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ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

S3 EEE MODULE-1
What is standard?
The physical embodiment of the unit of measurement is called standard.
What is measuring instrument ?
The device used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit(standard) of
measurement
Requirements of measurement
1.The standard used for comparison purpose which must be accurately defined and
commonly accepted.
2. The apparatus used for measurement and method adopted must be provable.
Need of measurement
1.Design of equipments and to formulate processes
2.Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes
Definitions
Accuracy
It is closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the variable being
measured.
Precision
A measure of reproducibility of the measurement-it is the measure of the degree to which
successive measurements differ from one another.
Resolution
The smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will respond.
Sensitivity
The ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a change of input or measured
variable.
Error
Deviation of the measured variable from the true value
Units
Fundamental units
Seven base units in SI system are known as fundamental units They are
metre - for length kilogram -for mass seconds -for time
ampere -for current kelvin -for temperature
candla -for luminous intensity mole - for amount of substance.
Basic units for length, mass and time are known as primary fundamental units.
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Derived units
They are formed from seven base units in SI system.
Standards for Measurement
International standards
They are defined on the basis of an international agreement. They are checked and
evaluated regularly against measurements by absolute instruments in terms of the fundamental
units. International standards are maintained at International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(IBWM) in Severes near Paris and are not available to the ordinary user of the measuring
instruments for the purpose of calibration and comparison.
Primary Standards( Absolute standards)
They are of high accuracy and ultimate reference standards. These standards are maintained by
national standard laboratories in different parts of the world. Primary standard represent the
fundamental units and some of the derived electrical and mechanical units.
They are independently calibrated by absolute measurements at each of the national
laboratories. The results of these measurements are compared against each other for getting a world
average figure for the primary standards.
Primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories.
Primary standards are using for verification and calibration of the secondary standards.
Secondary Standards
They are the basic reference standards used in industrial measurement laboratories. The
responsibility of maintenance and calibration of these standards is vested with the particular
industry involved. These standards are checked locally against reference standards. Secondary
standards are normally sent periodically to national reference laboratories for calibration and
comparison against primary standards and certification.
Working Standards
They are the major tool of a measurement laboratory or laboratory of an industry. These
standards are used for the checking and calibration of the general laboratory instruments for their
accuracy and performance. For example a manufacturer of precision resistance may use a standard
resistance (which may be a working standard) for checking the values of resistors that are being
manufactured.
Classification of analog instruments is based on
1. Type-Absolute and secondary instruments
Absolute instrument gives the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms of
the physical constants of the instrument.
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Secondary instrument gives the measurement by observing the output indicated by the
instrument
2. Quantity it measure- Ex .current – ammeter,Voltage–voltmeter,Power –Wattmeter etc
3. Kind of current- AC or DC or both(universal instruments)
4.Effect on which the instrument is working. Ex. Magnetic effect, Heating effect,
Electrostatic effect, Induction effect, Hall effect etc
5. Normal function of the instrument-
1. Indicating instrument 2. Recording instrument 3. Integrating instrument
Indicating instruments
It indicate the instantaneous magnitude of the quantity being measured. They generally make use
of pointers and dials for the purpose. Ex. ammeters voltmeters etc.
They are further classified into
(1) Electromechanical instruments and
(2) Electronic instruments.
Addition of electronic circuits with electromechanical instruments will increase the sensitivity and
input impedance.
Recording instruments
It gives a record of the quantity measured over a specified period of time. Quantity being
measured is recorded by a pen attached to the moving system. The moving system of the
instrument is operated by the quantity being measured.
Recording instruments are used for getting continuous record of the quantity to be measured
and observed. This record can be kept safely for future reference and analysis purpose. Recording
instruments can be made by modifying indicating instruments by replacing the pointer and scale of
the instrument by a light arm carrying an ink pen. This pen deflects to give an ink record on a paper
chart which drive at constant speed using suitable kind of driving mechanism. These instruments
are used for monitoring variations in temperature, vibration, current, voltage, frequency etc.
Integrating Instruments
It totalize events over a specified period of time. The summation which they give is the
product of time and an electrical quantity. Ex. Ampere hour meter, Watt hour meter etc.Integrating
instruments are used to measure and register the quantity in a given interval of time.This is done
irrespective of the rate at which the quantity consumed. Ex Watt hour meter.Integrating meters
have three parts mainly known as
(1) Operating system (2) Braking system (3) Registering system.
The operating system produces a torque proportional to the current or power and actuates the
moving system to rotate.
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The breaking system produces a braking torque proportional to the speed of the rotation and thus
causes the meter to run at a steady speed. The speed is such that the breaking torque is equal to the
operating torque. The breaking torque is commonly provided by eddy current induced in a metallic
disc moving in the field of a permanent magnet

Registering system is attached to a spindle. A special arrangement is provided with the spindle to
drive a train of wheels with the help of a pinion. The registering system with these mechanisms
drive several needles over dials or wheels with numerals will register units, tens, hundreds and so
on
Principle of operation of the measuring instrument.
Measuring instruments are functioning on any one of the effects mentioned below
(1).Magnetic effect (2) Thermal effect (3) Electrostatic effect
(4) Electromagnetic Induction effect (5) Hall effect
(1).Magnetic effect

A current carrying conductor will produce a magnetic field in the anti clockwise direction. When
this current carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field there will be a distortion of the
magnetic field which will cause a force F to act from left to right. The reversal of the direction of
the current will cause a force F in the opposite direction if the direction of the magnetic field is
maintained in the same direction
Magnetic field produced by current carrying coils
A current carrying conductor will produce a magnetic field in the anti clockwise direction. When
this current carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field there will be a distortion of the
magnetic field which will cause a force F to act from left to right. The reversal of the direction of
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the current will cause a force F in the opposite direction if the direction of the magnetic field is
maintained in the same direction

Force of attraction and repulsion

If we form the conductor into a coil the magnetic field produced by each turn of the coil will add up
and the coil will behave as an imaginary magnet.When a piece of iron which has not been
previously magnetised is brought near to the end of the coil it will be attracted by the coil.-This
effect is utilised in attraction type moving iron type instruments. If there is two pieces of iron they
will be similarly magnetised and there will be a force of repulsion between them. This effect is
utilised in repulsion type moving iron instruments.
Force between a current carrying coil and a permanent magnet.
When a permanent magnet is brought near to the current carrying coil which acts like an Imaginary
magnet,there will be a force of attraction or repulsion.If the coil is mounted on a spindle with
bearings there will be a movement of the coil which in turn utilised in Permanent Magnet Moving
Coil instrument

