Introduction and basic concepts of

fluid mechanics
 Introduction

• Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and
moving bodies under the influence of forces.
• The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics,
while the branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics.
• Fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the behavior of
fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the
interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries.
• Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories. The study of
the motion of fluids that are practically incompressible (such as liquids,
especially water) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics.
• A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid
flows in pipes and open channels.
• Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density
changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
 What is a Fluid?

• A substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid, and gas. (At very
high temperatures, it also exists as plasma.)
• A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid.
• Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the
substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends
to change its shape.
 Difference between Solid and Fluid

Solid Fluid
1. A solid can resist an applied shear 1. A fluid deforms continuously under
stress by deforming the influence of shear stress, no matter
how small.
2. In solids stress is proportional to 2. Fluids stress is proportional to
strain. strain rate.
3. When a constant shear force is 3. A fluid never stops deforming and
applied, a solid eventually stops approaches a certain rate of strain.
deforming, at some fixed strain angle.
 Fluid as Continuum

• In gases the force of attraction between the molecules is much less due to
which the molecules of gases have greater freedom of movement so that the
gases fill completely the container in which they are placed.
• Inspite of larger mobility and spacing of molecules of fluids, for
mechanical analysis a fluid is considered to be continuum (i.e.,) a
continuous distribution of matter with no voids or empty spaces.
 Units and Dimensions

• Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The

magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T
are selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as
velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions and are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
Units and Dimensions
Units and Dimensions
Units and Dimensions
Units and Dimensions
Units and Dimensions
Units and Dimensions
 Properties of fluids
• Density (or) Mass density of fluid
– Density of fluid is defined as the mass per unit volume.
– It is denoted by the symbol ρ (rho).
– Mathematically it is expressed as
ρ = Mass of fluid (m) / Volume of fluid (V).
– The unit for density is Kg / m3
– Density of water is 1000 Kg / m3
• Weight density (or) Specific weight of fluid
– Weight density of fluid is defined as the weight per unit volume.
– It is denoted by the symbol γ (gamma).
– Mathematically it is expressed as
γ = Weight of fluid (w) / Volume of fluid (V)
γ =[ Mass (m) × gravity (g)] / Volume of fluid (V)
– The unit for density is N / m3
– Weight density of water is 9810 N / m3
 Properties of fluids
• Specific volume of fluid
– Specific volume of fluid is defined as the volume per unit mass.
– It is denoted by the symbol v.
– Mathematically it is expressed as
v = Volume of fluid (V) / Mass of fluid (m) .
– The unit for density is m3 / Kg
– Specific volume is the reciprocal of density (1/ ρ)
• Specific gravity (or) Relative density of fluid
– Specific gravity of fluid is defined as the ratio of density or weight
density of fluid to the density or weight density of standard fluid .
– Mathematically it is expressed as
Sp.gr = Density (or) Weight density of fluid / Density (or) Weight
density of standard fluid
– For liquids, the standard fluid is water.
– For gases, the standard fluid is air.
– Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity and it has no unit.
 Exercise problems

1. 2 litre of petrol weighs 14 N. Calculate the specific weight, mass density,

specific volume and specific gravity of petrol with respect to water.
[Ans : Specific weight = 7000 N / m3 , Mass density = 713.56 Kg / m3 ,
Specific volume = 1.4 × 10 -3 m3 / kg, Specific gravity = 0.7136 ]
2. If specific gravity of a liquid is 0.80, make calculations for its mass
density, specific weight and specific volume.
[Ans : Mass density = 800 Kg / m3 , Specific volume = 1.25 × 10 -3 m3 /
kg , Specific weight = 7848 N / m3]
3. If 5 m3 of a certain oil weighs 4000 Kg-f. Calculate the specific weight,
mass density, and specific gravity of this oil.
[Ans : Specific weight = 7848 N / m3 , Mass density = 800 Kg / m3 ,
Specific gravity = 0.8 ]
 Properties of fluids
• Viscosity (or) Dynamic viscosity of fluid
– Viscosity is that property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer.

