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COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING-EC8395
UNIT I
ANALOG COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of conveying or transferring of information

fromnetonepointoanoher point. Information can be image, text or any other data. Communication

betweenrequires
any twoapoin s or plac
medium in sbetween them. This medium can be wired or wireless medium. The
information hat ds to be transmitted may not be in a form that is suitable for all medium. It needs to be
process d. This proc ssing of raw information to convert it into a form that is suitable for a medium is
called as modulation.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can be of two types- Analog & Digital

In Analog communication the transmit information is continuous in nature, whereas in digital communication
it is discrete in nature.

Source Transmitter Transmission Receiver Destination

Chann l

B sic block i gr m for communication System

Information from the source should be mo ul ted before transmission to enable proper transmission of
information from transmitter to receiver. The process of modifying or changing any characteristics of any
signal is called modulation Any sign l h s three ch racteristic they are

1. Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
MODULATION:

The process of changing any one of the characteristics of carrier signal with respect to information signal
is kno n as modulation.

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TYPES OF MODULATION

Modulation is classified into two types they are, Analog modulation and Digital modulation. In
analog modulation both information and carrier signal are analog in nature, whereas in digital information
signal is digital but carrier signal is analog.

Modulation

Analog modulation Digital modulation

padeepz
AM FM PM ASK FSK PSKQAM

AM (Amplitude modulation):

It is the process of changing the amplitude of high frequency carrier signal in accordance with
low frequency information signal. Here frequency and phase angle of carrier remains unchanged.

FM (Frequency modulation):

It is the process of changing the fr qu ncy of carri r signal accordance with amplitude of
information signal.

PM (Phase modulation):

It is the process of ch nging the ph se of carrier signal accordance with amplitude of information
signal..

NEED FOR MODULATION

 Reduce height of antenna

 Transmit signal over long distance
 Avoid noise and interference
 Multiplexing
 Improve the signal to noise ratio

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

It is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high frequency carrier signal in proportion
ith the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. AM is used for commercial broadcasting of audio and
video signals.

Applications of AM: 1. Two-way mobile radio, Audio and video broadcast

AM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION

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The modulating signal is represented as, em(t) = Em sinωmt

The carrier signal is represented as, ec (t) = Ec sinω ct

According to the definition, the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed after modulation.

EAM = Ec + em(t) = Ec+ Em sinωmt ------------- (1)

= Ec [1+ (Em/Ec) sinωmt ] ------------- (2)

EAM = Ec(1+ ma sin ωmt ) -------------- (3)

Depth of Modulation/Modulation Index:

Coefficient of modulation and percent modulation:
If is defined as the ratio padeepzofmaximumamplitudeofthemessagesignaltothemaximum amplitude of

the carrier signal.

Em
ma = –––––
Ec
Percent modulation is indicated as M
Em
M = ––––– x 100 or M = m x 100
Ec
Relationship between m, Em & Ec
From the figure.

Em = ½ (Emax - Emin)

EC = ½ (Emax + Emin)

½ (Emax - Emin) Emax - Emin

M = –––––––––––––– x 100 = –––––––––– x 100
½ (Emax + Emin) Emax + Emin

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Where ma= Em/Ec Where ma is the modulation index (or) depth of modulation. The value E m must
be less than value of Ec to avoid distortion in the modulated signal. Hence maximum value of ma will
be equal to 1. When ma is expressed in percentage it is called percentage modulation.

But the instantaneous amplitude of modulated signal, i.e at any time

eAM(t)= EAM sinωct------------- (4)

Substitute equation (3) in (4)

eAM(t) = Ec (1 + ma sinωmt)sinωct

= Ec sinωct + ma Ec sinωmt sinωct

(1) (2)

Expand the second term (sinω mt sinωct) according to ( SinASinB) formula, we get

()= + ( − )− ( + ) ------------------ (5)

= Carrier + USB + LSB

Frequency spectrum and Bandwidth of AM Wave

EAM(t)
Ec

LSB USB

ω
0
BW=2 fm

 The figure sho s the frequency spectrum of Am.


 It extends from fc -fm (max) to fc + fm (max).

 The band of frequencies b/w fc and fc - fm (max) is called lower side band [LSB] and any frequency
ithin this band is called lower side frequency [LSF].
 The band of frequencies b/w fc and fc + fm (max) is called upper side band [USB] and any frequency
ithin this and is called upper side frequency [USF]

Bandwidth of AM.
The Bandwidth of Am wave is equal to the difference b/w the highest upper side frequency
and lowest lower side frequency.
B = fc + fm (max) – [fc - fm (max)]

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= fc + fm (max) - fc + fm (max)

BW = 2fm (max)

AM Waveform

a) Message signal

b) Carrier signal

c) Amplitude modulated sig al

The shape of modulated waveform is known as AM nv lope.

Phasor representation of AM

Carrier
A
Ec
VAM(t)
0

 Based on the modulation index modulation can be either,


(i). Critical Modulation
(ii). Over Modulation
(iii). Under Modulation
 When Em = Ec modulation goes to 100% this situation is known as critical modulation.

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 Em < Ec leads to under modulation.

 Em > Ec leads to over modulation.

AM POWER DISTRIBUTION

  The modulated wave cont ins three terms such as carrier wave, LSB, USB.
 The modulated wave cont ins more power than the unmodulated carrier.
Total Power in modul ted w ve will be,
Pt = PC + PUSB + PLSB
i.e. total power Pt of AM w ve is the sum of c rrier power and side band power.

PC - Carrier ower, PUSB - U er Side Band power, PLSB - Lower Side Band power

The carrier po er is

E c2 (Ec / √2 )2 Ec2
Pc = ––––––– = –––––– =
R R 2R
The lo er and upper sideband powers are same which is given by

(ma Ec/ 2√2) 2 m2a Ec2

PUSB = PLSB = ––––––– = ––––––
R 8R
In terms of carrier power

(ma Ec/ 2√2) 2 m2a Ec2 m2a Pc

PUSB = PLSB = ––––––– = –––––– =
R 8R 4

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Pt = Pc + PUSB + PLSB

m a 2 Pc ma 2Pc
Pt = Pc + ––––––– + ––––––
4 4
ma 2
Pt = Pc 1 + ––––
2

AM CURENT DISTRIBUTION

The equation of Pt given by

Pt
–––– =
Pc

2 padeepz
Pt = I t R
2
Pc = I c R
m 2
2 2
It = Ic 1 + ––––
2

m 2
It= Ic 1 + ––––
2

Where It = Total(or)modulated current, IC = Carrier current

Efficiency:

% η = Po er in side band * 100

Total Po er

= PLSB+PLSB * 100
PTotal

ma2
= * 100
2
2+ma
If ma = 1 , Then %η = 33.33 %

In this only one third of total power is carried by the sidebands and the rest two third is wasted.

Modulation by a complex information signal:

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 If the modulating signal contains two frequencies say fm1 & fm2, the modulated wave will contain the
carrier and two sets of side frequencies. Spaced symmetrically about the carrier.

Vam (t) = sin 2 fct + ½ sin 2 (fc - fm1) t - ½sin 2 (fc+ fm1) t
+ ½sin 2 (fc- fm2) t - ½sin 2 (fc+ fm2) t

 The coefficient of modulation or modulation index is given by

mt = √m12 + m22
 In general for n different signals mt = √m12 + m22 + . . . mn2
 Pusbt = Plsst = Pcmt2 / 4

Pt = Pc (1+mt2 / 2)
Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of AM (DSBFC)

Advantages
1. Simple and inexpensive receivers. Easy to detect with sim le equi ment even if the signal is not very
strong
2. Narrow bandwidth than FM
3. Wider coverage
4. Well-established, mature art used for broadcasting almost xclusiv ly

Disadvantages
1. Received signal affected by electrical storms and oth r radio fr qu ncy interference
2. Receivers able to reproduce frequencies up to 5 MHz or l ss
3. Inefficient use of transmitter power

Applications
1. Low quality form of modul tion th t is used for commercial broadcast of both audio and video signals
2. Two way mobile radio communic tions such as citizen band (CB) radio
3. Aircraft communication in the VHF frequency range

TYPES OF AM MODULATION

1. Double sideband with full carrier

2. Double side ithout carrier

3.Single sideband with carrier

4. Single sideband without carrier

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5. Vestigial sideband

Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of AM (DSBFC)

Advantages
1. Simple and inexpensive receivers. Easy to detect with simple equipme t ev if the sig al is not
very strong.
2. Narrow bandwidth than FM
3. Wider coverage padeepz

4. Well-established, mature art used for broadcasting almost exclusively

Disadvantages
1. Received signal affected by electrical storms and other radio frequency interference
2. Receivers able to reproduce frequencies up to 5 MHz or less
3. Inefficient use of transmitter power

Applications
1. Low quality form of modulation that is us for comm rcial broadcast of both audio and video
signals
2. Two way mobile radio communications such as citiz n band (CB) radio
3. Aircraft communication in the VHF fr qu ncy range

AM modulating Circuits
 Based on the location in the tr nsmitter AM mo ulating circuits are classified as
a. Low level AM modul tor
b. High level AM modul tor

Difference b/w low level and High level AM mod.

Low level AM modulator High level AM modulator

Modulation takes place prior to the final stage Modulation takes place in the final element of
of the transmitter final stage.

Less modulating signal po er is required More modulating signal power is required.

GENERATION OF AM-DSBFC (AM MODULATORS)

The generation method of AM waves are broadly divided in to two types

  Linear modulator(or)large signal modulator(or)high level modulation
  Non Linear modulator(or)small signal modulator(or)low level modulation

LINEAR MODULATOR:
In this type of modulators the devices are operated in linear region of its transfer characteristics.
Linear modulators are also divided in to two types,
 Transistor modulator
 Switching modulator.

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NON LINEAR MODULATORS:
These modulators are operated in nonlinear region.These are used in low level
modulation. The types of non linear modulators are,
Square law modulator,
Product modulator,
Balanced modulator.
LOW LEVEL AM MODULATOR

 Class A amplifier can perform amplitude modulation.

  Amplifier must have 2 inputs one for the carrier signal & second for modulating signal.
 With no modulating signal present, the circuit operates as a linear class A amplifi r, a d the output is
 simply the carrier amplified by the quiescent voltage gain .
 The carrier is applied the base and the modulating signal to the emitter. He ce it is also called as
 Emitter Modulation.
 The modulating signal padeepzvariesthegainoftheamplifieratsinusoidalrateequal to the freque cy of
 the modulating signal.
 The depth of modulation achieved is proportional to the am litude of the modulating signal.

 The voltage gain for an emitter modulator is expressed as,

Av = Aq (1 + m sin 2fmt)
Av  Amplifier voltage gain with modulation.
Aq  Amplifier quiescent (without modulation) voltage gain.
sin 2fmt varies from + 1 to -1
Hence, Av = Aq (1m)
Av max = 2Aq, when m = +0
Av min = 0, when m = -1
 The modulating signal drives the circuit into both saturation and cutoff, thus producing the nonlinear
amplification necessary for modulation to occur. The collector waveform includes the carrier and the upper

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and lower side frequencies as well as a component at the modulating signal frequency from the waveform,
thus producing a symmetrical AM envelop at Vout.

Advantages of Low level modulation:

1. Less modulating signal power is required to obtain high percentage modula ion.
2. Modulating circuit is designed for low power.

Disadvantage of Low level modulation

Amplifiers following modulator stage must be linear. At high operating powers linear amplifi rs are v
ry inefficient.

HIGH POWER AM MODULATOR / MEDIUM POWER AM MODULATOR

 The class C amplifier is used. It operates nonlinear and is capable of nonli ear mixi g (modulation).
  This is known as collector modulator because modulating signal is applied to the collector.
 When the amplitude of the carrier exceeds the barrier potential (0.7V) Q1 turns on collector current
flows.

 When carrier.voltagedro s below 0.7V Q1 turns off and collector current cases.

 The corres onding current and voltage waveforms are shown.

 When the modulating signal is applied it adds up with the Ecc and gets submitted from Ecc
producing an Am o/p
Advantages of high level modulators:
 There is no constraint of linear operation on amplifiers preceding modulator stage.
 Po er efficiency is good
Disadvantages of high level modulators:
 High modulating power is required.
 Final modulating signal amplifier has to supply all the sideband power.

AM TRANSMITTERS

Low Level AM Transmitter

 The block diagram of a typical AM transmitter is shown in which carrier source is a crystal oscillator.
The crystal oscillator is stabilized in order to maintain the carrier frequency deviation within a
prescribed limit.

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 The crystal oscillator is followed by a tuned buffer amplifier (class B) and drive amplifier.

Low level AM Transmitter

 The modulator circuit used is generally a class C power amplifier that is a collector modulator.
Remote control units, pagers, shotpadeeprangetalkie.z
 The audio signal is amplified by a chain of low level audio amplifiers and a power amplifier. This
amplifier is controlling the power being delivered to the final RF amplifier Class B push pull amplifier
is usually used for this purpose.
 The amplified modulating signal is applied to the modulator along with the carrier. AM wave is got at
the output of the modulator.
 This AM signal is then amplified using a chain of lin ar am lifi rs to raise its power level. Class B
amplifiers are used for this purpose. The linear pow r am lifi r is us d to avoid the distortion in the AM
wave.
 The amplitude modulated signal is then transmitt using transmitting antenna. The matching network
matches the output impedance of the final amplifi r to the transmission line and antenna.