Force between two current carrying coils.This effect is utilised in electrodynamometer type
instruments. When current passes thro’ both the coils together it will produce unlike poles near
each other and thus there is a force of attraction and if one of the coils is fixed and other is movable
there will be motion of movable coil.
Thermal effect
The current to be measured is passed thro’ a small element which heats up that element. This temp
rise is converted to emf by using a thermocouple attached to the element.
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A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar electric conductors whose ends joined together and its
junctions are kept in different temperatures a current will flow thro’ the closed loop. This current
can be measured and it will be RMS value of the current flowing thro’ the heater elements.These
instruments are used for measurement of current at high frequency
ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
1.Deflecting force 2.Controlling force 3. Damping force
1.Deflecting force
Deflecting force moves the pointer of the instrument from zero position. This force is generated
by any of the effects mentioned above. The deflecting system converts electric current or voltage
into mechanical force. This mechanical force is called deflecting force
2. Controlling force
A force equal and opposite to the deflecting force to bring the pointer to the steady position to
indicate particular magnitude of electrical quantity is known as controlling force. Another duty of
this force is to bring back the moving system to the original position(Zero position) when current
through the coil is eased. Controlling force is generally obtained by providing a spring or by
gravitational means
3.Damping force
When a deflecting force is applied to a moving system,it deflects and it should come to rest at a
position where the deflecting force is balanced by the controlling force. The deflecting force and
controlling force are producing by the systems which have inertia and therefore the moving system
cannot immediately settle at its final position but over shoot or swing(oscillate).Then extra force is
required to damp these oscillation of the moving system. This force is known as damping force.
Spring Control:

When the pointer is deflectedone spring unwinds itself while the other is twisted. This twist in the
spring produces restoring (controlling) torque, which is proportional to the angle of deflection
of the moving systems.Inner end of the spring is attached to the spindle of the moving system.
Outer end carries a spigot which engages in a circular disc surrounding the jewel screw and arm
arrangement for the zero setting.
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The spring
1.Should be non magnetic
2.Should be free from mechanical fatigue. Fatigue in the spring can be avoided to a great extend by
proper annealing
3.Should have low resistance and sufficient cross sectional area to avoid heating when spring is
used as a lead to carry the entire current to be measured.(Phosphor bronze is most suitable
material).
4. Should be made up of material having low resistance temperature coefficient and variation in
length due to temperature rise. Variation in length due to temperarure rise can be compensated by
providing two springs coiled in opposite direction
5. Should be made up of flat spiral in shape to minimise the space occupied by it
Expression for spring controlling torque
For a flat spiral ring the controlling torque developed by deflection is
Tc = Ebt³θ N-m - (1),
12 l
E = Youngs modulus of spring material N/m3, b = width of the spring, t= thickness of the spring
l = length of the spring, θ = angular deflection
All above parameters except θ are constant for a spring which is known as Spring Const or control
constant or Torsion constant or Restoring constant
Hence controlling torque Tc αl θ Then Tc = K θ
The stress on the spring should be well below their elastic limit at max deflection to avoid
distortion.
Max fibre stress on the spring
ƒmax = 6Tc N/m² - (2)
bt² To combine ( 1 ) & (2) , then
l = E θ
t ƒmax 2
for phosphor bronze ƒmax = 30 MN/m² and E =120 GN/m²
Then for full scale deflection θ = π/2, l/t = 3000
Gravity Control
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Gravity control is done by providing a small weight on an arm attached to the moving system. The
position of the weight over the arm can be adjusted by screw arrangement. This weight produces a
control torque due to gravity Suppose the pointer and the weight arm deflected through an angle θ
The weight acted at a distance ‘ l ‘ from the centre The component of the weight trying to restore
the pointer back to zero position is w sin θ
Then controlling torque is
Tc = l x ω sinθ = Kg sinθ, where Kg = lω , a constant.
Hence controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of deflection of moving system.
Advantages and disadvantages of gravity control system
Advantages
• It is cheap compared with spring control system
• Control is independent of temperature variation
• It does not deteriorate with time
Disadvantages
• The instrument should be kept in exact level position
• The Instrument should be mounted on a level surface. Otherwise zero error will be more.
• Not suitable for portable instruments
• Lower side of the scale is compressed because control is obtained from vertical component
of the control weight. Hence reading become difficult .
Comparison of spring control and gravity control on account of deflection for a particular
electrical quantity
For Spring Control
Consider an instrument in which deflecting torque is directly proportional to the current to
be measured.
Deflecting torque Td = KdI , I is current to be measured and Kd is a constant
Controlling Torque Tc = Kθ , θ is angle of deflection and K is spring constant
At equilibrium Td = Tc
So Kd I = Kθ
Then θ = Kd I/K = K2 I , K2 is a constant
Therefore deflection is directly proportional to the current and uniform for the entire
range of the instrument scale
For Gravity control
Deflecting torque Td = Kd I
Controlling Tc = Kg Sin θ
At Equilibrium Tc = Td Then Kg Sin θ = Kd I
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and Sin θ = Kd I/Kg= K2I

Then θ = Sin ‾¹ K2 I -(1)
Suppose a current Imax produces a deflection of 90 deg
Then Imax/2 should produce a deflection of 45 deg. In spring controlled instrument this is
satisfied as deflection θ is directly proportional to current I
But in gravity controlled instrument
deflection θ = Sin‾¹ K2 I
Let in gravity controlled inst a max current of Imax gives a deflection is 90 º
Then Sin 90º = K2 I max
Or K2 = 1/Imax since (Sin 90º = 1) -(2)
When I = Imax/2 -(3)
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1)
θ = Sin -1 (1/Imax)(Imax/2)=Sin-1 (1/2)= 30º
When spring controlled instrument gives a deflection of 45º for Imax/2 ,the gravity controlled
instrument will give only 30º deflection.
This means that gravity controlled instrument does not have uniform scale.Hence lower end of the
scale will be compressed and reading may become erroneous
Damping Systems
Magnitude of the damping torque should be enough to bring the pointer to its final steady position
without overshooting or oscillating.
Damping device should be such that it produces a damping torque only while the moving system is
in motion.
Damping torque proportional to the velocity of the moving system will be more effective. But it
shall be independent of the operating current.
Damping torque must not affect the controlling torque or increase the static friction
There are three types of damping
1.Under damping 2. Critical damping 3. Over damping
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Under damping System

Moving system of an under damped instrument will oscillate at its final steady position with
decreasing amplitude and it comes to rest after some time
Critical damping
If the moving system moves rapidly but smoothly to the final position (steady state position), the
instrument is said to be critically damped
Over damping
If the damping torque of the instrument is more than what is required for critical damping, the
instrument is said to be over damped. In this case moving system moves slowly to the final position
(steady state position).
Methods for producing Damping Torque
(1) Air friction damping system (2) Fluid friction damping system
(3) Eddy current damping system (4) Electromagnetic damping system.
Air friction damping system
(1) Piston type (2) Vane type
Air friction damping system

