ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Lecture 9 - Phase-controlled AC-DC converters

Controlled AC-DC rectifier circuits with thyristors are

commonly used in applications requiring continuously
variable DC supplies from a few kilowatts to several
hundreds or thousands of kilowatts. The thyristor switch
may be viewed as a controlled diode which is turned on
by the gate current; a few milliamps will turn even the
largest device ON, when its anode to cathode voltage is
positive. Once the thyristor is fired or triggered ON, the
gate loses control and the anode current runs its course.
The thyristor turns OFF when the anode current falls to
zero or below a threshold close to zero, brought about AC
supply voltage reversal and the load parameters. The
thyristor, therefore, must be turned ON with the desired
firing angle  synchronously with each cycle of the AC
supply voltage. The gate firing control circuit is isolated
from the AC mains by means of a synchronizing
transformer. When turning on, the gate current must
persist until the anode current reaches a threshold called
the latching current. In some converter circuits, the firing
pulses for each thyristor are maintained for the intended
duration of conduction for the thyristor. The firing angle
, is normally defined to be the angle for which the
output DC voltage is maximum.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 1 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

vs T
vo
V m axsin  t iL
Vd Load

10V
v sync
+10V
 Firing
Control
Circuit
10V

Figure 9.1(a) Rectifier and phase controller for a half-

wave converter.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 2 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
The SCR (Thyristor)

 Vsat  1-2 volts –the most efficient power switch

 Triggered (fired) ON by gate pulses of a few mA.

After turn-on, the gate has no effect in current flow.

di dv
 Have and limitations
dt dt

 Turn-off time is much larger than trr of diodes.

 tq  2s-150s.

 VBD  12 kV, Ipk = 8 kA

Figure 9.2 Vertical cross section of a thyristor

Lecture 9 - Controlled 3 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
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Cathode Gate

Gate

Wafer
Wafer

Figure 9.3 Top view

A K

Figure 9.4 Thyristor symbol and analogy.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 4 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
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Figure 9.5 Static characteristic of a thyristor

diF
dt

tdon = delay time; tr = current rise time;

tps = plasma spreading time in m/sec; tps > tr;
diF
 limiting rate of current rise, A/sec.
dt
Figure 9.6 Thyristor voltage and current transients at turn-on.
Lecture 9 - Controlled 5 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

dvF
dt

Figure 9.7 Thyristor voltage and current transients at turn-

off.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 6 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
9.1 Single-phase half-wave AC – DC converter

Figure 9.8 Half-wave converter and waveforms.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 7 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
9.2 Single-phase controlled converter circuits
9.2.1 Fully-controlled, center-tap thyristor converter
T 1 iL
is1

v s1 R
vo
ip L
V m ax s in  t
vs

v s1

is2 T 2

Figure 9.9(a) Converter circuit

(b)

Lecture 9 - Controlled 8 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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(c)
Figure 9.9 Waveforms in the circuit of figure 9.9(a)

Assuming continuous conduction, the output DC voltage

is given by
1  
Vd 

 
V
max
sin(  t )d(  t ) (9.1)

2Vmax
 cos  (9.2)

The peak reverse voltage of the thyristors is 2Vmax, where
Vmax is the peak line to center-tap voltage.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 9 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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Vd

Figure 9.10 Vd vs  characteristic

Note that the fundamental input current waveform now

lags the input voltage waveform by , approximately.
Note also that the converter is capable of operating in two
quadrants: the first quadrant with positive output DC
voltage and current (rectifier operation with 0    90)
and the fourth quadrant with negative output voltage and
positive output current (inverter operation with 90   
180). Operation in the fourth quadrant implies energy
flow from the load side to the AC source, which is
possible only when the load includes a DC source, such as
an overhauling motor. In the absence of such a source,
i.e., with passive load only, the converter can not operate
continuously in the inversion mode. This means that if the
firing angle is increased beyond 90 and the load does not
have a DC source, the load current can not be maintained
continuous.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 10 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Vd

Q1

Id
Q4

Figure 9.11. Operating quadrants.

If the load is highly inductive, the load current can be

assumed to be smooth and ripple-free. The input current
waveform can then be treated as a square-wave, with flat
top and 180 conduction angle in each half cycle. Such a
waveform easily lends itself to Fourier analysis. The
output voltage waveform is also easily analyzed this way.
It should be expected that the output voltage ripple will be
maximum for  = 90, assuming continuous conduction
of load current.

