EE251 Notes0 - Power System Models PDF
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Jovan LabrigasEE251 Notes0 - Power System Models PDF
Uploaded by
Jovan LabrigasElectrical & Electronics Engineering Institute
University of the Philippines Diliman
EE 251
Fault Studies
Review Notes
Power System Models
Prof. Rowaldo del Mundo
Associate Professor
Power System Models
Transmission & Distribution Lines
Transformers
Generators
Electric Utility (Power Grid)
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Transmission & Distribution Lines
Sequence Impedance
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Positive Sequence Impedance
For a transposed three-phase transmission line
Z1 Z2 r1 jx1 /mile/phase
r1 = resistance per unit length of one phase
conductor or bundle
x1 = reactance per unit length of one phase
Dm
x1 2.02 x 103 f ln /mile/phase
Ds
f = power frequency (Hertz)
Dm = Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
Ds = Geometric Mean Radius (GMR)
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Geometric Mean Distance
Typical three-phase line configurations
D12 D23
D31
D12
D12 D23
D31
Dm 3 D12D23D31
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Geometric Mean Radius
For a solid conductor with radius r
1
Ds r 4
0.78r
Bundle of Two Bundle of Four
d
d
d
Ds Dscd
Ds 1.09 4 Dscd3
Note: Dsc=GMR of a single conductor
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Aluminum Conductors
Aluminum is preferred over copper as a material
for transmission lines due to:
• lower cost
• lighter weight
• larger diameter for the same resistance*
Note: *This results in a lower voltage gradient at
the conductor surface (less tendency for corona)
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Stranded Conductors
Alternate layers of wire of a Steel
stranded conductor are
spiraled in opposite directions
to prevent unwinding and
make the outer radius of one
layer coincide with the inner Aluminum
radius of the next.
The number of strands depends on the number
of layers and on whether all the strands are of
the same diameter. The total number of strands
of uniform diameter in a concentrically stranded
cable is 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, etc.
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Example: Each conductor of the 345 kV bundled
three-phase line shown is 1272 MCM ACSR 54/19
Pheasant. Assuming complete transposition and a
total length of 80 miles, determine the positive-
sequence impedance of the line. Assume d=45 cm
and D=8 meters.
d
From a table of conductor D D
characteristics, we get
r = 0.0821 /mile @ 50oC
Dsc = 0.0466 ft = 0.0142 m
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We get
Dm 3 8(8)(16) 10.08 m
Ds 0.0142(0.45) 0.08 m
The total resistance per phase
R1 0.0821(80)(0.5) 3.28
The total reactance per phase
10.08
X1 2.02 x 10-3(60)(80) ln 46.9
0.08
The positive (or negative) sequence impedance of
the line
Z1 Z2 3.28 j46.9 / phase
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Transmission Line Inductance
The total self-inductance of a cylindrical conductor
consists of an internal inductance and an external
inductance.
Internal Inductance:
c
Lint Henry/meter
8
Note: c is the permeability of the conductor.For
a non-ferrous conductor such as copper or
aluminum,
c 4 x 10-7 Henry/meter
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External Inductance:
The external inductance may be approximated by
m 2s
Lext (ln 1) Henry/meter
2 r
where
m = permeability of the medium surrounding
the conductor
r = radius of the conductor
s = length of the conductor
Note: For air, m 0 4 x 10-7 Henry/meter
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Self Inductance:
c m 2s
L (ln 1) Henry/meter
8 2 r
For a non-ferrous conductor in air, we get
2s
L 2 x 10-7 (ln 1) Henry/meter
Ds
where Ds is the geometric mean radius of the
conductor
Note: For a solid conductor,
1
Ds r 4
0.78r
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Mutual Inductance:
The mutual inductance between two conductors is
2s
M 2 x 10-7 (ln 1) Henry/meter
Dm
where Dm is the geometric mean distance
between the conductors
Note: For any unit of length,
2s
L k (ln 1) Henry/unit length
Ds
2s
M k (ln 1) Henry/unit length
Dm
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Carson’s Line
Carson examined a single overhead conductor
whose remote end is connected to earth.
za a
a a’
+
Local Remote
Earth
Va Ia za d Earth
-
Fictitious
REF Vd 0 Return
d d’ Conductor
Id zd d
The current returns through a fictitious earth
conductor whose GMR is assumed to be 1 foot (or
1 meter and is located a distance Dad from the
overhead conductor.
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The lineis described
by the following
equations:
Va a' Va Va' za aIa za dId
Vdd' Vd Vd' za dIa zddId
Note: Ia Id , Vd 0 and Va' Vd' 0.
Subtracting the two equations, we get
Va (zaa zdd 2zad)Ia
or
Va za aIa
Note: zaa is the equivalent impedance of the
single overhead conductor.
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Primitive Impedances:
2s
za a ra jL a ra jk(ln 1)
Dsa
2s
zdd rd jk(ln 1)
Dsd
2s
za d jM jk(ln 1)
Da d
ra, rd = resistances of overhead conductor and
fictitious ground wire, respectively
Dsa, Dsd = GMRs of overhead conductor and
fictitious ground wire, respectively
Note: Dsd is arbitrarily set to 1 unit length
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Earth Resistance:
Carson derived an empirical formula for the earth
resistance.
rd 1.588 x 10-3 f /mile
9.869 x 10-4 f /km
where f is the power frequency in Hz
Note : At 60 Hz,
rd 0.09528 /mile
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Equivalent Impedance:
Substitute the primitive impedances into
za a za a zdd 2za d
We get 2
D
za a (ra rd ) jk ln a d
DsaDsd
Note: 1. Dsd=1 unit length
2
D
2. Define De a d
Dsd
We get
De
za a (ra rd ) jk ln /unit length
Dsa
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The quantity De is a function of frequency and
earth resistivity.
De 2160 / f feet
Typical values of De are tabulated below.
Return Earth Resistivity De
Condition (-m) (ft)
Sea water 0.01-1.0 27.9-279
Swampy ground 10-100 882-2790
Average Damp Earth 100 2790
Dry earth 1000 8820
Sandstone 109 8.82x106
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Three-Phase Line Impedances
Extend Carson’s
analysis to a three-phase line
Ia za a
a a’
Ib zb b za b zca b’
b
+
+ Ic zcc zb c
Va c c’
All wires
- Vb + za d grounded
- Vc zb d here
- zcd
REF
Vd 0
d d’
Id zd d
1 unit length
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The voltage equation describing the line is
Va a' Va Va' za a za b za c za d I
a
Vbb' V V zba zbb zbc zbd Ib
= b b' =
Vcc' Vc Vc' zca zcb zcc zcd I
c
Vdd' Vd Vd' zda zdb zdc zdd Id
Since all conductors are grounded at the remote
end, we get from KCL
Ia Ib Ic Id 0
or
Id (Ia Ib Ic )
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The voltage equation for the fictitious ground
conductor
is
Vd Vd' zadIa zbdIb zcd Ic zddId
which can be re-written as
Vd' zadIa zbdIb zcd Ic zdd(Ia Ib Ic )
Combining terms, we get
Vd' (zad zdd)Ia (zbd zdd)Ib (zcd zdd)Ic
Following a similar procedure, the voltage
equation
for phase a can be shown to be
Va Va' (zaa zad)Ia (zab zad)Ib
(zac zad)Ic
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Subtracting the the voltage equation of the ground
conductor from the equation of phase a, we get
Va (Va' Vd' ) (zaa 2zad zdd)Ia
(zab zad zbd zdd)Ib
(zac zad zcd zdd)Ic
Since Va' Vd' 0 , we get
Va (zaa 2zad zdd)Ia
(zab zad zbd zdd)Ib
(zac zad zcd zdd)Ic
or
Va zaaIa zabIb zacIc
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We can also subtract the voltage equation of the
ground conductor from the equations of phases b
and c. The resulting matrix equation is
Va za a za b za c I
a
Vb = za b zbb zbc Ib V/unit length
Vc za c zbc zcc Ic
Self Impedances:
za a za a 2za d zdd /unit length
zbb zbb 2zbd zdd /unit length
zcc zcc 2zcd zdd /unit length
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Mutual Impedances:
za b za b za d zbd zdd /unit length
zbc zbc zbd zcd zdd /unit length
za c za c za d zcd zdd /unit length
Primitive Impedances:
2s
zx x rx jk(ln 1) /unit length
Dsx x=a,b,c,d
2s
zx y jk(ln 1) /unit length
Dx y xy=ab,bc,ca,ad,bd,cd
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Assumptions:
1. Identical phase conductors
Ds Dsa Dsb Dsc
2. Distances of the overhead conductors to the
fictitious ground conductor are the same
De Dad Dbd Dcd
We get
D
za a zbb zcc (ra rd ) jk ln e
Ds
De
zx y rd jk ln /unit length
Dx y xy=ab,bc,ca
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Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the
69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0
hard-drawn copper, 19 strands which operate at
25oC. The line is 40 miles long. Assume an earth
resistivity of 100 -meter.
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC 10’ 10’
Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz a b c
De
za a zbb zcc (ra rd ) jk ln
Ds
(0.278 0.095) j0.121 ln 0.01668
2790
0.373 j1.459 /mile
Za a 14.93 j58.38
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za b zbc 0.095 j0.121 ln 2790
10
0.095 j0.683 /mile
Za b 3.81 j27.33
za c 0.095 j0.121 ln 2790
20
Za c 3.81 j23.97
We get
14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33 3.81 j23.97
Zabc= 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33
3.81 j23.97 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38
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Line Transposition
Line transposition is used to make the mutual
impedances identical.
Ia
Phase c
Pos.1
Ib
Phase a
Pos.2
Ic
Phase b
Pos.3
s1 s2 s3
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
Note: Each phase conductor is made to occupy
all possible positions.
