m L so that even at a minimum head of 0.03m the nappe is completely
free from the weir body after passing the weir  no adhered nappe can occur
 An air pocket beneath the nape form from which a quantity of air is removed
continuously by the over falling jet.
 Therefore, Precaution is required not to ensure that the pressure in the air pocket is not
reduced. Otherwise resulting undesirable effects:
- Owing to the increase of the under pressure the curvature of the over falling jet
will increase, causing increase of the discharge coefficient
- Irregular supply of air to the pocket will cause vibration of the jet resulting an
unsteady flow
 SCW is the simplest form of overflow spillway
Motto:
- Spillways must discharge the peak flow under smallest possible head.
- Negative pressure on the crest must be limited to avoid danger of capitation on the
crest or vibration of the structure.
- Theoretically, there should be atmospheric pressure on the crest

5.3.1 Round-Crested overflow spillway

 Designed in conformity with the shape of the low surface of the flow nape over a
sharp-crested weir
 shape of the flow-nappe is interpreted by the principle of the projectile
Derivation of Nappe Profile over Sharp Crested Weir by the Principle of Projectile.

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- Let Vo = the velocity at pt-x = 0,  is angle of inclination of the velocity Vo with

the horizontal
- Horizontal velocity = Vo Cos  - constant and the only force acting on the nappe
is gravity.
 Horizontal distance traveled is time t
s
X = Vo t Cos , V =  S  vt (1)
t
 In same time t, the particle will travel a vertical distance y (taking y is positive downward)
1
y   Vo t Sin  gt 2 (2)
2
 Move the origin up so that it coincides with the peak.

1 2
 y   Vo ts in  gt  C '
2
 x 
 Eliminating t from 1 & 2, from 1 t   
 Vo Cos  
2
 x  1  x 
y   Vo   Sin  g    C '
 V0 Cos  2  Vo Cos  
 Dividing each term by the total head H above the crest
Y
  tan 
X

gH
 HX 2 
C'
H H 2Vo2 Cos 2 H
gH C'
 Let A = , B= - tan, & C 
2V02 Cos 2 H
2
Y X X
 A   B  C = General equation for the lower surface of the nappe in
H H H
dimension less term
 Since the horizontal velocity component is constant, the vertical thickness of the nappe T
may be assumed constant and
T
 Adding a term D  to the above equation the general equation for the upper surface of
H
the nappe is

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2
Y X X
 A   B CD
H H H
 These equations are quadratic hence, the nappe Surfaces are theoretically parabolic.
 Several experimental studies on the nappe over a sharp-crested weir have been made.
- Reputed works has been done by US Bureau of Reclamation; they developed the
following equations for the constants in the general nappe equations.
hv
A = - 0.425 + 0.25
H
2
hv  hv  hv
B = 0.411 - 1.603 - 1.568    0.892  0.127
H H H
hv
C = 0.150 – 0.45
H
D = 0.57 – 0.02 (10m)2 exp (10m)
Where:
hv = the velocity head of the approach flow
hv
m= - 0.208
H
 For high weirs, the velocity of approach is relatively small and can be ignored (hv  0)
A = 0.425
B = 0.055
C = 0.150
D = 0.559
 Experimental data have indicated that these equations are not valid When,
X hv
< 0.5 and that > 0.2
H H
i.e., Additional data for verification are required
X
For < 0.5, the pressure within the nappe in the Vicinity of the weir crest is > Pam because of
H
the convergence of the streamlines. Consequently, forces other than gravity are acting on the
nappe, which makes the principle of the projectile invalid.
N.B: The above theory and equations apply only if the approach flow is sub critical. For
Supercritical flow, or Fr < 1, the nappe profile becomes essentially a function of the Froude
number rather than a function of the boundary geometry as described above.
5.3.2 Discharge of Sharp Crested weir
 Discharge formula over sharp-crested weir can be expressed in the general form as:
Q  C L H 1.5
Where C = discharge Coefficient.
L = effective length of the weir crest
H = is the measured head above the crest; excluding velocity head
 Effective length may be computed as
L = L' - 0.1NH
Where L‟ = is the measured length of the crest

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N = number of contractions (Eg. piers for gates)

N = 2 for two end contractions
N = 1 for one end contraction
N = 0 for no contraction
 According to a well-known Rehbock formula
X
C = 3.27 + 0.40
h
Where h – is the height of weir.
H H
N.B - This equation holds up to = 5 but can be extended to = 10 with fair
h h
approximation.
- For > 15 the weir becomes a sill, and a critical section immediately upstream from the sill
controls the discharge. The critical depth of the section is approximately equal to H+h. By the
critical depth discharge relationship, it can be shown that the coefficient C is: -
1.5
 H
C = 5.68 1  
 h
H
 The transition between weir and sill (between = 10 & 15), however, has not yet been
h
clearly defined.
 Experiments have shown that the coefficient C remains approximately constant for sharp-
crested weir under varying heads if the nappe is aerated.