Because of the single device voltage drop (1.5 V) in the

forward path, the center-tap converter is energy efficient.
Each secondary winding, however, caries unidirectional
current, and each half of the secondary is unused for half
of the input AC cycle.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 11 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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9.2.2 Single-phase, fully-controlled bridge rectifier (p = 2)

vs = +
Vmaxsint T1 T3
ip iL
Vd vo

T4 T2


Figure 9.12(a) Single-phase fully-controlled bridge

converter

Figure 9.12(b) Waveforms for α = 45°

Lecture 9 - Controlled 12 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Figure 9.12(c) Waveforms in the converter of figure

9.12(a) for α = 145°.

Assuming continuous conduction, the dc output voltage is

given by

1  


Vd  Vmax sin  td(  t )


2Vmax
 cos  (9.3)

where Vmax is peak of the input line-line voltage. Note that
for the same dc output voltage, the input AC voltage is
now half that of the CT rectifier. This converter operates
in quadrants one and four, the latter mode for inversion.
Note that there are now two device drops (about 3V)
between the transformer and the load. Note also that the
transformer secondary current is bi-directional and its

Lecture 9 - Controlled 13 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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phase angle with respect to the ac supply voltage to the
converter is roughly given by the firing angle .

With continuous conduction, each thyristor conducts for

180 in each cycle.
Vd VS  characteristic

Vd

Firing angle, 

Figure 9.13 Voltage regulation characteristic of the

converter of figure 9.4(a)
This 2-pulse converter operates in two quadrants, Q1 and
Q4.
Vd
Q1

Q4 Id

Figure 9.14. Operating quadrants of fully-controlled,

single-phase bridge converter.
Lecture 9 - Controlled 14 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
Analysis of load voltage and input current waveforms
For continuous conduction of smooth, ripple-free load
current, the waveforms of the output voltage and the input
current are completely specified by the firing angles,
supply voltage and the load resistance. For the converters
of 9.2.1 and 9.2.2, the output voltage waveform
(assuming continuous conduction) can be expressed as:

Figure 9.15 Voltage waveform (a)  = 30 and (b)  =

90
The ripple voltages in the output are obtained by Fourier
analysis of the output voltage waveforms as indicated
above. For any firing angle , the Fourier coefficients
(amplitudes) for the ac ripple components are given by

Vmax  cos  n  1  cos  n  1  

an     (9.4)
2  n1 n1 

Lecture 9 - Controlled 15 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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Vmax  sin  n  1  sin  n  1  

bn     (9.5)
2  n1 n1 

vn  an2  bn2 (9.7)

for n = 2, 4, 6, ……..

The output voltage ripples are the highest for the firing
angle of  = 90 for which the dc output voltage is zero.
In general, the output voltage ripple magnitudes increase
as the firing angle is increased from 0 (or reduced from
180) towards 90.
O u tp u t rip p les of a 1p has e fu lly con tro lled re ct.
1

N=2
0.8

0.6

0.4 N=4

N=6
0.2
N=8

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Firin g an gle in d egree

Figure 9.16. Output voltage harmonics vs firing angle.

For smooth and ripple free load current, the converter

input current waveform is an approximate square
waveform. Its angular displacement from the ac supply
voltage is largely determined by the firing angle α. The
Lecture 9 - Controlled 16 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
harmonic content of such a waveform can be found as
described below.
Vd Vn
Io  ; In 
R  R 2   n L 2  (9.8)
 

It should be noted that the when the converter output

voltage is reduced by phase angle control, it is
accompanied invariably by higher output voltage ripple
and increased input displacement angle (i.e., low input
displacement factor).