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Voltage equation for Section 1
Va Z111 Z121 Z131 I
a
Vb = Z211 Z221 Z231 Ib volts
Vc Z311 Z321 Z331 Ic
Voltage equation for Section 2
Vc Z112 Z122 Z132 I
c
Va = Z212 Z222 Z232 I volts
a
Vb Z312 Z322 Z332 Ib
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Voltage equation for Section 3
Vb Z113 Z123 Z133 Ib
Vc = Z213 Z223 Z233 I volts
c
Va Z313 Z323 Z333 Ia
The total voltage drop for phase a
Va Z111Ia Z121Ib Z131Ic
Z212 Ic Z222 Ia Z232 Ib
Z313 Ib Z323 Ic Z333 Ia
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Va (Z111 Z222 Z333 )Ia
(Z121 Z232 Z313 )Ib
(Z131 Z212 Z323 )Ic
By a similar procedure, we get for phases b and c
Vb (Z211 Z322 Z133 )Ia
(Z221 Z332 Z113 )Ib
(Z231 Z312 Z123 )Ic
Vc (Z311 Z122 Z233 )Ia
(Z321 Z132 Z213 )Ib
(Z331 Z112 Z223 )Ic
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If the line is not transposed and we only have
Section 1, the equation of the line will be
Va Z11 Z12 Z13 I
a
Vb = Z21 Z22 Z23 Ib Volts
Vc Z31 Z32 Z33 Ic
where
De
Z11 Z22 Z33 (ra rd )s jks ln
Ds
De
Zx y rds jks ln
Dx y xy=ab,bc,ca
S = length of the line
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Define f1, f2 and f3 as as the ratios of s1, s2 and s3
to the total length s, respectively. We get
Va (f1Z11 f2Z22 f3Z33)Ia
(f1Z12 f2Z23 f3Z31)Ib
(f1Z13 f2Z21 f3Z32)Ic
Vb (f1Z21 f2Z32 f3Z13)Ia
(f1Z22 f2Z33 f3Z11)Ib
(f1Z23 f2Z31 f3Z12)Ic
Vc (f1Z31 f2Z12 f3Z23)Ia
(f1Z32 f2Z13 f3Z21)Ib
(f1Z33 f2Z11 f3Z22)Ic
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Define:
Zk1 f1Z12 f2Z23 f3Z13
Zk2 f1Z13 f2Z12 f3Z23
Zk3 f1Z23 f2Z13 f3Z12
Zs Z11 Z22 Z33
Substitution gives
Va Zs Zk1 Zk 2 I
a
Vb = Zk1 Zs Zk 3 Ib Volts
Vc Zk 2 Zk 3 Zs Ic
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It can be shown that
De
Zs (ra rd )s jks ln
Ds
D D D
Zk1 rds jks f1ln e f2 ln e f3 ln e
D12 D23 D31
D D D
Zk2 rds jks f1ln e f2 ln e f3 ln e
D31 D12 D23
D D D
Zk3 rds jks f1ln e f2 ln e f3 ln e
D23 D31 D12
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Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the
69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0
hard-drawn copper, 19 strands which operate at
25oC. The line is 40 miles long. Assume s1=8
miles, s2=12 miles and s3=20 miles.
10’ 10’
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC
a b c
Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz
Section 1
Assuming no transposition, we get
14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33 3.81 j23.97
Zabc= 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33
3.81 j23.97 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38
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Solving for the mutual impedances, we get
Zk1 f1Z12 f2Z23 f3Z13
0.2(3.81 j27.33) 0.3(3.81 j27.33)
0.5(3.81 j23.97)
3.81 j25.65
Similarly, we get
Zk2 f1Z13 f2Z12 f3Z23 3.81 j26.66
Zk3 f1Z23 f2Z13 f3Z12 3.81 j26.32
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The impedance matrix of the transposed line is
14.93 j58.38 3.81 j25.65 3.81 j26.66
Zabc= 3.81 j25.65 14.93 j58.38 3.81 j26.32
3.81 j26.66 3.81 j26.32 14.93 j58.38
For comparison, the impedance matrix of the
untransposed line is
14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33 3.81 j23.97
Zabc= 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33
3.81 j23.97 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38
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Example: For the same line assume the
following transposition cycle:
s1=16 miles s2=24 miles s3=0
It can be shown that
14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33 3.81 j25.99
Zabc= 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38 3.81 j25.31
3.81 j25.99 3.81 j25.31 14.93 j58.38
Note: Even an incomplete transposition has a
significant effect in reducing the unbalance in the
mutual impedances.
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Completely Transposed Line
If s1=s2=s3, the line is completely transposed. We
get
Va Zs Zm Zm I
a
Vb = Zm Zs Zm Ib Volts
Vc Zm Zm Zs Ic
where
De
Zs (ra rd )s jks ln
Ds
De
Zm 13 (Z12 Z23 Z13) rds jks ln
Dm
Ds, Dm = GMR and GMD, respectively
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Example: For the same line assume a complete
transposition cycle.
10’ 10’
The GMD is
a b c
Dm 3 10(10)(20) 12.6 feet
We get the average of the mutual impedances.
Zm 3.81 j26.21
The impedance of the transposed line is
14.93 j58.38 3.81 j26.21 3.81 j26.21
Zabc= 3.81 j26.21 14.93 j58.38 3.81 j26.21
3.81 j26.21 3.81 j26.21 14.93 j58.38
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Phase- to Sequence-Impedances
Consider a transmission line that is described by
the following voltage equation:
Va Za a Za b Za c I
a
Vb = Za b Zbb Zbc Ib volts
Vc Za c Zbc Zcc Ic
or
Va bc Za bcIa bc
From symmetrical components, we have
Va bc AV012 and Ia bc A I012
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Substitution gives
AV012 Za bcA I012
or 1
V012 A Za bcA I012
which implies that
Z012 A 1ZabcA
Performing the multiplication, we get
Z0 Zs0 2Zm0 Zs2 Zm2 Zs1 Zm1
Z1 = Zs1 Zm1 Zs0 Zm0 Zs2 2Zm2
Z2 Zs2 Zm2 Zs1 2Zm1 Zs0 Zm0
Note: Z012 is not symmetric.
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It can be shown that
Zs0 1
3
(Za a Zbb Zcc )
Zs1 1
3
(Zaa aZbb a2Zcc )
Zs2 1
3
(Zaa a2Zbb aZcc )
Zm0 1
3
(Za b Zbc Zca )
Zm1 1
3
(a2Zab Zbc aZca )
Zm2 1
3
(aZab Zbc a2Zca )
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If the line is completely transposed,
Zs0 Zs Zm0 Zm
Zs1 Zs2 0 Zm1 Zm2 0
The sequence impedance matrix reduces to
Z0 Zs 2Zm 0 0
Z1 = 0 Zs Zm 0
Z2 0 0 Zs Zm
Note: The sequence impedances are completely
decoupled.
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For a completely transposed line, the equation in
the sequence domain is
Va0 Z0 0 0 Ia0
Va1 = 0 Z1 0 I
a1
Va2 0 0 Z2 Ia2
where
Dm
Z1 Z2 ras jks ln
Ds
3
De
Z0 ras 3rds jks ln 2
DsDm
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Example: For the same line and assuming a
complete transposition cycle, find the sequence
impedances of the line.
10’ 10’
In the previous example, a b c
we got
Zs 14.93 j58.38
Zm 3.81 j26.21
The sequence impedances are
Z0 Zs 2Zm 22.55 j110.80
Z1 Z2 Zs Zm 11.12 j32.17
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Completely Transposed Line
For a three-phase transmission line that is
completely transposed:
1. The sequence impedances are completely
decoupled; that is
Va0 Z0 Ia0 V Z1Ia1
a1
Va2 Z2 Ia2
2. The application of balanced three-phase
voltages at the sending end results in
balanced three-phase line currents; that is
only positive-sequence components exist.
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Incomplete Transposition
The resulting circuit unbalance due to incomplete
transposition is measured in terms of the zero-
and negative-sequence line currents that arise
when positive-sequence voltages are applied at
the sending end.
For a partially-transposed transmission line,
Va zs zk1 zk 2 I
a
Vb = zk1 zs zk 3 Ib V/unit length
Vc zk 2 zk3 zs Ic
or
Va bc za bcIa bc
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where
De
zs (ra rd ) jk ln
Ds
D D D
zk1 rd jk f1ln e f2 ln e f3 ln e
D12 D23 D31
D D D
zk 2 rd jk f1ln e f2 ln e f3 ln e
D31 D12 D23
D D D
zk 3 rd jk f1ln e f2 ln e f3 ln e
D23 D31 D12
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Transform the phase impedances into sequence
impedances.
z012 A 1zabcA
which gives
z0 zs 2zm0 zm2 zm1
z1 = zm1 zs zm0 2zm2
z2 zm2 2zm1 zs zm0
where
zm0 1
3
(zk1 zk 2 zk 3 )
zm1 1
3
(a2zk1 azk2 zk3 )
zm2 1
3
(azk1 a2zk2 zk3 )
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The elements of z012 can be shown to be
z00 zs 23 (zk1 zk2 zk 3 )
z01 13 (azk1 a2zk2 zk3 )
z02 13 (a2zk1 azk2 zk3 )
z10 z02
z11 zs 13 (zk1 zk 2 zk 3 )
z12 2z01
z20 z01
z21 2z02
z22 z11
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Assume that balanced voltages are applied at the
sending end;
that is
Va0 0 and Va2 0
We can re-write the voltage equation
Va0 z00 z01 z02 Ia0
Va1 = z10 z11 z12 I
a1
Va2 z20 z21 z22 Ia2
into
0 z00Ia0 z01Ia1 z02Ia2
Va1 z10Ia0 z11Ia1 z12Ia2
0 z20Ia0 z21Ia1 z22Ia2
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The unbalanced
factor are defined as:
I I
m0 a0 and m2 a2
Ia1 Ia1
It can be shown that
z02z21 z01z22
m0
z00z22 z20z02
z20z01 z00z21
m2
z00z22 z20z02
Note: For the untransposed 40-mile line,
m0 1.05472.68o %
m2 6.624139.14o %
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Lines with Overhead Ground Wire
Ia za a
a
a’
Ib zb b za b zca
b
b’
+ Ic zcc zb c
c
c’
Va + I zww za d
- Vb + w w w’
-
Vc + zb d All wires
- Vw zcd grounded
- here
REF
Vd 0
d’
d
Id zd d
1 unit length
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The primitive voltage equation is
Va Va' za a za b za c za w za d I
a
Vb Vb' zba zbb zbc zbw zbd Ib
V/unit
Vc Vc' = zca zcb zcc zcw zcd I
c length
0 Vw' zwa zwb zwc zww zwd Iw
0 Vd' zda zdb zdc zdw zdd Id
From KCL, we get
Ia Ib Ic Iw Id 0
or
Id (Ia Ib Ic Iw )
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29
The last equation may be written as
Vd' zdaIa zdbIb zdcIc zdwIw
zdd(Ia Ib Ic Iw )
or
Vd' (zda zdd)Ia (zdb zdd)Ib
(zdc zdd)Ic (zdw zdd)Iw
Following the same procedure, the equation for
phase a can be expressed as
Va Va' (zaa zad)Ia (zab zad)Ib
(zac zad)Ic (zaw zad)Iw
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Subtracting the last equation from the first, we get
Va (Va' Vd' ) (zaa zad zda zdd)Ia
(zab zad zdb zdd)Ib
(zac zad zdc zdd)Ic
(zaw zad zdw zdd)Iw
Since Va' Vd' 0, the equation can be simplified
to
Va zaaIa zabIb zacIc zawIw
Note: The same procedure can be applied to the
equations describing phases b and c, and the
overhead ground wire w.
