| | | An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems re Module 7: Protection Management & Site Considerations2 An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution ‘Systems is a general introduction to protection issues, commissioned by the Electricity Association. Course consultants: Kallen CEng, MIEE Ringlesfield BSc (Eng), CEng, MIEE Editorial Panel; TAAspinall — BTech, CEng, MIE, SBoswell Technical Training Adviser (Transmission) Ad Dick BSc (Eng), ACGI, DMS, CEng, MIEE JADownes BSc (Eng), MTech GHensman BSc (Eng), ACGT, AMIEE, DJ Howarth CEng, MIEE, ARTCS BJudd BEng, CEng, MIEE (Project Manager) RRosling —_BTech, AMIEE JL Ryan BSc (Eng), ACGI, CEng, MIEE RN Warren Technical Training Adviser (Distrbution) Designed and produced by: ‘Teemedia Limited Bruce House 258 Bromham Road Biddenham Bedfordshire MK404A4 © Electricity Association, 1997 All rights reserved. No part of this training material may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Electricity Association, ‘The Electricity Association has made all reasonable efforts to ensure that this training material was correct at the time of goingto press and that it reflected the latest stage of knowledge available to the Association at that time, However, the Association does not accept any liability for the accuracy and completeness of the statements made in this training material or otherwise arising from the use of the material, Opinions expressed in these training materials are not n the Blectricity Association, scessarily those ofProtection Management & Site Considerations Overview saseeeesseaneesennne 4 Introduction ... 4 Objectives ... 5 Study time.. 5 Drawings ....sss00. pelea beta 6 Approval of drawings... 6 Introduction to diagrams 6 Maintaining correctness of diagrams, 6 Using circuit diagrams . 7 Unofficial diagrams .... 8 Commissioning and acceptance tests .... renesvnanensnanees 10 Typical procedure 10 General requirements seat Hei0) Commissioning process ..cnueneemrsnennnnenmneee 1 Secondary wiring. - 7 12 Voltage transformers. vere 12 Current transformers : 13 a a 16 Measuring relays w Function tests .......... et 17 Energisation and phasing checks... 19 Load test oars eat 20 Basic safety seseanesssesee veneanecas = 23 Documentation and records .nnnnnene a) Dos & don'ts ~ a summary 26 Routine maintenance and inspection tests a7 ‘Test equipment... 27 Fault investigations Appendix 1: Commissioning tests check Schedule .nunsnsnnennsnnn 31 Appendix 2: Pre-energisation inspection schedule ...c.nsnsseesnesnnnsnnee 88 Appendix 3 Energisation — considerations and procedure .......e000-ssseereee 34 Contents4 An Introd: —— lection to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems LOverviow This module is one ofa series of seven which delivers the Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems. The full set comprises your Course Guide and: Module 1 Role and Types of Protection Module 2 Transformers — Measurement and Protection. Module 3 Protection Equipment Module 4 Ancillary /Auxiliary Equipment Module Protection Schemes I Module 6 Protection Schemes IL Module 7 Protection Management & Site Considerations Module one, Role and Types of Protection, is intended as the base module {or the course — it covers the basie concepts which are expanded in the rest of the series, ‘This module, the final one in the set, looks at the management issues surrounding the installation and running of protection equipment. As such, it draws on much of the knowledge presented in the preceding modules, It focuses on four main areas ~ drawings, commissioning and acceptance testing (including basic safety considerations), routine maintenance and inspection testing and fault investigation, ‘The section on drawings explores the different types of drawing you will find, More important, it looks at the regime that is nevessary to keop drawings up to date ~ they are, after all, the start point for all commissioning and subsequent modification ofall installed equipment. It is imperative that the drawing held at a main office accurately represents the situation at the particular site. ‘The next section puts you in the position of the testing engineer. It starts with testing procedures and general requirements. We then look in more detail ata series of tests and checks which form the bass ofthe checking and testing regime prior to commissioning. A discussion of basie safety raises a number of issues to do with safe testing and maintenance - covering CTs and VTs and a range of primary plant. Tae objective is to help you apply your system knowledge to potentially dangerous situations and understand the precautions that each situation recuires, ‘This section closes with a survey of documentation and record keeping and finishes with a summary of the dos and don'ts of site operation, ‘The module then introduces two shorter topics which have relevance for all these areas: routine maintenance and inspection tests and fault investigations A series of appendices supports the content on commissioning tests and Procedures to be observed prior to energisation. Overviewee Objectives — Study time Self check Protection Management & Site Considerations 6 After successfully completing this module you will be able to: understand the need for and use of drawings understand the need for commissioning and acceptance tests conduct simple pre-commissioning checks know the basic rules when working on protection understand the need for accurate record-keeping. ‘There is no set time for studying this module, You will find, however, that there is between eight to ten hours of learning material here. Depending on how you approach it, you may get through it much faster —or take a ‘good deal longer. ‘The important activity is to read and understand the learning material and then to attempt the self-check questions which accompany it, We recommend, therefore, that you do not start new material unless you have » couple of hours to devote to it ~ to ensure you cover a reasonable chunk of the text. The self-check questions in the text As you go through the learning material, you will encounter a series of self-checks. These are to reassure you that you have grasped the essential points of what you have just read. They are designed ta make you think and you should make a few notes (not a whole essay!) in response to each. question, You can then compare these to the commentary on the questions which you will find in the appropriate section of the Course Guide. When you are happy that you have understovd the information, carry on reading. the text, Using your Course Guide Quite apart from the selficheck commentary, it will be useful to have your Course Guide available as you study this module M Itgives guidance on study techniques. M_Ithas a reference section showing all the symbols which have been used in the various diagrams which appear in the text of each module. Itcontains a useful Glossary. Ifyou encounter an unfamiliar term while reading the text, look for an explanation in the glossary firs. Overview6 _An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems —— Approval of drawings Introduction to diagrams Maintaining correctness of diagrams The task of commissioning new protection equipment on a new or existing ite starts with an examination of the drawings. This should be done before the work on site commences so that any errors ar omissions can be corrected on the drawing rather than later on site. Drawings are usually approved at the design verification stage. Typically, the