Figure 9.17 Input current waveform and its harmonic

spectrum.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 17 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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9.2.4 Single-phase, half-controlled bridge converter
In a single-phase, half-controlled bridge converter, two of
the bridge arm thyristors are diodes. A third, free-
wheeling, diode is normally used to prevent the load
current from circulating through two devices in a bridge
arm. Note that the output voltage for this converter can
not become negative, because whenever it tends to do so,
(at , 3 and so on) the load current commutates to the
freewheeling diode and the output voltage becomes zero.
The input AC source is then relieved from supplying the
lagging component of the load current. The absence of
this lagging component of the source current implies that
this converter operates with a higher power factor than the
fully controlled converter.
Assuming continuous conduction of load current, the DC
output voltage of the converter is given by

1 


Vd  Vmax sin  t d(  t )


Vmax
  1  cos   (9.9)


Lecture 9 - Controlled 18 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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vo
ip Vmaxsint T1 T3 iL
Vd
Df

D4 D2

Figure 9.18(a) Single-phase, half-controlled converter

circuit

Vs

iL

Vo

iT 1

iD f

ip

0  2 3

(b)  = 45

Lecture 9 - Controlled 19 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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V s

iL

V o

iT 1

iD f

is

(c)  = 145
Figure 9.18 Waveforms in the converter of figure of
figure 9.18(a) for  = 45 and 145.

Vd VS  characteristic

Vd

Firing angle, 

Figure 9.19. Vd versus firing angle characteristic of the half-

controlled converter (assuming continuous conduction).

Lecture 9 - Controlled 20 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
A close look at the output voltage and input current
waveforms should indicate that this 2-pulse converter
operates only in quadrant 1 and that its output voltage
ripple magnitudes and the input displacement angles are
lower than the fully controlled converter. In other words,
when operation in quadrant 4 is not required, a half-
controlled converter should be chosen to reduce the cost
of the converter and to obtain better harmonic
performance.

Vd
Q1

Id
Figure 9.20. Operating quadrants of single-phase H-C
converter.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 21 F. Rahman

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9.3.3 Three-phase thyristor ac-dc converters
9.3.1 Center-tap thyristor converter (p = 3)

As for the CT diode rectifier, the load is connected

between the converter positive terminal (cathodes of all
thyristors) and the supply neutral.
c T3
vcn
van a T1
n
iL

vbn b T2 R
vo
L

Figure 9.21(a) Three-phase, fully-controlled, centre-tap

converter.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 22 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Figure 9.21 Waveforms in the converter of figure 9.21(a)

Note that the firing angle  is now defined to be zero

from the zero crossings of the input voltages. [A firing
angle of zero degree produces the maximum output DC
voltage for all AC-DC converter circuits].
5  
1 3 3Vmax

6
Vd  
Vmax sin td( t )  cos  (9.10)
2 / 3  2
6

where Vmax is the peak of the supply line-neutral voltage.

Note also that the maximum voltage a thyristor may block
(i.e., its PRV) is Vmaxl  l . Assuming that current conduction
is continuous, each thyristor carries current for 120,
followed by 240 of non-conduction. The converter
output can be varied between +Vdmax to Vdmax where
3 3 Vmax
Vd max  .
2
Lecture 9 - Controlled 23 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Vd

Firing angle, 
Figure 9.22 Vd vs α characteristic of the 3-phase CT
converter.

Vd
Q1

Q4 Id

Figure 9.23 Operating quadrants of the 3-phase CT

converter.

by varying the firing angle  in the range of 180. For 

> 90, the output dc voltage is negative, whilst the load
current is positive and continuous. This implies operation
of the converter in the fourth quadrant of the Vd-Id plane,
where the converter operates in the inversion mode. This
mode of operation is only possible when the load has an
active source, which is able to supply power to the AC
Lecture 9 - Controlled 24 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
supply through the converter, steadily. This mode of
operation is called regenerative conversion. For example,
a battery or an overhauling DC motor can supply its
stored energy to the AC mains using such a converter. In
the case of the overhauling motor, controlled braking is
thus possible.
Note that
I Id
I Tdc  d
3 and I Trms  3
where Id is the level of smooth, ripple-free load current.

Note also that the transformer winding carries dc currents,

and therefore its core suffers from DC magnetisation.