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We get
Va za a za b za c za w I
a
Vb zba zbb zbc zbw Ib
=
Vc zca zcb zcc zcw I
c
Vw zwa zwb zwc zww Iw
where Vw 0 and
De
zx x (rx rd ) jk ln x=a,b,c,w
Dsx
De
zx y rd jk ln xy=ab,ac,aw,
Dx y bc,bw,cw
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Kron’s Reduction
Consider the matrix equation
V1 Z1 Z2 I1
=
0 Z3 Z4 I2
where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are also matrices. Suppose
we want to eliminate the current vector I2.
Expanding, we get
V1 Z1I1 Z2I2 (1)
0 Z3I1 Z4I2 (2)
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From eq. 2, we get
1
I2 Z4 Z3I1
which is substituted in eq. 1 to get
1
V1 Z1I1 Z2 (Z4 Z3I1 )
or
1
V1 (Z1 Z2Z4 Z3 )I1
Go back to the voltage equation of the line.
Va za a za b za c za w I
a
Vb zba zbb zbc zbw Ib
=
Vc zca zcb zcc zcw I
c
0 zwa zwb zwc zww Iw
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We wish to eliminate Iw , where
za a za b za c za w
T
Z1 = zba zbb zbc Z2 = zbw = Z3
zca zcb zcc zcw
Z4 zww
We get
za wzwa za wzwb za wzwc
za a za b za c
zww zww zww
z z z z z z
z a b c = zba bw wa
zww
zbb bw wb
zww
zbc bw wc
zww
z z z z z z
zca cw wa zcb cw wb zcc cw wc
zww zww zww
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32
Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the
69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are the
same as in the previous examples. The overhead
ground wires have the following characteristics:
rw=4.0 /mile @ 25oC w
Dsw=0.001 ft @ 60 Hz
For the ground wire, we get 15’
D
zww (rw rd ) jk ln e 10’ 10’
Dsw a b c
(4.0 0.095) j0.121 ln 2790
0.001
4.095 j1.8 /mile
Zww 163.8 j72
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De
za w zcw rd jk ln
Da w
0.095 j0.121 ln 18.03
2790
/mile
Za w Zcw 3.81 j24.47
zbw 0.095 j0.121 ln 2790
15 /mile
Zbw 3.81 j25.36
From a previous example, we got
14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33 3.81 j23.97
Z1= 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38 3.81 j27.33
3.81 j23.97 3.81 j27.33 14.93 j58.38
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Using the ground wire impedances, we also get
3.81 j24.47
T
Z2 = 3.81 j25.36 = Z3
3.81 j24.47 Z4 163.8 j72
Performing the Kron reduction, we get
17.5 j56.11 6.48 j25.0 6.38 j21.7
Zabc = 6.48 j25.0 17.71 j55.97 6.48 j25.0
6.38 j21.7 6.48 j25.0 17.5 j56.1
Note: The self impedances are no longer equal.
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Current Division
How much current is flowing in the overhead
ground wire? Under zero-sequence condition,
Ia Ib Ic Ia0
The primitive voltage equation reduces to
Va Va' za a za b za c za w za d Ia0
Vb Vb' zba zbb zbc zbw zbd Ia0
V/unit
Vc Vc' = zca zcb zcc zcw zcd Ia0
length
0 Vw' zwa zwb zwc zww zwd Iw
0 Vd' zda zdb zdc zdw zdd Id
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From KCL, we get
Id Iw 3Ia0
The last equation may be written as
Vd' (zda zdb zdc)Ia0 zdwIw zddId
Similarly, for the overhead ground wire
Vw' (zwa zwb zwc )Ia0 zww Iw zwd Id
Subtracting the two equations, we get
0 [(zwa zwb zwc ) (zda zdb zdc)]Ia0
(zww zdw)Iw (zwd zdd)Id
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Since Id (3Ia0 Iw ) , we get
0 [(zwa zwb zwc ) (zda zdb zdc)]Ia0
(zww zdw)Iw (zwd zdd)(3Ia0 Iw )
Combine
common terms and get the ratio of Iw to
3Ia0 . We get
Iw (zwa zwb zwc ) (zda zdb zdc ) 3(zdd zwd )
3Ia0 3(zww zwd zdw zdd)
Recall that
zwx zwx zwd zdx zdd x=a,b,c,w
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Substitution gives
Iw zwa zwb zwc
(a)
3Ia0 3zww
From Id Iw 3Ia0 , we get
Id I
1 w
3Ia0 3Ia0
Substitute eq. (a) to get
Id z zwb zwc
(b) 1 wa
3Ia0 3zww
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Take the ratio of eq. (a) to eq. (b). We get
Iw zwa zwb zwc
Id 3zww (zwa zwb zwc )
Define:
zag 13 (zwa zwb zwc )
Dag 3 DwaDwbDwc
We get
Iw za g
Id zww za g
where
De
zag rd jk ln
Dag
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36
Line Transposition
Consider a transmission line with one overhead
ground wire. Assume that the line is transposed.
Ground wire
Ia
Phase c
Pos.
Ib
Phase a
Pos.
Ic
Phase b
Pos.
s1 s2 s3
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
The impedance matrix for each section can be
found using Kron’s reduction.
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For Sections 1 and 2, we get
z z z z z wzw
z w w z w w z
zww zww zww
zwzw z z zwzw
z f 1 = z z w w z
z ww z ww zww
z wzw z wzw z wzw
z z z
zww zww zww
zwzw zwzw zwzw
z z z
zww zww zww
z wzw z wzw z wzw
zf 2 = z z z
zww zww zww
z wzw z wzw z z
z z z w w
zww zww zww
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Similarly, for Sections 3, we get
z wzw z wzw z wzw
z z z
zww zww zww
z wzw z z z wzw
z f 3 = z z w w z
zww zww zww
zwzw zwzw zwzw
z z z
zww zww zww
It can be shown that
Va I
a
Vb s(f1Zf1 f2Zf 2 f3Zf 3 ) Ib
Vc Ic
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If the line is completely transposed, the impedance
matrix becomes symmetric.
z s zm z m
z a b c = zm z s z m /unit length
z m zm z s
where the diagonal elements are
zs 13 (z z z )
z z z z z z
13 w w w w w w
zww zww zww
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The off-diagonal elements are
zm 13 (z z z )
z z z z z z
13 w w w w w w
zww zww zww
The sequence impedance matrix will be diagonal.
z00 0 0
z012 = 0 z11 0 /unit length
0 0 z22
where
z00 zs 2zm and z11 z22 zs zm
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Solving for the positive-sequence impedance,
z11 13 (z z z ) 13 (z z z )
z z z z z z
13 w w w w w w
zww zww zww
z z z z z z
13 w w w w w w
zww zww zww
Simplifying the first two terms, we get
D
1
3
(z z z ) (ra rd ) jk ln e
Ds
De
1
3
(z z z ) rd jk ln
Dm
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The last two terms can be shown to be equal to
(k)2 M
1
3
z ww
where
De 2 D D
M (ln ) (ln e )2 (ln e )2
Dw Dw Dw
D D D D
(ln e )(ln e ) (ln e )(ln e )
Dw Dw Dw Dw
De D
(ln )(ln e )
Dw Dw
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Likewise,
De
zww (rw rd ) jk ln
Dww
For most transmission line configurations,
De Dw , Dw or Dw
This means M 0. Under this assumption,
Dm
z11 ra jk ln /unit length
Ds
Note: This is the formula for the positive sequence
impedance of a transposed line without ground
wires.
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40
The zero-sequence impedance can be shown to be
2
z0(m)
z00 z0(a) /unit length
z0(g)
where
3
De
z0(a) (ra 3rd ) jk ln 2
DsDm
De
z0(m) 3rd j3k ln
3 DwDwDw
z0(g) 3zww
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Example: For the previous example, assume that
the line is completely transposed. Find the phase
and sequence impedances.
From the previous example, we got
17.5 j56.11 6.48 j25.0 6.38 j21.7
Zf1 = 6.48 j25.0 17.71 j55.97 6.48 j25.0
6.38 j21.7 6.48 j25.0 17.5 j56.1
Assuming a complete transposition cycle, we get
Zs 13 [2(17.5 j56.11) 17.71 j55.97]
17.57 j56.06
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Zm 13 [2(6.48 j25.0) 6.38 j21.7]
6.45 j23.9
17.57 j56.06 6.45 j23.9 6.45 j23.9
Zabc= 6.45 j23.9 17.57 j56.06 6.45 j23.9
6.45 j23.9 6.45 j23.9 17.57 j56.06
For comparison, Zabc below is for a completely
transposed line without the overhead ground wire.
14.93 j58.38 3.81 j26.21 3.81 j26.21
Zabc= 3.81 j26.21 14.93 j58.38 3.81 j26.21
3.81 j26.21 3.81 j26.21 14.93 j58.38
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The sequence impedances are
Z00 Zs 2Zm
30.47 j103.86
Z11 Z22 Zs Zm
11.12 j32.17
Note: When the effect of the ground wire was not
taken into account, we got
Z0 22.55 j110.8
Z1 11.12 j32.17
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Steel Ground Wires
The overhead Grade E.B.B. 7 Strands
3/8 inch Diameter
ground wires are 10-3 15
Geometric Mean Radius (ft)
usually high- 13
10-5
strength steel or
Resistance (/mile)
10-7 11
some alloy of GMR
steel. This poses a 10-9 9
problem since the 10-11 7
resistance and 5
10-13
GMR of these Resistance
conductors vary 10-15 3
with current. 10-17 1
10-19
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Amperes per Cable
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Example: For the previous example, assume that
the line is completely transposed. Find the phase
and sequence impedances. The overhead ground
wire is 3/8 inch E.B.B.
