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RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY Foundation Engineering

CHAPTER ONE
1 SITE EXPLORATION
1. INTRODUCTION
Investigation of the underground conditions at a site is prerequisite to the economical
design of the substructure elements. It is also necessary to obtain sufficient information for
feasibility and economic studies for a proposed project. Public building officials may
require soil data together with the recommendations of the geotechnical consultant prior to
issuing a building permit, particularly if there is a chance that the project will endanger the
public health or safety or degrade the environment.
To eliminate the site exploration, which usually ranges from about 0.5 to 1.0 percent of total
construction costs, only to find after construction has started that the foundation must be
redesigned, is certainly false economy. This fact is generally recognized, and it is doubtful
that any major structures are currently designed without site exploration being
undertaken. Small structures are sometimes designed without site exploration; however,
the practice is not recommended. The condition of the adjacent structures is an indication,
but certainly no guarantee, that a site is satisfactory.
Suitable building sites in urban areas are becoming difficult to find, and often sites targeted
for urban renewal are used. These sites can be quite hazardous from demolition of
previously existing structures and backfilling of former basements during landscaping.
Often this type of backfill is done with little supervision or quality control, so there can be
significant soil variation at these sites within a few meters in any direction.
The elements of a site investigation depend heavily on the project but generally should
provide the following:
1. Information to determine the type of foundation required (shallow or deep).
2. Information to allow the geotechnical consultant to make a recommendation on the
allowable load capacity of the foundation.
3. Sufficient data/laboratory tests to make settlement predictions.

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4. Location of the groundwater table (or determination of whether it is in the construction

zone). For certain projects, groundwater table fluctuations may be required. These can
require installation of piezometers and monitoring of the water level in them over a period
of time.
5. Information so that the identification and solution of construction problems (sheeting
and dewatering or rock excavation) can be made.
6. Identification of potential problems (settlements, existing damage, etc.) concerning
adjacent property.
7. Identification of environmental problems and their solution.
An exploration program may be initiated on an existing structure where additions are con
template. The current safety of an existing structure may require investigation if excessive
8. Settlements or cracks have occurred or not. The required remedial measures may be
undertaken based on new-found information or on the damage evidence and a
reinterpretation of the original data.
Part of the geotechnical program may include on-site monitoring, both during and after
construction, to make certain that recommendations are being followed. Where excavation
reveals conditions requiring design changes, monitoring of progress will ensure that
change orders are initiated early enough to keep costs to a minimum. Post construction
monitoring of building performance is particularly desirable from the geotechnical
consultant's view, since this allows for a review of the design procedures and builds a
database for future work. Unfortunately, few owners are willing to make this investment or
even allow property entry should the foundation consultant be willing to underwrite the
cost.
Although the primary focus of this chapter is on site exploration for buildings and other
structures where the cost per unit area is high (compact site), many of the methods are
applicable to roads; airfields; water, sewer, pipe, and power lines; and other extended sites.
Extended site exploration is useful to establish line and grade, locate groundwater level and
rock line, delineate zones of poor-quality soil, and establish borrow pits.

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1.1 Purpose of site Exploration:

The purpose of site exploration is to assess the suitability of a site for a particular project or to
investigate the cause of failure of an existing structure.
The primary objectives of soil exploration are:
 Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.
 Determination of the depth and thickness of the various soil strata and their extent in their
horizontal direction.
 The location of the ground water table and fluctuations in GWT.
 Obtaining soil rock samples from the various strata.
 The determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata that affect the
performance of the structure, and
 Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests. The information
gathered will be used as bases:
 For the selection of foundation.
 To decide the depth of foundation.
 For the determination of the bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
 For the performance of settlement of the existing foundation.

1.2 Sub-surface Exploration Program.

The following steps are involved in site exploration program
1. Desk study or collection of primary information
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Site Investigation

1.2.1 Desk Study or Collection of Preliminary Information.

In this step try to get the following Information:
 Type of structure to be built and its general use. For example:
Building:
 Appropriate column loads
 Spacing of columns
 Code requirements
 Purpose of proposed building
Bridge:

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 Span length
 Loading on piers and abutments
 A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to be encountered. These can be
obtained from soil maps and geologic maps.