design engineer stamps or records the drawing onze he is satisfied that construction work can commence ~ in accordance with the diagram. There are normally two main classes of diagrams provided for protection installations: © Wiring diagrams Circuit diagrams. Wiring diagrams As their name implies, these are for wiring up the equipment. They emphasise the cable runs, physical location and so on, of the equipment. Normally they show only a single individual panel or piece of equipment on each diagram, Circuit diagrams In contrast, circuit diagrams show complete electrical circuits ~ often covering parts of several panels or pieces of equipment. A tripping circuit diagram for a transformer circuit, for example, would show only the dc. tripping cireuits, but would cover some of the equipment on the main rolay panel, on the intertripping panel at the circuit breakers and in the transformer marshalling kiosk and even on the transformer itself. ‘The circuit diagram is drawn to describe how the circuit functions. Layout is not constrained by the physical location of the equipment, since this would detract from understanding how the circuit functions. It should, however, include sufficient information so the various parts of the circuit can be easily located on site. ‘The use of wire numbers and a note or code against each piece of equipment indicating its physical location is usually sufficient. In the transformer circuit mentioned above, for example, any relays or terminal blocks located in the transformer marshalling kiosk, might have the letters MK adjacent to them tis vitally important that both wiring and circuit diagrams always reflect the actual situation on site accurately. Drawings| | { L | Using circuit diagrams Protection Management & Site Considerations During the life of a substation, some modifications will be needed. These may be initiated in a design office or perhaps following errors found during tests initiated on site, Good practice requires checking wiring and cireuit diagrams against the actual installed equipment. The site copy of the drawing will, therefore, always be the most reliable and accurate. As soon as possible, the master copy of the drawing should be updated and copies re-issued to all parties. Any work on the circuit (testing or fault investigation) should always use the site copy of the diagram as the most reliable. If modification work is being designed elsewhere, the diagrams used should always be checked against the site copies before work is started ~ so that the starting point is always the actual site situation, In order to check out, test, or commission a protection scheme, the test. engineer must have a full understanding of its function and operation. Proprietory makes of protection scheme such as distance and unit, protection have handbooks that explain the principles and list recommended test procedures. This is not sufficient, however, because the installed protection is conditioned by the switchgear on site and the way it, actually operates can be seen from the circuit diagram. ‘The cireuit diagram shows the connections and switching for every piece of control and protection equipment for a particular functional unit in the substation ~ feeder circuit breaker, transformer circuit breaker, busbar protection, substation alarms and so oa. For convenience the circuit diagram may be divided into two separate drawings: one showing all the de, functional connections, low voltage a.c indication and lighting circuitry the other showing the primary ac. connections, CT and VP secondary winding cireuitry. ‘To make it easier to read circuit diagrams, a standard set of symbols is used to indicate pieces of equipment (relay coils, relay contacts, contactors te) and wire numbering, These can be found in standard BS 3939, Using a standard schedule of wire numbering and colouring makes on-site identification of particular circuits much easier. The cirenit diagram needs to be studied to follow through the electrical function, action and sequence of operation of all equipment on, for example, a feeder circuit breaker (see fig 7.1). Another important feature of a dreuit diagram is that it shows all the relevant fuses, links and switches ~ so it is clear how to isolate a particular circuit or take a particular funetion out of service. Drawings 78 An Iniroduction (0 the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems nm Cie agian (oat) When checking drawings, the cirenit diagram needs the closest, examination, Checks are made first to see that the operation, alarm and Protection arrangements are to the required specification. The fasing, linking and operating logic is followed through, circuit by cireuit, to see that everything will work as expected. The labelling of links fuses and switches is also checked for correctness, Panel wiring diagrams, multicore diagrams and schedules are basically derived from the cireuit diagram - so if this is correet, they should be correet. Tn general, itis more cost effective to sort any errors before carrying out site commissioning tests. Wiring diagrams are, therefore, looked over to. see that the layout is as expected and there are no obvious errors, Wiring diagrams The wiring diagram example shows typical layout and information (see fig 7.2). Such diagrams are typically used at the construction and installation stage. ee Unofficial diagrams Diagrams may exist which are not part of the official system — from lecture notes, for example. Also, diagrams produced by manufacturers (particularly if not regular suppliers of equipment) may be drawn in an unfamiliar way, Drawings| | 12 Wing dagran (oa) Self check Comments ean be found in ‘your Course Guide Protection Management & Site Considerations ® HECHANESH 80x ‘There may be a temptation to redraw these in a more familiar format. ‘This should be generally resisted as it creates an unofficial diagram. Ifit ig necessary to redraw the diagram, it should be incorporated into the official system with appropriate numbering to ensure its correctness Unofficial diagrams must be used with extreme care. They should only be used to assist the general understanding of the way a circuit functions, Actual on-site work should always be cross-checked against the official record before itis carried out — the same applies to standard diagrams. Many organisations will have standard or specification diagrams detailing the cireuits to be used. Again it should be recognised that these are not the same as site records. The manufacture: may have interpreted the intention of the standard or specification in a slightly different way. Explain, in your own words, the need for the different types of diagram. Drawings10 _An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems Typical procedure General requirements Commissioning and acceptance tests Before any new protection is put into service, it must be thoroughly tested to verify that it will work as specified. One wrong or missing connection could incapacitate the whole protection schome — as could a faulty piece of equipment. ‘The work is broadly divided into individual equipment tests and. overall operational tests. These may be carried ou: by a test engineer and accepted by a further engineer with responsibility for putting new equipment into service (the acceptance engineer), The process of acceptance should include a check on the laid-down test schedule to see that all the tests have been completed and signed off by the test engineer. ‘The engineer making the acceptance may also need