– The fluid layer deforms continuously under the influence of shear

stress.
– The shear stress (τ) applied is directly proportional to the rate of
deformation.
 Properties of fluids
• Viscosity (or) Dynamic viscosity of fluid
– τ α (du/dy)
– τ = µ (du/dy)
– ‘µ’(mu) is the Co-efficient of Viscosity (or ) dynamic viscosity
– Unit of viscosity is expressed in N-s / m2 (S.I unit) (or) Poise
(C.G.S.unit)
– 1 N-s / m2 = 10 Poise
• Kinematic viscosity of fluid
– Kinematic viscosity of a fluid is defined as the ratio of dynamic
viscosity to the density of a fluid.
– It is represented by the symbol ‘ν’ (nu)
ν = Dynamic viscosity of fluid (µ) / Density of fluid (ρ)
– Unit of Kinematic Viscosity is expressed in m2 /s (S.I. Unit) (or) stokes
(C.G.S. Unit)
– 1 m2 /s = 104 stokes
 Properties of fluids
• Newton’s Law of Viscosity
– Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear stress on a fluid
element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
– Fluids which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity are called Newtonian
fluids.
– Fluids which does not obeys Newton’s law of viscosity are called non
- Newtonian fluids.
Properties of fluids
 Properties of fluids
• Effect of temperature on Viscosity of fluids
– The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two
factors:
• Intermolecular force of cohesion
• Molecular momentum exchange
– In liquids, the viscosity decreases with increase in temperature
• The intermolecular cohesion is more predominant than molecular
momentum transfer. Therefore when there is an increase in
temperature causes the decrease in cohesion which in turn causes
the decrease in viscosity of fluid.
– In gases, the viscosity increases with increase in temperature
• In gases the intermolecular cohesive forces are very small, the
molecular momentum transfer is predominant than intermolecular
cohesive forces. Therefore an increase in temperature causes the
increase in movement of molecules which in turn causes the
increase in viscosity of a fluid.
 Points to remember

• If Speed ‘N’ is given in r.p.m , then the velocity ‘u’ can be calculated by
u = (π D N )/ 60 , where D is the diameter
• Power lost P = (2 π N T)/ 60 , where ‘T’ is the torque
• T = F × r , where ‘ F’ is the force and ‘r’ is the radius.
• Forces in an inclined plane
 Exercise problems

1. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = (2/3) y – y2 in

which ‘u’ is the velocity in metre per second at a distance ‘y’ metre above
the plate, determine the shear stress at y =0 and y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic
viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises. [ Ans : 0.5756 N/ m2, 0.3167 N/m2]
2. Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1 poise. The
oil is used for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 cm
and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at
150 r.p.m. [ Ans : 52.33 N/ m2 ]
3. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication
between a square plate of size 0.8 m × 0.8 m and an inclined plane with
angle of inclination 300. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it
slides down the inclined plane with uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The
thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. [Ans: 11.7 Poise]
 Exercise problems

4. The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and
sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m.
Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The
thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. [Ans: 716.48 W]
5. If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20
cm from the plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/ sec. Calculate the
velocity gradients and shear stress at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from
the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise. [Ans: 12/s, 6/s, 0, 10.2
N/m2, 5.1 N/m2, 0]
6. A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and a
concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cm/s, when a force of
40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a
force of 200 N is applied. [Ans: 250 cm/s]
 Exercise problems

7. A 15 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another

cylinder of diameter 15.10 cm. Both cylinders are 25 cm high. The space
between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown.
If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r.p.m.
Determine the viscosity of the fluid. [Ans: 8.64 Poise]
8. A skater weighing 750 N skates at 15 m/s and is supported by an average
skating area of 10 cm2. Determine the average thickness of thin film of
water that exists between the skates and the ice. Take the viscosity of
water as 0.01 poise and the effective coefficient of friction between skates
and ice as 0.02. [Ans: 1 × 10-6 m]
9. Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the surfaces
is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of
surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a
speed of 0.6 m/s, if : (i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane
surfaces, and (ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the
plane surfaces ? Take dynamic viscosity of glycerine as 8.1 Poise. [Ans:
(i) 40.5 N, (ii) 45.54 N]
 Exercise problems