9.3.2 CT converters with higher pulse numbers

In a fashion similar to the diode rectifiers, two three-
phase, CT converters can be supplied from two sets of
transformer secondaries and connected through an inter-
phase reactor across, as shown in the figure below for a 6-
pulse converter. The two converter groups conduct
independently and share the load current. Each thyristor
carries half the load dc current and conducts for 120.
Note that as the firing angle a increases, the voltage
supported across the inter-phase reactor also increases.
For  = 90, the voltage across the reactor is roughly
rectangular with a peak value of Vmax (the worst case), and

Lecture 9 - Controlled 25 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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period of 120. The inter-phase reactor core should be
chosen for this condition of operation.

v'an van ia Id/2

n
iR vRY
i'a Interphase
R
v'bn vbn ib reactor
iY vYB
Y
i'b
iB Id
B v'cn vcn ic
vBR i'c Vd

Id/2

V'bn Vcn
VYB VBR V'an
Van
VRY
V'cn Vbn

Figure 9.24 Six-pulse, hexa-phase converter with inter-

phase reactor

Converters with pulse number higher than six (such as 12,

24, etc) can be made with modular 3-phase converter
groups with inter-phase reactors in a similar way.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 26 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

α = 45
Figure 9.24(b) AC input voltages, vo and inter-phase
reactor voltage waveforms

α = 90
Figure 9.24(c) AC input voltages, vo and inter-phase reactor
voltage waveforms.
Lecture 9 - Controlled 27 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
9.3.3 Three-phase, fully controlled bridge converters
In this circuit, the thyristor connected with the positive
DC rail, which has the most positive voltage at its anode,
conducts when triggered. Of the thyristors connected with
the negative DC rail, the thyristor with the most negative
voltage at its cathode returns the load current, if triggered.
Note the numbering of the thyristors and the sequential
triggering of the thyristors. Commutation of the load
current from one thyristor to the next occurs at the firing
instant, when the incoming thyristor reverse biases the
previously conducting thyristor. Having established the
conduction times of the thyristors, the output DC voltage
waveform is determined by the difference of potentials of
the positive and negative rails. Note that for continuous
conduction, the potentials of each rail are known at all
times from the firing angles and the input AC voltages,
regardless of the load.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 28 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
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+VD/2 vo
van
ia T1 T3 T5 iL
vbn ib R
Vd
ic L
n vcn
T4 T6 T2

VD/2
Figure 9.25(a) Three-phase, fully controlled bridge
converter circuit

Figure 9.25(b) Waveforms in the converter circuit of

figure 9.25(a) for α = 45.
Lecture 9 - Controlled 29 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Figure 9.25(c) Waveforms in the converter circuit of

figure 9.25(a) for α = 145

Assuming continuous conduction,

2

1
Vd 
 /3 

3
3

Vmax l l sin  td(  t )

3Vmax l l (9.11)
 cos 


Lecture 9 - Controlled 30 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
This converter operates in quadrants 1 and 4, developing
both positive and negative polarity dc output voltage. For
o o
firing angles 0    90 , the converter operates in
quadrant 1 (giving positive output power, i.e., rectifier
operation) and for 90o    180o , the operation is in
quadrant 4 (giving negative output power, i.e., inverter
operation). Operation in quadrant 4 is of course possible
only when the load includes an active DC source, able to
supply power into the AC supply circuit steadily.

Vd vs  characteristic

Vd
Q1
Vd
Q4 Id

Firing angle, 

Figure 9.26 Vd-α characteristic and quadrants of operation

of the 3-phase, fully-controlled converter.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 31 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
9.3.4 Three-phase, half-controlled bridge converter (p = 6)

For this converter, the commutation of the load current

among the thyristors connected with the positive DC
voltage rail takes place at the firing instant. The diodes
connected with negative DC rail commutates at the zero
crossing of the phase voltages. The freewheeling diode Df
prevents circulation of the load current through two
devices in the same leg of the converter. The freewheeling
diode offers an alternate path for the load current to flow,
thus relieving the AC source to supply the load current
when the output voltage attempts to become negative.
Assuming continuous conduction,

1 
Vd 
2 / 3 
Vmax l l sin  td  t 

3Vmax l l
= 1  cos   (9.12)
2

Lecture 9 - Controlled 32 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
+VD/2 vo
ia van
iL
Ls T1 T3 T5 iDf

vbn ib R
Df Load
ic Vd
n L
vcn
Ls T4 T6 T2

VD/2

Figure 9.27(a) Circuit diagram of a 3-phase, half-

controlled converter

 van vbn vcn

vp v

vl-l vab vbc vca

vo, io
ia

ib

ic

iDF
0   

Figure 9.27(b) Waveforms in the converter of figure

9.28(a) for  = 45
Lecture 9 - Controlled 33 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