tc witness some of the individual tests and overail tests ~ including a trip test, ‘The acceptance engineer should also make his own inspection of the work to verify the following: Mall test connections are clear all links and fases are in place all switches and controls are in the correct position allahels are in place and no tools or work debris have been left behind All these inspections are a double check because they will have already been done by the test engineer ~ who will have signed clearance to say that the equipment is ready for service. Further confirmation tests (such as ammeter/volt meter readings, current in relay and telay stability checks) may follow immediately after equipment has been put into service, Commissioning of the protective equipment must be co-ordinated with the commissioning of primary equipment such as transformers, generators, ” switchgear, transmission lines, feeds and soon. Detailed planning is necessary to ensure that the commissioning of tests is performed in a safe logical order and that no item is overlooked. It is essential that all safety rules and procedures be strictly abserved at all, times. The work should be performed after acquiring any necessary safety permits. All documentation and report forms must be to hand as it is essential to keep accurate records ofall tests and operations. ‘The overall objective of the commissioning tests is to prove: 1 that the equipment has not been damaged in transit 2 that the equipment has been correctly installed 3 that the protection scheme performs according to specifications, and that the design and specification of the protection system is, appropriate for the installation it is intended to protect. Commissioning and acceptance testsProtection Management & Site Considerations 17 Before any equipment can be energised itis essential that the related protective schemes are tested and placed in service, even though farther adjustment may be required later ‘These activities will include the following tasks: make planning checklist review of primary block diagrams visual inspection of the primary equipment installation review of protective scheme cireuit diagrams, a.c, and dc checking that the secondary wiring is correet testing of power supplies for protection circuits calibration of relays review of the results of eircuit breaker tests testing of CTs and VIs secondary injection tests primary injection tests functional testing of tripping circuits fanetional testing of alarm and annunciator circuits phasing of primary cireuits on-load testing once the primary equipment has been energised review of safety requirements review availability of appropriate test equipment. Appendix I (page 31) shows a typical tast checklist ——_ Commissioning process Prior to commissioning, the primary high voltage equipment is de- energised and will probably be earthec temporarily at several points. In all eases, work must be done under appropriate permits Physical location must he checked first Take particular note of the location of CTs and VIs and the respective wiring. Often several sets of CTs are located in switchgear bushings or transformer bushings. Make sure that each CT is connected to the | ight device ~ metering, indication, alarm, ot protection relay | Thoroughly review and understand the cireuit diagrams for each of | the protective schemes. ‘Commissioning and acceptance tests12 An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systeme Secondary wiring ‘When the installation of secondary wiring has been completed, it should be thoroughly checked to make sure that it complies with the circuit diagrams and wiring diagrams. If part of the area is operational (and, therefore, energised) a permit may be required. Make sure that all terminal connections are tight, and also that fuses and links are properly wired and rated. Check nameplates on all contro! panels, relay panels and equipment, 1 Inoutdoor substations make sure that the secondary equipment is weatherproof and also that any specified heating and ventilating equipment is in service. Insulation resistance (IR) tests must be carried out to check insulation resistance to earth and between each separate circuit, (The insulation resistance should be between | and 10 megaohins using a 500 volt test unit.) Point-to-point continuity of secondary wiring must also be checked, The secondary wiring should include the feeds from VTs and CTs to each particular relay on the panel, and also the control wiring from the relays to the circuit breakers and annunciator, Finally, when testing of the CT secondary wiring is completed, the Permanent earth should be re-connected (the earth has to be removed before doing the insulation resistance test). Once the control cireuits have all been checked out, the dc. system ean be energised from the battery (when this is operational). This will enable circuit breaker operation to be checked and other functional tests to be carried out, Voltage transformers (VTs) During these preliminary tests it is usually convenient to test the voltage transformers for: M1 insulation resistance © polarity turns ratio, Before conducting the tests, both the primary and secondary windings must be isolated from external circuits. The insulatior resistance is checked between windings and between each phase and ground. Wound VIe A simple method for checking polarity is a ‘flick’ or ‘kick’ test on each phase separately. A low-voltage d.c. battery is connected across the Primary, HIV winding with the circuit interrupted by a push button, The positive side of the battery is connected to the polarity.marked terminal When the push button is closed, the ammeter will fick to the positive side ifpolarity markings are correct (see fig 7.3, page 14), Commissioning and acceptance tests| Protection Management & Site Considerations 18 Carry out a ratio test by applying a relatively low voltage to the single phase primary (high-voltage) side ofthe transformer, and measure the secondary voltage accurately. The ratio can be calculated from the two readings. For this test the primary voltage supply should be fased in both lines - just in ease there is a fault in the new transformer. In all transformer testing, beware of applying low voltage to the secondary due to the hazardous high voltage induced in the primary Current transformers (CTs) Checking CTs for insulation resistance, polarity, turns ratio and ‘magnetising curve is a vital part of the commissioning process. M Three-phase sets of CTs must be properly matched to the protection equipment they will drive, They must also be of the correct polarity. CT identification labels should be found on the CT and on the switchgear ‘Test certificates are usually supplied by the manufacturer but there is still ‘4 small risk thot a rogue CT has beer. installed, labelled wrongly or wrongly connected so it is usual practice to do the following on-site tests: Magnetising curve test ‘The CT magnetising curve is obtained by doing the excitation tost — as described in module 2, Transformers - Measurement and Protection Ratio test Pass an ac, current through the primary winding and measure the secondary current. The ratio of primary input current to secondary current output can then be verified. Itis often not practical to inject the full rated primary current but for accuracy, the injected primary current should be as high as practical. This is done using a specially-designed, high output current injection transformer. ‘The output voltage of the injection transformer will