Piston type
It consists light aluminum piston attached to the moving part of the instrument. Piston moves in a fixed air
chamber with closed end. When the pointer oscillates, the piston attached to it moves to and and fro in the
air chamber. When the piston moves in to the chamber the air inside chamber is compressed and pressure of
the air, thus built up, opposes the motion of the piston and hence whole of the moving system. When the
piston moves out of the air chamber pressure in the closed space falls and the pressure on the open side of
the piston is greater than that on the other side. Then there is again an opposition to the motion. There should
be enough clearance between cylinder and piston to avoid fiction between them which will cause error.
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Air friction damping system (Vane type)

Another air friction damping system is Air chamber with Aluminum vane inside. The aluminum vane moves
in a quadrant shaped air chamber. This vane should not touch air chamber walls which will cause error.
Fluid friction damping

This form of damping system is similar to air friction damping but fluid is using in the place of air.
A disc is attached to the moving part and it dips in an oil pot and completely submerged in the
fluid.When the moving system moves the disc moves in oil and a frictional drag is produced which
opposes the motion. When viscosity of the oil used is higher the damping force will be
more.Another type of fluid friction damping system shown in the fig in which a number of vanes
submerged in oil are attached to the spindle and moves in a vertical plane and it gives a greater
damping torque.
Eddy current damping

When a conductor/metallic disc attached to the moving part of the instrument moves in a magnetic
field an emf will be induced in it.If a closed path is provided a current known as eddy current flows
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through the disc/conductor.The eddy current interacts with the magnetic field and produces an
electromagnetic torque which opposes the motion.This torque is proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field and the current produced.The current is proportional to the emf which in turn is
proportional to the velocity of the conductor.When the strength of the magnetic field produced by
the permanent magnet is constant then the torque is proportional to the velocity of the conductor
/disc
Types of eddy current damping
There are two common type of damping devices:
1. A metal former which carries the working coil of instrument.
2. A thin aluminium disc attached to the moving system of the instrument and this disc
moves in the field of permanent magnet
Metal former type eddy current damping

B -strength of the magnetic field (Wb/m’) ω –angular speed of the former (rad/s)
l -length of the former (m) t -thickness of the former (m) b – width of the former (m)
d – breadth of the former (m) p –resistivity of the material of the former(ohm m)
Linear velocity of the former = (d/2) ω = v (because v/r = ω)
EMF generated in the former = Ee =2Blv =2Bl(d/2) ω = Bld ω
Resistance of path of eddy current Re = resistivity x length/Area = ρ x 2 (l + d) = 2 ρ (l +d)
bxt bt
Eddy current Ee = Bld ω = B ld ω bt
Re 2 ρ l +d) /bt 2 ρ (l + d )

Damping force Bil = B x B ld ω btx l = B² l² d ω bt

2 ρ (L + d ) 2 ρ (l + d )

Damping Torque Td = Fd x d = B² l² d ω bt x d
2 ρ (l + d )

The angular velocity ω is the only variable quantity then

Td = KD ω where KD = B² l² d² bt Nm/rad/s
2 ρ (l + d )
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Eddy current damping torque of metal disc type device

B -strength of the magnetic field (Wb/m’) ω –angular speed of the disc (rad/s)
t -thickness of the metallic disc (m) b – width of the permanent magnet (m)
d – depth of the permanent magnet (m) ρ – resistivity of the material of the disc (ohm m)
R- radius measured from centre of the pole to centre of the disc
EMF in the portion of disc below the magnet Ee =Blv = BdRω where l = d
Resistance of path of eddy current through disc under pole Re = ρ d
bt
(actual path of the eddy current is not limited to the portion of the disc under the magnet but is
greater than this )
Therefore take the resistance of eddy current path Re = Kρd where K is a constant
bt
which depends upon radial position of the
poles

Eddy current Ie = Ee = Bd R ω = B R ω bt
Re K ρ d /bt Kp

Damping force Fd = Bil = B x B R ω bt x d

Kρ
= B² R ω d bt
Kρ

Damping Torque Td = Fd x R = B² R ω d bt x R
Kρ
= B² R² ω d bt The angular velocity ω is the only variable quantity then
Kρ

Td = Kd ω Where Kd= damping constant =

B² R² d bt Nm/rad/s
Kρ
It is clear from above that damping torque can be varied by changing ‘R’ the radial position
of poles with respect to the centre of the disc
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Electromagnetic damping
• When a conductor or coil moves in a magnetic field an emf will induced in it and a current
will flow if a closed path is available
• This current will interact with the existing magnetic field and produces a torque
• This torque opposes the movement of the coil and hence damping occured.
• The magnitude of the current and damping torque are depend upon the resistance of the
circuit to which the instrument is connected.
• Electromagnetic damping is used in galvanomeers.
Comparison of different types of damping systems
Air friction damping system
• This type of damping system is cheap and very simple.
• Friction should be avoided in the damping system to minimise the error
• It is mainly used with hot wire instruments, moving iron and dynamometer type
instruments.
• Electromagnet is not using in this system. Hence no magnetic disturbance to the operating
field
Fluid friction damping system
• Oil of the damping system can be used for insulation purpose in some form of instruments
submerged in oil.
• Construction of fluid friction damping system is easy compared to air friction system.
• The up thrust of the disc of the damping system will reduce the load on the bearings or
suspension which will reduce the friction.
• This type of damping system can be used only for vertically mounted type instrument which
is a serious disadvantage.
Eddy current damping system
• This type of damping system is most efficient
• Components used for the damping system may be already a part of the operating system.
• This damping system can not be used in PMMC instruments it will distort the magnetic
field of the operating system. In moving iron and electrodynamometer type instruments
whose operating magnetic field is very weak, eddy current damping system may not be
used.
Types of the Instruments
DC Instruments
Deflection is proportional to the current or voltage under measurement. When these types of
instruments are connected to the AC the pointer will move up the scale for one half and down the
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scale for the second half of waveform. For lower frequency say 50 cycles pointer will not be able to
follow the variations. Pointer will seek for the average value of the AC which is zero
AC Instruments
Deflection is made by utilizing the electromagnetically induced current, which is produced
by the quantity to be measured.
Induction type instrument cannot be used for DC measurement as it is not possible to
produce electromagnetically induced current with DC
AC/DC Instruments
• Deflection proportional to the square of the current or voltage under measurement
• Moving iron (Attraction and repulsion type), Dynamometer type, Hotwire type, Electrostatic
type and Rectifier type.(PMMC with AC-DC conversion facility) are under this catagory
Errors common to all types of instruments
• Magnetic error- Due to change in the strength of Permanent magnet on account of aging,
Excessive vibration, Stray magnetic field
• Temperature error - Due to heating of the working coil which will cause resistance variation.
This error can be minimized by using low resistance moving coil, reducing power consumption
in the instrument and by providing ventilation and cooling arrangement
• Error due to expansion of the control spring
• Friction error –Due to friction of the pivot on jewels due the weight of the moving system
• This error can be minimized by achieving high torque/weight ratio, mounted vertically in a
level surface and proper balancing of the instrument
Types of the Instruments
• Permanent magnet moving coil type (Using only for DC measurements)
• Moving Iron type (For AC & DC measurements)
• Electrodynamometer type (for AC& DC measurements)
• Induction type (Using only for AC measurements)
• Electrostatic type (for AC& DC measurements)-Power consumption of the Electrostatic
instruments is very small. Hence they are mainly using for voltage measurements
• Thermal type (for AC& DC measurements)
• Rectifier type (for AC& DC measurements)
Constructional features of measuring Instruments
Moving system
• Moving system should be of light weight.
• Frictional loss should be minimum.
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• Power required for the operation of the moving system which is related with its weight and
friction should be minimum
• To reduce the frictional force spindle may be mounted on jewel bearing.
• Careful balancing of the moving parts shall be done.
Supports of the moving system
• Mainly three types of supports are using for moving system
• Suspension type
• Taut suspension type
• Pivot and jewel bearing type
Suspension type support consists of a fine ribbon shaped metal filament for the upper suspension
coil of fine wire for the lower suspension. Ribbon is made up of spring material type phosper
bronze. Coiling of the lower part is done to get negligible restraint on the moving system.
Suspension type of support requires careful leveling of the instrument so that moving system
should hang in perfect vertical position.

