LECTURE 11:

AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL
CE 433

Excerpts from Lecture notes of Professor M. Ashraf Ali, BUET.

Natural Atmospheric Cleansing Processes
• The atmosphere has self-cleansing processes like rivers
and streams. Major processes at work in the atmosphere
are –
• (1) Dispersion: By this process pollutants are mixed with air and
their concentration is reduced in the atmosphere. (This is not really
a removal mechanism)
• (2) Dry Deposition: Settling and impaction of particulates/aerosols
on surfaces
Processes involved: - Gravitation settling, Flocculation &
subsequent settling, adsorption
• (3) Wet Deposition: Removal of pollutants/particulates by the
action of rain, snow, fog, mist
• Close to the ground, “dry deposition” is the primary
removal mechanism ; whereas at altitudes above 100 m,
“wet deposition” is the predominant removal mechanism
 Concept of Air Pollution Control
Atmospheric Control

Detector Response
Emission Source
Atmosphere
Source Control
Receptor

Human Response
Animal /Plant
Materials
Legislative Action

• Engineering Control
• (1) Control at the source of emission
• (2) Control for receptors (e.g. filtered air-conditions, gas mask)
• (3) Control directed to atmosphere (e.g. diverting wind flow, discharging heat to
alter temperature structure of atmosphere)
(2), (3) not shown in the figure above
Approaches to Contaminant Control:
(Engineering Control)
• (1) Control for Receptors: Such as use of filtered air-conditions, gas
masks.
• (2) Control directed to Atmosphere:
• Discharging heat to alter temperature structure of atmosphere for achieving
better dispersion/dilution of pollutants
• Use of tall stacks to emit pollutants above inversion layer, so that ground-level
pollutant concentrations are greatly reduced
• However, pollutants released from tall stacks can travel long distances, so that effects
of pollution can be felt at considerable distances away from the source
• (3) Control at the source of Emission
• Substituting fossil fuel by less polluting energy sources (e.g. solar energy,
hydro-power)
• Proper use and maintenance of existing plant/machinery/equipment/car etc. (for
example, an automobile with clean air filter, good crank case ventilation, correct
idle-speed adjustment, proper carburetor setting, good spark plugs can reduce
HC and CO emissions by 20 – 50%.
• Most widely used methods of controlling emission at source is to install control
equipment (designed according to principles of natural removal mechanisms).
Industrial Emission:
Control Devices for Particulate Contaminants
• Can be divided into five major groups:
• Gravitational settling chambers
• Centrifugal collectors
• (a) Cyclones
• (b) Dynamic precipitators
• Wet Collectors
• (a) spray towers
• (b) wet cyclone scrubbers
• (c) venturi scrubbers
• Electrostatic precipitators
• Fabric Filters
Gravitational Settling Chambers
• Provide enlarged areas to minimize horizontal velocities
and allow particulates to settle out
• Usual velocity through settling chambers is between 0.5
to 2.5 m/s. For best results gas flow should be uniformly
maintained at less than 0.3 m/s.
• Usually effective for particles > 50 μm.
• Some settling chambers are just enlarged conduits, while
others have horizontal shelves and baffles (spaced about
2.5 cm apart), which shorten the settling path and thus
improve removal efficiency
• Simple in design and operation, but require relatively
large space for installation and have relatively low
efficiency, especially for removal of smaller particles.
Particle size
• Calculate minimum diameter of a particle that would be
collected at 100% theoretical efficiency in a chamber of
length L and height H
• Terminal settling velocity of a particle can be described by Stoke’s
law as follows:

Where, vs = terminal settling velocity (m/s)

g = gravitational constant (m/s2 )
ρp = density of particle (kg/m3)
ρa = density of air (~ 1.2 kg/m3)
Dp = diameter of particle (m)
µ = viscosity of air (N.S/m2 ; kg/m.s)
 Particle size
• vh = horizontal velocity (assumed to be
same everywhere in the chamber)
(assume that if a particle settles to the
vh bottom of the chamber it stays there, ie not
H
vt
re-entrained.)
18𝜇𝑣ℎ 𝐻 1/2
𝑑𝑝∗ =( )
L 𝑔𝜌𝑝 𝐿

• All particles larger than 𝑑𝑝∗ will be removed at 100% efficiency, while
efficiency of smaller particles is the ratio of their settling velocities to the
settling velocity of the 𝑑𝑝∗ particle
• Valid for quiescent conditions, which cannot be maintained in a flow through
settling chamber. Hence a correction factor is often used.