be relatively low because it is normally possible to inje:t directly across the CTT primary terminals. A reasonably compact and portable transformer will be able to deliver around 200A. However, up to several kVA may be needed to test CTs within power transformers — where it may be necessary to pass current through the main transformer windings. Another important test is to check the CT ratio at different tap settings. Suitable test voltage is applied across the highest tap, and readings are taken of the voltage appearing at the other tap positions. Alternatively, current is passed through the primary and an ammeter is inserted in the secondary cireuit. The ratio of currents is then compared. ‘Commissioning and acceptance tests14_ An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems Polarity ‘This can be carried out using two methods: The flash (or ick’) method The ‘buck and boost’ method ‘The flash method is to connect a battery across the primary terminals with a dc. milliamp meter connected across the secondary terminals. The battery need only be a single coll dry battery (see fig 7.3). ‘The rise in d.c. primary current will be relatively slow because of the CT inductance and it will be possible to see a proportional secondary current kkick in the milliamp meter. ‘The battery connection is then immediately removed. The magnetic field in the CT collapses and the secondary current kick will be in the reverse direction. Forward d.c, connections in the primary should give initial forward kicks in the secondary. Thus using the same test connections on each of the CTS in turn will verify their absolute and relative polarities. 73 CT ek est sattery Connect the battery momentarily tothe primary terminals ofthe OT 2 The sireuleshighy inductive and the fhe buildup i Stow enough to see auld upot current inapostiveor negative Shection depending on the battery polarity snd the baltcryliamoter Exnnectins = postive ths gpa, When the battery is romoved, the mlimeter wil fick nthe opposite direction al? 4 Carry out ehe same test withthe same a connections on the next CT ae, milfameter ‘The CT comparison ‘buck and boost’ method is to inject an a.c. current through two CT primaries in series (see fig 7.4). Ifthe CT secondary output terminals are connected together with the same polarity their outputs will summate ~ giving a double reading on a connected ammeter. If they are of opposite polarity, their outputs will be cancelled (assuming they are the same ratio). Relative polarity can be checked on two- or three-phase sets of CTs by comparing each CT against its neighbour. If absolute polarity checks are needed, however, comparisons will have to be made against a standard reference CT of known polarity. Commissioning and acceptance tests' | | Protection Management & Site Considerations 15 1 Buck and boost es! Tt ‘Temporary, 4, loop ‘connection a Injection ‘transformer 1. ‘Temporarily loop primary connections on @ 8 phase set in situ. 2 Connect CTs in parallel (if not alzeady connected this way) 3 Inject sufficient a.c. primary current to give a measurable secondary current. 4 Asthe CTs are being injected with opposite polarity, the output eurrents ‘should cancel ~ that is, no readings on the ammeter © Heverse secondary connections (or reverse primary current in one CT) ‘The ammeter should read double the expected current from one CT. Core leakage Where several CTs are fitted around the primary conductor, you must check that there is no leakage of flux from one CT core to another. ‘One way of checking this is (with the primary open circuited) to apply a voltage of about 100 volts across the secondary of each of the C’Ts in turn ‘The maximum tap should be selected. All of the other CT secondary terminals are shorted. One at a time, each short is removed and the voltage checked. In every case the reading should be close to zero, Winding resistance The secondary winding resistance of the CT is measured using a measuring instrument capable of measuring resistances accurately below one chm. This ean then be compared with the other CTs in the set to see there is a match. Again, the value of resistance togethor with the resistance of the CT connections may be required for calculating protection fault settings, Connections ‘You must check CT connections carefully. One way of doing this is by injecting three-phase test current into all three phases of the CT secondaries. Measure at the relay panel to establish that the CTs are connected to the corresponding phase relay. Residual current measurement proves that they are connected the right way round (with balanced current from the CTS, the residual current should be zero or close to zero) Comnissioning and acceptance vests16 An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems Self check Comments can be found in your Course Guide Relays Primary current is then passed through a single CT and the value increased until the corresponding relay operates. This value of test current indicates the value of fault current required ia the primary to operate the relay. This sensitivity test is repeated for each separate phase, A stability test is then required to further ensure correct phasing. ‘The most common way of performing the stability tes:, particularly where ‘a new generator is being commissioned, is to place a short circuit across the generator terminals and run the machine at very low excitation. ‘This allows load current to be passed through the generator windings at low voltage and for a very small amount of power input from the prime mover. It also provides an excellent opportunity to check secondary current input to all of the generator protection devices. Icis important to check that wiring from the CT itself to the outlet terminal box ie correct, Shorting links are normally applied across the CT secondary terminals until the circuit is connected to the downstream relay or other devices, (Remember to remove this short when placing the system in service.) eae Eee ree Show a typical curve obtained by conducting a magnetising test on a CT. Explain the different points on the curve and indicate the area of operation. ‘The physical condition of any relay is normally checked as it is removed from its packing. A further examination should be made of the installation before performing any electrical tests, The relay, relay panel and general area should be clean Check for signs of damage in transit Check that all moving parts operate freely ‘Check that contacts make correctly All terminal connections should be tightened The target (flag) mechanism should be checked for operation and. re-setting. Any discrepancy should be recorded and actioned. Before leaving the manufacturer's works, each relay will have been thoroughly tested to ensure that it meets specification. However, it is still necessary to perform functional tests on site with the relay in its installed location, and also to calibrate the relay for its particula: circuit. Commissioning and acceptance testsProtection Management & Site Considerations 17 a Measuring relays —— Function tests Relays are usually tested in place by secondary injection, In this test, the relay is isolated from its CTs and VTs. A.c. current (and voltage where required) is injected directly into the relay to simulate fault conditions. Alternatively, the relay may be withdrawn from the panel and tested on the bench. However, itis usually recommended that relays be tested in place (or at least in a test case) as the case may change the relay’s characteristics. Whenever