The zero-sequence impedance of the phase wire
3
De
z0(a) (ra 3rd ) jk ln 2
DsDm
27903
0.278 3(0.095) j0.121 ln
(0.017)(12.6)2
0.564 j2.77 /mile
or
Z0(a) 22.55 j110.8
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The zero-sequence impedance of the ground wire
De
z0(g) 3zww 3(rw rd ) j3k ln
Dww
The resistance and GMR of the ground wire is a
function of the current. For 1A, 30A and 60A, we
get for E.B.B.
rw= 3.5 /mile at 1A
= 7.8 /mile at 30A
= 6.0 /mile at 60A
Dsw= 10-3 ft at 1A
= 5 x 10-12 ft at 30A
= 1.5 x 10-10 ft at 60A
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For 1A, we get
2790
z0(g) 3(3.5 0.095) j3(0.121) ln
103
10.79 j5.4 /mile at 1A
or
Z0(g) 431.4 j216 at 1A
For 30A and 60A, we get
Z0(g) 947.4 j494 at 30A
Z0(g) 731.4 j410.8 at 60A
The GMD between the phase wires and the ground
wire is
Dag 3 (18.03)2 (15) 16.96 ft
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The zero-sequence mutual impedance is
De
z0(m) 3rd j3k ln
Dag
2790
3(0.095) j3(0.121) ln
16.96
0.29 j1.86 /mile
Z0(m) 11.43 j74.28
The zero-sequence impedance is found from
2
Z0(m)
Z00 Z0(a)
Z0(g)
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Substitution gives
Z00 31.0 j102.65 at 1A
Z00 18.86 j107.06 at 30A
Z00 27.21 j105.89 at 60A
Note: For comparison, we got the following zero-
sequence impedances from previous examples:
No overhead ground wire:
Z00 22.55 j110.8
Non-ferrous overhead ground wire:
Z00 30.47 j103.86
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Parallel Multicircuit Lines
Consider the double-circuit transmission line
shown. One circuit is designated abc and the
other a’b’c’. Each circuit may be untransposed or
partially transposed.
m Ia bc n
Za b c
Ia'b'c'
Za'b'c'
Let us determine the unbalance factors for this
transmission line configuration.
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The voltage equation that describes the line is
Va Zaa Zab Zac Zaa' Zab' Zac' I
a
Vb Zba Zbb Zbc Zba' Zbb' Zbc' Ib
Vc Z Zcb Zcc Zca' Zcb' Zcc' I
= ca c
Va' Za'a Za'b Za'c Za'a' Za'b' Za'c' I
a'
Vb' Zb'a Zb'b Zb'c Zb'a' Zb'b' Zb'c' Ib'
Vc' Zc ' a Zc'b Zc'c Zc'a' Zc'b' Zc'c' Ic'
Note: The effect of earth and any overhead
ground wire has already been incorporated in the
equation.
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Using matrix notation, we get
Va b c Zaa Zaa' Ia b c
=
Va'b'c' Za'a Za'a' Ia'b'c'
The unbalance factors are expressed in terms of
the ratio of sequence currents. Thus, the above
equation must be inverted. Doing so, we get
I Ya a Ya a' Va b c
abc =
Ia'b'c' Ya'a Ya'a' Va'b'c'
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It can be shown that
1
Ya a Za a KL1 K t Yaa' KL1
t
Ya'a Ya a' Ya'a' L1
where
1 1
K Za a Za a' K t Za'a Za a
1
L Za'a' Za'a Za a Za a'
From symmetrical components, we get
I A 0 I
abc = 012
Ia'b'c' 0 A I0'1'2'
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Performing the transformation, we get
I A 1Ya aA A 1Ya a'A V012
012 =
I0'1'2' A 1Ya'aA A 1Ya'a'A V0'1'2'
Assume that the voltages at both ends of the line
contain positive sequence components only. We
get
0 0
Va1 1
V012 0 0
= = Va1
V0'1'2' 0 0
Va'1 1
0 0
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Note that Va1 Va'1 since the lines are bused at
both
ends. Substitution gives
Ia0 Y00 Y01 Y02 Y00' Y01' Y02' 0
I Y10 Y11 Y12 Y10' Y11' Y12' 1
a1
I Y Y21 Y22 Y20' Y21' Y22' 0
a2 = 20 Va1
Ia'0 Y0'0 Y0'1 Y0'2 Y0'0' Y0'1' Y0'2' 0
I Y1'0 Y1'1 Y1'2 Y1'0' Y1'1' Y1'2' 1
a'1
Ia'2 Y2'0 Y2'1 Y2'2 Y2'0' Y2'1' Z2'2' 0
Solving for the sequence currents, we get
Ia0 (Y01 Y01' )(Va1 )
Ia2 (Y21 Y21' )(Va1 )
Ia1 (Y11 Y11' )(Va1 )
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Ia'0 (Y0'1 Y0'1' )(Va1 )
Ia'2 (Y2'1 Y2'1' )(Va1 )
Ia'1 (Y1'1 Y1'1' )(Va1 )
Define the net through unbalance factors as
I Ia'0
m0t a0 per unit
Ia1 Ia'1
I Ia'2
m2t a2 per unit
Ia1 Ia'1
Define the net circulating current unbalance factors
as Ia0 Ia'0
m0c per unit
Ia1 Ia'1
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Ia2 Ia'2
m2c per unit
Ia1 Ia'1
Solving for the unbalance factors, we get
m0t (Y01 Y01' Y0'1 Y0'1' ) / Y1
m2t (Y21 Y21' Y2'1 Y2'1' ) / Y1
m0c (Y01 Y01' Y0'1 Y0'1' ) / Y1
m2c (Y21 Y21' Y2'1 Y2'1' ) / Y1
where
Y1 Y11 Y11' Y1'1 Y1'1'
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Electric Field of a Long Conductor
Consider a long, isolated cylindrical conductor with
a uniform positive charge density q and located in
a homogeneous medium.
The flux density at a distance x from the center is
q q
D âr Coul/m2 +
2x x
âr
The electric field intensity is
D q
E âr Volt/m
2x
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Transmission & Distribution Lines
Sequence Capacitance
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Voltage Due to Charged Conductor
Consider two points P1 and P2 which are located at
distances D1 and D2 from the center of the
conductor.
D1 P1
The voltage drop from
P1 to P2 is P2
D2 D2
v12 D1
E dx
q
D2
D1 2x dx
q D
ln 2 Volts
2 D1
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Capacitance of a Two-Wire Line
The capacitance between two conductors is defined
as the charge on the conductors per unit of
potential difference between them.
Consider the two cylindrical conductors shown.
qa qb
Due to charge qa, we get the voltage drop vab.
qa D
va b ln
2 ra
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Due to charge qb, we also get the voltage drop vba.
qb D
vba ln
2 rb
or q D q r
va b b ln b ln b
2 rb 2 D
Applying superposition, we get the total voltage
drop from charge qa to charge qb.
qa D q r
va b ln b ln b
2 ra 2 D
Since qa+qb=0, we get
qa D2
vab ln Volts
2 rarb
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In general, ra=rb. We get
qa D
va b ln Volts
r
The capacitance between conductors is
qa
Ca b Farad/meter
Va b D
ln
r
The capacitance to neutral is
2
Ca n Cbn 2Ca b Farad/meter
D
ln
r
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Three-Phase Line
Consider a three-phase trans- qb
mission line with equilateral
spacing. Assume identical
phase conductors and neglect D D
the effect of ground. Assume
qa qb qc 0 qa D qc
The voltage drop from a to b is
1 D r D
vab q ln q ln q ln
2 D
a b c
r D
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Likewise, the voltage drop from a to c is
1 D D r
vac qa ln qb ln qc ln
2 r D D
Adding the two equations, we get
1 D r
vab vac 2q ln (q q ) ln
2 D
a b c
r
Since qa=-(qb+qc), we get
3qa D
vab vac ln Volts
2 r
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Phasor Diagram:
Vca Vcn Va b
Va b Va n( 330o )
Va c Va n( 3 30o ) Va n
Vab Vac 3Van
Vbn Va c
We get
qa D
van ln
2 r Vbc
The capacitance to neutral is
qa 2 Farad/meter,
Ca n Cbn Ccn
va n D to neutral
ln
r
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Capacitance of a Transposed Line
Consider a three-phase transmission line with
unsymmetrical spacing. Assume that the line is
completely transposed.
qa Phase c
Pos.1
qb Phase a
Pos.2
qc Phase b
Pos.3
1
3
s 1
3
s 1
3
s
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
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For section 1, we get b
D12 D23
a D31 c
1 D12 r D
v a b1 qa ln qb ln qc ln 23
2 r D12 D31
1 D31 D r
vac1 qa ln qb ln 23 qc ln
2 r D12 D31
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For section 2, we get a
D12 D23
c D31 b
1 D23 r D31
v ab2 q
a ln qb ln qc ln
2 r D23 D12
1 D12 D r
v a c2 qa ln qb ln 31 qc ln
2 r D23 D12
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For section 3, we get c
D12 D23
b D31 a
1 D31 r D
v a b3 qa ln qb ln qc ln 12
2 r D31 D23
1 D23 D r
v a c3 qa ln qb ln 12 qc ln
2 r D31 D23
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The average voltage from phase a to phase b
vab 13 (vab1 vab2 vab3 )
Substitution gives
1 D12D23D31 r3
vab (qa ln qb ln
6 r3 D12D23D31
D D D
qc ln 12 23 31 )
D12D23D31
which simplifies to
1 Dm r
va b qa ln qb ln
2 r Dm
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Similarly, we get
1 Dm r
va c q
a ln qc ln
2 r Dm
Taking summation, we get
1 Dm r
va b va c 2qa ln (qb qc ) ln
2 r Dm
Since vab+vac=3van and qa=-(qb+qc), we get
3 D
3van qa ln m Volts
2 r
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or
1 D
van qa ln m Volts
2 r
The capacitance of phase a to neutral is
qa 2 Farad/meter,
Ca n
va n D to neutral
ln m
r
Since the line is completely transposed,
Ca n Cbn Ccn
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Capacitive Reactance
1
xc
2fC
2.862 D -meter,
x 109 ln m
f r to neutral
1.779 D -mile, to
x 106 ln m neutral
f r
Note: To get the total capacitive reactance, divide
xc by the total length of the line.
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Equivalent Circuit
A lumped-parameter representation is used for
short and medium-length lines. For long lines, a
distributed-parameter model is used.