Application of Low Level AM Transmitter: It is us in low capacity system such as wireless intercoms,

High Level AM Transmitter

High level AM Transmitter

 Here modulating signal power should be higher than the low level.
 The amplification takes place prior to modulation.

Application of High Level Transmitter: Used for long distance communications.

SQUARE LAW MODULATOR

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  
The non linear portion of V-I characteristics of diode is used as a element for non-linear modulators.

This is suited at low voltage
 levels because of the fact that current-voltage characteristics of a diode is highly nonlinear particularly in the low voltage
region as shown in figure.
Diode current

Diode Voltage

0
  A square law modulator has three features shown in figure. 
  
Summer - To sum carrier and modulating signal
  
A non linear element
 
Band pass filter for extracting desired modulating products.

Modulated
Modulating
Non line r
Filter
device

Carrier

Principle of operation:
  
From the figure the non linear device diode is used to produce low level amplitude modulation.
  
Here the carrier and modulating signals are applied across the diode.

  Ecc is connected across the diode to get a fixed operating point on the V-I characteristics of the
A dc battery
diode.

This amplitude modulation that is low level can be explained by considering the fact when two
different frequencies are passed through the non linear device.

So hen we apply carrier and modulating frequencies different frequency terms appear at the output of
diode.

These different frequency terms are applied across the tuned circuit which is tuned to carrier
frequency and has a narrow bandwidth just to pass two sidebands along with the carrier and reject
other frequencies.

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
 of the tuned circuit will be carrier and two sidebands that is amplitude modulated wave is
So the output
produced.

Mathematical analysis:
Let the modulating voltage will be
em(t)= E m sinω m t------------------- (1)

Let the carrier voltage will be

ec(t)= Ec sinω c t------------------- (2)

So the input voltage applied to the diode will be

e1(t) = em+ec
= E m sinω m t+ Ec sinωc t--------------------------- (3)
padeepz
We know that the current and voltage relationship of a linear circuit is,
i=av
where i=current through linear device
v=voltage through the linear device
a=proportionality constant

The current and voltage relationship of a nonlin ar circuit may be x ressed as,
i=a V1+b V12+c V13+ - - - - - - - - - -

This means that due to non-linearity in the V-I charact ristics of a non-linear circuits, the current
becomes proportional not only to voltage but also to the squar , cube and higher powers of voltage. So
i= a1V1+a2 V12+a3 V13+---------------------- (4)

Where a1, a2, a3 are proportionality constants and V1is the input voltage applied to the diode or FET. Sub eqn
(3) in (4)then
i= a1(Em sinωm t+ Ec sinωc t)+ 2(Em sinωm t+ Ec sinωc t)2+------------
2 2 2 2
= a1 Em sinωm t+ 1 Ec sinωc t+ 2 Em sinω m t+ a2 Ec sinωc
t+ 2a2EmEc sinωm tsinωc t+---
Neglecting second and higher order terms, we get

i(t)= a1 Em sinωm t+ a1 Ec sinωc t +a2EmEc sinωm t sinωc t+---

= a1 Em sinωm t+ 1 Ec sinωc t +a2EmEc [cos(ωc-ωm)t - cos(ωc+ωm)t]


The tuned circuit is tuned to the carrier frequency and it allows only ω c, ωc+ωm, ωc-ωm terms and
eliminates all other terms.hence we obtain

i(t)= a1 Ec sinωc t +a2EmEc [cos(ωc-ωm)t - cos(ωc+ωm)t]

i(t)= a1 Ec sinωc t +a2EmEc cos(ωc-ω m)t - a2EmEc cos(ω c+ω m)t ------- (5)

(carrier) (LSB) (USB)


The
main drawback of using diode modulator is it does not provide amplification and a single diode
is unable to balance out the frequency completely. These limitations can be eliminated by using
amplifying devices like transistor, FET in a balanced mode.


We can also use the square law modulator with FET instead of diode.

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
 the carrier and USB and LSB frequency
From the final equation we know that it consists only
components and all the components are removed.

BALANCE MODULATOR METHOD

It is assumed that the two transistors are identical and the circuit is symmetrical. The operation is confined
in the nonlinear region of the active devices employed in this circuit. The carrier voltage across he upper
and lower part of the secondary windings of the center tap transformers are equal in magnitude and opposi
in phase.

padeepz
BALANCED MODULATOR

In this the carrier voltage across the two windings of c ntre tap transformers are equal and
opposite in phase Vbe= -Vbe’

Input voltage to the transistor T1 is giv n by,
Vbe =ec(t)+ em(t)

Vbe= Ec sinωc t +Em sinωm t --------- (1)


Similarly Input voltage to the tr nsistor T2,
V’be = -ec(t)+ em(t)

V’be = - Ec sinωc t +Em sinωm t --------- (2)

By using the non-linearity ro erty the collector current can be written as per square law equation

ic = a1 Vbe + a2 Vbe2 + ……. -----------(3)

ic’ = a1 V’be + a2 V’be2 +……. ---------(4)

On substituting eqn 1 and 2 in 3 and 4 we get,

ic = a1 [Ec sinωc t +Em sinωm t]+ a2 [Ec sinωc t +Em sinωm t]2

ic= a1 [Ec sinωc t +Em sinωm t]+ a2E2c sin2ωc t+a2E2m sin2ωm t+2a2Em Ec sinωm tsinωc t ---(5)

i’c = a1 [-Ec sinωc t +Em sinωm t]+ a2 [-Ec sinωc t +Em sinωm t]2

i’c = a1 [-Ec sinωc t +Em sinωm t]+ a2E c 2 sin2ωc t+a2Em2 sin2ωm t-2a2Em Ec sinωm tsinωc t---(6)
The output AM Voltage V0 is given by V0 = K [ ic – ic’ ] ---------------(7)

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since ic, i’c flows in the opposite direction and ‘K’ is a constant depending on impedance or other
circuit parameters.

On substituting equation 5 and 6 in 7 we get,

Vo = K [ ic – ic’ ]

Eo = K [2 a1 Ec Sinωct + 4a2 Em Ec Sinωmt Sinωct]

= 2KEc a1 Sinωct 1 + 2 a2 EmSinωmt

a1

= 2KEc a1 Sinωct 1 + ma Sinωmt

circuit. padeepz
where ma = 2 a2 Em is the modulation index
a1
This equation represents the output modulated voltage which contains carrier and side band
terms but no modulating terms. Thus this circuit is used as AM modulator. The advantage of this circuit is
that the undesired harmonics are automatically balanced out and hence there is no need for separate filter.

DEMODULATION/DETECTION OF AM-DSBFC (AM DEMODULATORS)


Demodulation or detection is nothing but the proc ss of xtracting a modulating or information signal from modulated
signal. Otherwise in oth r words, d modulation or detection is the process by which
the message is recovered from the mo ulat signal at r c iver.

The devices used for demodulation or t ction are call d as demodulators or detector

For amplitude modulation, the etectors or emo ulators are categorized are
Square law detectors or nonline r etectors
Linear detectors

The low level modulated sign ls re using non linear detectors to recover the original message signal
SQUARE LAW DETECTOR

The square law detector circuit is used for detecting low level modulated signal.
 
Here the diode is used in V – I characteristics of the vice i.e. non linear characteristics of the diode. The
square law detector is similar to the square law modulator. The only difference lies in the filter

In square law modulator we are using band pass filters, in square law detector; a low pass filter is
  of the diode characteristics, so the lower half
used. The operation is limited to the non-linear region
portion of the modulated waveform is compressed.
 
This produces the envelope distortion, so the average value of the diode – current is no longer constant
and varies ith time. The average diode current consists of steady DC component and time varying
modulation frequency. Due to nonlinear region the lower half of its current wave form is compressed. This
may cause envelope distortion due to this diode current will not be constant, and varies with time.
I

Non linear Linear

region region

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padeepz
SQUARE LAW DETECTOR

The distorted output diode current is expressed by the non-linear V-I relationship.(i. square law) is,
i0=a1 eAM + a2 eAM 2 ------------------------------(1)net
where eAM =i/p modulated signal.

The equation of AM wave is
eAM = Ec (1 + ma sinωmt) sinωct -----------------------------(2)

On substituting equation 2 in 1 we get

i0 = a1 Ec (1 + ma sinωmt) sinωct]+a2[Ec (1 + ma sinωmt) sinωct ]2

2
i 0 = a1 Ec sinωct + a1 m Ec sinωct sinωmt + 2 Ec sin2ωct (1 + ma sinωmt)2
2
= a1 Ec sinωct + a1 m Ec sinωct sinωmt + 2 Ec sin2ωct(1 + ma2 sin2 ωmt + 2 masinωmt )
2
= a1 Ec sinωct + a1 m Ec sinωct sinωmt + 2 Ec (1 + ma2 sin2 ω mt + 2 masinω mt )1-cos2ωct
2
= a1 Ec sinωct + a1 m Ec sinω ct sinωmt + a2 Ec2 - a2 Ec2 cos2ωct + a2 Ec2 ma2 sin2 ωmt +
2 2 2
- a2 Ec2 ma2 sin2 ωmt cos2ωct + a2 Ec2 masinωmt - a2 Ec2 masinωmt cos2ωct
2
The carrier term is filtered by using a low pass filter and high frequency term are also reduced
then, i0= a2 Ec2 masinωmt

So the final output contains a signal with modulating frequency. Hence original signal is recovered.

ENVELOPE DETECTOR


  is used to
A detector circuit whose output follows the envelope of the modulated signal which
reproduce the modulating or message signal is called as “Envelope Detector”.

This is most popular commercial receiver circuits since it is very simple and not expensive, and also
it gives satisfactory performance.An envelope detector of the series type is shown in Figure which
consists of a diode and a resistor capacitor filter a time constant network.

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Principle Of Operation:
CHOICE OF TIME CONSTANTpadeepzRC


Modulated signal is applied to the series combination of diode and the load impedance consisting of a
resistor R and C.

Operation takes place over the linear region of VI charact ristics of Diode.

For positive cycle of carrier signal the diode D conducts th r by the ca acitor charges to the peak
voltage with the time constant τ =R C of the carri r signal through the resistor R.

As the input falls below the peak value, the diode r ach s cut-ff. The diode acts as open switch and
hence the capacitor gets discharge path through R.

During negative half cycle the diode is r v rse bias and the carrier voltage is disconnected from the
RC circuit. So the capacitor discharges continuously until n xt positive cycle appears.

From the peak of one positive cycle to the n xt the capacitor discharges slowly and this process
continues.Thus the volt ge cross ‘C’ is s me as the envelope of the modulated carrier but spikes are
introduced. So the output volt ge cross c citor is spiky modulating or base band signal. So the
envelope is detected at the output of c p citor. Thus from the average value the original signal is
recovered by extracting the envelope.

The spikes can be reduced to negligible mount by keeping the time constant RC large so that the
capacitor C discharges negligible amount.


Large (or) small value of time constant makes problem. So time constant is important consideration. If
time constant RC is quite low: Discharge curve during non conductive period is almost
vertical, so fluctuations may occur in output voltage. This results in Diagonal clipping

If RC is very large: Discharge curve is almost horizontal, so several peaks will be missed in the
rectified output voltage. This results in negative peak clipping.
Distortion in diode detector:
There are two clippings i.e. distortions available
Negative peak clipping
Diagonal clipping.
Diagonal clipping:

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It results when time constant of detector is not selected properly. If the modulating
voltage is faster than the rate of voltage fall across RC combination resulting in distorted output.
This type of distortion is called diagonal clipping which results in distorted output.

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
To avoid the diagonal clipping proper value of RC needs to be selected The voltage across RC
combination during the non-conducting period of diode is Vc at an instant t which is given by
 t
padeepz
V t  V e RC
C 0
The rate of slope in capacitor due to period discharging is calculated by differentiating V C(t) So
dV t 
t
V t 

dV V e RC
  
C C 0 C
...................(1)
dt dt RC RC
The decrease in capacitor voltage must follow the modulation nv lo e if distortion is to be avoided.
The envelope of the modulated voltage is given by
e  E 1  m cos t 
AM C a m
The slope of the envelope is given by
de AM  d E 1  m cos t 
dt dt C a m

ma EC m sin m t --------------------------(2)

To avoid the clipping the slope of c p citor voltage V C should be algebraically equal or less than the
slope of envelope voltage, so
V t 
 C E C m  m sin  m t
RC
V t 
C  E C m  m sin  m t
RC a

E C 1  m cos m t 
 EC m a  m sin  m t
RC
Mathematically the above equation is written as
1 m  m sin  m t
 a

RC 1  m a cos m t  ------------------------(3)

To find the maximum amount of RC differentiate the equation 3 and equate it to zero
d m  sin  t
 a m m 0
dt 1  ma cos m t

m 1  ma cos m t cos m t m sin m t( ma (sin m t)m  0

1  ma cos m t 
a m

ωm cos ωm t + (ma cos2ωmt)ωm + (ma sin2ωmt)ωm =0

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ωm cos ωm t + ma ωm (cos2ωmt+ sin2ωmt)=0

ωm cos ωm t + ma ωm =0

cos ωm t = - ma------------------------ (4)

on substituting the value of cosω m t in cos2ωmt+ sin2ωmt =1 we get sinω mt = √1-ma2 -----(5)

1m 1 - ma2
a m

substituting equation 4 and 5 in 3 we get RC 1  m a2

So RC depends on the ma value. So the RC to be selected by satisfying the condition in order to

avoid distortion and the modulation index value should be correct, if it is large then it will provide
negative peak clipping. So the envelope detector will be changed for smooth functioning by attaching
a  section low pass filter at the output.