10. A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity
2.0 Ns/m2 and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m × 1.2 m × 0.2
cm is to be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the
gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap, find the force required. The
weight of the plate is 40 N. [Ans: 100.97 N]
11. Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m3. The shear
stress at a point in oil is 0.2452 N/m2 and velocity gradient at that point is
0.2 per second. [Ans: 12.5 stokes]
 Properties of fluids
• Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
– Bulk modulus (or) Modulus of Elasticity (K) is a measure of the
incremental change in pressure ‘dp’ which takes place when a volume
‘V’ of fluid is changed by decremental amount ‘dV’.
– Bulk modulus (K) = Stress / Strain = (dp)/ (-dV/V) = (Change in
Pressure)/ (Volumetric strain)
– Compressibility of a fluid is the inverse of the bulk modulus of
elasticity (K).
 Properties of fluids
• Surface tension
– Due to molecular attraction, liquids possess certain properties such as
cohesion and adhesion.
– Cohesion means inter-molecular attraction between molecules of the
same liquid.
– Adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the
molecules of a solid boundary surface in contact with the liquid.
– The property of cohesion enables a liquid to resist tensile stress, while
adhesion enables it to stick to another body.
– Surface tension is due to cohesion between liquid particles at the
surface, whereas capillarity is due to both cohesion and adhesion.
 Properties of fluids
• Surface tension
– All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force.
– Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under
tension of the surface of the liquid act as though it is an elastic
membrane under tension.
– Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of
a liquid in contact with a gas or the surface between two immiscible
liquids.
– The magnitude of force per unit length of the free surface, it is
expressed in N/m..
– It is denoted by σ (sigma)
 Properties of fluids
• Surface tension on liquid droplet
– Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference
of cut portion = σ × π d
– Force due to pressure = p × (π d 2/4)
– Under equilibrium the forces will be equal and opposite
(i.e.,) p = 4 σ / d

• Surface tension on a Hollow bubble (Soap bubble)

– p=8σ/d
 Properties of fluids
• Surface tension on a liquid jet
– Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference
of cut portion = σ × 2L
– Force due to pressure = p × area of semi jet
=p×L×d
– Under equilibrium the forces will be equal and opposite
(i.e.,) p = 2 σ / d
 Properties of fluids
• Capillarity
– If molecules of certain liquid possess, relatively, greater affinity for
solid molecules, or in other words the liquid has greater adhesion than
cohesion, then it will wet a solid surface with which it is in contact
and will tend to rise at the point of contact, with the result that the
liquid surface is concave upward and the angle of contact is less than
900.
– For any liquid there is less attraction for solid molecules or cohesion
predominates , the liquid surface will depressed at the point of
contact, with the result that the liquid surface is concave downward
and the angle of contact is greater than 900.
 Properties of fluids
• Capillarity
– Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid
surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid
when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.
– The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of
the liquid surface is known as capillary depression.
– It is expressed in cm or mm.
– Its value depends upon:
• Density of the liquid
• Diameter of the tube
• Surface tension of the liquid
 Properties of fluids
• Expression for Capillary rise
– Weight of the liquid of height ‘h’ in the
tube = (Area of tube × h) × ρ × g
– Vertical component of surface tensile
force = (σ × π d × cos θ )
– h = (4 σ cos θ ) / (ρ × g × d )
– The value of θ between water and clean
glass tube is 00

• Expression for Capillary depression

– h = (4 σ cos θ ) / (ρ × g × d )
– The value of θ between mercury and
glass tube is 1280
 Properties of fluids
• Vapour pressure
– All liquids possess a tendency to evaporate or vaporize (i.e.,) change
from the liquid to gaseous state. Such vaporization occurs because of
continuous escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface.
– When the liquid is confined in a closed vessel, the ejected vapour
molecules get accumulated in the space between the free liquid
surface and the top of the vessel. This accumulated vapour of the
liquid exerts a partial pressure on the liquid surface which is known
as vapour pressure.
– As molecular activity increases with temperature, vapour pressure of
the liquid also increases with temperature.
 Exercise problems
1. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a
cylinder from a volume of 0.0125 m3 at 80 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of
0.0124 m3 at 150 N/cm2 pressure? [Ans : 8.75 × 103 N/cm2]
2. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 200 C is 0.0725 N/m.
The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm2 greater than the
outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. [Ans:
1.45 mm]
3. The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/
cm2 (atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if
surface tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of water. [Ans: 11.045 N/cm2]
4. Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm
diameter, when immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature
of the liquid is 200C and the values of the surface tension of water and
mercury at 200C in contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and 0.51 N/m
respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero and that of mercury is
1300. Take density of water at 200C as equal to 998 kg/m3. [Ans: 7.51
mm, -2.46 mm]
 Exercise problems

5. Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to measure water
level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider
surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575 N/m. [Ans: 1.5
cm]
Fluid Statics
 Fluid pressure at a point

• Pressure or Intensity of pressure may be defined as the force exerted on a

unit area.
• If ‘F’ represents the total force uniformly distributed over an area ‘A’, the
pressure at any point P = F/A.
• When the pressure varies from point to point to an area, the magnitude of
pressure at any point can be obtained by p = dF/dA
• When a certain mass of fluid is held in static equilibrium by confining
within solid boundaries, it exerts a forces against boundary surfaces.
• The forces so exerted always act in the direction normal to the surface in
contact.
• This is so because a fluid at rest cannot sustain shear stress and hence the
forces cannot have tangential components.
• The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area of the surface is called the
fluid pressure.
 Pascal’s Law

• Pascal’s law states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a

static fluid is equal in all directions.
• Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest.
• Let the width of the element perpendicular to the plane is unity.
• Px, Py and Pz are the intensity of pressure acting on face AB,AC and BC
respectively.
• The forces acting on the fluid element are:
1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces
2. Weight of the element in the vertical direction
 Pascal’s Law

• Force on face AB = Px × dy × 1
• Force on face AC = Py × dx × 1
• Force on face BC = Pz × ds × 1
• Weight of element = (volume of element × ρ × g) = (((AB × AC) / 2) × 1)
× ρ × g = (((dx × dy) / 2) × 1) × ρ × g
• Resolving forces in x –direction , we get Px = Pz
• Resolving forces in y –direction , we get Py = Pz
 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
• The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is obtained by Hydrostatic law
which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward
direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
• Consider a small fluid element, let ΔA = Cross-sectional area of element,
ΔZ = Height of fluid element, P = pressure on face AB and Z = distance of
fluid element from free surface
 Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
• The forces acting on the fluid element are:
1. Pressure force on AB = P × ΔA
2. Pressure force on CD = (P + (dP/dz) ΔZ) × ΔA
3. Weight of the fluid element = ρ × g × (ΔA × ΔZ)
4. Pressure forces on BC and AD are equal and opposite
• After resolving the above forces we get (dP/dz) = ρ × g
• By integrating the above equation, we get P = ρgZ
 Exercise problems
1. A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 4.5 cm
diameter. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force
applied at the plunger is 500 N. [Ans: 22.22 kN]

2. Calculate the pressure due to a column of 30 cm of (a) water, (b) an oil of

sp.gr 0.8 and (c) mercury of sp.gr 13.6. [Ans : (a) 0.2943 N/cm2, (b)
0.2354 N/cm2, (c) 4.002 N/cm2]
3. An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2 m and above it an oil of
sp.gr 0.9 for a depth of 1 m. Find the pressure intensity (i) at the interface
of two liquids, and (ii) at the bottom of the tank. [Ans: (i) 0.8829 N/cm2,
(ii) 2.8449 N/cm2]
 Exercise problems
4. The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack are
3 cm and 10 cm respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the small
piston. Find the load lifted by the large piston when:
a) The pistons are at the same level
b) Small piston is 40 cm above the large piston
The density of the liquid in the jack is given as 1000 kg/m3. [Ans: a)
888.96 N, b) 919.7 N ]
 Hydrostatic paradox
• The pressure exerted by the fluid is dependent only on the vertical head
of the fluid and its mass density. It is not affected by the weight of the
fluid present.