1.2.2 Reconnaissance Survey

Visual inspection to the site to obtain information about:
 General topography of the site, possible existence of drainage ditches.
 Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for construction of other structures.
 Type of vegetation, which may indicate the type of soil
 The evidence of landslides, creep of slope and the shrinkage cracks

 Type of construction nearby and existence of any cracks in walls or other problems
The nature of stratification and physical properties of the soil nearby can also be obtained from
any available soil exploration report for existing structures.

1.2.3 Site Investigation:

The subsoil exploration should enable the engineer to draw the soil profile indicating the
sequence of the strata and the properties of the soils involved. This phase consists of planning,
making test, boreholes, and collecting soil samples at desired intervals for subsequent
observation and laboratory tests. In general, the methods available for soil exploration may be
classified as follows:
1. Direct Methods: Test pits, Trial pits or trenches.
2. Semi-direct Methods: Borings.
3. Indirect Methods: Soundings or Penetration tests and geophysical methods.
This stage is the detailed investigation phase and it involves:
 Making test boreholes and /or test pits.
 Collecting soil samples
 Conducting field tests
A decision has to be made on:
 The depth of the boreholes
 The number and the location of boreholes
 The sampling interval
 Type of sample to be collected
 Type of field tests to be conducted

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 Types of laboratory tests to be conducted

The choice of appropriate testing method is affected by:
 Economy
 Type of structure
 Type of foundation, if predetermined
 Type of soil

1.3 Test Pits:

Test pits or trenches are open type or accessible exploratory methods. Soils can be inspected in
their natural condition. The necessary soil samples may be obtained by sampling techniques and
used for ascertaining strength and other engineering properties by appropriate laboratory tests.
Test pits will also be useful for conducting field tests such as the plate-loading test.
Test pits are considered suitable only for small depths- up to 3m; the cost of these increases
rapidly with depth. For greater depths, especially in granular soils, lateral supports or braking of
the excavations will be necessary. Ground water table may have to be lowered.
Hence, test pits are usually made only for supplementing other methods or for minor structures.

1.4 Boring:
Making or drilling boreholes into the ground with a view to obtaining soil or rock samples from
specified or known depth is called “boring”. The required minimum depth, number of boring,
method of boring and equipment used are decided before conduct boring.

1.4.1 Depth of boreholes

Investigation should be carried extend below the depth where the stress increase from the
foundation load is significant. This value is often take as 10 %( or less) of the contact stress qo.
For square footing this is about 1.5B, where B is the width of the foundation. Since footing sizes
are seldom known in advance of borings, a general rule of thumb is twice the least lateral
dimension of the structure. When the 1.5 X width is not practical as, say, for a two story
warehouse or department store, boring depths of 6 to 15m may be adequate. On the other hand,
for important of high-rise structures that have small-plan dimension; it is common to extend one
or more of the borings to bedrock or to competent (hard) soil regardless of the depth.

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The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be predetermined. The
depth can be changed during the drilling operation, depending on the subsoil
encountered. To determine the approximate minimum depth of boring, engineers
may use the rules established by the American society of Civil Engineers (1972);

2 Determine the net increase in the effective stress, Δσ’, under a foundation with depth as
shown in Fig 1.2

3 Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress σ0’ with depth

Fig 1.1 determination of the minimum depth of boring

1. Determine the depth D=D1, at which the effective stress increase Δσ’ is equal to
1/10*q ( q= estimated net stress on the foundation)

4 Determine the depth D= D2 at which Δσ’/σ0’ =0.05

2. Choose the smaller of the two depths, D1 and D2, just determined as the approximate
minimum depth of boring required, unless bedrock is encountered.

If the preceding rules are used, the depth of borehole for building with a width
of 30m will be approximately the following according to Sowers and Sowers
(1970)

Table 1.1 Depth of bore hole required for stories

No. of stories Boring depth(m)
1 3.5
2 6
3 10
4 16

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5 24

To determine the boring depth for hospitals and office building, Sowers and Sowers (1970 )
also used the following rules.
For light steel or narrow buildings,