• This type has got flat ribbon suspension both above and below the moving element, with
suspension kept under tension by a spring arrangement.
• In this case exact leveling is not required. Taut suspension offers low friction and high
sensitivity.
• The ribbon portion of the suspension will give a controlling torque in addition to the support of
moving element .
• In this type of support pivots, jewels and control springs can be eliminated and in turn pivotless
instruments are free from several defects
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3.Pivots and jewel bearings

The moving system of the inst is mounted on a spindle made of hardened steel. Both the ends of the
spindle are made conical and then polished to form pivots Then these pivoted ends fit in conical
holes on jewels located in the fixed parts of the instrument. Jewels are made up of sapphire to form
the bearings. The combination of steel and sapphire gives lowest friction. Contact area of the pivots
and jewels should be minimum to reduce the friction. Instrument bearings are used in dry condition
4. Balancing

Balancing is done to bring the load on the bearing uniform and symmetrical. By balancing, the
centre of gravity of the weight of the moving parts can be made coincide with axis of the spindle in
all position of the pointer. The balancing can be done by mounting adequate balance weight on the
arm (with special thread arrangement for tuning) which is attached to the moving system. The
magnitude of the weight and distance at which it has to be mounted shall be properly designed so
that damping torque can be minimised.
5 Torque/Weight ratio
Frictional torque of the instrument depends upon the weight of the moving part. More the weight
more is the frictional torque. The frictional torque exerts a considerable influence on the
performance of an indicating instrument. If frictional torque is very small compared to deflecting
torque. its effect on deflection is very small or negligible. The ratio of deflecting torque to frictional
torque is a measure of the reliability of the instrument indications and of the inherent quality of the
design. Hence deflecting torque /weight ratio of an instrument is an index of its performance
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6.Permanent Magnet
Materials mainly used for making permanent magnet are cobalt chrome steel, Alnico, Etc. Flux
density of the magnet used for instruments should not be changed with time or temperature. Magnet
should have high co-ercibility (broad hysteresis loop) so that they are not subject to self
demagnetisation. The magnet should have optimum weight, economy of space occupation, and less
expense Important manufacturing process of high quality magnet are (1) quench hardening method
(2)Dispersion hardening method
7 . Pointer
Size, shape and appearance of the pointer should be of quick reading type for panel mounted
instruments and close reading type for portable instruments.The pointer should have good finishing
to give good contrast against the scale background. Normally pointer is made by thin aluminium
sheet ribbed for strength and rigidity.
8. Scales
Scale of the instrument is usually printed on the enameled surface of the matel plate. In panel
instruments scale should be broad for easy reading. For greater angle of deflection 120’ or more the
scale of the instrument will be clearer.
9.Cover and case
The instrument cover must be of dust free and moisture proof. When steel covers are using moving
system should be kept away from it as far as possible to reduce errors due to hysteresis and eddy
current effect.
Attraction type Moving-iron instrument

Most common type of ammeters and voltmeters in use at power frequencies are moving iron
instruments. These instruments are cheap as compared with similar type of instruments of same
quality, accuracy and ruggedness. A plate or vane of soft iron or high permeability steel forms the
moving element of the system. This iron is so mounted that it can move in a magnetic field
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produced by a stationary coil.The coil is excited by the current or voltage under measurement.
When coil is excited it becomes an electromagnet and the iron vane moves in such a way so as to
increase the flux of the electromagnet. This is because the vanes try to occupy a position of
minimum reluctance. Thus the force produced is always in such a direction so as to increase the
inductance of the coil (this is because inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance of magnetic
circuit of the coil
Constructional method of the Attraction type moving iron instrument is shown in the figure above.
The coil is flat and has a narrow slot like opening. The moving iron is a flat disc or a sector
eccentrically mounted in the opening of the coil. When current flows through the coil a magnetic
field is produced and the moving iron moves from the weaker field outside the coil to the stronger
field inside the coil due to attraction. Controlling torque is provided either by spring or gravity
method and damping torque is provided by air friction method.
General Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments
When there is a small increment in the current supplied to the instrument there will be a small
deflection dθ and some mechanical work will be done.
Let Td be the deflecting torque
Then the mechanical work done = Td dθ
There will be a change in the energy stored in the magnetic field owing to change in inductance
Let initial current be I , the instrument Inductance L and the deflection θ .
When the current increases by dI the deflection changes by dθ and inductance changes by dL
In order to effect an increment dI in the current there must be an increase in the applied voltage
which is given by
e = d (LI) = I dL + LdI
dt dt dt
The electrical energy supplied to the instrument = eIdt = I²dL + ILdI
The stored energy changes from
initial
1 I²L to 1 ( I +dI )²(L+dL) (final)
2 2
Hence change in stored energy

= 1 ( I +dI )²(L+dL) - 1 I²L -(final-initial)

2 2
Neglecting second and third order terms in small quantities, this relation becomes

ILdI + 1I²dL
2
From the principle of conservation of energy
Electrical energy supplied = increase in stored energy + mechanical work done
I²dL + ILdI =ILdI + 1I²dL + Td dθ then 1I²dL = Td dθ
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2 2