• Weight of the fluid is obviously different in all cases, the force on the
bases of the vessels is same, depending on the depth and base area.
 Pressure measurement
• Fluid pressure may be measured with respect to any arbitrary datum. The
most common datums used are
1. Absolute zero pressure
2. Local atmospheric pressure
 Atmospheric, Absolute, Gauge and Vacuum Pressure
• The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with
which it is in contact, and it is known as atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure varies with the altitude and it can be measured by
means of barometer. It is also called as barometric pressure.
• When pressure is measured above absolute zero (or complete vacuum), it
is called an absolute pressure.
• When the pressure is measured either above or below atmospheric
pressure as datum, it is called gauge pressure. This is because practically
all pressure gauges read zero when open to the atmosphere and read only
the difference between the pressure of the fluid to which they are
connected and the atmospheric pressure.
• If the pressure of a fluid is below atmospheric pressure it is designated as
vacuum pressure (or) suction pressure (or) negative gauge pressure.
Pressure gauges
Units of Pressure
 Pressure measurement
• The various devices adopted for measuring fluid pressure may be broadly
classified under the following two heads:
1. Manometers
2. Mechanical gauges
• Manometers
– Manometers are those pressure measuring devices which are based on
the principle of balancing the column of liquid (whose pressure is to
be found) by the same or another column of liquid. The manometers
may be classified as
a. Simple manometers
b. Differential manometers
 Pressure measurement
• Manometers
– Piezometer
 Pressure measurement
• Manometers
– U tube manometer
 Pressure measurement
• Manometers
– Single column manometer
 Pressure measurement
• Manometers
– Differential manometers
 Exercise problems
1. The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open
to the atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a
fluid of sp.gr 0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the
level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if
the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm. [Ans: 25977
N/m2]
2. A simple U – tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe
in which a fluid of sp.gr 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The
other end of the manometer is open to atmosphere. Find the vacuum
pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 40
cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is 15 cm
below. [Ans: - 54543.6 N/m2]
 Exercise problems
3. A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe line,
which is in excess of atmospheric pressure. The right limb of the manometer
contains mercury and is open to atmosphere. The contact between water and
mercury is in the left limb. Determine the pressure of water in the main line, if the
difference in level of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is 10 cm and the free surface
of mercury is in level with the centre of the pipe. If the pressure of water in pipe
line is reduced to 9810 N/m2, calculate the new difference in the level of mercury.
Sketch the arrangements in both cases. [Ans: 12360.6 N/m2, 8.016 cm]
4. A conical vessel having its outlet at A to which a U-tube manometer is connected.
The reading of the manometer given in the figure shows when the vessel is
empty. Find the reading of the manometer when the vessel is completely filled
with water. [Ans: 2.72 m of water, 42.90 cm]
 Exercise problems
5. A pressure gauge consists of two cylindrical bulbs B and C each of 10
Sq.cm cross-sectional area, which are connected by a U-tube with vertical
limbs of each of 0.25 sq.cm cross-sectional area. A red liquid of specific
gravity 0.9 is filled into C and clear water is filled into B, the surface of
separation being in the limb attached to C. Find the displacement of the
surface of separation when the pressure on the surface in C is greater than
that in B by an amount equal to 1 cm head of water. [Ans: 6.78 cm]
 Exercise problems
6. A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid of
sp.gr 0.9 as shown in figure. Find the pressure in the pipe if the area of
the reservoir is 100 times the area of the tube for the manometer reading .
[Ans: 52100 N/m2]
 Exercise problems
7. A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B of two
pipes as shown in figure. The pipe A contains a liquid of sp.gr = 1.5
while pipe B contains a liquid of sp.gr = 0.9. The pressures at A and B are
1 kgf/cm2 and 1.80 kgf/cm2 respectively. Find the difference in mercury
level in the differential manometer. [Ans: 18.1 cm]
 Exercise problems
8. When the pressure at a point is so large that the manometric fluid cannot
be contained within the height of a single U-tube manometer, use is made
of a compound U-tube manometer which essentially consists of a number
of simple U-tube manometers arranged in series as shown in figure.
Calculate the pressure difference between points A and B, Take weight
density of water as 10 kN/m3, weight density of mercury as 136 kN/m3
and weight density of oil as 8.5 kN/m3[Ans: 140.2 kN/m2]
 Exercise problems
9. For the setup shown in figure, make calculations for the pressure
difference between tanks A and B. Neglect pressure due to presence of air
column in the inclined tube and take h1 = 30 cm, h2 = 15 cm, h3 = 45 cm
and h4 = 20 cm. [Ans: 75962 N/m2]
 Exercise problems
10. An inverted U-tube manometer is connected to two horizontal pipes A
and B through which water is flowing. The vertical distance between the
axes of these pipes is 30 cm. When an oil of specific gravity 0.8 is used
as a gauge fluid, the vertical heights of water columns in the two limbs of
the inverted manometer (when measured from the respective centre lines
of the pipes) are found to be same and equal to 35 cm. Determine the
difference of pressure between the pipes. [Ans: 2354.4 N/m2]
 Pressure measurement
• Mechanical gauges
– Bourdon tube pressure gauge
 Pressure measurement
• Mechanical gauges
– Diaphragm pressure gauge
 Pressure measurement
• Mechanical gauges
– Bellows pressure gauge
 Pressure measurement
• Mechanical gauges
– Dead weight pressure gauge
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Total pressure
– When a static mass of fluid comes in contact with surface, either plane
or curved, a force is exerted by the fluid on the surface. This force is
known as total pressure.
– Since for a fluid at rest no tangential force exists, the total force acts in
direction normal to the surface.
• Centre of pressure
– The point of application of total pressure on the surface is known as
centre of pressure.
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Vertical plane surface submerged in liquid
– Consider a plane vertical surface of arbitrary shape immersed in liquid
as shown in figure.
– Let A = Total area of the surface, hˉ = Distance of C.G of the area
from free surface of liquid, G = Centre of gravity of plane surface, P =
Centre of pressure, h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free
surface of liquid.
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Vertical plane surface submerged in liquid
– Total pressure
The total pressure on the surface may be determined by dividing the
entire surface into a number of small parallel strips.
The force on small strip is then calculated and the total pressure force
on the whole area is calculated by integrating the force on small strip.
Consider a strip of thickness ‘dh’ and width ‘b’ at a depth of ‘h’ from
free surface of liquid, then Pressure intensity on the strip, p = ρgh
Area of the strip, dA = b × dh
Total pressure force on strip, dF = ρgh × b × dh
Therefore, total pressure force on the whole surface F = ρgA h