Negative peak clipping:


The 2nd source of distortion in linear diode d t ctor is the curvatur s of the diode characteristics. So as a
result the efficiency varies. It will be r duc d by s l cting load resistance value large. So when R C is
large then ma will be low and signal becom s clipp at the negative peaks.

The negative peak clipping provi es ac and c load imp dances unequal.

DOUBLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSBSC) MODULATION

In AM with carrier scheme, there is w st ge in both transmitted power and bandwidth. In order to save the

power in amplitude modulation the carrier is suppressed because it does not contain any useful information. This

scheme is called as the double side band suppressed carrier amplitude Modulation (DSB-SC). It contains LSB and

USB terms, resulting in transmission bandwidth that is twice the bandwidth of the message signal.

1  m a2
By simplifying RC 
m m
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a

padeepz
Let us consider the message and carrier signal as,
em(t) = Em sin ωmt ------------(1)
ec(t) = Ec sin ωct -------------(2)

For obtaining the DSB-SC wave multiply both carrier signal and message signal
hence, e(t)DSB-SC = em(t).ec(t)
=Em.Ec sinωm t sinωc t
e(t)DSB-SC=Em.Ec [ cos(ωc - ωm )t - cos(ωc + ωm )t]
2
USB LSB
From this equation we know that the carrier is suppressed in double side band suppressed carrier.

Graphical Representation of DSB-SC AM:

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(a) Baseband signal (b) DSBSC

Frequency spectrum of DSB-SC AM

It shows that carrier term ωc is su ressed. It contains only two sideband terms having frequency (ω c - ωm)
and (ωc + ωm). Hence this scheme is called as DSB-SC AM.

Phasor representation of DSB-SC AM:

Carrier
A
Vc
VSSB
0

POWER CALCULATION:

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The total power transmitted in AM is

Pt =Pcarrier +PLSB +PUSB

If the carrier is suppressed , then the total power transmitted is

Pt’ = PLSB +PUSB

We know that, PLSB = PUSB = ma 2 Ec2

8R

Pt’ = ma 2 Ec2 + ma 2 Ec2

8R 8R

= ma 2 Ec2 = ma 2 Pc
4R 2
padeepz
Therefore the power saving with respect to AM is

Power Saving = Pt - Pt’ x 100

Pt

= [ 1+ ma 2 / 2] PC - [m 2 / 2] PC

[1+ ma 2 / 2] PC

= PC

[1+ ma 2 / 2] PC

% Power Saving =2 x 100

2+ ma 2

If ma = 1, then power saving (2/3) x 100 = 66.7 %

i.e 66.7% of power is saved by using DSB-SC-AM.

Advantages
DSB-SC is more efficient in transmitted power as compared to DSB-FC.
DSB-FC hs better signal to noise ratio as compared to SSB transmission.
Disadvantages
Band idth remains same as
DSB-FC even though the carrier is suppressed.

GENERATION OF AM-DSBSC

1. Balanced Modulator Method

2. Ring Modulator Method

BALANCE MODULATOR METHOD

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
The same circuit can be used to generate AM with carrier. The main difference between AM with
 carrier generation
and DSB-SC –AM is the feeding points of the carrier and modulating signals
are interchanged.

  in a balanced mode thus heavy filtering is not required to remove the
The transistor is operated
unwanted harmonics.
 
It is assumed that the two transistors are identical and the circuit is symmetrical. The opera ion is
confined in the nonlinear region of the active devices employed in this circuit. The carrier vol ages
across the upper and lower part of the secondary windings of the center tap transform rs are qual in
magnitude and opposite in phase.

BALANCED MODULATOR
Principle of operation:

The modulating signal is applied as the input to the transistor T1 and T2 and the carrier signal is
applied to the common input of the push pull amplifi r configuration. Because of centre tap
transformers are equal and opposite in phase V m= -Vm’

Input to the transistor T1 is given by,
Vbe = em(t)+ ec(t)
Vbe = Em sinωm t +Ec sinωc t--------------------------- (1)

Similarly Input to the tr nsistor T2,
V’be = - em(t)+ ec(t)
V’be = - E m sinω m t +Ec sinωc t---------------------------- (2)
By using the non-linearity ro erty the collector current can be written as per square law equation
ic = a1 Vbe + a2 Vbe2 + …….----------------------------- (3)
i’c = 1 V’be + a2 V’be2 +…….----------------------------- (4)
On substituting eqn 3 and 4 in 1 and 2 we get
padeepz
ic = a1 [Em sinωm t +Ec sinωc t]+ a2 [Em sinωm t +Ec sinωc t]2

ic= a1 [Em sinωm t +Ec sinωc t]+ a2E2m sin2ωm t+a2Ec sin2ωc t+2a2Em Ec sinωm tsinωc t-------(5)

Similarly

ic = a1 [-Em sinωm t +Ec sinωc t]+ a2 [-Em sinωm t +Ec sinωc t]2

ic= a1 [-E m sinω m t +Ec sinωc t]+ a2E2m sin2ω m t+a2E2c cos2ωc t - 2a2E m Ec sinω m tsinωc t------------ (6)
The output AM voltage V0 is given by V0 = K[ ic – i’c ]--------------- (7)

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Because ic, i’c flows in the opposite direction and ’K’is a constant depending on impedance or other
circuit parameters.

On substituting equation 5 and 6 in 7 we get,

Vo = K[ ic – i’c ]
 
So only the side bands are present in the o/p. Hence the DSB-SC-AM generatednet The main advantage of this modulator is saving power
and efficiency because of the suppressing of
Vo = K [2a1 Em sinωmt + 4a2 Em Ec sinωmt sinωct]

The output contains the original modulating signal and the two sidebands. The modulating signal has b
suppressed by tuning the tank circuit to the center frequency ±ω c

Vo = 4Ka2 Em Ec sinωmt sinωct

= 2Ka2 Em Ec[ cos(ωc - ωm )t - cos(ωc + ωm )t]

When no modulating signpadeepzlisresentdiodeD1andD2orD3andD4willconduct depending upon

polarity of the carrier

the carrier.

RING MODULATOR METHOD


The balanced Ring modulator circuit is widely us d in carri r t l hony su resses both unwanted
modulating and carrier signal in its output.

Ring modulator is a type of product modulator which is us d to g n rate DSB-SC Signal.

The band pass filter is not used at the output h nce the harmonic frequencies are automatically
controlled.

In a ring modulator circuit four io are conn ct in the form of ring in which all the four diodes
are connected in the same manner and are controlled by a square wave carrier signal
ec (t).

The carrier signal acts as switching sign l to alternate the polarity of the modulating signal at the
carrier frequency.

POSITIVE HALF CYCLE OF CARRIER:


Diodes D1 and D3 are for ard biased. At this time D2 and D4 are reverse biased and act like open
circuits. The current divides equally in the upper and lower portion of the primary winding T2.

 The current in the upper part of the winding produces a magnetic field thatis equal and opposite to the
magnetic field produced by the current in the lower half of the secondary.

 each other out and no output is induced in the secondary. Thus the
Therefore the magnetic fields cancel
carrier is effectively suppressed.

NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE OF CARRIER:


When the polarity of the carrier reverses. Diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and the diodes D3 and
 D4 
ill conduct. Again the current flows in the secondary winding of T1 and the primary winding of
T2.

The equal and opposite magnetic fields produced in T2 cancel each other and thus result in zero carrier output.
The carrier is effectively balanced out.

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION


 When both the carrier and the modulating signals are present,
during positive half cycle of the carrier diodes
D1 and D2 conduct, while diodes D3 and D4 does not conduct.
  During negative half cycle of the carrier voltage diodes D3 and D4 conduct and D1 and D2 does not conduct.
 
When polarity of the modulating signal changes the result is a 180 phase reversal. At the ime
D3 and D4 are in forward bias.
Let us consider the modulating voltage,
em(t) = Em sinωmt -------------------(1)
ec(t) = Ec sin ωct ------------------(2)
The output voltage is V0(t) = em(t).ec(t)
=Em.Ec sinωm tsinωc t
V0(t) =Em.Ec [ cos(ωc - ωm )t - cos(ωc + ωm )t] -----------------(3)
2
LSB USB
The equation 3 shows that the o/p is free from the carrier and other higher order terms and it contains upper
and lower sidebands only. The ring modulator circuit is also known as double balanced modulator because it
is balanced with respect to both the baseband signal and the square wave carrier. The main advantage is the
o/p is stable and long life, no external source to activate the diod s.
Circuit diagram: Waveform:

DEMODULATION/DETECTION OF AM-DSBSC

 SYNCHRONOUS OR COHERENT DETECTOR

 COSTAS PLL DETECTOR

SYNCHRONOUS OR COHERENT DETECTOR

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
The coherent detector uses exact carrier synchronization for retrieving the message signal from
modulated signal. These types of detectors are mainly used for detecting DSB&SSB signals.

It consists of a product modulator with a low pass filter.

For detecting signal local oscillator at the receiver end is required. The frequency and phase of the
locally generated carrier and transmitter carrier must be synchronized that is exactly coherent.

All types of linear modulation can be detected by using synchronous detector. It consists of a product
modulator with LPF.


The incoming signal is first multiplied with locally generated carrier and then passed through low
pass filter. The filter bandwidth is same as the message bandwidth ω m
 
Tthe local oscillator should be exactly synchronized with carrier signal in both phase and velocity.
Considering the case of DSB-SC signal, the signal I/p is
e1(t)= Em.Ec sinωm t sinωc t
e2(t)=E sinωc t
The output of the non linear device which acts as a multi lying d vice is given by
e(t)= e1(t). e2(t)= Em.Ec E sinωm t sin2ωc t
e(t)= E m.Ec Esinω m t
1-cos2ωc t
2
After passing through the LPF the second or r harmonic t rm is eliminated.

e(t)= E m.Ec Esinω m t

2
Assume the local oscillator c rrier to h ve phase difference with the transmitted carrier. The carrier is
represented by
e2(t)=Esin( ωc t + φ )

The output of the non linear device is given by

e(t)= 1(t). 2(t)= Em.Ec E sinωmt sinωc t sin ( ωc t + φ )

= Em.Ec E sinωmt sinωc t [ sinωctcosφ + cosωctsinφ ]

padeepz
=Em.Ec E sinωmt sin2 ωc t cosφ + Em.Ec E sinωmt sin ωc t cos ωc t sinφ
=Em.Ec E sinωmt cosφ 1-cos2ωc t + Em.Ec E sinωmt sin ωc t cos ωc t sinφ
2

=Em.Ec E sinωmt cosφ - Em.EcE sinωmt cosφcos2ωct + Em.Ec E sinωmt sin ωc t cos ωc t sinφ
2 2

After passing through the LPF the second order harmonic term is eliminated.

e(t)= E m.Ec Esinω m t cosφ

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2
If φ = 0 then e(t) is maximum e(t) = Em.Ec Esinωm t

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2
If φ = 90 then e(t) is minimum e(t) = 0
The demodulated signal Vo(t) is therefore proportional to the message signal when the phase error, =

0 and it is minimum (zero) when = ± . Thus the phase error in the local oscillator causes
2 he
detector output to be attenuated by a factor equal to. As long as the phase error is cons an , he
detector provides an undistorted version of the original baseband signal.

COSTAS PLL DETECTOR

I-channel Output
Product LPF
modulator

DSB-SC VCO Phase

900 phase discriminator
shifter

Product LPF
modulator Q-channel


Costas receiver is one of the method for obtaining a practical synchronous receiver suitable for

padeepz

demodulating DSB-SC waves. It consists of two coh r nt d tectors supplied with the same input signal. One
detector is supplied with the DSB-SC AM and locally generated carrier which is in phase with the
transmitted carrier. This detector is known s “In-phase coherent detector or I channel”.

The other detector is supplied with the DSB-SC AM and locally generated carrier which is quadrature
phase with the transmitted c rrier. This detector is known as “Quadrature coherent detector or Q
channel”.

These two detectors are cou led together to form negative feedback system designed in such a way as
to maintain the local oscillator synchronous with the carrier wave.

Operation of the circuit:

 In this case I channel output contains the desired demodulated signal where as Q channel output is zero
due to the quadrature null effect of Q channel.
 Suppose there is some phase shift φ radians between local oscillator carrier and the transmitting carrier
then I channel output will remain essentially unchanged. But Q channel output contains some signal
hich is proportional to sin φ
 This Q channel output will have same polarity as the I channel output for one direction of local
oscillator hereas the polarity will be opposite to the I channel for the other direction of phase shift.
 Thus the I and Q channel outputs are combined in phase discriminator
 The phase discriminator provides a d.c. control signal which may be used to correct local oscillator
phase error.
 The local oscillator is a voltage controlled oscillator. Its frequency can be adjusted by an error control
d.c signal.
 The costas receiver ceases phase control when there is no modulation and that phase lock has to be re-
established with reappearance of modulation.