a relay is withdrawn from the panel or the CT leads are disconnected in any way, itis essentie! that a short circuit be connected across CT secondary terminals. If this is not done, a dangerously high voltage could appear at the open circuited terminals, Even with zero load current in the primary, high voltage could be induced into the secondary from electrostatic sources (or electromagnetic pickup from adjacent circuits) Many different types of test sets are available to supply adjustable current and voltage to the relay. The test equipment normally includes a phase shifting transformer to allow variation in voltage/current (phase) angle as well as magnitude, D.c. relays and contactors Itis important to check that not only do all the d.c. relays and contactors operate correctly but that they also function at reduced voltage (50-65% ‘This is to give a margin of safety should the substation battery voltage be reduced for any reason, Using a variable dc. test source, the minimum pickup value of each relay is checked to be on specification. It is often useful to note the drop-off value 2s well. This value will depend on the type and design of the relay and in some circumstances may be critical for a correct operating sequence. After the relays have heen checked ou: and celibrated, function tests of the tripping cireuits must be performed. The objective of function tests is to verify that, when a particular relay operates, its output produces the desired action, such as: tripping of one or more breakers blocking operation of certain breakers initiating appropriate alarms and annunciators completing a permissive circuit so as to ‘enable’ other circuits to function triggering operation of a communication channel, In order to perform function tests the relay panels must be energised with secondary a.c. and de. voltage. Commissioning and acceptance tests18 _An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems One simple method of performing functional tests is to operate the relay ‘mechanically by physically closing the appropriate contacts. In the simplest circuits this relay output will apply d.c. to the tripping circuit and so cause the appropriate breaker to open — initiating the corresponding alarm and annunciator. In order to prevent repeated operation of the breaker during testing, the local trip circuit is usually isolated using isolation links or blocking switches, and the associated trip signal is measured instead. In many cases the relay output energises an auxiliary relay with multiple contacts (see fig 7.5). In this situation there would be multiple output functions to check ~ either by observing the resultant action or by measuring the output signal to each function, 75 Auniry rty th utile contacts Fuscione | tnteaons —! Negative testing is also used in determining wiring accuracy. This moans that while a certain device should operate when certair switches are closed or in some cases opened, it should not operate when other switches are opened or closed. Experience will be a key factor in determining the extent of negative testing in any given setup. Injecting the appropriate value of secondary current and voltage to simulate differing fault conditions allows simultaneous testing of the secondary wiring the protective scheme . . the protective relays auxiliary relays @ auxiliary switches and the resultant functions In any particular protection scheme, several protection relays may be involved and several secondary inputs are required to simulate fault conditions. Each functional test will need careful, detailed planning before execution. Commissioning and acceptance tests| i | Protection Management & Site Considerations 19 a Energisation and phasing checks Functional testing must also be performed on other related items which are not truly part of the protection system. Depending upon the particular installation, these items may include: remote and local controls remote and local indicators chart recorders such as oscillographs alarms and annunciators for all equipment automatic controls for transformer pumps and fans auxiliary equipment and controls for breakers seada equipment battery chargers metering carrier and tone equipment. Before energising primary equipment the commissioning team must make sure that all work has been completed, that all temporary earths are removed, and that all permits are cleared, See Appendix 2 (page for a summary of pre-energisation check points, All protection relays should be in service ~ even though further adjustments may have to be made. In fact, for the first energisation, the protective relays may sometimes be temporarily set to give increased sensitivity (or additional protection used to give increased sensitivity and security) Before any primary equipment is connected into the existing power system, the phasing must be proved. This is to make sure, for example, that the A phase of the bus is connected through the A phase circuit breaker and disconnectors to the A phase of the transmission line. Phases B and C must be similarly connected. Itis not always possible to conduct a visual inspection due to the physical construction of the equipment. A three-phase transformer, for example, has internal connections. There will be a phase shift between primary and secondary for a Yidelta connection. Transformer phasing is usually tested during installation by applying. a low voltage (say, 415 volts) to the high voltage side and measuring voltages on the secondary. Plotting the resultant phasor diagram shows the voltage ratio, phasing, the phase shift, and phase sequence - fig 7.6 (overlea?) shows a typical test procedure. For voltages up to, say, 25 kV, insulated phasing sticks can be inserted into energised switchgear spouts, or across open disconnects, to check the voltage across the break for each phase. If phasing is correct there should bbe zero, or nearly zero, voltage across the open contacts (assuming energisation on each side). If, however, phasing is incorrect, a high voltage will appear across two of the phases, Commissioning and acceptance tests20 An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems 76 \Veztor gtoup check —— Load tests Vector Group Check Connect one HY teomingl to ane LY (or Tertiary? teemins? HW} seeten of conneerions CHECKING YECTOR GROUPS AEcORDING 10 85 17 Ty reinaey a tertiary of secsadary 9 (1 Seromaeey ov (2 PHasoR IAGRAMS te eansroes Fore position af WY Phase Cotoure 4 cable cones tt O° oO fv Teemtoal Markings jae oO ww rermonr vrcess | OOO | 5 men osisio a Ly Phase Colours “enya Itis important to make sure that the synchronising equipment is receiving correct information. It must be connected correctly to the VTs on either side, Remember, there may be a phase shift across the transformer, and this will have to be taken into accouat by the synchronising connections. Fig 7.7 shows an example of in-service readings points at the relay panel of a transformer differential protection. The objective is testing the magnitude and phase angle of current in each ofthe restraining and operating coils Commissioning and acceptance tests,Protection Management & Site Considerations 21 | | | —— Tera eee ot Ot caters TOT a8 7.7 Lead testing wenskamerditfeenta protection ‘As soon as possible, with load on the transformer, the corresponding bus protection CTs must be checked for balance and secondary current magnitude and direction. When this test is completed, checks at the protection relay panel should be carried out to confirm that the total of all