Short Line: Up to 80 kilometers (50 miles)
Z=R+jL
+
+
Vs Is VR
- -
Vs Z Is VR
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Medium-Length Line: From 80 km (50 mi) to
240 km (150 mi)
Z=R+jL
+ +
I IR
Vs s 1
2
YC jC
1
2
1
2
YC VR
- -
It can be shown that
Vs ( 12 ZYc 1)VR Z IR
Is Yc ( 14 ZYc 1)VR ( 12 ZYC 1)IR
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Example: A single-circuit 60-Hz 3-phase line is
100 miles long. The phase conductors are Drake
with flat horizontal configuration and 23.8 feet
between conductors. Determine the positive-
sequence equivalent circuit of the line.
Drake: 795 MCM ACSR 26/7
ra=0.1284 /mi @50oC
GMR=0.0373 ft.
diameter=1.108 in.
Dm 3
2(23.8)3 30 ft
30
x1 0.121 ln 0.812 /mi
0.0373
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Z1 0.1284 j0.812 /mi
Z1 12.84 j0.81.16
1.779 D -mile, to
xC x 106 ln m neutral
f r
1.779 30
x 106 ln 1
60 24
(1.108)
192,034 -mile, to neutral
XC 1,920.34 , to neutral
1
YC j j520.74 x 10-6 -1
XC
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Mutual Capacitance
In capacitance calculations, the earth is assumed
as a perfectly conducting plane. The electric field
that results is the same if an image conductor is
used for every conductor above ground.
+qb
Dab +qc
Dac
Dan +qn
+qa
Haa
Hab Hac Han
-qa
-qn
-qc
-qb
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The voltage drop from conductor a to ground is
va v a a'
1
2
1 H H H
(qa ln a a qb ln a b ... qn ln a n
4 ra Da b Da n
ra D D
qa ln qb ln a b ... qn ln a n )
Ha a Ha b Ha n
Combining common terms, we get
1 H H H
va (qa ln a a qb ln a b ... qn ln a n )
2 ra Da b Da n
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In general, for the kth overhead conductor
1 H H H
vk (qa ln a k qb ln bk ... qk ln k k
2 Da k Dbk rk
Hnk
... qn ln )
Dnk
Using matrix notation, we get
va Pa a Pa b Pa c ... Pa n qa
vb Pba Pbb Pbc ... Pbn qb
=
…
…
…
vn Pna Pnb Pnc ... Pnn qn
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where
1 H
Pk k ln k k
2 rk
1 H
Pk j ln k j
2 Dk j
Inversion of matrix P gives
Ca a Ca b Ca c ... Ca n
Cba Cbb Cbc ... Cbn
C =
…
Cna Cnb Cnc ... Cnn
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Recall the definition of the admittance of a
capacitor.
Yc jC
The bus admittance matrix is defined as
Ya a Ya b Ya c ... Ya n
Yba Ybb Ybc ... Ybn
Ybus =
…
Yna Ynb Ync ... Ynn
Ykk=sum of admittances connected to bus k
Ykj=negative of admittance connected from node
k to node j
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For a purely capacitive system, we get
jCa a jCa b jCa c ... jCa n
jCba jCbb jCbc ... jCbn
Ybus =
…
jCna jCnb jCnc ... jCnn
Thus, we can conclude that for the C matrix
Ckk=sum of capacitances connected to node k
Ckj=negative of the capacitance connected from
node k to node j
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The difference between the magnitude of a
diagonal element and its associated off-diagonal
elements is the capacitance to ground. For
example, the capacitance from a to ground is
Cag Caa Cab Cac ... Can
Can
Equivalent n
Circuit
Cab b Cbn
Cbc
a Cac Ccn
c Cng
Cag Cbg
Ccg
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Transposed Three-Phase Line
qa Phase c
Pos.1
qb Phase a
Pos.2
qc Phase b
Pos.3
1
3
s 1
3
s 1
3
s
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
The voltage equation for section 1 is
va Pa a Pa b Pa c qa
vb = Pba Pbb Pbc qb Volts
vc Pca Pcb Pcc qc
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Using matrix inversion, we get the capacitance.
Ca a Ca b Ca c
Cabc = P-1 = Cba Cbb Cbc
Cca Ccb Ccc
The equivalent circuit is shown below.
b
Cab
Cbc
a Cac
c
Cag Cbg
Ccg
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Since the line is completely transposed, the mutual
and ground capacitances are averaged values.
Average Mutual Capacitance
Cm0 13 (Ca b Cbc Ca c) Farad/meter
Average Capacitance to Ground
Cg0 13 (Cag Cbg Ccg ) Farad/meter
or
Cg0 13 [(Ca a Ca b Ca c) (Cbb Ca b Cbc)
(Ccc - Ca c - Cbc)]
13 (Caa Cbb Ccc ) 23 (Cab Cbc Cac)
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The average capacitance to ground can be
expressed as
Cg0 Cs0 2Cm0
where
Cs0 13 (Caa Cbb Ccc )
Cm0 13 (Ca b Cbc Ca c) b
Cm0
Cm0
The equivalent circuit Cm0
a
is shown. c
Cg0 Cg0
Cg0
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Sequence Capacitance
Using matrix notation, we have
Iabc YabcVabc
Iabc jCabcVabc
From Vabc AV012 and Ia bc A I012, we get
A I012 jCabcAV012
or 1
I012 jA CabcAV012
Thus, we have
C012 A 1CabcA
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If the line is completely transposed,
Cs0 Ca a Cbb Ccc
Cm0 Ca b Cbc Ca c
Substitution gives
(Cs0 2Cm0 ) 0 0
C012 = 0 (Cs0 Cm0 ) 0
0 0 (Cs0 Cm0 )
or
C0 Cs0 2Cm0
C1 C2 Cs0 Cm0
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66
Example: Determine the phase and sequence
capacitances of the transmission line shown. The
phase conductors are 477 MCM ACSR 26/7 whose
radius is 0.0357 ft. The line is 50 miles long and is
completely transposed.
14’ 14’
Calculate distances
a b c
Haa=Hbb=Hcc=80 ft
Hab=Hbc=81.2 ft 40’
Hac=84.8 ft
Find the P matrix
1 H
Pa a Pbb Pcc ln a a
20 ra
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For air,
1
0 x 10-9 Farad/meter
36
Substitution gives
80
Paa 18 x 109 ln
0.0357
138.86 x 109 Meter/Farad
86.29 x 106 Mile/Farad
Similarly, we get
1 H
Pa b Pbc ln a b
20 Da b
19.66 x 106 Mile/Farad
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The P matrix can be shown to be
86.29 19.66 12.39
P= 19.66 86.29 19.66 x 106 mi/F
12.39 19.66 86.29
Using matrix inversion, we get the C matrix.
12.34 2.54 1.19
C = 2.54 12.75 2.54 x 10-9 F/mi
1.19 2.54 12.34
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For 50 miles, we get
6.17 1.27 0.60
C = 1.27 6.38 1.27 x 10-7 F
0.60 1.27 6.17
The capacitances to ground are
Cag Caa Cab Cac 0.43 F
Cbg Cbb Cab Cbc 0.38 F
Ccg Ccc Cbc Cac 0.43 F
Since the line is transposed,
Cg0 13 (Cag Cbg Ccg ) 0.41 F
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The self- and mutual capacitances are
Cs0 13 (Ca a Cbb Ccc ) 0.62 F
Cm0 13 (Ca b Cbc Cca ) 0.105 F
The sequence capacitances are b
Cm0
C0 Cs0 2Cm0 Cm0
a Cm0
0.41 F c
Cg0 Cg0
C1 C2 Cs0 Cm0 Cg0
0.725 F
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Transposed Line with Ground Wires
Consider a three-phase transmission line with one
overhead ground wire. Assume that the line is
completely transposed.
qw Ground wire
qa Phase c
Pos. 1
qb Phase a
Pos. 2
qc Phase b
Pos. 3
1
3
s 1
3
s 1
3
s
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
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The voltage equation for section 1 is
va Pa a Pa b Pa c Pa w qa
vb Pba Pbb Pbc Pbw qb
=
vc Pca Pcb Pcc Pcw qc
vw Pwa Pwb Pwc Pww qw
where vw=0 and the elements of P are
1 H
Pk k ln k k k=a,b,c,w
2 rk
1 H kj=ab,ac,aw,
Pk j ln k j
2 Dk j bc,bw,cw
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Using Kron’s reduction, we get
Pa wPwa Pa wPwb Pa wPwc
Pa a Pa b Pa c
Pww Pww Pww
PbwPwa P P P P
P’ = Pba Pbb bw wb Pbc bw wc
Pww Pww Pww
P P P P P P
Pca cw wa Pcb cw wb Pcc cw wc
Pww Pww Pww
Since the P matrix is real, the elements of the P’
matrix are smaller compared to the P matrix.
Since the C matrix is the inverse of P’, the
resulting capacitances are bigger compared to the
case where there is no ground wire.
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70
Example: Determine the phase and sequence
capacitances of the transmission line shown. The
phase conductors are 477 MCM ACSR 26/7 whose
radius is 0.0357 ft. The overhead ground wires
are 3/8 inch E.B.B. steel. The line is 50 miles long
and is completely transposed. w u
In a previous example, we 14’
got the P matrix without 15’
14’ 14’
the ground wires.