Db/ S0.7 =a
Where Db = depth of boring, S= number of stories and a = 3

For heavy steel or wide concrete buildings

Db/ S0.7 =b
Where b = 6

4.1.1 Number of boreholes:

There are no clear-cut criteria for determining directly the number and depth of borings required
on a project in advance of some subsurface exploration.
For buildings a minimum of three borings, where the surface is level and the first two borings
indicate regular stratification, may be adequate. Five borings are generally preferable (at building
corners and center), especially if the site is not level. On the other hand, a single boring may
sufficient for an antenna or industrial process tower base in a fixed location with the hole made at
the point. Five or Four borings are sufficient if the site soil is non uniform (both to determine this
and for the exploration program). This number will be enough to delineate a layer of soft clay or
silt and to determine the properties of the poorest material so that a design can be made that
adequately limits settlements for most other situations.
Additional borings may be required in very uneven sites or where fill areas have been made and
the soil varies horizontally rather than vertically. Even through the geotechnical-engineer may be
furnished with a tentative site plan locating the building(s), often there are still in the stage.
Where horizontal locations can be occurred, so the borings should be sufficiently spread to allow
this without having to make any (or at least one more than a few) additional borings.
Table 1.2 Spacing of boring according to Das
types of project spacing, m
multistory building 10--30
one story industrial plant 20-60
Highways 250-500
Residential subdivisions 250-500

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Dams 40-80
Table 1.3 Spacing of boreholes according to Teng (1983)
Spacing of boreholes in meter for minimum number
Types of Project horizontal stratification of soil of borehole
Uniform Moderate erratic
Multistory Building 45 30 15 4
1 or 2 story 60 30 15 3
bridge Pier, towers and abutments 30 7.5 1 or 2 for each
Highway and airports 300 150 30
Borrow pit (for compacted fill) 150-300 60-150 15-30

4.1.2 Borehole Log:

Information on the subsurface conditions obtained from the boring-operation is typically
presented in the form of a boring record, commonly known as “borehole log”.
The borehole log should provide the following:
A continuous record of the various strata identified at various depth of the boring is
recorded.
Description or classification of the various types of soil or rock encountered.
Data regarding ground water level
Size of hole
Method of excavation or boring
Dates work was carried out.
The types and depths of samples taken
In-situ tests carried out and the depth at which they were conducted.
Problems or any special conditions encountered during boring.

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Fig. 1.2 Typical example of borehole

4.1.3 Boring for exploration

When the depth of the exploration is larger, boring method is used. Depending upon the type of
soils and purpose of boring, the following methods are used for drilling the holes.
 Auger Boring
 Wash Boring
 Rotary Boring
 Percussion drilling

4.2 SAMPLING IN SOIL

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Soils met in nature are heterogeneous in character with a mixture of sand, silt and clay in
different proportions. A satisfactory design of a foundation depends upon the accuracy with
which the various soil parameters required for the design are obtained. The accuracy of the soil
parameters depends upon the accuracy with which representative soil samples are obtained from
the field.  Auger samples may be used to identify soil strata and for field classifications tests, but
are not useful for laboratory tests. The cuttings or chopping from wash borings are of little value
except for indicating changes in stratification to the boring supervisor. For proper identification
and classification of a soil, representative samples are required at frequent intervals along the
bore hole. Representative samples can usually be obtained by driving or pushing into the strata in
a bore hole an open-ended sampling spoon called a split spoon sampler.  After a sample is taken,
the cutting shoe and the coupling are unscrewed and the two halves of the barrel separated to
expose the material. The samples so obtained are stored in glass or plastic jars or bags,
referenced and sent to the laboratory for testing. But the sample obtained from sampler may be
disturbed or undisturbed which depends on sampler types and dimension of sampler. In other
ward the disturbance of soil depends mainly upon the following factors
Area ratio

The values of D1 to D4 are indicated on Fig 1.2. Ar is a measure of the volume of the soil
displacement to the volume of the collected sample. Well designed sampling tubes have an area
ratio of about 10 percent. However, the area ratio may have to be much more than 10 percent
when samples are to be taken in very stiff to hard clay soils mixed with stones to prevent the
edges of the sampling tubes from distortion during sampling.

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In side clearance ratio defined as follow

The inside clearance allows elastic expansion of the sample when it enters the sampler. It
helps to reduce the frictional drag on the sample. For an undisturbed sample, the inside
clearance should be between 0.5% and 3%.
Outside clearance ratio is defined as

It reduces the driving force and the value should be lies between 0 to 2%. In addition to the
above factor inside wall friction and method of applying force are main design factor

Fig.1.3 Soil sampler

4.2.1 Types of sampler

Sampling devices that are used in boring for testing and collecting soil and rock are called
samplers. The samplers are classified as thick wall and thin wall samplers, depending upon the
area ratio of a sampler. Thick wall samplers are those having the area ratio between 10 to 25
percent. Depending upon the mode of operation they are classified in the following three
common types. These are:
 Open drive
 Stationary piston

