LEVELING - The vertical distance between the two

level surfaces in which two points lie

- Directly or indirectly measuring vertical
distances to determine the elevation of points ~Leveling Methods~
or their differences in elevation

 DIRECT or SPIRIT LEVELING

~Definition of Terms~
- Commonly employed method of
1. LEVEL SURFACE determining the elevation of points
- A curved surface which is at any point some distance apart by a series of set
perpendicular to the direction of ups
gravity or the plumb line
 RECIPROCAL LEVELING
2. LEVEL LINE - process of accurately determining the
- a curved line in a level surface difference in elevation between two
intervisible points located at a
3. HORIZONTAL SURFACE considerable distance apart and
- A plane that is tangent to a level between which points leveling could
surface at a particular point not be performed in the usual manner
4. HORIZONTAL LINE
- A straight line in a horizontal plane  PROFILE LEVELING
which is tangent to a level line at one
- Used to determine differences in
point
elevation between points at
5. VERTICAL LINE
designated short measured intervals
- A line parallel to the direction of
along an established line to provide
gravity
data from which a vertical section of
6. MEAN SEA LEVEL
the ground surface can be plotted
- An imaginary surface of the sea which
is midway between high and low tides
7. DATUM
 TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
- Any convenient level surface
- employed in determining by
coincident or parallel with the mean
trigonometric computations the
sea level
difference in elevation between two
- to which elevations of a particular
points from measurement of its
area are referred
horizontal or slope distance and the
vertical angle between the points
8. ELEVATION
- The vertical distance above or below
 STADIA LEVELING
mean sea level or any other selected
- COMBINES features of direct leveling
datum
with those of trigonometric leveling.
9. DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION
 BAROMETRIC LEVELING 6. Geodetic Level

- Involves the determination of - Another type of tilting level

differences in elevation between 7. Transit as a level

points by measuring the variation in - “universal surveying instrument”

atmospheric pressure at each point by 8. Laser Level

means of barometer - A new innovation introduced to
surveying operations

 CROSS-SECTION LEVELING - A separate unit equipped with a

portable power supply and may be a
- Short profiles at right angles to the
helium-neon laser or gas laser
line of work are usually plotted at
9. Hand Level
regular intervals for this purpose
- A handheld instrument used on
surveys involving short sights and
 BORROW-PIT LEVELING
where a low order of accuracy is
- A method of determining the relative
sufficient
elevations of points in borrow-pit
excavations for the purpose of
calculating volumes of earthwork Lesson 13:

LEVELING ROD

- A graduated rod which is used for measuring

~Types of Levels~ the vertical distance between the line of sight
through a leveling instrument and the point
1. Dumpy Level
whose elevation is either required or known
- The most widely used direct leveling
instrument
2. Wye Level
~Different Types of Leveling Rod~
- Identical to the dumpy level, but the
wye level has a detachable telescope 1. SELF-READING ROD
which rests in supports called wyes - Most commonly used type of leveling
3. Builder’s Level rod
- Used primarily in the different phases - Can be read directly by the
of building construction where a high instrumentman through the telescope
degree of precision is not a primary by noting the apparent intersection of
requisite the horizontal hair on the rod
4. Automatic Level
- Self-leveling features are incorporated
in automatic levels

2. TARGET ROD
5. Tilting levels
- Can be tilted or rotated about its
horizontal axis
 - Has a sliding target which is set and TARGETS
read by a rodman at the position
- A small device attached to the rod when
selected by the instrumentman
extremely long sights make direct reading of
the rod difficult or impossible
~Other Types of Rod~
TELESCOPES
3. RODS NAMED AFTER
- A metal tube containing a system of lenses
CITIES/STATES
which are used to fix the direction of the line
- Philadelphia, Detroit, Chicago…
of sight and in magnifying the apparent size
4. ROD RIBBONS of objects in its field of view
- Improved type of rod used in leveling - John Lippershey (1608) Dutch
work
- The graduations on this rod are
marked either on canvas or metal
~Types of Telescope~
strips which are attached to a long
1. EXTERNAL FOCUSING
piece of selected lumber by staples
- The objective lens is mounted on a
5. PRECISE ROD
sleeve which moves back and forth in
- A form of rod ribbon which uses a
the telescope barrel as an object is
graduated invar strip permanently
brought into focus
fastened to a 4m long wooden/metal
2. INTERNAL FOCUSING
frame
- Have an additional auxiliary lens
6. GEODETIC ROD
which moves back and forth
- Similar to a precise rod except that a
nilvar metal strip is used instead of
~Parts of a Telescope~
invar.
1. OBJECTIVE LENS
7. TAPE ROD
- Compound lens composed of crown
- “automatic rod”
and flint glass mounted in the
- Used advantageously when numerous
objective end of the telescope and has
elevations are to be determined from
its optical axis concentric with the
a single set-up of the leveling
tube axis
instrument
2. EYEPIECE
- A form of microscopic containing
either 2 or 4 lenses
ROD LEVEL
- Used to enlarge altogether the image
- A device used for fast and correct plumbing and the cross hairs
of a leveling rod 3. CROSS HAIRS
- Consists of a small circular spirit level - Consists of a pair of lines which are
fastened to the rod or to a small bracket held perpendicular to each other and are
against the side of the rod
 used to define the instrument’s line of - the leveling instrument may be set up at any
sight suitable location