So Td = 1 I² dL
2 dθ
( Td is in Nm, I in Amp, L in henry and θ in radian)
Controlling torque Tc=Kθ where K is spring constant and θ is the deflection
At equilibrium deflecting torque =controlling torque

ie Td = Tc,

Then 1 I²dL = Kθ then θ = 1 I² dL

2 dθ 2 K dθ

Repulsion type moving iron instrument

In repulsion type instrument there are two vanes inside the coil- one is fixed and other is movable.
These vanes are similarly magnetized when current flows through the coil and there develop a force
of repulsion between these vanes resulting in the movement of the moving vane.
Two different designs are in common use.
(1) Radial vane type -In this type vanes are radial strips of iron.The strips are placed within the coil
as shown in the fig. The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one is attached to the
spindle
(2) Co-axial vane type- In this type both fixed and moving vanes are sections of coaxial cylinders.
As shown in the fig
Features of Moving Iron Instruments
• The controlling torque is provided by spring or gravity method and damping provided by air
friction method.
• The operating magnetic field is very weak in moving iron instruments and hence incorporation
of eddy current damping system is difficult as introduction of a permanent magnet for this
purpose will distort the operating magnetic field.
 Page 21 of 38

• In this instrument whatever may be the direction of the current there will be a force of attraction
in attraction type and repulsion in repulsion type and hence moving iron instrument is
unpolarised one.
• Hence these instruments can be used on both DC and AC measurements
Comparison between attraction and repulsion type of instruments
• Attraction type instrument has lower inductance compared to repulsion type.
• Hence attraction type voltmeters are more accurate over a wide range of frequency than
repulsion type.
• Repulsion type instruments are suitable for economical production
Nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained for repulsion type and this type is more common than
attraction type
Errors in Moving Iron Instruments
Errors with both AC and DC measurements
Hysteresis error –This error occurs as the value of flux density is different for the same current
for ascending and descending values. Value of flux density will be more for descending values of
current. This error can be minimized by making iron parts small so that they demagnetize
themselves quickly. Another method is to allow the iron parts to work at low values of flux density
Temperature error- Due to heating up of spring and coil-can be minimized by using swamping
resistance.
Stray magnetic field-This error can be minimized by housing the instrument in an iron casing
Errors only for AC measurements
Frequency error-Change in frequency may cause change in reactance of the metering circuit.
Deflection of the moving iron voltmeter depends upon the current through the coil. Therefore the
deflection for a given voltage will be less at higher frequencies. This error can be compensated by
providing a capacitor in parallel with series resistance as shown in the fig below Also cause change
of magnitude of eddy current set up in the metal parts of the instrument
Advantage and Disadvantage of Moving Iron Instrument
Advantage
Universal use-The instrument can be used for both ac and dc. The hysteresis effect will cause
serious error when M I instruments are used for DC measurements. But for AC this is not a major
problem. Hence for industrious purpose MI Instruments are extensively using.
Less friction errors-Torque/weight ratio is high for this instrumrent-heavy part carrying current is
stationary and moving parts are light weight
Cheapness-It is very cheap compared to other types
Robustness –owing to simple construction and absence of moving current carrying parts
 Page 22 of 38

Accuracy of the MI instruments is comparatively in high range

Disadvantages
• MI instruments got wider scale but scales are not uniform.
• MI instruments are subject to errors due to hysteresis,frequency changes and stray magnetic field.
• Wave form error
Moving-Coil instruments
• There are two types of moving coil instruments namely, permanent magnet moving coil type
which can only be used for direct current measurements.
• The dynamometer type which can be used on either DC measurements.
PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL
Construction

PMMC is the most accurate type of instrument for DC measurement.

This type of instrument is usually known as Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Galvanometers type –
D’Ars onval type instrument
Moving Coil
Moving coil is wound using enamel coated or silk covered copper wire.The coil is mounted on a
rectangular aluminum former which is pivoted on jeweled bearing..The coil moves freely in the
magnetic field of the permanent magnet. Mostly voltmeter coil is wound on metallic frame to
produce electromagnetic damping. But ammeter coils are wound on nonmagnetic frame where
moving coil is effectively shorted by shunt resistance which will help to produce enough magnetic
damping
 Page 23 of 38

Magnet system
Magnets made up of Alnico have high coercive force, retentivity and field intensity .Size of the
magnet is smaller compared to old models. Two types of magnetic construction-Concentric type
and core type magnets .
Concentric type magnet Core type magnet

Concentric Magnet Type Construction

Flux density in Magnet system of instrument varies from 0.1 wb/sqm to 1 wb/sqm. In the case of
instrument having large scale length, movement of coil is more than 90 deg and to the extreme
point of the pole tips where magnetic field intensity is fringing and not radial, the reading of the
instrument will be erratic. To overcome this disadvantage concentric magnetic construction is
adopted. By this arrangement uniform radial flux density can be achieved for more than 250deg or
more. These type of meters are used in panel type instruments
Core magnet construction
When magnet materials like Alnico is used, the moving coil can be accommodated on the
electromagnet itself in core magnet type construction.In this case moving coil moves over the
magnet and the instrument will not be affected by external magnetic field.
Other advantages in this case are magnetic shunting effects can be eliminated.Separate magnetic
shield is not necessitated
Control System
Control torque is provided by two Nos Phosphor Bronze springs or by using ribbon suspension in
which friction on the bearing is less.
Damping System
Damping is produced by movement of Al former moving in the field of the Permanent Magnet.
Pointer and Scale
Pointer should be light weight. Scale should be fitted with a mirror
 Page 24 of 38

Torque equation of moving coil instrument

Deflecting torque of each side of the coil
Td = NBLd x I = Const ‘G’ x I

N= no.of turns, B=flux density,

L,d = length of vertical and horiz side respectively
For spring controlled system
Controlling torque Tc = K θ , K = spring constant
At equilibrium Td = Tc ,
Then Const ‘G’ x I = K θ ,
or θ = GI/K
Hence deflection is directly proportional to the current
For gravity controlled system Tc = Kg sin θ
At equilibrium Td = Tc, Then G x I = Kg sin θ
and sin θ = GI/K =K2I Hence θ = sin ¯¹ (G’I/K)
Scale of the spring controlled instrument has uniform graduation. But for gravity controlled
instrument the initial portion of the graduation is crowded on the scale .
Advantages and disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
Advantages
(1) The scale is uniformly divided.
(2) The power consumption by the instrument is very low.(25 mW to 200 mW)
(3) The torque / weight ratio is high which gives better accuracy (2% of full scale deflection)
(4) Error due to stray magnetic field is small.
Disadvantages
(1)These instruments are useful only for DC
(2)The cost of this instrument is higher than moving iron instrument
Electrodynamometer type Instruments
Properties of Electrodynamometer instrument.
Electro dynamometer is known as a transfer instrument.A transfer instrument is one which can
be calibrated with a DC source and then used without modification to measure AC quantity.
Then type of instrument should have same accuracy for both DC and AC.Transfer instrument is
first calibrated on DC and then transferred to AC.This calibration is then transferred to the AC
instruments . Electrodynamometer ammeters and voltmeters are mainly using for calibration
purpose as their accuracy is very high
 Page 25 of 38