v an v bn v cn
vp =145 

v ab v bc v ca
v l-l

vo iL

ia

ib

ic

iDf

Figure 9.27(c) Waveforms in the converter of figure

9.27(a) for  = 145.
Note that this converter operates in quadrant 1 only,
because negative voltage across the DC rails will initiate
freewheeling of the load current through Df, thus
preventing the output voltage from becoming negative.
Regenerative operation for this type of converter is not
possible. It should be noted that freewheeling current in
diode Df is present only when the firing angle  is greater
than 60. This implies that Idf rms is higher for a given load
current when the output voltage Vd is lower. It should also
Lecture 9 - Controlled 34 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
be noted that the input current waveform is not
symmetrical, because the commutation of the load current
occurs via the free-wheeling diode, thereby relieving the
input source of the lagging component of its current. [The
converter input current waveform will thus include some
even order harmonics]. As a result, the input displacement
angle for a given firing angle is smaller for this converter
than for the fully controlled converter. The output voltage
ripples for this converter is lower than the F-C converter.

Vd VS  characteristic

400

Vd
200

Firing angle 

Figure 9.28 Vd - α characteristic of the 3-phase, H-C

converter

Vd
Q1

Id
Figure 9.29 Operating quadrants of the 3-phase H-C converter
Lecture 9 - Controlled 35 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
9.3.5 Three-phase, bridge converters with pulse
numbers higher than 6.
As for diode rectifiers, controlled dc output voltage with
pulse numbers 12, 24, or 36 is obtained by connecting
more than one three-phase bridge converters through
inter-phase reactors, as indicated in figures 9.30. Each
converter must be supplied with its own three-phase
supply, appropriately phase shifted from the others
through transformer connection. Series and parallel
connections are preferable for high voltage-low current
and low voltage-high current applications, respectively.

Id /2 Id
3-phase
AC
Supply
Id /2 Vd

Figure 9.30(a) 12-pulse rectifier: parallel connection

+
Vd /2 Id
_
3-phase
AC Vd
+
Supply
Vd /2
_

Figure 9.31(b) 12-pulse rectifier: series connection

Lecture 9 - Controlled 36 F. Rahman
AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
Figure 9.31 shows waveforms in two parallel connected
converters with Y and  (indicated by subscripts Y and )
connected supply transformers. Normally, the turns-ratios
of the two transformers are such that the line-line input
voltage of each converter will be equal. Note that the line-
line voltages of the Y and delta connected secondaries are
30 out of phase, so that the voY and vod of the two
converters connected in parallel are also out of phase by
30. Averaging of these two output voltage across the
inter-phase reactor produces the 12-pulse output. Each
converter shares the load current equally. The current
waveform in each secondary winding and its primary
counterpart can be found using three-phase and
transformer relations. This is further discussed in a
tutorial problem.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 37 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Figure 9.31(a) AC voltages for the Y- and -connections

and the output voltages vo for each converter.  = 45

Figure 9.31(b) Output voltage vo and the input AC current

waveform.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 38 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Figure 9.32. AC source, vo and input current waveforms

in the 12 converter;  = 145.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 39 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics

Figure 9.33 AC source voltage and input current

waveforms in the 12-pulse converter;  = 145

9.4 Summary
1. Fully controlled converters operate in quadrants 1 and
4. Operation in quadrant 4 only for active loads.
2. Half-controlled converters operate in quadrant 1 only.
3. The output voltage of the converters has even order
ripples.
4. The lowest ripple frequency in the output voltage is
given by the pulse number.
5. If smooth and ripple-free load current is assumed, the
input current waveform is flat-topped, at fundamental
frequency and carrying harmonics of frequency np  1
where p is the pulse number and n is any integer.
6. Increasing the pulse number (ie the complexity of the
converter), improves the output voltage and input
current waveforms.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 40 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters
ELEC4614 Power Electronics
7. The input displacement angle of the converter is
largely determined by the firing angle , as is the
input power factor.
8. As the firing angle  is increased to reduce the DC
output voltage, the power factor of the converter falls.
(For a fully controlled converter, the Input PF  cos  ,
if harmonics are neglected).
9. A half-controlled converter operates at a higher power
factor than an equivalent output fully controlled
converter.
10. The output voltage ripple increases with firing angle,
becoming maximum when  = 90.

Lecture 9 - Controlled 41 F. Rahman

AC-DC Converters