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 Rotary sampler
a. Open drive

It is tube open at the lower end. The sampler head is provided with vents (valve) to permit water
and air to escape during driving. The check valve helps to retain sample when the sampler is
lifted up. The tube may be seamless or it may be split in two parts, in the latter case it is known
as a split tube, or split spoon sampler. The split tube may also contain an inside thin wall linear

Fig. 1.4 Standard split spoon sampler (open drive sampler)

5 Stationary piston sampler

It contains a piston or plug attached to a long piston rod extending up to the ground through the
drill rod. During lowering of the sampler through the hole, the lower end of the sampler is kept
closed with the piston. When the desired sampling elevation is reached, the piston rod is
clamped, thereby keeping the piston stationary, and the sampler tube is advanced down into soil.
The sampler is then lifted up, with piston rod in the clamped position. The piston prevents the
entry of water and soil into the tube, when it is being lowered, and then greatly helps to retain the
sample during lifting operation thus the sampler is more suitable for sampling soft soils and
saturated sand

6 Rotary samplers

These are the core barrel type, having an outer tube provided with cutting teeth and a removable
thin wall linear inside. It is used for firm to hard cohesive soils and cemented soils

6.1 Sample collection

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In the course of field investigation, samples for different kinds of laboratory tests are obtained by
sampling devices. Two main classes of samples obtained with different sampling devices are
called disturbed and undisturbed which are explained in the following paragraphs.

Disturbed samples – disturbed sample can be obtained by direct excavation, augers and thick
wall samplers. For sampling saturated cohesion less soils, a trap valve or a spring sample retainer
is inserted in the drive hoe (cutting edge). Sand pump and shell with trap valve (flap) are also
used. The disturbed samples may be used for mechanical analysis, water content determination,
index properties, compaction, and stabilization tests.

Undisturbed samples – it may be required for tests on shear, consolidation, in-situ density and
permeability tests. They can also be used for other tests like the disturbed samples. The
undisturbed samples should be protected from change in its water content and shocks. Thus the
samplers are obtained by forcing a thin wall sampler into the soil or bottom of the bore hole or in
a test pit to reduce shocking effect. In addition this the samples in tube samplers should be given
coating of paraffin wax on the other ends immediately after the sampler containing the samples is
brought to the ground surface. The sealed tube or sample from open pit should be sent to the soil
testing laboratory, where subsequent tests can be made on these samples.

Testing – a number of tests can be performed to evaluate the various soil properties. These
include both laboratory and field tests. Some of the more common tests are listed in the table 1.4.

Table 1.4 common types of tests

ASTM
Property of soil type of tests -Designation
a) Laboratory testing in soils
Grain size distribution Mechanical analysis D421; 422;D1140
Liquid limit D4318
Consistency Plastic Limit D4318
Plasticity index D4318
Unit Weight specific gravity D854
Natural water
content
Moisture D2216
Field moisture
content
unconfined
compression D2166
Shear strength
Direct shear D3080
Tri-axial D2850
volume change shrinkage factors D427
Compressibility Consolidation D2435
Permeability Permeability D2434
compaction standard Proctor D698
Characteristics modified Proctor D1557

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California bearing Ratio(CBR) D1883

b) Field testing of Soils
Shear strength(soft clay) Vane test D2573
Moisture- density
Compaction Control relation D698
In place density D1556
Relative Density(granular Soils) Penetration test D1586
Permeability Pumping tests
CBR
Bearing Capacity Pavement
plate bearing D1195
plate bearing D1196
Footing Piles(Vertical Load)
Load tests D1194

6.2 Field Testing:

Types and spacing of samples depend on the material encountered and the types of the project.
As a general guide, undisturbed samples in clays, or a saturated penetration test in sands, should
be carried out at 1.5m to 3m intervals and at every change in stratum, in shell and auger borings.
Standard or cone penetration tests should be carried out every 1.5m in rotary drill holes through
sand and gravel. Disturbed samples should be taken in all kinds of borings at 1.5m intervals and
at each change of stratum. In soft clays, or for special conditions, continuous sampling may be
necessary.