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SINGLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER

In AM with carrier both the transmitting power and bandwidth is wasted. Hence the DSB-SC AM
scheme has been introduced in which power is saved by suppressing the carrier component but
the bandwidth remains same.

 Increase in the saving of power is possible by eliminating one sideband in addition o he carrier
component because the USB and LSB are uniquely related by symmetry about the carri r fr qu ncy. So
either one sideband is enough for transmitting as well as recovering the useful m ssage. The block
diagram of SSB-SC AM is shown in figure.

 As for as transmission information is concerned only one side band is necessary So if the carri r and
one of the two sidebands are suppressed at the transmitter, no information is lost

 This type of modulation is called as single side band suppressed carrier-AM d the SSB system reduces
the band width by half.

Block diagram of SSB-SC AM is shown in figure.

Ф = 90° e1 AM

em(t) Ф = 90°
∑

ec(t) SSB-SC
AM
AM
e2

 The single side band su padeep z

ressed carrier can be obtained as follows,
 In order to suppress one of the sideband, the input signal fed to the modulator1 is 90° out of
 phase with that of the signal fed to the modulator’2’.
Let e1(t) = Em cosωm t .Ec cos ωc t
e2 (t) = Em sinωmt .Ec sinωc t
Therefore, e(t) SSB = e1(t) + e2(t)
= Em Ec [cosωm t. cosωc t + sin ωmt. sinωct]
e(t)SSB = Em Ec cos (ωc - ωm) t.
We know that for DSB-SC AM
eDSB-SC (t) = Em Ec [cos(ωc +ωm )t + cos(ωc - ωm)t]
2
When comparing equations of e(t) SSB-SC and eDSB-SC (t) , one of the sideband is suppressed. Hence this scheme
is kno n as SSB-SC AM.

Frequency Spectrum Of SSB-SC-AM:

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 The Frequency spectrum shows that only one side band signal is present , the carri r a d the oth r
sideband signal are suppressed. Thus the bandwidth required reduces from 2 ω m to ωm i. ., ba dwidth
requirement is reduced to half compared to AM & DSB-SC signals.

Phasor representation of SSB-SC-AM:

USB
Resultant
eC (t)

carrier AM(t)

LSB

Power calculation:
2 2 2
Power in sidebands Pt” = P LSB = P USB = ma Vc /8R = ma Pc / 4
Power saving with respect to AM with c rrier
Power saving = Pt - Pt”x100
Pt

where Pt = Tot l ower tr nsmitted.

Power saving =[ 1+ m 2 / 2] PC - [ma 2 / 4] PC = PC +[ma 2 / 2] PC - [ma 2 / 4] PC

[1+ ma 2 / 2] PC [1+ ma 2 / 2] PC
m 2 a
padeepz

1  4 100
m
1 a2

2
4  ma 2
4
=  2 100
2 ma
2
4m
  a
2
100
4  2m
a

2

If ma=1 then %power saving= (5/6) x100=83.3%

So we can save 83.3% of power with respect to AM with carrier.

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We can also find the power in SSB-SC-AM with respect to AM with DSB-SC system,
p ' p ' '
powersaving  t t 100
p '
t
m 2P 2
m P
a c a c

 2 4 100
m 2P
a c
2
If ma=1 then %power saving=50%.therefore 50%power is saved with respect to DSB-SC Sys m.

Applications of SSB
1. Used to save applications where such a power saving is warranted, i e , in mobile syst m, in which
weight and power consumption must naturally be kept low.
2. Single sideband modulation is at a premium. Point-to-Point communicatio , la d, air, maritime mobile
FILTER METHOD padeepz

communication, TV, Telemetry, Military and Radio navigation are the greatest use of SSB in one form
or another.

SSB Advantages
 Power conservation: Much less total transmitted power required to roduce the same quality signal.
 Bandwidth conservation: Half of the bandwidth of conv ntional AM bandwidth.
 Selective Fading: Not present in SSBSC.
 Noise Reduction: Since SSB uses half the bandwidth, the th rmal noise power is reduced to half.
Hence immunity to selective fading is improv .

SSB Disadvantages
 Complex Receivers: Required carrier r cov ry and synchronization circuit adds cost, complexity and
size.
 Tuning Difficulties: Complex nd Expensive Tuning Circuits.

GENERATION OF SSB

1. Filter Method
2. Phase Shift Method
3. Modified Phase Shift Method or Weaver Method

In this method of SSB generation, after the BM, the unwanted sideband is removed (actually heavily
attenuated) by a filter and hence this name. The filter may be LC, ceramic or mechanical depending upon

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the carrier frequency and other requirements. Such a filter must have a flat bandpass and extremely high
attenuation outside the passband.

In radio communication system, the frequency range used for voice is 300 Hz to about 2800 Hz in
most cases. If it is required to suppress the lower sideband and if the transmitting frequency is fc , then he
lowest frequency that this filter must pass without attenuation is fc+300 Hz whereas the highest frequency
hat must be fully attenuated is fc-300 Hz. So we need a filter whose transition band is very low. This si ua
ion becomes worse if lower modulating frequencies are employed, such as the 50 Hz minimum in AM
broadcasting. In order to obtain a filter response curve with skirts as steep the ‘Q’ of the tun d circui s
must be very high.

The initial modulation takes place in the balanced modulator at a low freque cy (such as 100 kHz)

filtered signal is up-converted in a mixer to the final transmitter frequency and then amplified before
being coupled to the antenna. The integrated ceramic filters are used as sideband filters. The drawback of
filter method is that it requires sharp filtering, which requires filters with high Q. Primary modulation
cannot be done at the transmitting frequency which is anoth r drawback of the filter method.

PHASE SHIFT METHOD


This method avoids the prime disadvantage of filt ring m thod. That is
requirement of a sideband filter with a narrow transition band and it cannot be us d for very low and very
high frequencies.

This method does not have any si eband filt rs and the primary modulation can be done at the
transmitting frequency. The unwanted si eband can be removed by generating the components of
sideband out of phase.

If the undesired sideband is LSB then the two LSB are generated such that they are 180 out of phase
with each other. So that USB dd with ch other and LSB cancel each other. When two undesired
sideband components are dded they c ncel each other with only the presence of desired signal.

Two balanced modulators and two hase shifters are used. One of the modulator BBM1 receives the

carrier voltage shifted by 900 and the modulating voltage, where as another balanced modulator

BBM2 receives the modulating voltage shifted by 900 and the carrier voltage.
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because of the difficulty of making adequate filters at h igher frequencies The filter is a BP F with a sharp

cutoff frequency at eitherpadeepzsideofthebandpasstoobtainsatisfactoryadjacent sideband rejection. The


The carrier signal is cancelled out by both the balanced modulator and then unwanted sidebands cancel
at the output of the summing amplifiers and hence produces SSB signal.

Balanced V1
Modulating signal Modulator
BM1
Audio
amplifier
SSB
Carrier 900 Adder
Phase
Carrier shifter
Signal

AF 900 Balanced
Phase Modulator
V2

shifter

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PHASE SHIFT METHOD

Mathematical analysis:
For modulator1 (BM1)
ec(t) = Ec sin(ωc t+900) = Ec cosωc t
em(t)= Em sinωm t

For modulator2(BM2)
ec(t) = Ec sinωc t
em(t)= Em sin(ωm t+ 900) = Em cosωm t
padeepz
Output for modulator(BM1)isV1
V1=Ec cosωc t Em sinωm t ------------------------------ (1)

Output for modulator(BM2)isV2

V2=Ec sinωc t. Em cosωm t ------------------------------ (2)

The output of adder is

V0 = V1 + V2
V0= Ec Em cosωc t sinωm t + Ec Em sinωc tcosωm t
=Ec Em sin(ωc + ωm)t ------------------------------(3)

Thus one of the side band is cancelled where as the oth r is r inforc . This method avoids the use of filters.

MODIFIED PHASE SHIFT METHOD (OR) WEAVER’S METHOD


The modified phase shift method overcomes the limitation of phase shift method. That is AF phase
shift network is required to o er te over l rge range of audio frequencies but also retains the
advantage like its ability to generate SSB at any frequency and use of low audio frequency.

This method provides both RF and AF oscillator phase shift and also used in low frequency and so it
can be used for both audio and radio frequencies.
e1 e3 e5
BM (1) LPF BM (3)

RF carrier
AF i/p
900 ωc t 900 SSB-SC-AM
Oscillator
phase phase Adder
shifter shifter
2Eosinωo t AF carrier
oscillator

BM (2) LPF BM (4)

e4 e6
e2

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WEAVER’S METHOD


Modulators 1 and 2 both have the unshifted modulating signal as inputs. BM1 takes low frequency
 subcarrier with a 90phase shift from the AF oscillator. BM2 receives the subcarrier signal direc ly
from the oscillator.

 This 
method tries to aEoid the phase shift of audio frequencies and combine the audio frequency carrier
with AF which lies in the middle of audio frequency.

The low pass filter at the output of BM1 and BM2 with cut off frequency ensures the input o he
 BM3 and BM4. The output of BM3 and BM4 gives the desired sid band
balance modulator
 suppression.

MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS
padeepz
The modulating signal is em= Em sinωm t -------- (1)
The A.F carrier(sub carrier signal) o(t) = 2E0 sinω0 t ---------(2)
The R.F carrier ec(t)= 2Ec sinωc t ----------(3)

The input for Balanced modulator 1(BM1) is

em(t)= Em sinω m t
eo(t) = 2E0 sin (ω0 t +900)

The output for Balanced modulator 1(BM1) is

e1 = Em sinωm t 2E0 sin (ω0 t +900)
= Em E0 [ cos(ω0 t+900 - ω m t) - cos(ω0 t+900+ ω m t)] --------(4)
The input for Balanced modulator 2(BM2) is
em(t)= Em sinω m t
eo(t) = 2E0 sinω0 t

The output for Balanced modul tor 2(BM2) is

e2 = Em sinωm t 2E0 sinω0 t
= Em E0 [ cos(ω0 t - ωm t) - cos(ω0 t+ ωm t)] --------(5)

The LPF1, 2 eliminates the u er sidebands of the modulator. Hence USB is suppressed

0
The Output of LPF1 is e3= Em E0 [ cos(ω0 t+90 - ωm t) -----------(6)
The Output of LPF2 is e4= Em E0 cos(ω0 t - ωm t) -----------(7)

The output of LPF1, 2 are given to BM3,BM4.

The input for Balanced modulator 3(BM3) is

e3= Em E0 [ cos(ω0 t+900 - ωm t)
ec(t) = 2Ec sinωc t

The output for Balanced modulator 3(BM3) is

e5 = 2Em E0 Ec cos(ω0 t+900- ωm t ) sinωc t

Assume Em =E0 =Ec=1,then

e5= 2cos(ω0 t+900- ωm t ) sinωc t

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=sin[(ωc + ωo – ω m)t +900] + sin[(ωc - ω0 + ω m)t - 900] ------------- (8)

The input for Balanced modulator 4(BM4) is
e4= Em E0 cos(ω0 t - ωm t)
ec(t) = 2Ec sin (ωc t+900)
The output for Balanced modulator 4(BM4) is
e6 = Em E0 cos(ω0 t - ωm t) 2Ec sin (ωc t+900)
Assume Em =E0 =Ec=1,then
e6 = 2 cos(ω0 t - ωm t) sin (ωc t+900)
= sin[(ωc + ωo – ωm)t +900] + sin[(ωc - ω0 + ωm)t + 900] ------------ (9)
The output of adder is e SSB-SC(t) = e5 + e6
= sin[(ωc + ωo – ωm)t +900] + sin[(ωc - ω0 + ωm)t - 900] +

padeepzsin[(ωc+ωo–ωm)t+900]+sin[(ωc-ω0+ωm)t+ 900]
=2 sin[(ω0 + ωc – ωm)t+900]

The other two terms cancel with each other because it is out of hase.

(t) = 2cos[(ω0 + ωc – ωm)]t

eSSB-SC
The final RF output frequency is ω0 + ωc – ωm which is ss ntially the
lower side band of RF carrier
ω0 + ωc .

DEMODULATION/DETECTION OF AM-SSBSC

SYNCHRONOUS OR COHERENT DETECTOR


The coherent detector uses ex ct c rrier synchronization for retrieving the message signal from
modulated signal.Thesety es of detectors are mainly used for detecting DSB&SSB signals.

It consists of a roduct modulator with low pass filter.

For detecting signal local oscillator at the receiver end is required. The frequency and phase of the
locally generated carrier and transmitter carrier must be synchronized that is exactly coherent.

All types of linear modulation can be detected by using synchronous detector. It consists of a product
modulator ith LPF


 carrier and then passed through low pass filter.
The incoming signal is first multiplied with locally generated
The filter bandwidth is same as the message bandwidth ωm
  
Tthe local oscillator should be exactly synchronized with carrier signal in both phase and velocity.
 