Note: h dA is the first moment of area (or) moment of surface area

about the free surface of the liquid and it is equal to the product of area
of the surface and distance of C.G from free surface
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Vertical plane surface submerged in liquid
– Centre of pressure (h*)
Centre of pressure is calculated by using the “Principle of Moments”,
which states that the moment of resultant force about an axis is equal
to the sum of moments of the components about the same axis.
The resultant force F is acting at P, at a distance h* from free surface
of the liquid.
Hence, moment of force F about free surface of liquid = F × h*
Moment of force dF, acting on a strip = dF × h = ρgh × b × dh × h
Sum of moments of all such forces = ρgI0
h* = I0 / Ahˉ
By the theorem of parallel axis, we have
I0 = IG + A hˉ2
IG – Moment of inertia of area about an axis passing through the C.G.
of the area and parallel to the free surface of liquid.
From the above equation, it is clear that
• Centre of pressure lies below the centre of gravity of vertical
surface.
• The distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid is
independent of the density of liquid.
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Horizontal plane surface submerged in liquid
– Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid.
– As every point of surface is at the same depth from the free surface of
the liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the entire surface,
(i.e.,) p = ρgh, where ‘h’ is the depth of the surface.
– Let A = Total area of surface
– Total force on surface, F = ρgh × A = ρgAh͞
where h͞ = depth of C.G. from free surface of liquid = h
h* = depth of centre of pressure from free surface = h
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid
– Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid.
– The plane of a surface makes an angle θ with the free surface of the
liquid.
– Let A = Total area of inclined surface, h͞ = depth of C.G. of inclined
area from free surface, h* = distance of centre of pressure from free
surface of liquid
– The plane of surface meets the free liquid surface at O. Then O-O is
the axis perpendicular to the plane surface.
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid
– Total Pressure
Let y͞ = distance of the C.G. of the inclined surface from O-O
y* = distance of centre of pressure from O-O
Consider a small strip of area ‘dA’ at a depth ‘h’ from free surface and at
a distance ‘y’ from axis O-O.
Pressure intensity on the strip, p = ρgh
Pressure force on the strip, dF = ρgh dA

