Heat Engine

A heat engine takes in energy by heat and partially converts it to other forms, such as
electrical and mechanical energy. For instance, in a typical procedure to produce electricity
in a power plant, coal or some other fuel is burned, and the resulting internal energy is used
in converting water to steam. The steam is then directed at the blades of a turbine, setting it
rotating. Finally, the mechanical energy associated with this rotation is used to drive an
electric generator.
In general, a heat engine carries some working Hot Reservoir at Th
substance through a cyclic process during which (1) energy
Energy Qh
is transferred by heat from a source at a high temperature, enters the Qh
(2) work is done by the engine, and (3) energy is expelled by engine
the engine by heat to a source at lower temperature.
Heat Weng
The engine absorbs energy Qh from the hot reservoir,
does work Weng, then gives up energy Qc to the cold Engine
reservoir. (Note that the negative work is done on the Energy Qc
engine, so that W = Weng.) Because the working substance leaves the Qc
goes through a cycle, always returning to its initial engine
thermodynamic state, its initial and final internal energies
are equal, so ∆U = 0. From the first law of thermodynamics, Cold Reservoir at Tc
therefore,
Figure 1. Schematic representation of a
Heat Engine
Part of the thermal energy from the hot
∆U = 0 = Q + W → Qnet = -W = Weng reservoir is turned into work while the
rest is expelled to the cold reservoir.

The last equation shows that the work Weng done by a heat engine
equals the net energy absorbed by the engine. As we can see from the Figure 1, Qnet = | Qh | - |
Qc |. Therefore,

Weng = | Qh | - | Qc |
Ordinarily, a transfer of thermal energy Q can be either positive or negative, so the use of the
absolute value signs make the signs of Qh and Qc explicit.
The work done by the engine for a cyclic process is the area enclosed by the curve if
the working substance is a gas.
The thermal efficiency of the heat engine is defined as the work done by the
engine, Weng, divided by the energy absorbed during one cycle:
𝑊𝑒𝑛𝑔 | 𝑄ℎ | − | 𝑄 𝑐 | | 𝑄𝑐 |
ₑ≡ = =1-
| 𝑄ℎ | | 𝑄ℎ | | 𝑄ℎ |

We can think of thermal efficiency as the ratio of the benefit received (work) to the most
incurred (energy transfer at the higher temperature. Heat engine has 100% efficiency (ₑ = 1) only if
Qc = 0, meaning no energy is expelled to the cold reservoir. In other words, heat engine with perfect
efficiency would have to use all the input energy for doing mechanical work.
Example 1

During one cycle, an engine extracts 2.00 x 103 J of energy from a hot reservoir and transfers 1.50 x
103 J to a cold reservoir. (a) Find the thermal efficiency of the engine. (b) How much work does this
engine do in one cycle? What average power does the engine generate if it goes through four cycles
in 2.50 seconds?

SOLUTION

(a) Find the engine’s thermal efficiency.

| 𝑄𝑐 | 1.50 x 103 J
ₑ=1- = 1- = 0.250 or 25.0%
| 𝑄ℎ | 2.00 x 103 J

(b) How much work does this engine do in one cycle?

Weng = | Qh | - | Qc | = 2.00 x 103 J - 1.50 x 103 J

(c) Find the average power output of the engine.

𝑊 4.00 (5.00 x 102 J)

PROBLEM 1.1
The energy absorbed by an engine is three times as great as the work it performs. (a) What
is its thermal efficiency? (b) What fraction of the energy absorbed is expelled to the cold
reservoir? (c) What is the average power output of the engine if the energy input is 1650 J
each cycle and it goes through two cycles every 3 seconds?