Considering the case of SSB-SC signal, the signal I/p is

e1(t)= Em.Ec cos (ωc - ωm)t

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2
e2(t)=Esinωc t

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The output of the non linear device which acts as a multiplying device is given by
e(t)= e1(t). e2(t)= Em.Ec E cos (ωc - ωm)t sinωc t
2

e(t)= Em.Ec E sinωm t + sin (2ωc - ωm)t

2 2 net
The first term of the output is the modulating frequency signal that is passed on to the output. The
second component is a RF component and is attenuated by the filter. Thus the synchronous d ctor is
capable of demodulating SSB-SC signal

e(t)= Em.Ec Esinωm t

4
The synchronous detector is effective only when locally generated carrier is properly sy chro ize with
the transmitter power. Assume the local oscillator carrier to have a phase differe ce with the tra smitted
carrier. The carrier is represented by

e2(t)=Esin( ωc t + φ )

The output of the non linear device is given by

e(t)= e1(t). e2(t)= Em.Ec cos (ωc - ωm)t Esin ( ωc t + φ )
2
= Em.Ec E cos (ωc - ωm)t sin ( ωc t + φ )
2
=Em.Ec E ( cosωct cosωmt+sinωmt sin ωc t)(sinωc t cosφ + cosωc t sin φ )
2

=Em.EcE [ cosωct cosωmt sinωc t cosφ + sinωmt sin2 ωc t cosφ

+2
Cos 2ωc t cosωmt sin φ + cosωct sin ωc t cosωmt cosφ ]

=Em Ec E [ cosωct cosωmt sinωc t cosφ + sinω mt cosφ 1-cos2ω c t

2 2
2
Cos ωc t cosωmt sin φ + cosωct sin ωc t cosωmt cosφ ]

After passing through the LPF the second order harmonic term is eliminated.

e(t)= Em.Ec Esinωm t cosφ

4

If φ = 0 then e(t) is maximum e(t) = Em.Ec Esinωm t

4

If φ = 90 then e(t) is minimum e(t) = 0

Thus there is a phase delay due to improper synchronization.

VESTIGEAL SIDE BAND MODULATION

Definition : One of the sideband is partially suppressed and vestige (portion) of the other sideband is transmitted,
This vestige (portion) compensates the suppression of the sideband. It is called vestigial sideband transmission.

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Generation and demodulation of VSB:

A VSB signal is obtained as shown figure below by suppressing one of the sidebands of a DSBSC
using a VSB filter.

VSB filter is a BPF having an asymmetric frequency response in the transition ba d, positio d in such a
way that the carrier frequency corresponds to the middle of the transition band From the figure,
− ( ) =( ) ( )
padeepz

The transfer function of the VSB filter is ( ).

The inverse FT of ( ) gives the unit impulse, ℎ ( ). We can express the VSB filter output as:
− ()= − ()∗ ℎ()= -------------(1)
() ( )∗ℎ()

Taking FT on both sides,

-----------(2)
() ={ [(− )+ ( + )] × ( )}

The coherent detector is sort of universal detector of AM signals in the sense that DSBSC, conventional
AM and SSBSC can all be detected successfully by using it. It would be natural to expect that coherent
detection to work for the VSB-SC signal too

The output of the multiplier in the VSB demodulator in the figure is given by:
()= − ()× 0 ------------ (3)
( )

It is assumed perfect synchrony between the transmitter and demodulator carriers.

Taking FT on both sides of equation (3), we obtain,

()=
0
[ ( − )+ ( + )] -------------(4)
− −

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Using (2) in (4),

( ) = ( 04 ) {[ ( ) + ( − 2 )] ( − )+[ ( +2 )+ ( )] ( + )}

-----------(5)
The signal ( ) is passed through an ideal filter (LPF) to obtain ( ). If the VSB modula ion is successful, then ( ) should be proportional to the message signal, ( ).

It is observed from (5) that ( − 2 ) and ( + 2 ) are high pass terms, since th y r pr s nt ( ) translated by ±2 . These terms are blocked by the LPF which yields an output sig al ( ) with the
FT

( ) given by

()=(
0
) ( )[ (− )+ ( + )] ------------(6)
4

VSBSC modulation andpaddemodulationeepzisconsideredtobesuccessfulif( ) = ( ), where k is proportionality constant. Hence, for perfect demodulation, the required condition
is:
[ ( − )+ ( + )] = ||≤ .

This is called vestigial symmetry condition.

It is seen that the VSB bandwidth exceeds the corresponding SSB bandwidth by /2. Thus, the filter transition bandwidth is an im ortant parameter which
decides the VSB bandwidth. It is observed in filter design that spectral components that li in the transition region suffer distortion causing phase shifts.

Magnitude Response of VSB Filter

Fig. sho s the magnitude response of VSB filter.

Here observe that fc to fc+W is USB. It's portion from fc to fc +fv is
 suppressed partially. fc
to fc - W is LSB. It's portion from fc -fv to fc is
transmitted as vestige.

 fc-fv ≤ H(f)≤ fc+fv exhibits odd symmetry. The sum of
Observe that H(fc)=1/2. And the frequency response
any two frequency components in the range is
fc-fv< f <fc+fv
equal to unity. i.e H(f-fc) + H(f+fc) = 1
Phase response is linear

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Advantages:
1. Low frequencies, near fc are, transmitted without any attenuation.
2. Bandwidth is reduced compared to DSB.

Applications:
VSB is mainly used for TV transmission, since low fr qu nci s n ar fc r present significant picture details.
They are unaffected due toVSB.

UNIT -2

Angle Modulation

Definition

We know that amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier can be varied by the modulating signal.
Amplitude is varied 'in AM. When frequency or phase of the carrier is varied by the modulating signal, then it
is called angle modulation, There are two types of angle modulation.

1. Frequency Modulation :

When frequency of the carrier varies as per amplitude variations of modulating signal, then it is called
Frequency Modulation (FM). Amplitude of the modulated carrier remains constant.

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2. Phase Modulation :

When phase of the carrier varies as per amplitude variations of modulating signal, then it is called
Phase Modulation (PM). Amplitude of the modulated carrier remains constant,

Frequency Modulation:

The frequency of the high frequency carrier signal is carried in accordance with the modula ing signal.

Vm = Em sin 2fmt

Vc = Ec sin 2fct

Vfm = Ec sin (2fct + mf sin 2fmt)

Vfm = Ec sin (wct + mf sin wmt)

mf  modulating index of fm
Relationship/Difference betweenpadeepzFMandPM:

 The basic difference between FM and PM li s in which property of the carrier isdirectly varied by
modulating signal. Note th t when frequency of the carrier varies,phase of the carrier also varies and
viceversa.
 But if frequency is varied directly, thenit .is called FM., 
And if phase is varied directly, then it is called PM.
The instantaneous phase deviation is denoted by θ (t). It is the instantaneous change in phase of the carrier
with respect to reference phase The instantaneous hase of the carrier is precise phase of the carrier at a given
instant .It is mathematically expressed as,

Instantaneous phase =

...................(1)

Here θ(t) is the instantaneous phase deviation and ωc is the carrier frequency. Now the instantaneous
frequency deviation is defined as

................(2)

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Definition for instantaneous frequency deviation: It is the instantaneous change in carrier frequency. It is
equal to the rate at which instantaneous phase deviation takes place.

Definition of instantaneous frequency:It is the frequency of the carrier t a given instant of time. It is given as

...................(3)

Instantaneous phase deivation θ(t) is proportional to modulating signal voltage

-.................. (4)

Where K is the deviation sensitivity of phase

Similarly the instatneous frequency deviation is proportional to modulating Signal voltage.

........................(5)

Where k1 is the deviation sensitivity of frequency.

From equation (2), We have

.......................(6)

Let the modulating signal be given as

Using the equation in equation (6)

.......................(7)

The angle modulated wave is mathematically expressed as

.......................(8)

Using the value of θ(t) in the above equation from equation (7)

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....(9)

Similarly using the value of θ(t) from equation (5) in equation (8) we get

..........(10)

FM and PM waveforms:

From the above

waveform we can
note the following

 For FM signal maximum frequency" deviation takes Place when

Modulating signal is at positive .and negative peaks.

 For PM signal the maximum frequency. deviation takes place near zero crossings of the modulating
signal.

 Both FM anid PM waveforms are identical except the phase shift.

Definition of Modulation index of PM and FM

The modulation index of PM is given as

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M=KE m

For FM It is the ratio of maximum frequency deviation () to the modulating frequency (fm).

Maximum frequency deviation 

mf = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– = ––––
Modulating frequency fm
 The maximum frequency deviation is the shift from centre frequency fc when the amplitude of m ssage
is maximum.
 f = K1 Em (Hz) K1
= Deviation sensitivity.

The Bandwidth of FM:

 By Carson’s rule the Bandwidth needed by fm is given as,

B = 2 ( + fmmax)

  Maximum frequency Deviation

fmmax is Maximum modulating frequency.

Deviation Ratio :

The modulation index correspon ing to maximum modulating frequency is called deviation ratio.
M ximum frequency eviation
Deviation Ratio = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
M ximum modul ting frequency

Frequency Spectrum of angle modualted wave :

 FM and PM analysis is quite complicated. It is derived with the help of Bessel

function. Efm = Ec sin (wct + mf cos wmt)

Using Bessel function this can be expanded as,

Efm = A {Jomf sin wct + J1mf [sin (wc + wm)t – sin (wc - wm)t]

+ J2mf [sin (wc + 2wm)t – sin (wc - 2wm)t] + J3mf [sin (wc + 3wm)t

– sin (wc - 3wm)t] + J4mf [sin (wc + 4wm)t – sin (wc - 4wm)t] …..}

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J0, J1, J2, J3 …. Are Bessel functions. The value of this depends on modulation index mf.

From the figure the Bandwidth of FM is given by

B = fc + nfm – fc + nfm
BW = 2nfm

Bessel Function Table :

m J0 J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 J9 J10

0 1 - - - - - - - - - -

0.25 0.98 0.12 - - - - - - - - -

0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03 - - - - - - - -

1 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02 - - - - - - -

1.5 0.51 0.56 0.23 0.06 0.01 - - - - - -

2 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03 - - - - - -

2.5 -0.05 0.50 0.45 0.22 0.07 0.02 - - - - -

3 -0.26 0.34 0.49 0.31 0.13 0.04 0.01 - - - -

4 -0.04 -0 07 0 36 0.43 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.02 - - -

5 0.18 -0 33 0 05 0.31 0.39 0.25 0.13 0.05 0.02 - -

Classification of FM:

1. Narro band FM
2. Wide band FM
Narrow band FM:

When the modulation index is less than I, it is called narrowband FM. The FM Equation given by eq. 9
can also be expressed as,

…………………(1)

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………(2)

For narrowband FM, the modulation index, m is very small therefore followi g approximatio s can be
considered.

Using this in equation (2)

Expanding

This equation gives the spectrum of n rrowb nd FM. Observe that there is carrier frequency fc, upper sideband
(fc + fm) and lower sideband (fc - fm).

Wide band FM

If the modulation index is higher than 10 it is called as wide band FM

then the above equation becomes

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The above integral is known as the nth order B ss l function of the first kind. It is given as

Using the value of Cn in equation (2)

Using the value x(t) in equation (1)

………………(3)

The Fourier transform of the above equation becomes

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This equation shows that there are infinite number of components

located fc±fm, fc±2fm,fc ±3fm…………….

Comparison between narrowband and wideband FM

Sr.no Narrow band FM Wide band FM

1 Modulation index is < 1 Modulation index > 10

2 padeepz

3 Spectrum contains 2 sidebands and carrier S ctrum cont6ains infinite number of

sid bands and carrier

4 BW=2fm

5 It is used for mobile communication It is us for broadcasting and entertainment

6 Maximum deviation =75Hz Maximum deviation = 5 Hz

7 Range of modulating frequency Range of modulating frequency

30Hz to 15 Kz 30Hz to 3 Kz
Comparison between FM and PM

Frequency modulation Phase modulation

1 The maximum frequency deviation depends The maximum phase deviation depends only
upon amplitude of modulating voltage and upon the amplitude of modulating voltage
modulating frequency

2 Frequency of the carrier is modulated by Phase of the carrier is modulated by modulating

modulating signal signal

3 Modulation index is increased as modulation Modulation index remains same if modulating

frequency is reduced and vice versa frequency is changed

4 Noise immunity is bette than AM and PM Noise immunity is better than AM but worse
than FM

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5 FM is widely used PM is used in some mobile systems.

Generation of FM waves:

Fm Modulators: There are 2 types of FM modulators.

1. Direct Method
2. Indirect Method

Direct FM Modulators : In this type the frequency of the carri r is vari d directly by the modulating signal.

Indirect FM Modulators: In padeepzthistypeFMisobtainbyphasemodulationofthecarrier.

Generation of Narrow band FM:

Direct FM reactance modulator.

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 It behaves as reactance across terminal A-B.


 The terminal A-B of the circuit may be connected across the tuned circuit of the oscillator to get fm o/p.

 The varying voltage (modulating voltage) V, across the terminals A-B changes the reactance of FET.

 This charge in reactance can be inductive or capacitive.

 Neglecting the gate current, let the current through C & R be I 1.

 At the carrier freq. the reactance of C is much larg r than
V
R & I1 = ––––––––––
R + 1/ jwc
Jwc >> R
I1 = jwcV
From the Circuit,
Vg = I1R = jwcrv
Id = gmvgs = gmVg
Id = jwcRgm V
From the circuit imped nce of the FET is,
V
Z = ––––
Id

V 1 1
= ––––––––––– = ––––––––––– = –––––––––
j CR gm V jw (gmCR) jw (Ceq)

 The impedance of FET is capacitive.


 By carrying the modulating voltage across FET, the operating paint g m can be varied and hence Ceq.

 This change in the capacitance will change the frequency of the oscillator.