86.29 19.66 12.39 a b c
P = 19.66 86.29 19.66 x 106 mi/F 40’
12.39 19.66 86.29
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With the ground wires, we get
86.29 19.66 12.39 Pa w Pa u
19.66 86.29 19.66 Pbw Pbu
P = 12.39 19.66 86.29 P Pcu
cw
Pwa Pwb Pwc Pww Pwu
Pua Pub Puc Puw Puu
where rw ru 0.5( 38 )(12
1
) 0.016 ft
1 110
Pww Puu ln
20 0.016
99.1 x 106 Mile/Farad
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It can be shown that the P matrix is
86.3 19.7 12.4 14.8 19.6
19.7 86.3 19.7 19.6 19.6
P=
14.8 x 10 Mi/F
6
12.4 19.7 86.3 19.6
14.8 19.6 19.6 99.1 23.1
19.6 19.6 14.8 23.1 99.1
The P matrix can be expressed as
P1 P2
P=
P3 P4
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where
86.3 19.7 12.4
P1 = 19.7 86.3 19.7 x 106 mi/F
12.4 19.7 86.3
14.8 19.6
P2 = P3 = 19.6 19.6
T x 106 mi/F
19.6 14.8
99.1 23.1
P4 = x 106 mi/F
23.1 99.1
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Using Kron’s reduction,
1
Pa bc P1 P2P4 P3
or
81.30 14.15 7.69
Pabc = 14.15 80.02 14.15 x 106 mi/F
7.69 14.15 81.30
Inverting the P matrix, we get
12.75 2.11 0.84
Cabc = 2.11 13.24 2.11 x 10-9 F/mi
0.84 2.11 12.75
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For 50 miles, we get
0.64 0.11 0.04
Cabc = 0.11 0.66 0.11 x 10-6 F
0.04 0.11 0.64
Capacitances to ground
Cag Caa Cab Cac 0.49 F
Cbg Cbb Cab Cbc 0.45 F
Ccg Ccc Cbc Cac 0.49 F
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Assuming a complete transposition cycle,
Cg0 13 (Cag Cbg Ccg ) 0.48 F
Cs0 13 (Ca a Cbb Ccc ) 0.65 F
Cm0 13 (Cab Cbc Cca ) 0.084 F
The sequence capacitances are
C0 Cs0 2Cm0 0.48 F
C1 C2 Cs0 Cm0 0.73 F
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Electrostatic Unbalance
In the system shown, assume Va n , Vbn and Vcn
are positive-sequence voltages. The line is not
transposed.
a
Ia
a’
+
Va n Ib Ca b
b
Vcn - -
Vbn b’
+ + Cbc C ca
c
Ic
c’
+
+ + +
Vn Va Vb Vc Ccg Cbg Cag
- - -
-
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The charging
current
at no-load
condition
Iabc jCabcVabc jBabcVabc
Transforming to sequence components, we get
I012 jA 1CabcAV012 jB012V012
From KVL, we get
Van Va Vn Vbn Vb Vn
Vcn Vc Vn
or
V 1
an
Va bc = Vbn + 1 Vn
Vcn 1
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Pre-multiply by A-1. We get
V
n Note: Vn is a zero-sequence
V012 Va n
= voltage.
0 There is no negative-
sequence voltage.
From I012 jB012V012, we get the sequence
charging currents.
Ia0 B00 B01 B012 Vn
Ia1 = j B10 B11 B12 Va n
Ia2 B20 B21 B22 0
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Expanding, we get
Ia0 jB00Vn jB01Van
Ia1 jB10Vn jB11Van
Ia2 jB20Vn jB21Van
Case 1: Neutral Ungrounded
If the neutral is ungrounded, Ia0 0. Electrostatic
unbalance is defined in terms of the sequence
voltages. It can be shown that
V V C
d0 a0 n 00
Va1 Va n C01
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It can be shown that
C00 Cs0 2Cm0
C01 Cs2 Cm2
where
Cs0 13 (Caa Cbb Ccc )
Cs2 13 (Caa a2Cbb aCcc )
Cm0 13 (Cab Cbc Cca )
Cm2 13 (aCab Cbc a2Cca )
Substitution gives
Ca g a2Cbg aCcg
d0
3Cg0
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Case 2: Neutral Grounded
If the neutral is grounded, Vn 0. Electrostatic
unbalance is defined in terms of the sequence
currents. It can be shown that
2
Ia0 Ca g a Cbg aCcg
d0
Ia1 3(Cg0 3Cm0 )
Note: Electrostatic unbalance may be reduced by
1. addition of ground wires
2. increase spacing between wires
3. Phase conductor arrangement
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Transformers
Sequence Impedance
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Ideal Two-Winding Transformer
NH NX
+ +
I IX
VH H VX
_ _
VH N
Voltage Equation: H
VX NX
The voltage drop from the polarity-marked
terminal to the non-polarity-marked terminal of
the H winding is in phase with the voltage drop
from the polarity-marked terminal to the non-
polarity-marked terminal of the X winding.
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Ideal Two-Winding Transformer
NH NX
+ +
I IX
VH H VX
_ _
Current Equation: NHIH NX IX
The current that enters the H winding through the
polarity-marked terminal is in phase with the
current that leaves the X winding through the
polarity-marked terminal.
Note: Balancing ampere-turns must be satisfied at
all times.
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Ideal Autotransformer
IH nS
VH nC
IC IX VX
NH=nS+nC=number of turns of the H side
NX=nC=number of turns of the X side
From voltage division, we get
VH n nC N
S H
VX nC NX
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In order for ampere-turns to be balanced
nS IH nC IC
But from KCL, we get
IC IX - IH
Substitution gives
nS IH nC (IX - IH )
which simplifies to
(nS nC )IH nC IX
or NHIH NX IX
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Transformer Polarity
H1 H2 H1 H2
Subtractive Additive
X1 X2 X2 X1
“Single-phase transformers in sizes 200 kVA and
below having high-voltage ratings 8660 volts and
below (winding voltage) shall have additive
polarity. All other single-phase transformers shall
have subtractive polarity.” (ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-
1993)
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Practical Transformer
1. The H and X coils have a small resistance.
2. There are leakage fluxes in the H and X coils.
3. There is resistance loss in the iron core.
4. The permeability of the iron is not infinite.
iH iX
+ +
vH eH eX vX
- NH NX -
iron
core
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Equivalent Circuit
RH jXH Ie x NH NX R X jXX
+ + + +
IH R IX
VH c jXm EH EX VX
- - - -
H winding Ideal X winding
RH, XH=resistance and leakage reactance of H coil
RX, XX=resistance and leakage reactance of X coil
Rc, Xm=core resistance and magnetizing
reactance
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Approximate Equivalent Circuit
RH jXH NH N R X jXX
X
+ + + +
IH IX
VH EH EX VX
- - - -
Referred to the H side, we get
R eq jXeq NH
a
+ + NX
I 1I
VH H a X aVX R e q R H a2R X
- - Xeq XH a2XX
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Three-Winding Transformer
NX
NH +
+ IX VX
IH _
VH +
_
NY IY VY
_
VH N VH N VX N
H H X
VX NX VY NY VY NY
NHIH NX IX NY IY
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Three-Winding Autotransformer
+
I
NY Y V
IH _Y
VH NH
NX IX V
X
VH N VH N VX N
H H X
VX NX VY NY VY NY
NHIH NX IX NY IY
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Equivalent Circuit
From 3 short-circuit tests, get
ZHX=impedance measured at the H side when the
X winding is short-circuited and the Y winding
is open-circuited
ZHY=impedance measured at the H side when the
Y winding is short-circuited and the X winding
is open-circuited
ZXY=impedance measured at the X side when the
Y winding is short-circuited and the H winding
is open-circuited
Note: When expressed in ohms, the impedances
must be referred to the same side.
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ZX
ZH +
+
ZY +
VX
VH
- VY -
-
ZHX ZH ZX
ZXY ZX ZY
ZHY ZH ZY
or
ZH 1
2
(ZHX ZHY ZXY )
ZX 1
2
(ZHX ZHY ZXY )
ZY 1
2
(ZHX ZHY ZXY )
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Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer
has the following nameplate rating:
H: 30 MVA 140 kV
X: 30 MVA 48 kV Y:
10.5 MVA 4.8 kV
Short circuit tests yield the following impedances:
ZHX = 63.37 @ the H side
ZHY = 106.21 @ the H side
ZXY = 4.41 @ the X side
Find the equivalent circuit in ohms, referred to the
H side.
ZXY (140
48
)2(4.41) 37.52
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With all impedances referred to the H side, we get
ZH 12 (63.37 106.21 37.52) 66.03
ZX 12 (63.37 106.21 37.52) 2.66.
ZY 12 (63.37 106.21 37.52) 40.18
2.66
66.03 +
+
+ VX
VH 40.18
- VY -
-
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Angular Displacement
ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-1993: The angular displace-
ment of a three-phase transformer is the time
angle (expressed in degrees) between the line-to-
neutral voltage of the high-voltage terminal
marked H1 and the the line-to-neutral voltage of
the low-voltage terminal marked X1.
The angular displacement for a three-phase trans-
former with a - or Y-Y connection shall be 0o.
The angular displacement for a three-phase trans-
former with a Y- or -Y connection shall be 30o,
with the low voltage lagging the high voltage.
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Vector Diagrams
H2 X2 H2
X2
X1
X1 X3
H1 H3 H1 H3 X3
- Connection Y- Connection
H2 X2 H2 X2
X1
X1 X3 X3
H1 H3 H1 H3
Y-Y Connection -Y Connection
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Wye-Wye Connection
HV side LV side
H2 X2
N n
H1 H3 X1 X3
VH2N
VX 2n
VX1n VX3n
VH1N VH3N
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The choice of phases A, B and C is arbitrary. Let
H1=A, H2=B, H3=C. Also let X1=a, X2=b, X3=c.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX 2n Vbn
Va n and VAN
are in phase.
VX1n VX3n Va n Vcn
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Let H1=A, H2=B and H3=C. Also let X1=c, X2=a
and X3=b.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX 2n Va n
Va n lags VAN
by 120o.
VX1n VX3n Vcn Vbn
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Let H1=A, H2=B and H3=C. Also let X1=b, X2=c
and X3=a.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX 2n Vcn
Va n lags VAN
by 240o.
VX1n VX3n Vbn Va n
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Wye-Wye Connection
HV side LV side
H2 X2
N n
H1 H3 X1 X3
VH2N
VX3n VX1n
VH1N VH3N VX 2n
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The choice of phases A, B and C is arbitrary. Let
H1=A, H2=B, H3=C. Also let X1=a, X2=b, X3=c.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX3n VX1n Vcn Va n
Va n lags VAN
by 180o.
VX 2n Vbn
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88
Let H1=A, H2=B and H3=C. Also let X1=c, X2=a
and X3=b.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX3n VX1n Vbn Vcn
Va n lags VAN
by 300o.
VX 2n Va n
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Let H1=A, H2=B and H3=C. Also let X1=b, X2=c
and X3=a.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX3n VX1n Va n Vbn
Va n lags VAN
by 60o.
VX 2n Vcn
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89
IEC Designation
The International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) uses the face of a clock in identifying the
phase shift. 0
IEC Designation for -
10 2
Dd0 Dd2 Dd4
Dd6 Dd6 Dd10
8 4
IEC Designation for Y-Y
Yy0 Yy6 6
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the
H winding; the second letter defines the connection
of the X winding; the number designates the angle.