• Fractional collection efficiency of particle of 𝐿.𝑔.𝑑𝑝2 𝜌𝑝

diameter dp can be written as (dp < 𝑑𝑝∗ ) 𝜂=
𝐻.𝑣ℎ .18𝜇
Problem 1
• Calculate the minimum size of particle that will be
removed with 100% efficiency from a settling chamber
under the following conditions:
• Air: Horizontal velocity 0.3 m/s
• Temperature 77degreeC
• Particle: Sp Gr 2.0
• Chamber: Length = 7.5 m
• Height = 1.5 m

At 77degreeC of air, μ= 2.1 X 10-5-kg/m.s

Problem 2
• Calculate the fractional efficiency of 20 μm particles in the
above settling chamber
Centrifugal collectors
• Employ centrifugal force instead of gravity to separate
particles from the gas stream
• Particles ranging from 5-20 μm can be removed
• Two general types of centrifugal collectors are used –
cyclones and dynamic precipitators
Cyclone Collector
Cyclone Collector
Operating Principle:
• A cyclone collector usually consists of a cylindrical shell,
conical base, dust hopper, and an inlet where the dust laden
gas enters tangentially.
• Under the influence of centrifugal force generated by the
spinning gas, the solid particles are thrown to the walls of the
cyclone.
• The gas spiral upward at the inside of the cone
• The particles slide down the wall of the cone and into the
hopper.
• The operating or separating efficiency of a efficiency of a
cyclone depends on the magnitude of the centrifugal force; the
greater the centrifugal force, the greater the efficiency
Control Devices for particulate
Contaminant
Control Devices for Gaseous Pollutants
• (1) Adsorption: Passing a stream of effluent gas through a
porous solid material (the adsorbent) contained in an
adsorption pad.
• Types of adsorbents: Activated carbon, alumina, silica gel etc.
• (2) Absorption: Involves bringing pollutant gas in contact
with a liquid absorbent (solvent) so that one or more
constituents of the pollutant gas are removed, treated or
modified.
• Types of absorbents: Aqueous solutions of alkalies (Na+ and NH3)
and alkaline earth (Ca and Mg)
Control Devices for Gaseous Pollutants
• (3) Wet Collectors: Wet collectors, or scrubbers, remove
particulate matter from gas streams by incorporating the
particles into liquid droplets directly on contact.

• (4) Electrostatic Precipitators: Particulates moving through

a region of high electrostatic potential tend to become
charged and are then attracted to an oppositely charged
area where they can be collected