Construction of Electrodynamometer type Instrument

Main parts of the instrument are Fixed coil,Moving coil,Control & Damping system , Shielding,
Cover& Cases.Fixed coil and moving coil are connected in series.
Fixed Coil
Magnetic field is produced by a fixed coil with air core. This coil divided into two halves to get
more uniform magnetic field near the centre and to allow passage of the instrument shaft.Fixed coil
is wound with fine wire as the instrument is meant for milliammeter or voltmeter with series
resistance.But in high capacity meters fixed coils are wound with heavy wire to carry more current
.The wire is stranded to reduce eddy current losses.To avoid any influence of stray magnetic field
and eddy current which will cause weakening of the field produced by the fixed coil, it is wound on
ceramic supports instead of metal parts.
Moving coil.
The moving coil is wound either as a self sustaining coil or on a non metallic former to avoid
adverse effect of eddy current. It is light, rigid and air cored construction. It is mounted on an
aluminium spindle with counter weight. Suspension type moving system is used for high
sensitivity instrument
Control - Control is achieved by two springs and these springs will act as leads to the moving coil
Damping system
Vane type air friction damping system is provided in Electrodynamometer type instrument. Eddy
current damping system cannot be used in this type of instruments as operating field is very weak
(on account of air core)
Shielding
Operating field is weak compared to other type of instruments. Hence magnetic field from other
sources and even earths magnetic field may affect deflection of the instrument. Then it requires
shielding from these external magnetic field It can be achieved by a casing of high permeability
alloy for the instrument.
 Page 26 of 38

Cover and cases

Dynamometer instruments are usually housed in a highly polished wooden case. The glass is coated
with some conducting material to avoid the electrostatic effects. The case is supported by
adjustable leveling screws. A spirit level is also provided to ensure proper leveling.
Torque Eqation of Electrodynamometer Instruments

Let i1 = ct in the fixed coils i2 = ct in the moving coil L1 = self inductance of fixed coil
L2=self inductance of moving coil M = Mutual inductance between fixed and moving coil
Electrical input energy = energy stored in magnetic field + mechanical energy
Instantaneous mechanical energy = i1 i2 dM (1)
Instantaneous torque = Ti
Change in deflection = dθ
Then mechanical energy =Tidθ (2)
Equating (1) & (2) Tidθ = i1 i2 dM
Then Deflecting torque Ti = i1 i2 dM
dθ
Operating with DC

At equilibrium , Deflecting torque = controlling torque, Then I1I2 dM = Kθ

dθ
Then deflection θ = I1 I2 dM
K dθ
Operating with AC

Deflecting torque Td = I1I2 cosΦ dM Φ is the phase angle between I1 and I2

dθ
At equilibrium Td = Tc then I1I2 cosΦ dM =K θ
dθ
Then deflection θ = I1 I2 cosΦ dM
K dθ
Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments
Main of errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments are due to
Low torque/weight ratio –
Deflecting torque is low. MMF of the coil must be increased to get sufficient torque. MMF can be
increased either by increasing the current or by increasing the number of turns of moving coil.
 Page 27 of 38

Increase in current will cause heating up of spring which used as current leads. Increase in turns
causes increase in weight which in turn increases friction for the moving system.
Frequency variation
Reactance of the coils varies with variation in frequency. Then deflection for a given voltage will
fall with increase in frequency. When the time constants of both moving coil and fixed coil are
same ,the ratio of the current flowing thro’ them will remain unaffected. Then L1/R1 = L2/R2
Eddy currents
All care should be taken to keep away all metal parts from the current carrying elements.
External magnetic field
Error due to this can be minimised by using Astatic system in which two coils (moving) are
provided on a same spindle with its fields act in opposite direction.
Temperature change –
High precision equipments contain temperature compensating resistors
Advantages of Electrodynamometer Instruments
As coils are air cored these instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current errors .They have
a precision grade accuracy for frequencies up to 40 to 500 Hz .These instruments can be used for
both ac & dc and as transfer instruments. Electrodynamometer voltmeters are very useful for
measuring rms value of voltage irrespective of waveforms.
Disadvantages of Electrodynamometer Instruments
Low torque /weight ratio and hence low sensitivity.Hence increased frictional losses.They are
more expensive. Operating current of the instrument is large owing to weak magnetic field.Have
nonuniform magnetic field Measurements at low frequency require special structures with
abnormal damping
Induction Type Instruments

These instruments measure AC quantity only.Induction type wattmeter consists of a Shunt

electromagnet and a Series electromagnet.Shunt magnet is excited by the current proportional to
 Page 28 of 38

the voltage across the load.Series electromagnet is excited by the load current or a definite fraction
of it which is fed through the current coil.A thin disc made of copper or aluminium pivoted at its
centre is placed between the shunt and series magnet so that it cuts the flux from both the magnets.
A deflecting torque is produced by the eddy currents induced in the disc and flux causing eddy
current. In order to make the resultant flux of shunt magnet lag in phase by exactly 90º behind the
applied voltage, one or more copper rings known as copper shading bands are provided on one limb
of the shunt magnet. Correct phase displacement between shunt and series magnet fluxes can be
obtained by adjusting the position of copper shading bands on the limb .The instrument is provided
with springs for controlling torque and permanent magnet for damping torque. The scale of this
instrument is quite uniform and extends over an angle of 300º
Theory of induction type instrument (wattmeter)

Phasor diagram of Induction type wattmeter is shown in the fig.Let load current I lags the circuit
voltage V by an angle Φ.The flux Φsh of the shunt magnet is made to lag behind the voltage V by
90º by adjusting the position of the shading bands. Assuming hysteresis and saturation effects in the
iron as negligible, the series magnet flux Φ se is taken proportional to and in phase with load current
I Shunt magnet flux Φsh and series magnet flux Φ se induces emfs Esh and Ese respectively in the disc
and they lags behind their respective fluxes by 90º.Eddy currents Ish and Ise are set up by the
induced EMFs Esh and Ese respectively and they are in phase with their respective emfs
Now two opposite torque given by Φ sh Ise and Φse Ish will act on the disc.
The instantaneous resultant torque is the difference of the two.ie Φsh Isc - Φse Ish
Since phase angle between Φsh and isc is Φ and phase angle between Φse and Ish is (180- Φ )
Average Torque Tav α [Φsh Isc cos Φ- Φse Ish cos(180-Φ)] α [Φsh Isc cos Φ + Φse Ish cos Φ]
 Page 29 of 38

α [Φsh Ise + Φse Ish] cos Φ , since Φsh and Ish α V, and Φse and Ise α I,
Φsh Ise α VI = K1VI and Φse Ish α VI = K2 VI
Substituting above values in the expression of average torque
T α (K1VI +K2VI) cosΦ α VI cosΦ α True power of circuit.
Advantages of Induction type instrument
It has strong construction, long scale, freedom from effect of stray field, and good damping
Disadvantages of Induction type instrument
Change in temperature causes variations in the resistance of the moving element which affect the
eddy current and in turn operating torque. Change in frequency causes variations in the reactance of
the voltage coil circuit.Other disadvantages are high power consumption and heavy moving system.
Thermal Instruments (Contd) (Hot Wire Type)