Frequency Modulation using Varactor diode.

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 We know that the junction capacitance of the varactor diode changes as the reverse bias across it is
Direct Fm Transmitters : padeepz
varied.
 L1 & C1 forms the tank circuit of the carrier oscillator.
 The capacitance of the varactor diode depends on the fixed bias set by R1 & R2 & AF modulating signal.
 Either R1 or R2 is made variable.
 The radio frequency choke [RFC] has high reactance at the carri r frequency to prevent carrier signal
from getting into the modulating signal.
 At +ve going modulating signal s to the r v rse bias appli d to the varactor diode D, which decreases
its capacitance & increases the carrier fr qu ncy.
 A –ve going modulating sign l subtr cts from the bias, increasing the capacitance, which decreases the
carrier frequency.

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 Fig. shows the FM Crosby transmitter with an AFC loop. (Automatic frequency correction loop).

 The Frequency modulator can be either a reactance modulator or voltage controlled oscillator.

 The carrier freq is 5.1MHz. which multiplies by 18 in three steps to produce a final frequency of 91.8
MHz.

 When the frequency modulated carrier is multiplied, its frequency & phase deviations are also
multiplied.

 The rate at which the carrier is deviated is unaffected by the multiplication proc ss. H nce the
modulation index is multiplied.

 When an angle modulated carrier is heterodyned with another freq in a non li ear mixer, the carrier can
either be up converted or down converted.

AFC loop :

 The purpose of the AFC loop is the chieve near crystal stability of the transmit carrier freq. without
using a crystal in the carrier oscillator.
 The cassier frequency is mixed with local oscillator freq and then down converted in freq. & the fed
to a frequency discriminator
padeepz
 Frequency discriminator is a device whose o/p voltage is proportional to difference b/w i/p freq and its
resonant freq.
 Discriminator responds to low freq changes in the carrier center freq because of master oscillator freq
drift.
 When the discriminator responds to frequency deviation, the feedback loop would cancel the deviation
and this remove the modulation.
 The dc correction voltage is added to the modulating signal to automatically adjust the master
oscillator’s centre frequency to compensate for low freq drift.

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PLL Direct FM transmitter:

padeepz
 Fig shows a wide band FM transmitter.
 The VCO o/p freq is divided by N & fed bark to the PLL hase com arator, where it is compared to a
stable reference freq.
 The phase comparator generator a corr ction voltage that is proportional to the difference b/w the 2
frequencies.
 The correction voltage is added to the mo ulating signal & applied to the VCO i/p.
 The correction voltage djusts the VCO centre freq to its proper value.
 The LPF prevents the ch nges in the VCO o/p frequency due to the modulating signal from being
converted to a voltage & fed b ck to VCO.
 The LPF also prevents the loop from locking onto side frequency.

Indirect Fm transmitter

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 Here the modulating signalpadeepzdirectlydeviatesthephaseofthecarrier,which indirectly changes the

frequency.

 The carrier source is a crystal oscillator hence stability can be achieved without a AFC.

 A carrier is phase shifted to 900 & fed to the Balanc modulator. Where it is mixed with the i/p
modulating signal.

 The o/p of balanced modulator is DSBSC.

 The o/p of Balanced modulator is combin with original carrier in the combining N/W. to produce a
low index, phase modulated wavefrom.

 Fig (b) shows phasor of origin l c rrier, mo ulating signal and the resultant Vector.

 Fig (b) shows the phasors for the side freq. components of the suppressed carrier wave. As suppressed
carrier is out of hase with Vc, the u per & Lower side bands combine to produce Vm – 90o with Vc.
 The phase modulated signal is obtained by vector addition of carrier and modulating signal.

 Modulating signal vector adds to the carrier OA with 900 phase Shift.

 The resultant phase modulated vector is OB with phase shift .

 This orks only if both have the same frequency. The means carrier & modulating signal should have
same frequency. Under this condition phase modulation produces FM o/p.
FM Demodulators / Detectors

FM demodulator must satisfy the following requirements

 It must convert the frequency variations into amplitude variations


 This conversion must be linear and efficient.

 The demodulator circuits must be insensitive to amplitude changes.

 It should not be too critical in its adjustment and operation.

Types of FM demodulator:

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 Round Travis Detector or Balanced discriminator.

 Foster – Seley Discriminator or Phase discriminator.

 Ratio Detector.

Slope Detector / Round Travis Detector :

 Consists of 2 identical circuit connected back to back.


 FM signal is applied to the tuned LC circuit.

 Two tuned LC circuits are connected in series.

 The inductance of the second ry tuned LC circuit is coupled with the inductance of the primary LC
circuit this forms a tuned tr nsformer.

 Upper tuned circuit is T1 & lower tuned circuit is T2.

 I/P side LC is tuned to be

T1 is tuned to fc + f - max freq fm.

T2 is tuned to fc - f - max freq fm.


 Secondary of T1 & T2 are connected to diodes D1 & D2 with RC loads.

 The total o/p is equal to difference b/w Vo1 & Vo2.

 When i/p freq is fc, both T1 & T2 produce the same voltage hence o/p = 0

 When i/p freq is fc + f, the upper circuit T1 produces maximum voltage since it is tuned to this freq.
Hence this produces maximum votalge.
V01 is high compared to V02.

Vout = V01 - V02 is positive for fc + f.

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 When i/p freq is fc - f. T2 produces maximum signal since it is tuned to it. But T 1 produces minimum
voltage. Hence o/p Volt = V01 – V02 is negative. Thus we get a modulating signal.
Foster - Seeley Discriminator :

 The primary voltage is coupled through C3 & RFC to the centre tap on the secondary.

 The capacitor C3 passes all the frequencies of Fm. The voltage V 1 is generated across RFC.

 RFC offers high impedance to frequencies of Fm.

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 The voltage V1 thus appears across centre tap of secondary and ground also.

 The voltage of secondary is V2 & equally divided across upper half & lower half of the secondary.
 In the figure the voltage across diode D1 is VDI = V1 + 0.5 V2 and that across D2 is VD2 = V1 + 0.5 V2
.
 The o/p of upper rectifier is V01 and lower rectifier is V02.

 The net o/p V0 = V01 – V02  V0 = | VD1 | - | VD2 |

 At carrier frequency VD1 x VD2 are equal hence the net o/p of the discriminator will be zero.

 When the i/p frequency increases above fc the phase shift b/w V 1 & V2 reduces | VD1 | > | VD2 | hence
V01 = | VD1 | - | VD2 | will be +ve.

 When the i/p frequency reduces below fc then | VD1 | > | VD2 | hence V01 = | VD1 | - | VD2 | will be –ve.

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Ratio detector :

Ratio detector can be obtained by sight modifications in the foster-Seeley discriminator. Fig shows the
circuit diagram of ratio detector. As shown in the diagram the diode D2 is reversed, and output is taken from
different points. In the above circuit the regular conv rsion from fr qu ncy to phase shift and phase shift to
amplitude takes place as in faster–Seeley discriminator. The polarity of voltage in the lower capacitor is
reversed. Hence the voltages V01 and V02 across two capacitors add. (Note that these voltages subtract in
faster-seely circuit). And we know that when V01 incr as s, V02 cr as s and vice-versa as we have seen in
faster-Seeley circuit. Since, V0' is sum of V01 and V02, it r mains constant. From the circuit of Fig we can write
two equations for the output voltage V0 (Note that V0 is the net output voltage and taken across points A and
B). The First equation will be,

V0 = ½ V'0 – V02

and V0 = - ½ V'0 – V01

adding the above two equations,

2 V0 = V01 - V02

V0 = ½ (V01 - V02)

Since V01  | VD1| and | V02 | above equation will be,

V0 = ½ ( | VD1 | - | VD2 |)

 Here VD1 & VD2 are obtained as discussed earlier in foster seeley circuit.

 From the equation we know that the output of ratio detector is half compared to that of Foster-Seeley
circuit

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 As frequency increases above fc' | VD1 | > | VD2| hence o/p is +ve.

 III rly as frequency decreases below fc = | VD2 | > | VD1|, hence o/p is –ve.

Advantage :

 Reduced fluctuations in the o/p voltage compared to foster seeley circuit

PLL Demodulator circuit

 Fig. shows the block diagram of PLL FM modulator.

 The output frequency of VCO is equal to the fr qu ncy of unmodulated carrier.
 The phase detector generates the voltage which is proportional to difference between the FM signal and
VCO output.
 This voltage is filtered nd mplified. It is the required modulating voltage.
 Here frequency correction is not required in VCO since it is already done at transmitter
Comparison of FM and AM

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

1. Amplitude of the carrier is varied Frequency of the carrier is varied

according to amplitude of modulating according to amplitude of the
padeepz
signal. modulating signal.

2. Am has poor fidelity due to narrow Since the bandwidth is large,

band idth. fidelity is better.

3. Most of the power is in carrier hence less All the transmitted power is useful.
efficient.

4. Noise interference is more. Noise interference is minimum.

5. Adjacent Chennai Interference is present Adjacent Chennai Interference is

avoided due to guard bands.

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6. Am Broadcast operates in MF and HF FM Broadcost operates in VHF and

range UHF range.

7. In Am only carrier and two sidebands are Infinite number of sidebands are
present present

8. The transmission equipment is simple. The transmission equipment is

complex.

9. Transmitted power varies according to Transmitted power remains constant .

modulation index. irrespective of modulation index

10. Depth of modulation have limitation. It Depth of modulation have o

can not be increased above I. limitation. It can be increased by
increasing frequency deviation

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UNIT 3 & 4

1. Determine the irreducible limit below which a signal cannot be compressed.

2. Deduce the ultimate transmission rate for reliable communication over a noisy
channel.

3. Define Channel Capacity - the intrinsic ability of a channel to convey information.

Communication system

The function of any communication system is to convey the information from source to

Discrete message

Memory source

Memoryless source

destination. padeepz
Message which is selected from a finite number of redetermined messages.

During one time one message is transmitt d. During the n xt time interval the next from
the set is transmitted.

A source with memory for which ach symbol p nds on the previous symbols.

Memoryless in the sense th t the symbol emitted at any time is independent of previous
choices.

Probabilistic ex eriment involves the observation of the output emitted by a discrete

source during every unit of time. The source output is modeled as a discrete random variable,
S,which takes on symbols form fixed finite alphabet.

S = s0, s1, s2, · · · , sk-1

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ith probabilities

P(S = sk) = pk, k = 0, 1, · · · ,K – 1

We assume that the symbols emitted by the source during successive signaling intervals are
statistically independent. A source having the properties is described is called discrete
memoryless source, memoryless in the sense that the symbol emitted at any time is
independent of previous choices.

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Source alphabet

The set of source symbols is called the source alphabet.

Symbols or letters

The element of the set is called symbol.

Uncertainty

The amount of information contained in each symbols is closely related to its u c rtai ty
or surprise.

If an event is certain (that is no surprise, of probability 1) it conveys ero information.

We can define the amount of information contained in each symbols.

I(sk) = logb(1/ k)

Here, generally use log2 since in digital communications we will be talking about bits.
The above expression also tells us that wh n th re is more unc rtainty(less probability) of the
symbol being occurred then it conveys more information.

Unit of the information

The unit of the padeepzinformtionepensonthebaseofthelogarithmicfunction.

UNIT b VALUE

Binit 2

Decit (OR) Hartley 10

Natural unit(nat) e

When pk = ½ , e have I(sk) = 1 bit.

Some properties of information are summarized here:

1. For certain event i.e, pk = 1 the information it conveys is zero, I(sk) =

0. Absolutely certain of the outcome of an event.
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2. For the events 0 ≤ pk ≤ 1 the information is always I(sk) ≥0.Either provides some
or no information, but never brings about a loss of information.
3. If for two events pk > pi, the information content is always I(sk) < I(si).
The less probable the event is, the more information we gain when it occurs.

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4. I(sksi) = I(sk)+I(si) if sk and si are statistically independent.

Proof:
p(sj, sk) = p(sj) p(sk) if sk and si are statistically independent.
I (sj, sk) = log (1 / p(sj, sk))
= log (1 / p(sj) p(sk))
= log (1 / p(sj)) + = log (1 / p(sk))
= I(sj) I(sk)
Average information or entropy
The amount of information I(sk) produced by the source during an arbitrary sig alli g interval depends on the symbol sk emitted by the source at that time. Indeed, I(sk) is a discrete random variable that takes on the values I(s0), I(s1), · · · , I(sK-1) with probabilities p0, p1, · · · , pK-1 respectively.

The mean of I(sk) over the source alphabet S is giv n by

The im ort nt qu ntity H(φ) is called the entropy of a discrete memoryless

source with source al habet φ. It is measure of the average information content per source
symbol. Note the entro y H(φ) ends only on the probabilities of the symbols in the alphabet
φ of the source

Problem padeepz
1. A DMS has four symbols S1 , S2, S3 S4 with probabilities 0.40, 0.30, 0.20,
0.10
a. Calculate H(φ).
b. Find the amount of information contained in the message S 1S2S3 S4
and S4S3S3 S2 , and compare with the H(φ).
Solution
a. H(φ) = ∑ Pk log2(1/ Pk)
= - 0.4 log2 0.4 - 0.3 log2 0.3 - 0.2log2 0.2 -
0.1log20.1 = 1.85 b/symbol

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b. P(S1S2S3 S4 ) = (0.4)(0.3)(0.2)(0.1) = 0.0096

I(S1S2S3 S4 )= - log2 (0.0096) = 0.60 b/symbol
I(S1S2S3 S4 ) < 7.4 ( 4 H(φ) )

P(S4S3S3 S2) = (0.1)(0.2)2 (0.3) = 0.0012

I(S4S3S3 S2) = -log2(0.0012) =9.70 b/ symbol
I(S4S3S3 S2) > 7.4 ( 4 H(φ) )

Some properties of entropy

The entropy H(φ) of a discrete memoryless source is bounded as follows:

0 ≤ H(φ) ≤ log2(K)

where K is the radix (number of symbols)of the alphabet S of the source.