6.2.1 Field / I n-situ Tests:

6.2.1.1 Sounding Tests:

Sounding tests are normally carried out to supplement borings. Since they are relatively cheaper
and faster than borings they are widely used in site exploration.
Sampling disturbances and sample preparation for laboratory tests significantly affect the shear
strength parameters. Consequently, a variety of field tests have been developed to obtain more
reliable soil shear strength parameters by testing soils in-situ. In the following sections some of
the most popular field tests are described.

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The most common sounding test devices are penetrometrs. Penetrometers are of two: Static
penetrometr and dynamic penetrometer. In both types of penetrometers it is the resistance against
penetration that is measured.

6.2.1.2 Cone Penetration Test:

The penetrometer essentially consists of a metal-rod with a wedge shaped tip having a cross-
sectional area of 10cm2. The metal rod is encased in a metal pipe with specific dimensions.
There are two types of cone penetration test i.e. static and dynamic penetration test. Static
penetration test is conducted by pushing downward at steady rate of 10-20mm/sec through depth
of 35mm each time. The thrusts required driving the cone and the sleeve 80mm into the ground
are measured independently so that the end resistance or cone resistance and side friction or
sleeve resistance may be estimated separately. The specific skin friction, which is the difference
between the total resistance and the point resistance, may also be plotted. This parameter plays
an important role in the design of piles.
While dynamic the penetrometer is driven into the soil by blow of hammer at a constant rate of
10mm/s to 20mm/s. The number of blow required to penetrate cone 10mm is taken as
penetration number (Ncon).
The Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) is an in situ test used for subsurface exploration in fine and
medium sands, soft silts and clays. The apparatus consists of a cone with a 35.7mm end diameter
and 600 point angle (Fig. 1.4) that is attached to a rod. An outer sleeve encloses the rod.

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Figure 1.5: Cone Penetration Test apparatus

A special type of the cone penetrometer, known as piezocone, has porous elements inserted into
the cone or sleeve to allow for pore water pressure measurements.
The cone resistance qc is normally correlated with the undrained shear strength. One correlation
equation is:

Where σz represents the total overburden pressure above the cone tip, and Nk is a cone factor that
depends on the geometry of the cone and the rate of penetration. Average values of Nk as a
function of plasticity index Ip can be estimated from

Results of cone penetrometer tests have also been correlated with the friction angle. A number of
correlations exist. Based on published data for sand (Roberston and Campanella, 1983), you can
estimate ϕ’using:

6.2.1.3 Standard Penetration Test (SPT):

The SPT is primarily used to assess in-situ properties of granular soils which cannot be sampled
in an undisturbed state. It is also used in cemented soils and some clay.

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A standard split-spoon sampler is driven 450mm into the soil by repeated blows from a hammer
of standard dimensions (mass of 63.5 Kg dropped from a height of 76cm). The blows required to
produce the first 150mm penetration are usually ignored and the number of blows required
driving the sampler a further 300mm is recorded as “the N-value”.
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was developed around 1927 and it is perhaps the most
popular field test performed mostly in coarse grained (or cohesionless) soils. The SPT is
performed by driving a standard split spoon sampler into the ground by blows from a drop
hammer of mass 64 kg falling 760 mm (Fig. 1.5).

Fig.1.6 Standard Penetration Test (Budhu, 248)

The sampler is driven 150 mm into the soil at the bottom of a borehole, and the number of blows
(N) required to drive it an additional 300 mm is counted. The number of blows N is called the
standard penetration number.
Various corrections are applied to the N values to account for energy losses, overburden pressure,
rod length, and so on. It is customary to correct the N values to a rod energy ratio of
60%. The rod energy ratio is – the ratio of the energy delivered to the split spoon sampler to the
free falling energy of the hammer. The corrected N values are denoted as N60.

=standard penetration number, corrected for field condition

N= Measured penetration number

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ηH = Hammer efficiency
ηB= Correction for borehole diameter
= Correction for rod length
ηS=Sampler correction
Variation of ηh
country hammer type hammer release ηh (%)
Donut Free fall 78
Japan
Donut Rope and pulley 67
Donut Rope and pulley 60
United states
Safety Rope and pulley 45
Donut Rope and pulley 45
Argentina
Donut Rope and pulley 60
China Donut Rope and pulley 50

Variation of ηB Variation of ηR
Diameter in mm ηB Rod length(m) ηR
60-120 1 >10 1
150 1.05 6-10 0.95
200 1.15 4-6 0.85
0-4 0.75
Variation of ηS
Variation ηs
Standard sampler 1
With liner for dense sand and clay 0.8
With liner for loose sand 0.9