From the figure,

Total pressure force on the whole area, F = ρgA h͞

 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid
– Centre of Pressure
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Curved plane surface submerged in liquid
– Consider a curved surface AB, submerged in a static fluid.
– Let ‘dA’ is the area of a small strip at a depth of ‘h’ from water surface.
– Then pressure intensity ‘p’ on the area dA = ρgh
– Pressure force dF = ρgh × dA
–
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Curved plane surface submerged in liquid
– The direction of forces in small area are not in the same direction, but
varies from point to point. Hence integration for curved surface is
impossible.
– The force dF is resolved into two components (i.e.,) dFx and dFy.

– The total force on the curved surface is

– Inclination of resultant with horizontal is

 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
• Curved plane surface submerged in liquid
– Total forces in x and y direction are
– Fx = = Total pressure force on the projected area
of the curved surface on the vertical plane.
– Fy = = Weight of liquid supported by the curved
surface upto free surface of the liquid.
Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
Exercise problems
1. A rectangular plane surface is 2 m wide and 3 m deep. It lies in vertical
plane in water. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of
pressure on the plane surface when its upper edge is horizontal and (a)
coincides with water surface, (b) 2.5 m below the free water surface.
[Ans: a) 88290 N, 2.0 m, b) 235440 N, 4.1875 m]
2. The figure shows a tank full of water. Find the
i. Total pressure on the bottom of the tank [Ans: 282528 N]
ii. Weight of water in the tank [Ans: 70632 N]
iii. Hydrostatic paradox between the results of (i) and (ii). Width of tank
is 2 m.
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
Exercise problems
3. Compute the horizontal and vertical components of the total force acting
on a curved surface AB, which is in the form of quadrant of a circle of
radius 2 m as shown in figure. Take the width of the gate as unity. [Ans:
Fx = 49050 N, Fy= 60249.1 N]
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
Exercise problems
4. A rectangular plane surface 2 m wide and 3 m deep lies in water in such a
way that its plane makes an angle of 30o with the free surface of water.
Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure when the
upper edge is 1.5 m below the free water surface. [Ans: 132435 N,
2.3333 m]
 Hydrostatic forces on surfaces
Exercise problems
5. A circular plate is having a concentric circular hole of diameter 1.5 m as
shown in figure. Calculate the total pressure and position of centre of
pressure on one face of the plate. [Ans: 143018 N, 2.927 m]
 Buoyancy

• When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the

fluid on the body. This upward force is equal to the weight of fluid
displaced by the body and is called Force of buoyancy (or) Buoyancy.

Centre of Buoyancy

• It is defined as the point, through which the force of buoyancy is

supposed to act.
• As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight
of fluid displaced by the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the
centre of gravity of fluid displaced.
 Buoyancy

• Buoyant force Fb = Fbottom – Ftop = ρfg(s + h) A – ρfgsA = ρfgV

• Buoyant force is independent of distance of body from the free
surface.
• Buoyant force is also independent of the density of the solid body.
Buoyancy
 Buoyancy
Exercise problems
1. Find the volume of the water displaced and position of centre of
buoyancy for a wooden block of width 2.5 m and of depth 1.5 m, when it
floats horizontally in water. The density of wooden block is 650 kg/m3
and its length 6.0 m. [Ans: 14.625 m3, 0.4875 m from base]
 Buoyancy
Exercise problems
2. A stone weighs 392.4 N in air and 196.2 N in water. Calculate the volume
of stone.[Ans: 20000 cm3]
3. Find the density of a metallic body which floats at the interface of
mercury of sp.gr 13.6 and water such that 40% of its volume is sub-
merged in mercury and 60% in water. [Ans: 6040 kg/m3]
 Meta-Centre
• It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when
the body is tilted by a small angle.
• The point at which the line of action of the force of buoyancy will meet
the normal axis of the body, when the body is given a small angular
displacement.