the bus CT currents is zero or very close to zero, When a transmission line or feeder is energised from one end only, charging current will flow to feed the natural capacitance of the line. This may be sufficient to perform a preliminary check of the eurrent balance in the CT secondaries, Preferably, a radial load should be connected at the far end of the line. In this manner one san be absolutely sure of the direction of current flow when taking in-service readings. In order to check pilot protection, itis necessary to take in-service readings at each end of the line by measuring the value of secondary current flowing in the operating coils and restraint coils. With a phase comparison scheme, you should find zero or very low current flowing in the relays and pilot wires — indicating the CTs are correctly balanced. ‘Commissioning and acceptance tests22 _An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems D verona ay — a sn st po : + ¢ Te reins Great care must be taken when carrying out in-service checks on directional relays, Where voltage polarisation is used, check the voltage balance and phase sequence of the secondary voltages applied to the relay thoroughly, as soon as the VIs are energised. Make sure the connections agree with the wiring diagrams and the manufacturers manual. For example, in fig 7.8, the A phase directional relay may require voltage polarisation from the B and C VTs in order to provide the desired directional contrat ‘To check the blocking element of the directional relay, simply reverse the Now of current to the relay by cross-connecting the CT connections at the test plug. In this situation, the directional element contacts should open. See Appendix 3 (page 34) for details of energisation and load check procedures. Self check Comments ean be found ia ‘your Course Guide Commissioning and acceptance tastsProtection Management & Site Considerations 23. — Basic safety Any persons working on a live substation site must have sufficient knowledge to be able to carry out their work without danger and must follow the laid-down safety rules and codes of practice. Obviously, where proximity is required, all high voltage electrical connections must be isolated, earthed and certificated safe under safety rules before work can begin. The protection test engineer must also be aware of additional hazards. Overvoltage and insulation resistance tests ‘The overvoltage test routinely used for proving electrical apparatus, before energisation at working voltage, presents an obvious hazard as the voltage may be several kV. All livened. exposed terminals local and remote to the test point must be guarded in some way ~ preferably leked up with personal locks but otherwise fenced in with barriers or ropes, with Warning notices posted | Even small portable insulation testers can cause danger. Their current. output capability may be limited (so that even with a relatively high output voltage they not he lothal in themselves) but their de. output voltage can store a lethal electrical charge on apparatus having cepacitance. Typically this would be a length of power eable but lengths of pilot or telephone cable can also be dangerous. Insulation testing should therefore be carried out taking the same precautions as for over-voltage testing. Many modern designs have a built-in automatic discharge circuit which switches in when the test button is released ~ but you cannot rely on this alone. Use an earthed flashing stick on the test terminal before it is handled. High voltage cables can hold a substantial amount of energy after an overvoltage test and if'a large electric arc is to be avoided, the initial discharge should be made via a suitably substantial resistor Ifthe discharging earth is removed immediately after the discharging Process is apparently complete, an apparatus with capacitance that has been subjected to a high de. voltage will, in time, recover some of the initial voltage. Best practice is to leave the terminal earthed after discharge for as Jong as possible. A.c. test voltages should not leave a standing charge if the test voltage is brought down gradually - but remember that, ifthe a.c. voltage is suddenly disconnected, it is possible to Jeave a standing d.e. charge on the apparatus. The same rule as for d.c. testing should therefore be used. CT considerations voltages ifit is open circuited ~ these voltages should always be considered as potentially lethal, Any CT carrying primary current can generate extremely high secondary / Commissioning and acceptance tests24 An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems ‘There is also a risk of damage to the winding insulation of the CT. CTs should never be open cireuited unless there is no risk whatsoever of the primary carrying current. It isnot sufficient for a primary circuit to be switched out or even earthed up, HM Acircuit which is earthed up on both sides of :s CTs can have current flowing in the CT primary from induction (into the closed loop of the primary of the CT and the earths on each side) or from differences in potential of the two earth points ‘These phenomena may be so small as to be hardly noticeable if the primary system is healthy ~ but they could become lethal if a fault occurs on the systema, It should also be remembered that a CT is inductive — any test voltages applied to it (either a.c. for magnetisation curves or duc. for resistance measurement or insulation testing) should be reduced gradually to zero at the end of the test, rather than being switched off suddenly Voltage transformer and auxiliary wiring Voltage transformer connections and auxiliary a.c, illumination and indication wiring found in protection and control panels are usually run at voltages of 110-120 V to earth. This level of voltage can still give substantial electrical shocks and should be treated with caution. The de. connections are of a similar or slightly greater voltage. They are usually also connected to a large substation battery which can produce considerable short circuit current. Care must be taken not to cause a positive-to-negative short circuit especially on heavy current breaker wiring, Keys, serewdrivers, spanners, steel rules haveall been known to are weld themselves across terminals —as have metallic watch bracelets th their owner’s wrist still attached! Instruments with metal cases or metal labels attached are also a hazard. Direct connections to primary circuits Direct test connections to the primary cireuit are sometimes necessary ~ in primary injection testing, for example. [t should be remembered here that primary cireuits can carry high voltages derived from in-service cireuits by inductive or capacitive coupling ~ even ifthey have been switehed out of serviee. Double circuit overhead lines with one circuit in service are particularly dangerous due to the very large inductive and capacitive coupling. All test connections should be made whilst the primary circuitis earthed. The test circuit and equipment should be connected up and checked out as far as possible before making the connection to the primary conductors, This should always be the last connection to be made and the first to be removed. Commissioning and acceptance tests| IN ES Comments can be found in your Course Guide a Documentation and records Protection Management & Site Considerations 25 ‘The test should be carried out without touching the test equipment whilst itis connected to the primary conductors - unless it is adequately insulated and the procedure has been carefully