W is 0.1 mm dia hot wire made up of platinum-iridium alloy and stretched between two fixed
points A and B. Another wire W1 of phosphor bronze is attached to wire W and a fixed point D.A
silk thread is attached to phospher bronze wire W1 and it is passes around a pulley and connected
to a spring which is firmly fixed at the other end.A pointer and aluminium disc are carried by the
spindle upon which pulley is also mounted.When quantity to be measured is passes through the hot
wire it will get expanded and this expansion is transfered to the pointer by the wire W1,pulley and
spring. The measurement can be made from the calibrated scale.Damping by means of eddy current
system
Merits
1.Reflection in hotwire instrument is corresponding to rms value of the current. Hence it can be
used for both AC &DC
2. No effect of stray magnetic field.
3.Suitable for high frequency measurement
4.Accuracy is more.
Demerits
1.It is a delicate instrument.
2.Power consumption is relatively high.
 Page 30 of 38

3.Scale is non uniform

4.Deflection of the instrument is not uniform for ascending and descending values.
5.Instrument is sluggish in action.
Thermocouple instruments

Utilizes the emf developed at the metallic junction (Thermo couple) heated by an auxiliary circuit
carrying current being measured .Measurement of emf is being made by PMMC instrument and its
scale is calibrated according to the current passing through the heating element.The emf produced
is proportional to the temperature produced and is proportional to the RMS value of the current. It
can be used for both AC & DC.The heater element should be free from skin effect. Materials
having skin effect (at high frequencies the current will be forced to flow through the outer surface
of the conductor) has got more reactance in the inner part of the conductor than outer parts. To
avoid this heater elements are made up of thin non magnetic wire having very high resistivity.(Ex
Constantan wire)
Electrostatic Instruments

Principle of operation
The deflecting torque of electrostatic instrument is produced by action of electric field on charged
metal parts. These instruments are mainly using to measure high voltage.But by adding external
components electrostatic instruments can be used to measure current and power. There are two
methods mainly employed in this type of instruments. One type involves two oppositely charged
electrodes. One of them fixed and other is movable. Due to force of attraction movable electrode is
drawn towards the fixed one.
 Page 31 of 38

Other types are having forces of attraction or repulsion or both between the electrodes which causes
rotary motion of the movable electrode.The force or torque is developed due to the mechanism
which tends to move the moving electrodes to such a position where energy stored is maximum

Plate A is fixed and B are movable. The plates are oppositely charged and are restrained by a spring
connected to a fixed point. When a potential difference of V volt is applied to the plates, a force of
attraction F newton exists between them. The plate B moves towards A until this force is balanced
by that of spring.The capacitance between the plates is then C and the stored energy is ½ CV² joule.
Let there be a small increment dV in the applied voltage, then the plate B will move a small
distance dx towards A.
Then capacitive current flow is,
i = dq = d (CV) = C dV + Vd C , Then idt=CdV +VdC
dt dt dt dt

The input energy is Vidt = CV dV +V²dC

Increase in stored energy = final energy-initial energy
=½ ( C +dC) (V+ dV)² - ½ CV²
= ½(C+dC)(V²+½ VdV +dV² )-1/2CV²
=½V²dC+CVdV neglecting the higher order terms as they are small
quantities
From the principle of conservation of energy
Input energy = increase in stored energy+ mechanical work done
Then V²dC + CV dV = ½ V²dC +CVdV+Fdx
Force developed F = ½V²dC/dx
Rotational motion
Considering rotational motion and angular displacement θ in the place of linear displacement x
then deflecting torque Td = ½ V²dC/dθ
If the instrument is spring controlled
Then Controlling torque Tc =Kθ where K is the spring constant and θ is deflection.
Then deflection θ = ½ V²/K * dC/dθ
 Page 32 of 38

Since the deflection is proportional to the square of the voltage to be measured the instrument can
be used on both AC and DC.As the instrument exhibit a square law response and hence the scale is
non uniform and compressed at the lower end.
Rectifier type Instruments
Principle of operation
1. Rectifier type instruments are more sensitive than MI and electrodynamometer type instruments.
2. This type of instruments are using for measurement of ac voltage and currents by employing a
rectifier element which first of all convert ac to a unidirectional dc and using a meter responsive
to dc to indicate value of rectified ac. Indicating instrument normally using is PMMC type with
D’Arsonval movement.
3. Voltmeters having a resistance of 20 KΩ per volt and to measure current as low as 5 µA can be
constructed easily using rectifiers.
4. Sensitivity is very high in the order of 1000Ω/V to 2000Ω/V and power consumption for its
operation is very small to attach with any low power circuits.
Half wave rectifier Instrument
 Page 33 of 38

Full wave rectifier instrument

Let applied voltage v = Vm Sin ω t = √2 V Sin ω t

Sensitivity of rectifier type instruments

The DC sensitivity of rectifier type instrument is
Sdc = 1 V
Ifs ohm
where Ifs is the current required to produce full scale deflection
The AC sensitivity of the rectifier instrument depends upon type of the rectifier is used. For half
wave rectifier circuit the sinusoidal input voltage will produce an average current which is 0.45
times the current produced by a corresponding DC voltage. Then for a half wave rectifier with
sinusoidal input,
the AC sensitivity is Sac = 0.45 Sdc.
Similarly for a full wave rectifier with sinusoidal input, the sensitivity is Sac = 0.9 Sdc
These relationship will hold good only for sinusoidal inputs and with the condition forward and
reverse resistance are zero and infinite respectively
Applications
These instruments are mainly using for measurements on communication circuits. Also using in
circuits where the voltages are low and resistances are high
 Page 34 of 38