Furthermore, we may make two statements:

1. H(φ) = 0, if and only if the probability pk = 1 for some k, and the remaining
probabilities in the set are all zero; this low r bound on ntropy corresponds to no uncertainty.

2. H(φ) = log2(K), if and only if pk = 1/ K for all k; this upper bound on entropy
corresponds to maximum uncert inty.

Proof:

H(φ) ≥0

Since each robability k is less than or equal to unity, it follows that each term
Pk logb(1/ pk) is al ays nonnegative. So H(φ) ≥0.

The term Pk is zero if, and only if, pk = 0 or 1. That is pk =1 for some k and
all the rest are zero.

H(φ) ≤ log2(K)

To prove this upper bound , we make use of a property of the natural logarithm.

To proceed with this proof, consider any two probability distributions {p0, p1, · · · , pk-1 }
and {q0, q1, q2, · · · , qk-1 } on the alphabet φ = {s0, s1, s2, · · · , sk-1 } of a discrete
memoryless source. Then changing to the natural logarithm, we may write

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Hence, using the inequality, we get

We thus have the fundamental inequality

Where the equality holds only if pk = qk for all k. Suppose we n xt put

So,

Thus H(φ) is al ays less than or equal to log 2k. This equality holds only if the symbols are
equiprobable.

Entropy of a binary memoryless channel

Consider a discrete memoryless binary source shown defined on the alphabet φ = {0, 1}.
Let the probabilities of symbols 0 and 1 be p0 and 1- p0 respectively.

The entropy of this channel is given by

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From which we observe the following:

1. When p0=0, the entropy H(φ) =0.

2. When p0=1, the entropy H(φ)=1.
3. The entropy attains its maximum value, Hmax = 1 bit, p0= p1= 1/2., that is, symbols 1
and 0 are equally probable.

Figure - padeepzEntropyofdiscretemmorylssbinarysource

Information rate

If the source of the message gen rat s m ssag s at the rate of r messages per second,
then the information rate is defined to be

R= rH = average number of bits of information / second.

Example problem

An analog signal is bandlimited to B Hz,sampled at the nyquist rate, and the samples are
quantized into four levels The quantization levels Q1,Q2,Q3,Q4(messages ) are assumed
independent and occur ith probabilities P1=P4=1/8 and P2=P3=3/8. Find the information rate of
the source.

Solution

The average information H is

H= p1log2(1/p1) + p2log2(1/p2) + p3log2(p3) + p4log2(1/ p4)
=1/8 log2(8) +3/8 log2(8/3) +3/8 log2(8/3) +1/8 log2(8)

= 1.8 bits / message

The information rate R is

R= rH =2B(1.8) = 3.6 bits /s.

Shannon source coding theorem

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An important problem in communication is the efficient representation of data generated

by a discrete source. The process by which this representation is accomplished is called source

encoding. The device that performs that representation is called a source encoder.

length code

If some source symbols are known to be more probable than others, th the source

In physical terms, the r meter L represents the average number of bits per source

symbol used in the source encoding rocess. Let L min denote the minimum possible value of L.

We then define the coding efficiency of the source encoder as

code is generated by assigning short code to frequent source symbols, a d lo g code to rare
source symbols.

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EX : Morse code, in which the letters and alphabets are encoded i to streams of marks

and spaces, denoted as dots “.” And dashes “-“.

net
Our primary interest is in the development of an efficient source encoder that satisfies
two functional requirements:

1. The code words produced by the encod r are in binary form.

2. The source code is uniquely d codabl , so that the original source sequence can be
reconstructed perfectly from the encoded binary s qu nce.

We define the average code word length, L, of the source ncoder as

L = ∑ −1 kI k

=0

padeepz

η = Lmin / L

The source encoder is said to be efficient when η approaches unity.

Source coding theorem:

Given a discrete memoryless source of entropyH(φ) , the average code-word length L

for any distortionless source encoding scheme is bounded as

L ≥ H(φ)

According to the source-coding theorem, the entropy H(φ)represents a fundamental limit

on the average number of bits per source symbol necessary to represent a discrete memoryless
source in that it can be made as small as, but no smaller than, the entropy H(φ).Thus with Lmin
= H(φ), we may rewrite the efficiency of a source encoder in terms of the entropy H(φ)as

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η = H(φ)/ L

Data Compaction:

1. Removal of redundant information prior to transmission.

2. Lossless data compaction – no information is lost.

3. A source code which represents the output of a discrete memoryless source should be
uniquely decodable.

Prefix Coding
Any sequence madepadeepzupoftheinitialpartofthecodewordiscalledprefix. Prefix code
Consider a discrete memoryless source of alphabet {s0, s1, s2, · · · , sk-1}

and statistics {p0, p1, p2, · · · , pk-1}.

For each finite sequence of symbols emitt d by the sourc , the corresponding sequence
of code words is different from the sequence of code words corr s onding to any other source
sequence. For the above mentioned symbol, l t the code word be d noted by

{mk0, mk1, mk2, · · · , mkn-1}

– the element are 0s and 1s.

n - denotes the co word length

Prefix condition

The initial art of the code word is represented by the elements {mk0, mk1, mk2, · · · , mki}

1. The Prefix Code is variable length source coding scheme where no code is the prefix
of any other code.

2. The prefix code is a uniquely decodable code.

3. But, the converse is not true i.e., all uniquely decodable codes may not be prefix
codes.

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From 1 we see that Code I is not a prefix code. Code II is a prefix code Code III is also
uniquely decodable but not prefix code. Prefix codes also satisfies Kraft-McMillan i equality

which is given by padeepz

Code I violates the Kraft – McMillan inequality.

Both codes II and III satisfies the Kraft – McMillan in quality, but only code II is a prefix code.

Decoding procedure

1. The source decoder simply st rts t the beginning of the sequence and decodes one
codeword at the time.
2. The decoder lw ys st rts t the initial state of the tree.
3. The received bit moves the decoder to the terminal state if it is 0,or else to next
decision oint if it is 1.

Given a discrete memoryless source of entropy H(φ), a prefix code can be constructed
with an average code-word length l, which is bounded as follows:

H(φ)≤L≤ H(φ)+1

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The left hand side of the above equation, the equality is satisfied owing to the condition
that, any symbol sk is emitted with the probability

where, lk is the length of the codeword assigned to the symbol sk.

Shannon – fano coding

Procedure

1. List the symbols in order of decreasing probability.

2. Partition the set into two sets that are as close to equiprobable as possible, and assign
0 to the upper set and 1 to the lower set.
3. Continue the process, each time partitioning the sets with nearly equal probabilities as
possible until further partitioning not possible.
Example problems
1. A DMS has six symbols S1 , S2, S3 S4, S5, S6, with corr sponding probabilities 0.30,
0.25, 0.20, 0.12, 0.08, 0.05. construct a Shannon – fano code for S.
Sk pk Step 1 St 2 St p 3 St p 4 Step 5
S1 0.30 0 0 00

0
S2 0.25 1
01
S3 0.20
1 0 10
S4 0 12
1 1 0 110
S5 0 08
1 1 1 0 1110
S6 0 05
1 1 1 1 1111

.
2. A DMS has padeepzsixsymbolsS1,S2,S3,S4withcorrespondingprobabilities, 1/2 , 1/4, 1/8, 1/8,
construct a Shannon – fano code for S.
Sk pk Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
S1 1/2 0
0
S2 1/4
1 0 10
S3 1/8
1 1 0 110
S4 1/8
1 1 1 111

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3. A DMS has five equally likely symbols S1 , S2, S3 S4, S5 construct a Shannon – fano
code for S.

Sk pk Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

S1 0.20
0 0 00
S2 0.20
0 1 01
S3 0.20
1 0 10
S4 0.20
1 1 0 110
S5 0.20 padeepz
1 1 1 111

It is to assign to each symbol of an alphab t a s qu nce of bits roughly equal in length

to the amount of information conveyed by the symbol in qu stion.

Algorithm

1.The source symbols re listed in or er of decreasing probability. The two source

symbols of lowest probability re ssigned 0 and a 1. This part of the step is reffered to as a
splitting stage.

2. These two source symbols are regarded as being combined into a new source symbol
with probability equal to the sum of the original probabilities. The robability of the new symbol
is placed in the list in accordance with its value.

3. The procedure is repeated until we are left with a final list of source statistics of only t
o for hich a 0 and a 1 are assigned.

Symbol Stage I Stage II Stage III Stage IV

S0, 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0

S1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0 0.4 1

S2 0.2 0.2 0 0 1
S3 0.1 0 0.2 1

S4 0.1 1
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The code for each source symbol is found by working backward and tracing the
sequence of 0s and 1s assigned to that symbol as well as its successors.

Symbol probability code word

S0, 0.4 00
S1 0.2 10
S2 0.2 11
S3 0.1 010
S4 0.1 011

Drawbacks: padeepz

1. Requires proper statistics.

2. Cannot exploit relationships between words, phrases tc.,

3. Does not consider redundancy of the language.

Lempel-ziv coding

1. Overcomes the drawbacks of Huffman co ing

2. It is an adaptive and simple enco ing scheme.

3. When applied to English text it chieves 55% in contrast to Huffman coding which achieves
only 43%.

4. Encodes patterns in the text This algorithm is accomplished by parsing the source data
stream

into segments that are the shortest subsequences not encountered

previously. Problems

Let the input sequence be

000101110010100101.........

We assume that 0 and 1 are known and stored in codebook

subsequences stored : 0, 1

Data to be parsed: 000101110010100101.........

The shortest subsequence of the data stream encountered for the first time and not seen before

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is 00

subsequences stored: 0, 1, 00

Data to be parsed: 0101110010100101.........

The second shortest subsequence not seen before is 01; accordingly, we go on to write

Subsequences stored: 0, 1, 00, 01

Data to be parsed: 01110010100101.........

We continue in the manner described here until the given data stream has been completely
parsed. The

code book is shown below:

Numerical positions: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

subsequences: 0 1 00 01 011 10 010 100 101

Numerical Repre

sentations: 11 12 42 21 41 61 62

Binary encoded

blocks: 0010 0011 1001 0100 1000 1100 1101

Discrete Memoryless Channels

Let X and Y be the random variables of symbols at the source and destination
respectively. The description of the channel is shown in the Figure

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The channel is described by an input alphabet

{x0, x1, x2, · · · , xJ-1}, J – input alphabet size

an output alphabet

{y0, y1, y2, · · · , yK-1}, K – output alphabet size

and a set of transition probabilities

padeepz
p(yk/xj) = p(Y= yk / X= xj ) for all j and k

channel matrix or transition matrix

p(y0/x0) p(y1/x0) ……… p(yK-1/x0)

p(y0/x1) p(y1/x1) ……… p(yK-1/x1)

P= .
.

p(y0/xJ-1) (y1/xJ-1) ……… p(yK-1/xJ-1)

each row corresponds to fixed channel input.

each column corresponds to a fixed channel output.

Input probability distribution p(xj) , j=1,2,……J-1, the event that the channel input X= xj

occurs with probability

p(xj) = p(X=xj) for all j.

joint probability distribution

p(xj, yk) = p(X=xj, Y= yk)

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= p(yk/xj) p(xj)

Marginal probability distribution of the output random variable Y is obtained by averaging out the
dependence of p(xj, yk) on xj,

Binary Symmetric Channelpadeepz

– A discrete memoryless channel with J = K = 2.

– The Channel has two input symbols(x0 = 0, x1 = 1)and two output symbols(y0 = 0, y1 =
1).

– The channel is symmetric because the probability of receiving a 1 if a 0 is sent is same

as the probability of receiving a 0 if a 1 is sent.

– The conditional prob bility of error is enoted by . Abinary symmetric channel is shown in
Figure and its transition rob bility m trix is given by

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Mutual Information

If the output Y as the noisy version of the channel input X and H(X) is the uncer aini y
associated with X, then the uncertainity about X after observing Y , H(X|Y) is given by

The quantity H(Xpadeepz|Y)iscalledConditionalEntropy.Itistheamountof uncertainity about

the channel input after the channel output is obs rv . Since H(X) is the uncertainity in channel
input before observing the output, H(X) - H(X|Y) r pr s nts the unc rtainity in channel input that is
resolved by observing the channel output. This unc rtainity measure is termed as Mutual
Information of the channel and is enoted by I(X; Y).

Where the H(Y) is the entropy of the channel output and H(Y/X) is the conditional
entropy of the channel output given the channel input.

Properties of Mutual Information

Property 1:

The mutual information of a channel is symmetric, that is

I(X; Y) = I(Y;X)

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Where the mutual information I(X; Y) is a measure of the uncertainty about the channel input
that is resolved by observing the channel output, and the mutual information I(Y;X) is a measure

of the uncertainty about the channel output that is resolved by sending the channel output.