Weir: Low river dam used to raise the upstream water level, built across a stream to
control raise or diver) the flow of water. Measuring weirs are across a stream for
the purpose of measuring the flow.
Sill: horizontal overflow section of an irrigation check or measuring structure also used
for under water of structure across a river or canal.
Aeration of the Nappe
 In the preceding discussion the over falling nappe is considered aerated; i.e., The upper
and lower nappe surfaces are subject to full atmospheric pressure.
 In practice, usually insufficient aeration below the nappe occurs due to removal of air by
over falling jet.
 Effects of reduction of pressure
- Increase in pressure difference on the spillway itself
- Change in the shape of the nappe for which the spillway crest is designed
- Increase in discharge, sometimes accompanied by fluctuation or pulsation of the
nappe, which may be very objectionable if the weir or spillway is used for
measuring purposes.
- Unstable performance of the hydraulic model

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5.4 CREST SHAPE OF OVERFLOW SPILLWAYS

 Earliest shapes were based on a simple parabola designed to fit the trajectory of the falling
nappe (the equation for the lower surface of the nappe).
 Basin‟s made comprehensive laboratory investigation for nappe shapes. the used of Basin‟s
data in design will produce a crest shape that coincides with lower surface of as aerated
nappe over a sharp-crested weir.
 Such a profile is known as Basin profile Advantage
- Should cause no negative pressure on the crest (the presence of negative pressure
will lead to danger of cavitations damage).
- In selecting a suitable profile avoidance of negative pressure should be considered
an objective, along with such other factors as maximum hydraulic efficiency.
 Extensive experiments on the shape of the nappe over-sharp crested weir were conducted
by U. S Bureau of Reclamation; including Bain‟s, The Bureau has developed coordinates of
the nappe surface for various slope faced weirs.
 On the basis of the Bureau data, The U.S Army. Corps of Engineers has developed several
standard shapes at its Waterways Experimental Station (WES). Such shapes designed as the
WES standard spillway shapes, can be expressed by the following equation:-
n 1
X n  K Hd Y
Where
- X and Y are Coordinates of the crest profile with the origin at the highest point of
the crest.
- Hd is the design head excluding the velocity head of the approach flow
- K & n are parameters depending on the slope of the upstream face. values of k &
N are given as flows
Slope of upstream face k n
Vertical 2.000 1.850
3 pm 1 (V = H) 1.936 1.836
3 on 2 1.939 1.810
3 on 3 1.873 1.776

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For intermediate slopes: approximate value of k and n may be obtained by plotting the above
values against the corresponding slopes and interpolating from the plot the required values for
any given slope within the plotted range. The upstream face of the spillway crest may sometimes
be designed to set back, as shown in the figures.

Discharge of WES Spillway

 The discharge over a spillway can be computed by an equation in the form of SCW/BCW
Q = CLHe1.5
 He the total energy head on the crest, including the velocity head in the approach canal.
The effect of the approach velocity is negligible when height h of the spillway is greater than
1.33Hd (h > 1.33 Hd), where the design head exclude the approach velocity head. Under this
and the coefficient of discharge C has been found to be C = 2.21 (if is in ft C H e = 4.03)
condition, i.e. h/Hd > 1.33, He = Hd can be taken (the approach velocity head is negligible)

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PROBLEM ON OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS

1. What are the basic criteria to identify type of flow is open channel flow or pipe flow?
2. Write the difference between uniform flow and varied flow with an example.
3. What are the application of hydraulic jump and also the application of critical flow in open
channel?
4. Trapezoidal, rectangular, triangular and circular channel sections are said to be best hydraulic
sections, what does it mean and what are the parameters to determine best hydraulic section
5. In gradually varied flow of water surface profile how to determine the type of flow and the
flow system is backwater or drawdown
6. Why we need spillways for hydraulic structures like dams and what is the importance of
freeboard
7. Derive an equation showing critical discharge through a rectangular channel section in terms
of the channel width and the total heads.
8. Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3m, side slope 1.5, a longitudinal slope of
0.0016 and estimated n of 0.13, find the normal depth of flow for a discharge of 7.1m3/5.

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REFERENCES/LITERATURE

 Hydraulic Engineering systems,NHC Hwang & C.E Hita

 Fluid Mechanics V.L. Streeter, E.B Wylie & K.W. Bedford 1998
 Hydraulics in civil Engineering, A. Chadwich & J.Morfett
 Open channel hydraulics, Chow,V.T.

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