• The distance MG (i.e.,) the distance between the meta centre of a

floating body and the centre of gravity of the body is called meta-
centric height.
Stability of sub-merged and floating bodies
 Stability of submerged and floating bodies
Exercise problems
1. A solid cylinder of 10 cm diameter and 40 cm long, consists of two parts
made of different materials. The first part at the base is 1 cm long and
specific gravity = 6. The other part of the cylinder is made of material
having specific gravity 0.6. State, if it can float vertically in water. [Ans:
-1.508 cm]
Fluid dynamics
 Fluid Kinematics

• Kinematics is defined as the branch of science which deals with motion of

particles without considering the forces causing the motion.
• The kinematics applied to motion of fluids is called Fluid kinematics.

Methods of describing fluid motion

• Lagrangian method – a single fluid particle is followed during its motion

and its velocity, acceleration, density, etc. are described.
• Eulerian method – the velocity, acceleration, pressure, density, etc. are
described at a point in flow field.
• Eulerian method is most commonly used in fluid mechanics.
 Types of fluid flow

• Steady and Unsteady flow

– Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
characteristics like velocity, density, pressure, etc., at a point do not
change with time.

– Unsteady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid

characteristics like velocity, density, pressure, etc., at a point changes
with respect to time.
 Types of fluid flow

• Uniform and Non-Uniform flow

– Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity at
any given time does not change with respect to space (i.e., length of
direction of flow)

– Non-uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity

at any given time changes with respect to space (i.e., length of direction
of flow)
 Types of fluid flow

• Laminar and Turbulent flow

– Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
particles move along well-defined paths or streamlines.
– This type of flow is also called as streamline flow or viscous flow.
– Turbulent flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
particles move in a zig-zag way.
– The type of pipe flow is determined through non-dimensionless number
called Reynolds number (Re).

– where ‘ρ’ is the density of fluid, ‘V’ is the mean velocity of flow in
pipe, ‘D’ is the diameter of pipe, ‘μ’ is the viscosity of fluid.
 Types of fluid flow

• Laminar and Turbulent flow

– If the Re < 2000, the flow is laminar.
– If the Re > 4000, the flow is turbulent.
– If the Re value lies between 2000 and 4000, the flow is transitional
flow.
 Types of fluid flow

• Compressible and Incompressible flow

– Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of fluid
changes from point to point.

– Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is

constant for fluid flow.
 Types of fluid flow

• Rotational and Irrotational flow

– Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while
flowing along streamlines, also rotate about their own axis.

– Irrotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while
flowing along streamlines do not rotate about their own axis.
 Types of fluid flow

• One dimensional, two dimensional and three dimensional flow

– One dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter
such as velocity is a function of time and one space coordinate only.

– Two dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter
such as velocity is a function of time and two space coordinates (x and
y) only.

– Three dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow

parameter such as velocity is a function of time and three space
coordinates (x ,y and z).
 Continuity of flow

• Principle of conservation of mass is applied to a flowing fluid.

• Control volume: In an inertial frame of reference, it is a volume fixed in
space or moving with constant flow velocity through which the continuum
(liquid or gas) flows. The surface enclosing the control volume is referred
to as control surface.
 Continuity equation

• ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2

where ρ1, ρ2 – densities of fluid

A1, A2 – area of cross-section
V1, V2 – Velocities of fluid
 Exercise problems

• The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm

respectively. Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of water
flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s. Determine also the velocity
at section 2. [Ans: 0.03927 m3/s, 2.22 m/s]
• Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3 m/s and then passes
through a pipe BC 1.5 m diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is
0.8 m diameter and carries one third of the flow in AB. The flow velocity in
branch CE is 2.5 m/s. Find the volume rate of flow in AB, the velocity in
BC, the velocity in CD and the diameter of CE. [Ans: 3.393 m3/s, 1.92
m/s, 2.25 m/s, 1.0735 m]
• A jet of water from a 25 mm diameter nozzle is directed vertically upwards.
Assuming that the jet remains circular and neglecting any loss of energy,
that will be the diameter at a point 4.5 m above the nozzle, if the velocity
with which the jet leaves the nozzle is 12 m/s. [Ans: 31.7 mm]