ANSWERS: (a) 𝟏⁄𝟑 (b) 𝟐⁄𝟑 (c) 367 W

PROBLEM 1.2
A 2.00-L container of leftover soup at a temperature of 323 K is placed in a refrigerator.
Assume the specific heat of the soup is the same as that of water and density is
1.25 x 103 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 . The refrigerator cools the soup to 283 K. (a) If the COP of the refrigerator
is 5.00, find the energy needed, in the form of work, to cool the soup. (b) If the compressor
has the power rating of 0.250 hp, for what minimum length of time must it operate to cool the
soup to 283 K? (The minimum time assumes the soup cools at the same rate that the heat
pump ejects thermal energy from the refrigerator.
ANSWERS: (a) 8.38 𝑥 104 𝐽 (b) 448 s
PROBLEM 1.3
If the refrigerator door is left open, does the kitchen become cooler? Why or why not? (a)
How much work must a heat pump with a COP of 2.50 do to extract 1.00 MJ of thermal
energy from the outdoors (the cold reservoir)? (b) If the unit operates at 0.500 hp, how long
will the process take? (Be sure to use the correct COP)

ANSWERS: (a) 6.67 𝑥 105 𝐽 (b) 1.79 𝑥 103 𝑠

Capacitance
A capacitor is a device used in a variety of electric circuits, such as to tune the frequency of radio
receivers, eliminate sparking in automobile ignition systems, or store short-term energy for rapid
release in electronic flash units. Figure 2 shows a typical design for a capacitor. Used in an electric
circuit, the plates are connected to the positive and negative terminals of a battery or some other
voltage source.

+Q -Q

Figure 2. Parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel plates, each of area A,
separated by a distance d.

The capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on either conductor (plate)
to the magnitude of the potential difference between the conductors (plates).
𝑸
𝑪=
∆𝑽
SI unit: Farad (F) = coulomb per volt (C/V)

SUMMARY: Formulas

Parallel-Plate Capacitor
𝑸 𝝈𝑨 𝝈𝑨
𝑪= = =
∆𝑽 𝑬𝒅 (𝝈/𝝐𝟎 )𝒅

Where:

𝑸 = 𝝈𝑨 (charge on a plate)

∆𝑽 = 𝑬𝒅 (potential difference between two plates)

E = 𝝈/𝝐𝟎 (magnitude of the electric field between two plates)

∆V = ∆𝑽𝟏 + ∆𝑽𝟐

Example 2

If a 3.0 –μF capacitor is connected to a 12-V battery, the magnitude of the charge on each plate of the capacitor is

Q = C∆𝑽 = (𝟑. 𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑭)(𝟏𝟐𝑽) = 36𝝁𝑪

Note: 1𝝁𝑭 = 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ; 1𝒑𝑭 = 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐

PROBLEM 2.1
A parallel-plate capacitor has an area A = 2.00 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2 and a plate separation d =
1.00 𝑥 10−3 𝑚. (a) Find the capacitance. (b) How much charge is on the positive plate if the
capacitor is connected to a 3.00-V battery? (c) Calculate the charge density on the positive
plate, assuming the density is uniform, and (d) the magnitude of the electric field between
two plates.
ANSWERS: (a) 1.77 𝑥 10−12 𝐹 (b) 5.31 𝑥 10−12 𝐶 (c) 2.66 𝑥 10−8 𝐶/𝑚2 (d) 3.00 𝑥 103 𝑉/𝑚

PROBLEM 2.2
Two plates, each of area 3.00 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2, are used to construct a parallel-plate capacitor, with
capacitance 1.00 pF. (a) Find the necessary separation distance. (b) If the positive plate is to
hold a charge of 5.00 𝑥 10−12 𝐶, find the charge density. (c) Find the electric field between the
plates. (d) What voltage battery should be attached to the plate to obtain the preceding
results.
ANSWERS: (a) 2.66 𝑥 10−3 𝑚 (b) 1.67 𝑥 10−8 𝐶/𝑚2 (c) 1.89 𝑥 103 𝑁/𝐶 (d) 5.00 V

PROBLEM 2.3
Four capacitors are connected in series with a battery. (a) Calculate the capacitance of the
equivalent capacitor. (b) Compute the charge on the 12-μF capacitor. (c) Find the voltage
drop across the 12-μF capacitor.
ANSWERS: (a) 𝑪𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝝁𝑭 (b) 𝑄 = 29𝜇𝐶 −8 𝐶 (c) 2.4 V