There is also correlation between the standard penetration number and dilactancy correlation,
overburden pressure correlation and correlation for undrained shear strength of clay.
On the basis of results of undrained triaxial tests conducted on insensitive clay Stroud (1974)
suggested that
Cu = KN60
K= Constant =3.5-6.5kN/m2
N60 = standard penetration number obtained from field
The average value of K is about 4.4kN/m2
Hara et al. (197) also suggested that

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Cu =29*(N60)0.72
The over consolidation ratio, OCR, of a natural clay deposit can be correlated with N60 value.
On the basis of the regression analysis of 110 data points, Mayne and kemper (1988) obtained
the relationship

σ'o =effective vertical stress, in MN/m2

Dilactancy and overburden pressure correlation
If 50 blows for each 150mm increment, 100 blows to drive the required 300mm or 10 successive
blows produce no advance is encountered correlation has to be adopted. The corrections are:
 Dilactancy correlation
 Overburden pressure correlation
Dilactancy correlation: the silty fine sands and fine sands below water table develop pore water
pressure which is not easily dissipated. The pore water pressure increases the resistance of the
soil hence the penetration number (N). For this case Terzaghi and Peck develop correction as

Where NR is recorded value, Nc or (N1)60 is corrected value

If NR ≤ 15, NR = (N1)60
Overburden pressure correlation: In granular soils, the Overburden pressure affects the
penetration resistance. As the confining pressure in cohesion-less soils increases with the depth,
the penetration number for soils at shallow depths is underestimated and that at greater depths is
overestimated. For uniformity, the N values obtained from field tests under different effective
overburden pressure are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure.
For such situation different scientist recommend the use of the following equations.

In the past, a number of empirical relations were proposed for CN. The most commonly
cited relationships are those of Liao and Whitman (1986) and skempton (1986).
Liao and Whitman (1986) relationship

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skempton relationship

Seed et. al.’s relationship (1975)

Peck et. al.’s relationship (1974)

The corrected N value is used to estimate the relative density, friction angle, and settlement in
coarse grained soils. The test is very simple, but the results are difficult to interpret.
Typical correlation among N values, relative density Dr, and φ for coarse grained soils are given
in Table 1.5
Table 1.5 correlation of N, N60, Dr, and for coarse grained soils
N N60 Description ϒ Dr φ

0-5 0-3 Very loose 11-13 0-15 26-28

5-10 3-9 Loose 14-16 16-35 29-34
10-30 9-25 Medium 17-19 36-65 35-40
30-50 25-45 Dense 20-21 66-85 38-45
> 50 > 45 Very Dense > 21 > 86 > 45
The SPT is mostly used in coarse grained soils. However, in some countries, for example, Japan
and the United States, it is also used in fine-grained soils. Table 1.6 shows, correlation of
N60 and Su for saturated fine grained soils.

Table 1.6 correlation of N60, and Su for fine grained soils

Unconfined compression
N60 Description strength Su (kN/m2)
0-2 Very soft < 10
3-5 Soft 10-25
6-9 Medium 25-50
10-15 Stif 50-100
15-30 Very stif 100-200
> 30 Extremely stif > 200

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An extensive study conducted by Marcuson and Bigamously (1977) produced the empirical
relationship

(1.1)

Dr = relative density
N60 = Standard penetration number in the field
σ’o= Effective over burden pressure (lb/inch2)
Cu =uniformity coefficient of the sand
The peak friction angle ϕ’, of granular soil has also been correlated with N60 or N1(60)by
several investigator. Some of these correlations are as follows.

7 Peak, Hanson, and Thornburn(1974) give a correlation between (N1)60 and ϕ’ as follows

(1.2)

8 Hatanaka and Uchida (1996) provided a simple correlation between ϕ’ and (N1)60 that can
be expressed as
(1.3)

8.1.1.1 Plate Loading Test:

A square or circular plate is seated on the stratum to be tested, usually at the bottom of a trial pit,
and loaded. Load is applied in the increments and maintained until full settlement has taken place
at each load increment.
Correlations are available to estimate the settlement of a full-sized foundation based on
settlement of the plate.
Plate loading tests are particularly suitable for coarse granular materials which cannot be tested
by normal laboratory means or by a penetration test. The main pitfall in predicting settlement
from these tests is that the zone of stressed soil beneath the plate is much smaller than that
beneath the larger foundation; it will thus be unaffected by deeper strata whose load bearing and
settlement characteristics may critically affect the behavior of the foundation. With clays, tests do
not usually continue for long enough for consolidation to be completed so settlement cannot be
predicted. In order to obtain reliable results, plates should be as large as possible and should
never be less than 0.3m.