Proof:

Substituting Eq.3andEq.10in Eq.4 nd then combining, we obtain

From Bayes’ rule for conditional probabilities, we have

Hence, from Eq.11 and Eq.12

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Property 2:

The mutual is always non-negative, that is I(X; Y) ≥0

Proof:

We know,

Substituting Eq. 14 in Eq. 13, we get

With equality if, only if,

Using the following
fundamentalpadeepzinequalitywhichwedrivddiscussing the properties of
Entropy,

Drawing the similarities between the right h nd si of the above inequality and the left hand side
of Eq. 13, we can conclude th t

p(xj |yk) = p(xj)p(yk ) for all j and k.

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Property 2 states that we cannot lose information, on the average, by observing the
output of a channel. Moreover, the mutual information is zero if, and only if, the input and output
symbols of the channel are statistically independent.

Property 3:

The mutual information of a channel is related to the joint entropy of the channel input and
channel output by

where, the joint entropy (X, Y) is defined as

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Proof:

Therefore, from Eq. 18 and Eq. 23, we have

Channel Capacity

Channel Capacity, C is defined as ‘the maximum mutual information I(X; Y) in any single
use of the channel(i.e., signaling interval), where the maximization is over all possible input
probability distributions {p(xj)} on X”

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C is measured in bits/channel-use, or bits/transmission.

Example:

For, the binary symmetric channel discussed previously, I(X; Y) will be maximum wh

p(x0) = p(x1) = 1/2 . So, we have

Since, we know

Using the probability values in Eq. 3 nd Eq. 4 in evaluating Eq. 2, we get

FIGURE-Variation of channel capacity of a binary symmetric channel with transition

probability p.

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1. When the channel is noise free, p=0, the channel capacity C attains its maximum
value of one bit per channel use. At this value the entropy function attains its
minimum value of zero.
2. When the conditional probability p=1/2 due to noise, the channel capacity C a ains its
minimum value of zero,whereas the entropy function attains its maximum value of
unity, in such a case the channel is said to be useless.
Channel Coding Theorem:

Goal: Design of channel coding to increase resistance of a digital commu ication system
to channel noise.

Channel coding

Mapping of the incoming data sequence into channel in ut sequence. It is performed in

the transmitter by a channel encoder.

Channel decoding (inverse mapping)

Mapping of the channel output sequ nce into an output data sequence. It is performed in
the receiver by a channel decoder.

The channel coding theorem is efined as process to introduce redundancy in order to

reconstruct the original source sequence s ccurately as possible.

1. Let a discrete memoryless source

– with an al habet φ

– ith an entropy H(φ)

– produce symbols once every Ts seconds

2. Let a discrete memoryless channel

– have capacity C

– be used once every Tc seconds.

3. Then if,

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There exists a coding scheme for which the source output can be transmitted over the channel
and be reconstructed with an arbitrarily small probability of error. The parameter C / Tc

is called critical rate.

4. Conversly, if

it is not possible to transmitpadeepzinformationoverthechannelandreconstructit with an

arbitrarily small probability of error.

Example:

Considering the case of binary symmetric chann l, the source ntropy H(Φ) is 1. Hence, from the
above equation, we have

But the ratio Tc / Ts equals the code rate, r of the channel encoder.

r≤C

Hence, for a binary symmetric channel, if r ≤ C, then there exists a code capable of achieving
an arbitrarily low probability of error.

Information Capacity Theorem:

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The Information Capacity Theorem is defined as ‘The information capacity of a

continuous channel of bandwidth B hertz, perturbed by additive white Gaussian noise of power
spectral Density N0/ 2 and limited in bandwidth to B, is given by

where P is the average transmitted power. Proof:

Assumptions: padeepz

1. band-limited, power-limited Gaussian channels.

2. A zero-mean stationary process X(t) that is band-limit d to B hertz, sampled at Nyquist

rate of 2B samples per second

3. These samples are transmitted in T s conds ov r noisy channel, also band-limited to B

hertz.

The number of samples, K is given by

We refer to Xk as a sam le of the transmitted signal. The channel output is mixed with additive
white Gaussian noise(AWGN) of zero mean and power spectral density N0/2. The noise is
band-limited to B hertz Let the continuous random variables Y k, k = 1, 2, · · · ,K denote samples
of the received signal, as shown by

'

The noise sample Nk is Gaussian with zero mean and variance given by

The transmitter power is limited; it is therefore

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Now, let I(Xk; Yk) denote the mutual information between Xk and Yk. The capacity of the channel
is given by

The mutual information I(Xk; Yk) can be expressed as

This takes the form

When a symbol is transmitted from the source, noise is add d to it. So, the total power is P + σ 2.

For the evaluation of the information capacity C, we proc d in thr stages:

1. The variance of sample Yk of the r c ivsignal quals P + σ2. Hence, the differential

entropy of Yk is

padeepz
2. The variance of the noise s m le Nk equ ls σ2. Hence, the differential entropy of Nk is given by

3. No , substituting above two equations into

bits per transmission.

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The number K equals 2BT. Accordingly, we may express the information capacity in the
equivalent form:

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UNIT-5

Spread Spectrum and

Multiple Access T chniqu s

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Spread Spectrum

• Analog or digital data

• Analog signal
• Spread data over wide bandwidth
• Makes jamming and interception harder
• Frequency hoping
– Signal broadcast over seemingly random s ries of frequencies
• Direct Sequence
– Each bit is represented by multiple bits in transmitted signal
– Chipping code

Spread Spectrum Conce t

• Input fed into channel encoder

– Produces narrow bandwidth analog signal around central frequency
• Signal modulated using sequence of digits

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– Spreading code/sequence
– Typically generated by pseudonoise/pseudorandom numb r g ra or
• Increases bandwidth significantly
– Spreads spectrum
padeepz
• Receiver uses same sequence to demodulate signal

• Demodulated signal fed into channel decoder

General Model of Spr S ctrum
net

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Pseudorandom Numbers

• Generated by algorithm using initial seed

• Deterministic algorithm
– Not actually random
– If algorithm good, results pass reasonable tests of randomness
• Need to know algorithm and seed to predict s qu nce

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

• Signal broadcast over seemingly ran om series of frequencies •

Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter
• Eavesdroppers hear unintelligiblepadeepzblips
• Jamming on one frequency affects only few bits

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Basic Operation

• Typically 2k carriers frequencies forming 2k channels

• Channel spacing corresponds with bandwidth of input
• Each channel used for fixed interval
– 300 ms in IEEE 802.11
– Some number of bits transmitted using some ncoding
scheme
• May be fractions of bit (s lat r)
– Sequence dictated by sprea ing co

Frequency Hopping Example

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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Transmi er)

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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Receiver)

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Slow and Fast FHSS

• Frequency shifted every Tc seconds

• Duration of signal element is Ts seconds
• Slow FHSS has Tc Ts
• Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
• Generally fast FHSS gives improved performance in noise
(or jamming)

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

• Each bit represented by multiple bits using spreading code
• Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency band
– In proportion to number of bits used
– 10 bit spreading code s re ds signal across 10 times bandwidth of 1 bit
code
• One method:
– Combine input ith spreading code using XOR
– Input bit 1 inverts spreading code bit
– Input zero bit doesn’t alter spreading code bit

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– Data rate equal to original spreading code

• Performance similar to FHSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Transmitter

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Transmitter

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Multiple Access Techniques

• The transmission from the BS in the downlink can be heard by ach and very
mobile user in the cell, and is referred as broadcasting Tra smission from the
mobile users in the uplink to the BS is many-to-one, and is referred to as
multiple access. padeepz
• Multiple access schemes to allow many users to share simultaneously a finite
amount of radio spectrum resources.
– Should not result in severe degradation in the rformance of the system as
compared to a single user scenario.

and wideband. – Approaches can be broadly group into two

categories: narrowband

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Multiple Access Techniques

• Multiple Accessing Techniques : with possible conflict a d co flict- free

– Random access
– Frequency division multiplepadeepzccess(FDMA)

– Time division multiple access (TDMA)

– Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) : an xample is Code division
multiple access (CDMA)

– Space division multiple access (SDMA)

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Duplexing

• For voice or data communications, must assure two way commu ication
(duplexing, it is possible to talk and listen simultaneously) Duplexi g may be
done using frequency or time domain techniques.
– Forward (downlink) band provides traffic from the BS to the mobile
– Reverse (uplink) band provides traffic from the mobile to the BS.

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net
Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

• Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user, o for downlink and
one for uplink.
• A large interval between these frequency bands must be allowed so
that interference is

minimized.
Reverse Forward
Channel Channel
f
f c,, frequency
c,

R
Frequency separation

Frequency separation should be carefully

decided Frequency separation is constant
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Time division duplexing (TDD)

• In TDD communications, both directions of transmission usenetocotiguous frequency allocation, but two separate time slots to provide both a forward and reverse link.

• Because transmission from mobile to BS and from BS to mobile alternates

in time, this scheme is also known as “ping pong”.
• As a consequence of the use of the same fr qu ncy band, the
communication quality in both directions is the same. This is different from
FDD.

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FDMA

• In FDMA, each user is allocated a unique frequency band or cha el. During
period of the call, no other user can share the same freque cy ba the d.

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FDMA

• All channels in a cell are available to all the mobiles. Cha el assig m nt is
carried out on a first-come first- served basis.
• The number of channels, givenpadeepzfrequencyspectrumBT, depe ds on the
modulation technique (hence Bw or Bc ) and the guard bands between the
channels 2Bguard . These guard bands allow for imperfect filters and oscillators
and can be used to minimize adjacent channel interference.
• FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband syst ms.

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Main features

• Continuous transmission : the channels, once assigned, are used on a non-time-

sharing basis. This means that both subscriber and BS can use their
corresponding allotted channelspadeepzcontinuouslyandsimultaneously.
• Narrow bandwidth : Analog cellular systems use 25-30 kHz. Digital FDMA
systems can make use of low bit rate speech coding techniques to reduce
the channel band even more.
• If FDMA channels are not in use, th n th y sit idle and cannot be used by other
users to increase capacity.
Low ISI : Symbol time is large compar to d lay spread. No equalizer is required
•
(Delay spread is generally less than few μs – flat fading).

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Main features

• Low overhead : Carry overhead messages for control, sy chro ization purposes. As
the allotted channels can be used continuously, fewer bits eed to be dedicated
compared to TDMA channels.
• Simple hardware at mobile unit and BS : (1) no digital rocessing needed to
combat ISI (2) ease of framing and synchronization.
• Use of duplexer since both the transmitt r and r c iver o erate at the same time.
This results in an increase in the cost of mobile and BSs.

• FDMA required tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel

interference.

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• TDMA systems divide the channel time into frames. Each frame is furth r
partitioned into time slots. In each slot only one user is allow d to ith r transmit
or receive.
• Unlike FDMA, only digital data and digital modulation must be used.

• Each user occupies a cyclicallypadeepzrepeatingtimeslot,sochannel may be

thought of as a particular time slot of every frame, where N time slots
comprise a frame.

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features

• Multiple channels per carrier or RF channels.

• Burst transmission since channels are used on a timeshari g basis. Transmitter can
be turned off during idle periods.
• Narrow or wide bandwidth – depends on factors such as modulation
scheme, number of voice channels per carrier channel.
• High ISI – Higher transmission symbol rate, hence resulting in high ISI.
Adaptive equalizer required.

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Features

• High framing overhead – A reasonable amount of the total tra smitted bits
must be dedicated to synchronization purposes, channel ide tification. Also
guard slots are necessary to separate users.

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TDMA Frame

One TDMA Frame

Preamble Information Trail Bits

Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 … Slot N

Contr
Guard Sync ol Information CRC
Bits Bits Bits

One TDMA Slot

A Frame repeats in time

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

• In CDMA, the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth

signal called spreading signalpadeepz(code)beforemodulationa d tra smission

over the air. This is called spreading.
• CDMA is also called DSSS (Direct Sequ nce S r S ectrum). DSSS is a more
general term.

• Message consists of symbols

– Has symbol period and hence, symbol rate

EE 552/452 Spring 2007

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

• Spreading signal (code) consists of chips

– Has Chip period and and hence, chip rate

– Spreading signal use a padeepzpseudo-noise(PN)sequence(a pseudo-

random sequence)
– PN sequence is called a codeword
– Each user has its own cordword
– Codewords are orthogonal. (low autocorr lation)
– Chip rate is oder of magnitude larg r than the symbol rate.
• The receiver correlator distinguishes the s nd rs signal by examining the
wideband signal with the same time-synchronized spreading code
The sent signal is recovered by spre ing process at the receiver.•

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CDMA Advantages
• Low power spectral density.
– Signal is spread over a larger frequency band
– Other systems suffer less from the transmitter
padeepz

• Interference limited operation

– All frequency spectrum is used
• Privacy
– The codeword is known only between the sender and receiver. Hence other users
can not decode the messages that are in transit
• Reduction of multipath affects by using larg r sp ctrum

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CDMA Advantages

• Random access possible

– Users can start their transmission at any time
• Cell capacity is not concerete fixed like in TDMA or FDMA systems.
Has soft capacity
• Higher capacity than TDMA and FDMA
• No frequency management
• No equalizers needed
• No guard time needed
• Enables soft handoff

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