Factors affecting the Performance of Rectifier Type Instruments

1.Effect of Waveform
The rectifier type of instruments are calibrated in terms of rms values of sinusoidal current and
voltages and dials are marked 1.11 and 2.22 times of the average current for full wave and half
wave rectification respectively. Then these type of instruments are subject to waveform errors when
wave forms other than that may not have form factor of 1.11
2.Effect of Rectifier Resistance
The voltage current characteristics of a practical diode are non linear and therefore its forward
resistance is not constant but depends upon the operating point. The resistance is large at low
values of current and small for large values of current. This characteristic will distort the waveform
of the current flowing through it. When a sinusoidal voltage is applied the current output will not be
sinusoidal but has a peaked waveform and therefore its form factor is greater than 1.11 for full
wave rectifiers and 2.22 for half wave rectifiers. This means that the actual RMS value of current
flowing is greater than the value indicated by the instrument. The effect of series resistance is to
swamp the variable resistance of the rectifying element. The greater the value of the series
resistance greater will be the accuracy of the meter.
3.Effect of temperature change.
This is a major defect of the rectifier instruments. Error is caused by the variation of the resistance
of the rectifying element with temperature. A decrease of resistance is caused both in forward and
reverse direction due to rise in temperature. The compensation of this effect is made by making a
part of series resistor of copper which has high positive resistance temperature co-efficient and
since the rectifier element has a negative resistance temperature coefficient the effects can be made
to neutralise each other.In order to protect the meter from high temperature the meter has to be kept
in suitable temperature controlled box.
4.Effect of rectifier capacitance
Rectifiers have a property of an imperfect capacitor which bypasses high frequency currents Hence
the rectifier instruments show a decrease in the reading of the order 0.5 % per kHZ rise in
frequency.
5. Decrease in sensitivity
Sensitivity is lower on ac operation than that for dc operation. In the case of full wave rectification
sensitivity on ac is 90 % but in the case of half wave it is only 45% Hence loading effects of an ac
rectifier voltmeter is greater than that of a corresponding dc voltmeter
Range of rectifier Instruments
Current 0 -100 µ to 0-100 mA
Voltage 0-1V to 0-250 V without external resistance
 Page 35 of 38

Frequency 20 to 20000 Hz
Merits
• This instrument can be used for higher frequency circuits
• These instrument have a much lower operating current(or high value of ohm per volt) than other
ac instruments
• They have a practically uniform scale for most ranges and error is only about +/- 5 % under
normal operating conditions
• These instruments incorporate the high torque, efficient damping of the moving coil and has got
linear scale except for low ranges.
• Very low power consumption and high sensitivity compared with other instruments.
Precautions
The circuit to the instrument should never be opened while the rectifier is connected to the
line because this will result in full voltage impressed across the rectifier plates which may get
damage due to it. Protective fuses shouldn’t be provided in the instrument circuit.
Loading effect
When an instrument having low resistance is connected across in a high resistive circuit it will
act as a shunt for that portion of the circuit. Then the instrument gives a lower voltage drop than
actually existed before the instrument was connected. This effect is called loading effect
Current sensitivity –It is defined as the deflection produced by unit current
Voltage sensitivity –It is defined as the deflection per unit voltage
Shunt of a measuring instrument
The moving coil of the PMMC instrument is small and light and capable of carrying only less
than 100 mA (to avoid more weight of the instrument.

When heavy currents are to be measured the major part of the current is bypassed thro’ a low
resistance called a shunt.
Rm- internal resistance of the meter move
Rsh-Shunt resistance
I-Current to be measured
Ish- Current thro’ the shunt resistance
 Page 36 of 38

Im-Current thro’ the meter

Rsw – swamping resistance
The voltage drop across shunt and movement (both are parallel) must be same
IshRsh = ImRm Then Rsh= ImRm/Ish
But Ish= I-Im Then Rsh = ImRm/(I-Im) = Rm/ (I/Im - 1)
( I/Im - 1) = Rm/Rsh
Then I/Im = 1 + Rm/Rsh = m
This ratio of total current to the current through the moving coil is known as multiplying power of
shunt.
Rm/Rsh = m-1 or Rsh = Rm/m-1
Characteristics of Shunt Resistance
The temperature coefficient of both shunt resistance and moving coil should below and as nearly as
possible the same. Resistance of the shunt should not vary with time.Should not have temperature
rise while current is passing thro’it.Low thermal emf with copper.Manganin is used for shunt of DC
instruments .Constantan is used for shunt of AC Instruments
Compensation to the effects on moving coil due to change in temperature
A resistor with negligible temperature co efficient and having resistance value 20 to 30 times
greater than the coil resistance, connected in series with coil will help to compensate the variation
in resistance due to temperature. This resistance is known as swamping resistance (Manganin)
Disadvantages
(1) The potential difference across the meter circuit will be increased
(2) Reduction in the full scale sensitivity as higher voltage across the instrument is necessary to
sustain full scale current
Multirange Ammeters

The current range of the DC ammeter can be further extended by incorporating a number of shunts
selected by a range switch as shown in fig .It is better to use ‘make before break’ switch to avoid
absence of shunt to the meter which may cause passing of entire current through the moving coil.
Another type of shunt arrangement shown in figure above is called universal or Ayrton type shunt
which provide total prevention from loosing effect of shunt.
 Page 37 of 38

Calculation of value of resistance in different tapings

Mutirange ammeter
Rsh1 = Rm/m1-1 Rsh2 = Rm/m2-1 and so on
Multi range Ammeter –Ayrton Type

For switch at position 1

ImRm = (I1-Im)R1 m1 = I1/Im = 1 + Rm/R1 or R1 = Rm/(m-1)
For switch at position 2
Im (R1-R2+Rm) = (I2-Im)R2 or R2 =( R1 +Rm)/m2
For switch at position 3
Im (R1-R3+Rm) = (I3-Im)R3 or R3=( R1 +Rm)/m3
Voltmeter Multipliers
Resistance connected in series with a D’ Arsonval Galvanometer type instrument for converting the
same into a voltmeter is called Multiplier

Voltmeter is connecting across (in parallel with) the circuit whose voltage is to be measured. The
multiplier limits the current through the meter
Im=Ifs =Current required for full scale deflection of meter
Rm =Internal resistance of the meter Rs =Multiplier resistance
v = Voltage across the meter for current Im V = Full range Voltage of the instrument
v =ImRm and V = Im(Rm +Rs)
Then Rs = V-ImRm = V - Rm
Im Im

Multiplying factor for multiplier m = V/v = Im(Rm +Rs) = 1 + Rs/Rm

ImRm
 Page 38 of 38

Multiplier resistance Rs = (m-1) Rm

Manganin and Constantan which are having negligible temperature co efficient is used as multiplier
resistances
Properties of the multiplier
• Resistance of the multiplier should not change with time
• Change in resistance with increase in temperature should be negligible
• Resistance should be wound non inductively for ac meters
Multirange DC voltmeters
1.Individual Multipliers

Multiplier resistance Rs =(m-1)Rm

Then Rs1 = (m1-1)Rm, Rs2 = (m2-1)Rm Rs3 = (m3-1)Rm
m1 = V1/v, m2 = V2/v, m3 = V3/v
m1,m2,and m3 are multiplying factors
2.Potential divider type Multipliers

R1 = V1 -Rm = V1 – Rm = m1Rm-Rm=(m1-1)Rm
Im v/Rm

R2 = V2 -Rm-R1 = V2 - Rm- (m1-1)Rm = m2Rm –Rm-(m1-1)Rm = (m2-m1)Rm

Im v/Rm

Similarly
R3 = (m3-m2)Rm and R4 = (m4-m3)Rm