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8.1.1.2 Vane Shear Test:

In soft, sensitive and saturated clays, where undisturbed specimen is difficult to obtain, the
undrained shear strength is measured using a shear vane test. A diagrammatic view of the shear
vane apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.6. It consists of four thin metal blades welded orthogonally
(900) to a rod where the height H is twice the diameter D (Fig. 1.6). Commonly used diameters
are 38, 50 and 75 mm.

Figure 1.7: Shear vane apparatus.

The vane is pushed into the soil either at the ground surface or at the bottom of a borehole until
totally embedded in the soil (at least 0.5 m). A torque T is applied by a torque head device
(located above the soil surface and attached to the shear vane rod) and the vane is rotated at a
slow rate of 60 per minute. As a result, shear stresses are mobilized on all surfaces of a
cylindrical volume of the soil generated by the rotation. The maximum torque is measured by a
suitable instrument and equals to the moment of the mobilized shear stress about the central axis
of the apparatus. The undrained shear strength is calculated from:

Where T= Torque applied, H = Height of the vane

D = diameter of the soil cylinder sheared

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Field vane equipment is available for use either at the bottom of a borehole or for direct
penetration into the ground. Smaller laboratory versions are also available.

8.2 The Geotechnical Report:

Reports broadly fall into two categories:
1. The basic “Factual”, site investigation report which simply records its findings of the site
investigation, and
2. The “Comprehensive” or “engineering” report, which, in addition, interprets those findings
and makes specific recommendations.

8.2.1 Factual Report:

A factual report typically contains the items described below:
 Introduction: the project is briefly described and the scope of the report is defined. The name
of the client and his consulting engineers are given. Location of the site is often included in
this section.
 Topography and Geology: the site, and possibly the surrounding area, is briefly described.
This will include general descriptions (whether the area is flat, has rolling hills or whatever);
will mention specific features (such as stream or pond); and will state what is on site
(possibly trees or buildings). A briefly summary of published geological information is
normally also given in this section.
 Site Work: Details of the extent of the site work are given, including the number of trial pits,
boreholes and probes and the methods used. The types and numbers of any field tests are also
included. Overall dates of site working are given.
 Laboratory Testing: The types and numbers of laboratory tests are given, with overall dates
for the testing program.
 Summary of Ground Conditions: It is usual, even in a factual report, to summarize what
conditions were encountered during the site work.
 Test Results: Results of all field and laboratory tests are presented in the form of tables and
graphs.
 Trial Pits and Borehole Records: Details of each trial pit and borehole are given
diagrammatically.

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 Sit Plan: A plan or plans showing borehole and trial pit locations.
 Notes: At some point in the report there is usually a set of notes giving standard abbreviations
and symbols used. Details of some of the standard tests may be explained and references may
be made to the standards used in carrying out the work. There is usually a general disclaimer
to protect the site investigation contractor should problems arise later due to ground
conditions which were not revealed during the ground investigation.

8.2.2 Engineering Report:

Engineering reports usually contain all the items given in the factual report, either as part of the
report itself or as an appendix. Report is the final document of the whole exercise of soil
exploration. A report should be comprehensive, clear and to the point. Many can write reports,
but only a very few can produce a good report. A report writer should be knowledgeable,
practical and realistic. No theory, books or codes of practice provide all the materials required to
produce a good report. It is the experience of a number of years of dedicated service in the field
which helps a geotechnical consultant makes report writing an art. A good report helps the
consultant to design safe, practical and economical structures. A good report should normally
comprise the following:
1. A general description of the nature of the project and its importance.
2. A general description of the topographical features and hydraulic conditions of the site.
3. A brief description of the various field and laboratory tests carried out.
4. Analysis and discussion of the test results
5. Recommendations
6. Calculations for determining safe bearing capacity, pile loads, etc.
7. Tables containing borelogs, and other field and laboratory test results
8. Drawings which include an index plan, a site-plan, test results plotted in the form of charts and
graphs, soil profiles, etc.

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