• (5) Fabric Filters: The particulate laden gas stream

passes through a woven fabric that filters out the
particulate matter and allows the gas to pass through
Control Devices for Gaseous Pollutants
• (5) Fabric Filters: Operating principle:
• Particle-laden gas stream passes through a woven or felted fabric that
filters out the particulate matter and allows the gas to pass through
• Small particles are initially retained on the fabric by direct interception,
inertial impaction, diffusion, electrostatic attraction, and gravitational
settling
• After a dust mat has formed on the fabric, more efficient collection of
submicron particles is accomplished
• Filter bags, usually tubular or envelope-shaped, are capable of
removing most particles as small as 0.5 μm and will remove
substantial quantities of particles as small as 0.5 μm
• Filter bags ranging from 1.8 to 9 m long, can be utilized in a bag house
filter arrangement. The upper ends are closed and the lower ends are
attached to an inlet manifold.
• The design of fabric filters is based on filtering rates, or air to cloth
ratios. Filtering rates range from: 0.5 to 5 m/min (m3 air/min.m2 cloth)
Emission from Vehicle: Combustion
Emission
• Internal Combustion engines:
The most common form is a 4-stroke, spark ignited, piston engine.
The single most important factor in determining emissions from an
internal combustion engine is the ratio of air to fuel ratio.
Average composition of fuel: C7H13
For complete combustion, 1 mole of fuel requires 10.25 moles of O2.
Molar ratio of “O” and “N” in air = 3.76
We can write :
C7H13 + 10.25 O2 + 38.5 N2  7CO2 + 6.5 H2O + 38.5 N2
Considering air to be made up of only O2 and N2, the air fuel ratio
needed for complete oxidation of gasoline:
Air/Fuel = (10.25 O2 + 38.54 N2)/C7H13 = 14.5
This ratio (14.5) is known as the stoichiometric ratio for gasoline.
- If Actual air-fuel mixture has less air than what the stoichiometric ratio
indicates, the mixture is said to be “rich”.
- If more air is provided than necessary, the mixture is said to be
“lean”.
Figure: Effect of air-fuel ratio on
emissions, power, and fuel economy
Effect of air-fuel ratio on pollution
• A “rich” mixture encourages production of CO and unburned
hydrocarbons, since there is not enough oxygen for complete
combustion
• On the other hand, a lean mixture helps reduce CO and HC
emissions (unless the mixture becomes so lean that misfiring occurs)
• For rich mixtures, the lack of oxygen lowers the combustion
temperature, reducing NOx emissions. In the other direction, beyond a
certain point, lean mixtures may have enough excess air that the
dilution lowers flame temperature and reduces NOx production.
(figure)
• Also, maximum power is obtained for a slightly “rich” mixture, while
maximum fuel economy occurs with slightly lean mixtures.
• Other factors influencing pollution include: ignition timing,
compression ratio, combustion chamber geometry, and whether the
vehicle is idling, accelerating cruising or decelerating.
Vehicular Pollution Control
• Using Alternative Fuels
• Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• Using Alternative Vehicle Technology
• Fuel Cell Vehicles
• Electric Vehicles
• Hydrogen Fueled Vehicles
• Hybrid Vehicles
• Pollution Control From IC Engines
• Engine Replacement
• Regular Engine Maintenance (lubricating oil, filters, spark plugs, coolant, etc.)
• Retrofit options/post-engine Devices
• Thermal Reactor
• EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation)
• Catalytic Converter (CC)
Diesel particulate Filter (DPF)
• Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC
Thermal Reactor
• A thermal reactor is basically an afterburner that
encourages the continued oxidation of CO and HC after
these gases have left the combustion chamber
• Exhaust gases in the reactor are kept hot enough and
enough oxygen is provided to allow combustion to
continue outside the engine itself, thus reducing CO and
HC emissions
• Usually, the system is designed to cause the engine to run
“rich” in order to provide sufficient unburned fuel in the
reactor to allow combustion to take place. This has
secondary effect of modestly reducing NOx emissions,
although it also increases fuel consumption since some
fuel is not burned in the cylinders
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
• Some degree of control of NOx can be achieved by
recirculating a portion of the exhaust gas back into the
incoming air-fuel mixture.
• This relatively inert gas that is added to the incoming
mixture absorbs some of the heat generated during
combustion without affecting the air-fuel ratio. The heat
absorbed by the recirculating exhaust gas helps reduce
the combustion temperature and hence, helps decrease
the production of NOx.
• The coupling of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) with a
thermal reactor, reduces emissions of all three pollutants,
CO, HC and NOx but at the expense of performance and
fuel economy.
Catalytic Converter (CC)
Catalytic Converter
• Catalytic Converters are connected to a car’s exhaust
system
• Catalysts (Noble Metals): Platinum (Pt), Rhodium (Rd),
Palladium (Pd) (About 4-5 g/convt)
• 2-way (oxidation) catalytic converter: oxidizes HC and CO
to CO2
• Catalysis: Pt, Pd
• Oxidation Reactions: CO + O2  CO2; HC + O2  CO2 + H2O
• 3-way (Redox) Catalytic Converter: also reduces NOx to
N2
• Catalysts: Pt, Rd, Pd
• Oxidation Reactions: CO + O2  CO2; HC + O2  CO2 + H2O
• Reduction Reaction: NOx  N2 + O2
Catalytic Converter
Figure: Effect of Air-fuel ratio on conversion
efficiency in a catalytic converter
Catalytic Converter: Not a Magic Box
• Catalytic converters start working effectively as they get
warm above 250 – 300 °C. The reactions taking place are
exothermic. Converter material should be able to
withstand up to 1000°C. Generally heat shields are used
to protect other parts of vehicle body.
• Extra oxygen is needed to support the reactions, that
might be provided by lean air-fuel ratio or pump-type air
injection.
• Unleaded (Pb-free) fuel is essential to prevent “fouling” of
catalytic converters.
• Catalytic converters must operate within a very narrow
band of air-fuel ratio:
Catalytic Converter: Not a Magic Box
• Catalytic converters must operate within a very narrow band of
air-fuel ratio:
• If air-fuel ratio > 14.9, conversion of NOx-N2 is reduced significantly
• If air-fuel ratio<14.8, conversion of HC and CO to CO2 is reduced
significantly
This requires precise electronic control systems that monitor and control
air-fuel mixture in an engine.
• Most common cause of failure of CC is an engine that pumps
too much unburned fuel, which can overheat or carbon-clog the
catalyst.
• Fuel specification like sulfur content should be maintained to
prevent catalyst poisoning, deteriorating performance
• Fouling, clogging, meltdown, breakage of ceramic substrate
may cause a converter to be ineffective , and/or plug it and
raise back pressure.
Diesel Engines
• In diesel engines, fuel is injected directly into the cylinder, and
there is no conventional ignition system with plugs, points and
condenser since the fuel ignites spontaneously during
compression stroke.
• Since they do not depend on spark ignition, they can run on
very lean mixtures. Thus they are inherently more fuel efficient.
• Since diesel run with very lean mixtures, emissions of HC and
CO are inherently low.
• However, because high compression ratios create high
temperatures, NOx emissions are relatively high.
• In addition, diesels emit significant quantities of carbonaceous
particles known as “soot”, some of which are mutagenic and
possibly carcinogenic.
• Controlling NOx with catalytic converters is difficult. Since fuel is
burnt with so much excess oxygen, catalysts that require a lack
of oxygen to reduce NOx are ineffective.