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Phase and Line Voltages
Consider a set of balanced 3-phase line-to-neutral
voltages with asequence a-b-c. From
Vbn
Vab Van Vnb
we get
Vab Van Vbn V an
Similarly, we get Vbc Vbn Vcn V
cn
Vca Vcn Van Vb c
Va n lags Va b by 30o Vbn
Vbn lags Vb c by 30o Va n
Vcn lags Vca by 30o Va b V
Vcn ca
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90
Consider a set of balanced 3-phase line-to-neutral
voltages with asequence
a-c-b. From
Vab Van Vnb Vcn
we get
Vab Van Vbn
Va n
Similarly, weget
Vbc Vbn Vcn Vbn
Vca Vcn Van
Va b Vcn Vca
Va n leads Va b by 30o
Va n
Vbn leads Vb c by 30o
Vbn
Vcn leads Vca by 30o
Vb c
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When the sequence is a-b-c, we define the line-to-
line voltages as Vab, Vbc and Vca. When the
sequence is a-c-b, we must define the line-to-line
voltages as Vac, Vcb and Vba. V cb
Va b Vcn Vca Vcn
Va n Va n
Va c V
Vbn Vbn b a
Vb c Va n lags Va c by 30o
Vbn lags Vb a by 30o
Vcn lags Vcb by 30o
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Y- and -Y Transformers
H2 H2
X2 X2
X1 X1
H1 H3 X3 X3
H1 H3
HV Y – LV
H2 X2
H2 X2
X1
X1
X3
H1 H3
H1 H3
X3
HV - LV Y
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HV Wye – LV Delta
H1 X1
H2 X2
N
H3 X3
VH2N
VX1X2 VX 2n
Sequence
1-2-3 VX1n
VX 2X 3
VX3X1
VH1N VH3N
VX3n
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92
The choice of phases A, B and C is arbitrary. Let
H1=A, H2=B, H3=C. Also let X1=a, X2=b, X3=c.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX 2n Vbn
VX1X2 Va b
VX1n Va n lags VAN
VX 2X 3 Va n Vb c by 30o
VX3X1 Vca
VX3n Vcn
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Let H1=A, H2=B, H3=C. Also let X1=b, X2=c,
X3=a.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX 2n Vcn
VX1X2 Vb c
VX1n
V Va n lags VAN
VX 2X 3 bn Vca by 270o
VX3X1 Va b
VX3n Va n
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93
Let H1=A, H2=B, H3=C. Also let X1=c, X2=a,
X3=b.
VH2N VBN
VH1N VH3N VAN VC N
VX 2n Va n
VX1X2 Vca
VX1n Va n lags VAN
VX 2X 3 Vcn Va b by 150o
VX3X1
Vb c
VX3n Vbn
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HV Wye – LV Delta
H1 X1
H2 X2
N
H3 X3
VH3N VX3n
Sequence VX 3X2
3-2-1 VX1X3 VX 2n
VH1N VH2N VX2X1
VX1n
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94
The choice of phases A, B and C is arbitrary. Let
H1=C, H2=B, H3=A. Also let X1=c, X2=b, X3=a.
VH3N VAN
VH1N VH2N VC N VBN
VX3n
Va n
VX 3X2
Va b
VX1X3
Va n leads VAN
VX 2n Vca Vbn by 30o
VX2X1
VX1n Vb c
Vcn
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Let H1=C, H2=B, H3=A. Also let X1=a, X2=c,
X3=b.
V H3N VAN
VH1N VH2N VC N VBN
VX3n Vbn
VX 3X2 Vb c
VX1X3 VX 2n Va b Vcn Va n leads VAN
by 150o
VX2X1 Vca
VX1n Va n
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95
Let H1=C, H2=B, H3=A. Also let X1=b, X2=a,
X3=c.
V H3N VAN
VH1N VH2N VC N VBN
VX3n Vcn
VX 3X2 Vca
Va n lags VAN
VX1X3 VX 2n Vb c Va n by 90o
VX2X1 Va b
VX1n Vbn
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Phase Shift for Y- or -Y
C H3 X3 c A H3 X3 a
B H2 X2 b B H2 X2 b
A H1 X1 a C H1 X1 c
Van lags VAN by 30o Van lags VAN by 330o
C H3 X3 b A H3 X3 b
B H2 X2 a B H2 X2 c
A H1 X1 c C H1 X1 a
Van lags VAN by 150o Van lags VAN by 210o
A H3 X3 c C H3 X3 a
B H2 X2 a B H2 X2 c
C H1 X1 b A H1 X1 b
Van lags VAN by 90o Van lags VAN by 270o
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IEC Designation
The International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) uses the face of a clock in identifying the
phase shift.
11 1
IEC Designation for Y-
Yd1 Yd5 Yd7 Yd11 9 3
IEC Designation for -Y
Dy1 Dy5 Dy7 Dy11 7 5
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the
H winding; the second letter defines the connection
of the X winding; the number designates the angle.
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HV Delta– LV Wye
H3 X3
H2 X2
n
H1 X1
VH2N VX 2n
Sequence
VH1H2
1-2-3 VH2H3 VX n
1
VH1N V
H3H1
VH3N VX3n
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HV Delta– LV Wye
H3 X3
C c
H2 X2
B b
n
H1 X1
A a
VBN Vbn
VAB VBC Va n Va n lags VAN
by 30o
VAN VC A VC N Vcn
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Positive–Sequence Voltages
Consider a Y- transformer with a 30o phase shift.
B b
H2 X2
X1
N
A H3 X3 c
H1
C a
VBN1 Vbn1
(A-B-C) Va b1
Va n1 lags VAN1
Va n1 Vbc1
by 30o
Vca1
VAN1 VC N1
Vcn1
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Negative–Sequence Voltages
Consider a Y- transformer with a 30o phase shift.
B b
H2 X2
X1
N
A H3 X3 c
H1
C a
VC N2 Vcn2
Va n2 leads VAN2
(A-C-B) Vcb2
by 30o
Va c2 Vbn2
Vba2
VAN2 VBN2 Va n2
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Positive–Sequence Currents
Consider a Y- transformer
with a 30o phase shift.
B H2
Iba1 b
X2
IB1 X1
Ib1
Icb1
IA1 Ic1
A H3 Ia c1 X3
c
IC1 H1 Ia1
C a
Icb1 Ib1
IB1 (A-B-C)
Ia1 lags IA1
Ia1 by 30o
IA1 IC1 Iba1 Ia c1
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Negative–Sequence Currents
Consider a Y- transformer
with a 30o phase shift.
B H2
Iba2 b
X2
Ib2
IB2 X1
Icb2
IA2 Ic2
A H3 Iac2 X3
c
IC2 H1 Ia2
C a
Ic2 Ia c2
IC2
(A-C-B) Ia2 leads IA2
Ib2 by 30o
Iba2 Icb2
IA2 IB2
Ia2
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Example: Consider a 100 MVA 230YG-20 kV
transformer. A single line-to-ground fault at the
230-kV side results in the following line currents:
IA 753 A IB IC 0
Find the line currents in the 20-kV side. Use 100
MVA and 230 kV as bases in the HV side.
Ib B
b X2 H2
IB
Ia
a X IC
Ic 1 C
c H1 H3
X3 A
IA
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100
The Base Currents
Base MVA3 x 1000
Base I
3 Base kVL
100,000
251 A at the 230 kV side
3 (230)
100,000
2,887 A at the 20 kV side
3 (20)
The Per-Unit Phase Fault Currents
IA 3.0 p.u.
IB IC 0
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The Per-Unit Sequence Fault Currents
IA0 3 (IA IB IC ) 1.0 p.u.
1
IA1 13 (IA a IB a2 IC ) 1.0 p.u.
IA2 13 (IA a2 IB a IC ) 1.0 p.u.
The Sequence Fault Currents at the 20-kV side
Ia0 0
Ia1 IA1 30o 1.0 - 30o p.u.
Ia2 IA230o 1.030o p.u.
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The Line Currents at the 20-kV side
Ia Ia0 Ia1 Ia2 1.732 p.u.
Ib Ia0 a2 Ia1 a Ia2 1.732 p.u.
2
Ic Ia0 a Ia1 a Ia2 0
The Line Currents in Amperes
Ia Ib 5,000 A I 0
c N
Check ampere turns: NHIH NX IX or H IH IX
NX
230 / 3
(753) 5,000 (Check)
20
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Three-Phase Transformer Core
3-Legged Core Type
Shell Type
Note: Only the X
4-Legged Core Type windings are shown.
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Three-Legged Transformer Core
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer
uses the minimum amount of core material. For
balanced three-phase condition, the sum of the
fluxes is zero.
Note: For positive- or
negative-sequence flux,
a b c
a b c 0
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Zero Sequence Flux
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer
does not provide a path for zero-sequence flux. On
the other hand, a bank of single-phase units, the
4-legged core type and the shell-type three-phase
transformer provide a path for zero-sequence flux.
30
Note: The zero-sequence
flux leaks out of the core
and returns through the
0 0 0
transformer tank.
3-Legged Core Type
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Positive Sequence Impedance
Whether a bank of single-phase units or a three-
phase transformer unit (core type or shell type),
the equivalent impedance is the same.
Using per-unit values, the positive-sequence
equivalent circuit is
Z1 R1 jX1
+ + Note: The negative-
I I sequence impedance is
VH H X VX equal to the positive-
- - sequence impedance.
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Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 Z1
+
+
VH VX
- -
Z0 Z1
+
+
VH VX
- -
*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
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Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 Z1
+
+
VH VX
- -
Z0 Z1
+
+
VH VX
- -
*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
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Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 Z1
+
+
VH VX
- -
Z0 Z1
+
+
VH VX
- -
*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
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Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
XH XX
+
+
VH Xm VX
- -
XH
+
+
VH Xm VX
- -
*Three-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
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Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
XH
+
+
VH XX Xm VX
- -
XH XX
+
+
VH Xm VX
- -
*Three-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
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Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
XH XX
+
+
VH Xm VX
- -
XH XX
+
+
VH Xm VX
- -
*Three-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
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Example: Consider a two-winding three-phase
transformer with the following nameplate rating:
25 MVA 69 -13.8 YG kV (Dyn1) Z=7%. Draw the
positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use
the transformer rating as bases.
Positive/Negative Zero Sequence
Sequence impedance impedance
Z0=j0.07 Z0=j0.07
+ +
+
+
VH VX VH VX
- - - -
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Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer
has the following nameplate rating: 150/150/45
MVA 138YG-69YG-13.8 kV (Yy0d1).