examined to make sure it is cafe Describe, in your own words, the main risks associated with testing CTs. All commissioning test results should be signed by the tester and be kept on file. They should be kept together with all the relevant manufnetuirey’s test certificates ~ not only as documentary proof of the worthiness of the equipment for connection to the mains supply, but also as reference information for future maintenance test results, protection performance monitor and failure investigations. Iris useful to keep on file any write-up or descriptions of the protection as applied locally, for future reference. @ Plans and circuit diagrams (especially if they are unique) should also be kept on file, It is also very useful to have these files on-site — although inadvisable to have them as the sole copies, Relay settings should also be recorded on a controlled data base and filing system. Commissioning and acceptance tests26 _An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems Dos &don'ts Do ‘study the wiring diagram before commencing work on -asummary protection equipment. Do _ ensure that all the necessary fuse isolating links (as indicated by the wiring diagram) are remcved before works commences. Do _post Testing in Progress caution notices. Do _cover live open terminals close to your work. Do _ ensure that you are working in the right panel. ‘This may be an obvious statement but all panels can look alike and itis easy to be confused, Always check the labels front and back of a panel (but beware of the possibility of out-of-date contradictory labelling in the back of the panel). It is easy to turn away from a panel and turn back to the wrong adjacent panel. This is a particular razard in dual panels. Apply warning labels and scroen off the adjacent panels that are out of your zone of work Do check that all terminal connections are ful'y tight. [tis a general rule that if protection wiring connsctions of commissioned protection equipment have been removed and replaced for any reason, the protection must be fully rechecked to prove that it is stil functioning correctly, Don't forget about intertripping. During testing you could be sending intertrips to remote places, have you isolated? Don't forget to remove all test connections and temporary shorts after completion of work. Count them up as you use them. Count them back as you retrieve them, Don't forget to replace all fuses and links after completion of the work, It may be worthwhile to have a check lst Don’t use binding wire for temporary shorts or test connections. It can be completely invisible and overlooked after work has been completed. Don't make mistakes, but if you do Don't try to cover them up. Valuable time and effort ean be wasted trying to finda fault that was human error. Self eee What should you NOT do if you make a mistake? WHY? Comments ean be found in your Course Guide Commissioning and acceptance tests—_—_—— Test equipment Protection Management & Site Considerations 27 tenance and inspection tests Quite apart from the legal obligation to Keep all electrical supply equipment in serviceable condition, there is an ecanomic ease for regular protective maintenance and inspection of protection equipment. The actual maintenance work and the level of inspection to be carried out (also its frequency), will be a matter of company policy ‘This policy is produced using manufacturers’ recommendations, statistical information and engineering opinion and will be regularly reviewed and ‘updated in the light of recent experience and technical developments MAlsid-down procedure should be set— together with a test and inspection form for each item of equipment. ™ Aplanned maintenance timetable covering all the protection ‘equipment should be produced The test results will be kept on file so that any changes or trends in results over a number of years can be seen, @ Asystem for dealing with and recording additional corrective work to protection equipment will also be required This work is generated by techrical circulars (often generated by the supply companies or Ue manufacturers themselves) describing design or manufacturing weaknesses and faults that have been discovered and require attention. ‘Typically, the test engineer's basic test equipment will contain the following: MH Analogue multimeters to measure voltage, current and resistance Digital multimeters with more advanced measuring facilities ~ capacitance, frequency, harmonic content, dB, true RMS etc. > A500V insulation tester A multi-range tong ammeter ™ Asmore and more electronic and digital equipment is being used, he may also carry a portable PC for interrogating, collecting data and setting digital protection relays, fault recorders or telecontrol utstations | A portable oscilloscope may be carried to check and measure VF or carrier signalling. Items of gear such as injection test transformers of various sizes and outputs, variable auto transformers, a wide range of current transformers, ring and split ring type, variable d.c. power supply units, overvoltage test units, purpose-designed relay injection test sets for various types of relay (typically for IDMT and distance relays) Routine maintenance and inspection tests28 An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems Increasing use is now made of fully-automatic test equipment with wide and flexible applications. This equipment basically comprises voltage and current injection units controlled by computer or microprocessor. ‘The voltage and current injection units are differentin that they are not directly driven from the a.c. mains supply. They produce the voltage and current waveforms electronically ~ making it easy for the computer to control their outputs. The action of the test unit is entirely controlled by software so all the key tests for a particular protection relay or system can be pre-programmed. At the touch of a button, the equipment commences a routine of setting appropriate levels of current, voltage, phase angle and frequency ~ as dictated by the software programme. All the test results can then be committed to computer storage or printed out. ‘The equipment can change its specialised test unit rele by a mere change of software. Apart from the multi-role ability, the automatic test sot requires less skill to operate (although a clear knowledge of how to connect it up is required). It also relieves the chore of manually recording test results and offers a consistency of measurement. There is also the ability to send the results directly into a central data store without any risk of translation from paper errors. Routine maintenance and inspection tests| { | Protection Management & Site Considerations 29) ult vestigations System faults need reliable detection and clearance from the system quickly ~ with a minimum of disturbance and loss of load. When a fault does occur, information on how it was detected and cleared provides a monitor on how well the protection has operated. It may give an indication of the likely location of the fault, the extent of damage to be ‘expected and the amount of stress thesystem (particularly the switchgear has been subjected to. Initially, the right information on exactly what has operated may be vital in getting supplies restored quickly ~ and getting the system back to normal. Modern telecontrol systems and the use of fault recorders can help by logging every event. Whether ar not these are available, it is good practice for anyone arriving on site at a substation or switching station