H-X @ 150 MVA = 14.8%
H-Y @ 45 MVA = 21.0%
X-Y @ 45 MVA = 36.9%
Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent
circuits. Use 100 MVA and the transformer voltage
ratings as bases.
At the chosen MVA base,
ZHX 0.148(100 / 150) 0.10 p.u.
ZHY 0.21(100 / 45) 0.47 p.u.
ZXY 0.369(100 / 45) 0.82 p.u.
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We get
ZH 12 (0.10 0.47 0.82) 0.125 p.u.
ZX 12 (0.10 0.47 0.82) 0.225 p.u.
ZY 12 (0.10 0.47 0.82) 0.595 p.u.
Positive/Negative Zero Sequence
Sequence Network Network
ZX ZX
ZH + ZH +
+ +
ZY + VX ZY + VX
VH VH
-
VY - -
VY -
- -
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Generators
Sequence Impedance
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Generator Sequence Impedances
Positive-Sequence Impedance:
Xd”=Direct-Axis Subtransient Reactance
Xd’=Direct-Axis Transient Reactance
Xd=Direct-Axis Synchronous Reactance
Negative-Sequence Impedance:
X2 12 (Xd"Xq" ) for a salient-pole machine
X2 X d " for a cylindrical-rotor machine
Zero-Sequence Impedance:
0.15Xd " X0 0.6Xd "
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109
Negative Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the negative-
sequence reactance (Method 1)
The machine is operated at rated speed with its
field winding short-circuited. Symmetrical
sinusoidal three-phase currents of negative phase
sequence are applied to the stator. Two or more
tests should be made with current values above
and below rated current, to permit interpolation.
The line-to-line voltages, line currents and electric
power input are measured and expressed in per-
unit.
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Let E = average of applied line-to-line voltages, p.u.
I = average of line currents, p.u.
P = three phase electric power input, p.u.
E
Z2 =Negative Sequence Impedance, p.u.
I
P
R 2 2 =Negative Sequence Resistance, p.u.
I
2 2
X2 Z2 R 2
=Negative Sequence Reactance, p.u.
Note: The test produces abnormal heating in the
rotor and should be concluded promptly.
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110
Zero Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the zero-
sequence reactance (Method 1)
The machine is operated at rated speed with its
field winding short-circuited. A single-phase voltage
is applied between the line terminals and the
neutral point.
Measure the applied
voltage, current and V
electric power.
E A W
Field
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Let E = applied voltage, in p.u. of base line-to-
neutral voltage
I = test current, p.u.
P = wattmeter reading, in p.u. single-phase
base volt-ampere
3E
Z0 =Zero Sequence Impedance, p.u.
I
2
P
X0 Z0 1
EI
=Zero Sequence Reactance, p.u.
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111
Positive Sequence Impedance
The AC RMS component of the current following a
three-phase short circuit at no-load condition with
constant exciter voltage and neglecting the
armature resistance is given by
E E E t
I(t) exp
X ds X d ' X ds '
d
E E t
exp
X
d " X '
d "
d
where E = AC RMS voltage before the short circuit.
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The AC RMS component of the short-circuit current
is composed of a constant term and two decaying
exponential terms where the third term decays
very much faster than the second term.
If the first term is subtracted and the remainder is
plotted on a semi-logarithmic paper versus time,
the curve would appear as a straight line after the
rapidly decaying term decreases to zero.
The rapidly decaying portion of the curve is the
subtransient portion, while the straight line is the
transient portion.
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112
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the transient
and subtransient direct axis reactances (Method 1)
The direct-axis transient reactance is determined
from the current waves of a three-phase short
circuit suddenly applied to the machine operating
open-circuited at rated speed. For each test run,
oscillograms should be taken showing the short
circuit current in each phase.
The direct-axis transient reactance is equal to the
ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the value of the
armature current obtained by the extrapolation of
the envelope of the AC component of the armature
current wave, neglecting the rapid variation during
the first few cycles.
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IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the transient
and subtransient direct axis reactances (Method 1)
The direct-axis subtransient reactance is deter-
mined from the same three-phase suddenly applied
short circuit. For each phase, the values of the
difference between the ordinates of Curve B and
the transient component (Line C) are plotted as
Curve A to give the subtransient component of the
short-circuit current.
The sum of the initial subtransient component, the
initial transient component and the sustained
component for each phase gives the corresponding
value of I”.
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Example: Calculation of transient and subtransient
reactances for a synchronous machine
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Ave
(1) Initial voltage 1.0
(2) Steady-state Current 1.4 1.4 1.4
(3) Initial Transient Current 8.3 9.1 8.6
(4) I’ = (2)+(3) 9.7 10.5 10.0 10.07
(5) Xd’ = (1)(4) 0.0993
(6) Init. Subtransient Current 3.8 5.6 4.4
(7) I” = (4)+(6) 13.5 16.1 14.4 14.67
(8) Xd” = (1)(7) 0.0682
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14
12 +
10 +++ Curve B
Current in phase 1 (per unit)
+
8 ++
+ ++
++
6 + ++
Line C
++
5 ++
++
+ +
4 ++
+ +
+ + ++
3
+
2.0
+ Line A
1.5
+
+
1.0
+
0.8
0.6 +
+ Curve A
0.4 +
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time in half-cycles
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Average Generator Reactances
Reactance Turbo Water-Wheel Synchronous
Generators Generators Motors
Xd 1.10 1.15 1.20
Xq 1.08 0.75 0.90
X d‘ 0.23 0.37 0.35
X q‘ 0.23 0.75 0.90
X d” 0.12 0.24 0.30
X q” 0.15 0.34 0.40
X2 0.12 0.24 0.35
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Ungrounded Generator
If the generator is connected ungrounded-wye or
delta, no zero-sequence current can flow. The
sequence networks for the generator are shown
below.
F1 F2 F0
jX1
+ jX2 jX0
Eg
-
N1 N2 N0
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
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115
Grounded-Wye Generator
The sequence networks for the grounded-wye
generator are shown below.
F1 F2 F0
jX1
+ jX2 jX0
Eg
-
N1 N2 N0
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
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If the generator neutral is grounded through an
impedance Zg, the zero-sequence impedance is
modified as shown below.
F1 F2 F0
jX1 jX0
+ jX2
Eg 3Zg
-
N1 N2 N0
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
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Electric Utility (Power Grid)
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
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Thevenin’s Theorem
Any linear active network with output terminals AB can
be replaced by a single voltage source Vth in series with
a single impedance Zth
A A
Linear + Zth
Active Vth
Network -
B B
The Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth is the open circuit voltage
measured at the terminals AB. The equivalent impedance Z th is the
driving point impedance of the network at the terminals AB when
all sources are set equal to zero.
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Utility Fault MVA
Electric Utilities conduct
Electric short circuit analysis at the
Utility Connection Point of their
Grid customers
IF
Fault Customers obtain the Fault
Data at the Connection Point
to represent the Utility Grid
for their power system
analysis
Customer
Facilities
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Utility Fault MVA
Electric Utility provides the Fault MVA and X/R ratio at
nominal system Voltage for the following types of fault:
• Three Phase Fault
Fault MVA3 X/R3
• Single Line-to-Ground Fault
Fault MVALG X/RLG
System Nominal Voltage in kV
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 236
118
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Positive & Negative Sequence Impedance
From Three-Phase Fault Analysis
I TPF
Vf
S TPF V f I TPF
V
f
2
Z1 Z1
Where, Z1 and Z2 are the
equivalent positive-
Z1
kV
2
sequence and
Z 2 negative-sequence
Fault MVA3 impedances of the
utility
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 237
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Zero Sequence Impedance
From Single Line-to-Ground Fault Analysis
I SLGF
3V f
S SLGF V f I SLGF
3Vf
2
Z1 Z 2 Z0 2Z 1 Z 0
Z1 Z 2
2Z 1 Z 0
3Vf
2
Resolve to real and imaginary
S SLGF components then solve for Zo
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 238
119
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Example:
Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per
unit quantities at a connection point for the following
Fault Data:
System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV
Fault MVA3 = 3500 MVA, X/R3 = 22
Fault MVALG = 3000 MVA, X/RLG = 20
The Base Power is 100 MVA
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 239
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Base Power: 100 MVA
Base Voltage: 69 kV
Base Impedance: [69]2/100 = 47.61 ohms
Z1 Z 2
kV 2
69
2
1.3603
Fault MVA3 3500
In Per Unit,
Z actual 1.3603
Z1 Z 2 0.0286 p.u.
Z base 47.61
or
100MVABASE
Z1 Z 2 0.0286 p.u.
3500MVAFAULT
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 240
120
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Solving for the Resistance and Reactance,
[(1 + (X/R)2] tan1 X / R
Z X X/R R Z cos
X Z sin
R 1
R1 0.0286 costan 22 -1
+
0.0013+j0.028571
0.0013 p.u. R2 +
X 1 0.0286 sintan -1 22
V f 10
-
-
0.028571 p.u. X 2
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 241
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
For the Zero Sequence Impedance,
3000MVASLGF ( actual )
SLGFP .U . 30 p.u .
100MVABASE
69kV
VoltageP .U . 1.0 p.u .
69kV
2Z 1 Z 0
3Vf
2
31.0
2
0.1
S SLGF 30
Re al2 Z 1 Z 0 0.1cos tan-1 20 0.004994 p.u.
Im ag2 Z 1 Z 0 0.1sintan -1
20 0.099875 p.u.
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 242
121
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
2 Z 1 Z 0 0.004994 j0.099875
Z 0 0.004994 j0.099875 20.0013 j0.028571
0.003694 j0.042733 p.u.
+ + +
0.0013+j0.028571
+ 0.0013+j0.028571 0.003694 j0.042733
V f 10
-
- - -
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 243
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Example:
Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per
unit quantities at a connection point for the following
Fault Data:
Pos. Seq. Impedance = 0.03 p.u., X/R1 = 22
Zero Seq. Impedance = 0.07 p.u., X/R0 = 22
System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV
Base Power = 100 MVA
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 244
122
Equivalent Circuit of Utility
The equivalent sequence networks of the Electric
Utility Grid are:
+ + +
R1 +jX1
+ R2 +jX2 R0 +jX0
Eg
-
- - -
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuits
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 245
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Institute EE 251 – Fault Studies
University of the Philippines Diliman 246
123
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