to take note of every relay, alarm and in¢ication operation. These notes should be written down before anything is operated or reset as the human memory ean be very fallible— especially under urgent and stressful fault situations. They can be useful in deciding the right course of action ta restore cupplics and make the situation normal They can become vital clues to the subsequent investigations to find out what went wrong if there has been a protection malfunction or failure, ‘The protection operated ean often give ¢ clue as to where the fault may lie for example, operation of the sensitive earth fault protection may indicate ‘remote overhead line fault, restricted earth fault protection with no Buchholz operation could indicate a fault on the transformer tails Modern digital fault recorders can store information on current amplitude, eycle by cycle. The peak current and fault duration indicates the clearance duty imposed on the circuit breaker. The information may also be used to give fault distance and an analysis of protection and circuit breaker performance. The stored data van be extracted on site into a computer or printer or downloaded via modem and telephone line to @ remote point or downloaded directly into the telecontrol system. Fig 7.9 (overleaf) shows sample traces of a system fault. Note the spurious ‘Block Receive’ on event channel 4 — also the time delay for the second main protection trip relay to operate, This is an actual record and shows that some remedial work is needed! Fault investigations80 An In luction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems 79 pial tat recorder reed Fault investigationsProtection Management & Site Considerations 31 Appendix 1: Commissioning tests check schedule 1. Tests associated with a.c, circuit diagrams Prior to tests all ac. circuit diagrams should be identified and listed, ex: CTNT tests Primary injections Secondary injections Metering Atthe end of the tests all a.c. circuit diag confirmed as proven ns should be checked and Insulation resistance tests 2 Tests associated with d.c. circuit diagrams Prior to tests all dc. circuit diagrams should be identified and listed, eg: Secondary injection of d.c. relays Dic. cirenit diagram logic tests, At the end of the tests all dic. circuit diagrams should be checked and confirmed as proven 3 Batteries 110 volt battery and distribution board tests 48 volt battery and distribution bosrd tests 4 Plant Circuit breaker tests Disconnector tests Busbar resistance tests ‘Transformer tests Reactor tests Capacitor bank tests High voltage cable teste Earth switch tests Interlocking tests 5. Signalling Power line carrier coupling equipment tests Power line carrier end to end tests Private wire/communications medium line run tests Intertrip equipment test Intertrip end to end test Protection signal equipment test Protection signal end to end test ‘Appendix 1; Commissioning tests check scheduleB2__An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems 6 Auxiliary supplies Diesel generator tests LV ac. supplies tests Compressor tests 7 Earthing ‘Substation earth mat tests ‘Substation ‘Rise of Earth Potential’ profile tests 8 Control Substation control equipment proving test. Substation control equipment inputs and outputs test to substation Control Point (a) controls (>) analogues (transducers) (©) indications (d) alarms (e) telegraph Substation control equipment end to end tests fa) control centre (b) Remote operating point Control telephony tests DAR off-load simulation tests Appendix 1: Commissioning tests check schedule1 10 a 2 18 “4 15 16 wv 18. 19 20 Appendix 2: cue ce ten} inspection schedule Protection Management & Site Considerations 38 Confirm correct cireuit nomenclature: each item of Plant each relay paneVeubicle control board OHL cireuit colours OHL downdroppers Phase colours of transformers and quadrature boosters: ‘Substation aerials and dawndroppers Cable Sealing Ends Confirm no igement of safety clearances Confirm application of locks to plant/kiosks/panels Confirm status of mechanical interlock keys and boxes Confirm each plant item mechanical position indicator is showing appropriate position (including tap position indicator) Confirm position of all valves (eg Transformer cooling equipment) Confirm satisfactory indication of all pressure gauges Confirm no obvious damage to Flant (eg insulators, cables, paintwork) Confirm adequacy of key cabinets Confirm all equipment is satisfactorily earthed Confirm correct position of all LY supply switches Confirm satisfactory condition of battery supplies (visually/on meters) Confirm all fuses/links replaced and correct label nomenclature Check al test connections removed Confirm tightness of all wiring terminations Check paneVeubicle wiring against wiring diagram Check paneVeubicle layouts against layout diagram Confirm all current transformer test links normal Confirm all visible relay settings correctly applied in accordance with setting sheet Review status of Safety and Commissioning Certificates, and test documentation Appendix 2: Pre-energisation inspection schedule34 An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems Appendix Energisation - considerations and procedure 1 Temporary protection & automatic switching arrangements f@) >) fe) Identify any temporary protection and automatic switching, arrangements which willbe in force during the equipment, ‘energisation and on-load test period, State the range of protection cover and fault clearance time(s) for temporary protection arrangements ~ confirm settings applied. Identity points in the programme where there is unavoidable depletion of protection. Identify the backup protection whieh may operate and the estimated fault clearance time. 2 Initial Conditions fa) i) fe) @ we wo w® th) a Confirm earth switches are open and locked Confirm that disconnectors are closed and motorised, disconnector fuses replaced Confirm ali VT secondary supplies fuses replaced Confirm that circuit breakers are open Confirm that all alarms are reset Confirm the transformer tap position, and the position of any other equipment which has range selector Confirm the state of protection equipment. A circuit is usually energised with all protection normal and in service Confirm that auto switching/reclose and Automatic Voltage Control (AVC) equipment is switched out of service Confirm the status of all substation remote control equipment 3. Equipment energisation and on-load commissioning test fa) (>) (e) Itemise any checks to be carried out on high voltage equipment Itemise on-load tests to be carried out ti) Verification of CT ratios (ii) Verification of metering (iii) Verification of protection (iv) Verification of control equipment State sequence of events required to disable any temporary protection 4 Restoration fa) Confirm the status of all equipment at the end of the tests Appendix 3: Energisation ~ considerations and procedureProtection Management & Site Considerations 35 5 On-load Auto Switching/Reclose Tests fa) Record (the starting conditions (ii) the type of test simulated (iii) _ the protection to be operated (iv) the circuit breakers waich trip and reclose; any disconnecters that open (v) point at which trip relays reset, (vi) time in seconds corresponding to the above 6 AVC or other Automatic Equipment Tests (a) These should be carried out in accordance with a schedule of such tests, Appendix 3: Energisation ~ considerations and procedure86 _An Introduction to the Protection of Transmission and Distribution Systems