LEVELING THE INSTRUMENT

MAGNIFICATION
- the screws are used to center the bubble in a
- the ratio of the true apparent size of an level tube which is attached to the telescope
object viewed through a telescope to its size of the instrument
as seen by the amount by the unaided eye 1. Instruments with 4 Leveling Screws
from the same distance 2. Instruments with 3 Leveling Screws

HOLDING THE LEVELING ROD

LEVEL VIAL
- The rod is held on a point by a rodman when
- a sealed graduated glass tube containing a sight is to be taken on it
some amount of liquid and a small air bubble - It is extremely important that the rod be held

COINCIDENCE BUBBLE plumb

- this type of bubble is used on most modern

TAKING A ROD READING
and precise instruments such as the tilting
- Examine how the graduations are indicated
and automatic levels
on the rod
- it employs an optical device which splits the
1. Position of Rod – the leveling rod is held
bubble longitudinally, then turns one end
by the rodman on the designated point
around to make it appear adjacent to the
2. Focus on the Rod – the instrumentman
other end
aims and focuses the telescope on the rod
TRIPODS 3. Read the Rod – the instrumentman
observes directly from the telescope and
- serve as a base to prevent movement of the
records the reading
instrument after it is set up
- a. fixed leg tripod– legs are made of a solid
DETERMINING DIFFRENCE IN
piece of wood
b. extension tripod – legs have a section ELEVATION
LENGTHS OF SIGHT
- Take sights at moderate lengths to attain
speed and accuracy in leveling work
WAVING THE ROD
- This procedure is used to determine whether
the rod is plumb

CARRYING THE INSTRUMENT

Lesson 14
- The level should always be kept in a box
SETTING UP THE LEVEL when it is not used
 - Due to the limitations of the senses of
ARM AND HAND SIGNALS touch, sight, or hearing of

- Any gesture that conveys information or individuals…

gives a command, direction, or warning. a. Bubble not Centered – bubbles are not
1. Move Right or Left centered in the level vial
2. Give a Sight
b. Parallax – a pressure gauge or any graduated
3. All Sight
circular meter is viewed from different angles,
4. This is a Point
one will notice that a number of slightly divergent
5. Move Back
values could be read
6. Pick Up Instrument
7. Raise or Lower the Target c. Faulty Rod Readings – misreading the number
8. Come In of meters and decimals when taking a rod
9. Plumb the Rod reading
10. Establish a Turning Point
d. Rod Not Held Plumb – the reading on the rod
11. This is a TP
will be lowest when it is held plumb
12. Wave the Rod
13. Face the Rod e. Incorrect Setting of Target – fails to set
14. Reverse the Rod properly the target
15. Move Forward
f. Unequal BS and FS distances
16. Use the Long Rod
3. NATURAL ERRORS
Lesson 15 - Due to natural sources and could not
be totally removed

~SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING~ - Effects can be reduced by applying

corrections & using good judgment
1. INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS a. Curvature of the Earth – to increase the
- Imperfections in the instruments rod reading
a. Instrument Out of Adjustment – b. Atmospheric Refraction – rapidly
when the line of sight of the fluctuating refraction in the atmosphere
telescope is not parallel to the axis c. Temperature Variations – changes in the
of the level vial temp causes leveling rods to
b. Rod Not Standard Length – expand/contract
inaccurate rod graduations can d. Wind – strong wind can shake a leveling
cause errors instrument
c. Defective Tripod – the movement e. Settlement of the Instrument – source of
of the level due to setting of the error is cumulative
tripod legs can cause possible f. Faulty Turning Points – a poorly chose TP
errors may be a source of error
2. PERSONAL ERRORS

~COMMON MISTAKES IN LEVELING~

 1. Misreading the Rod Backsight Distance (BSD) – measured from
2. Incorrect Recording the center of the instrument to the rod on
3. Erroneous Computations which a BS is taken
4. Moving Turning Points Foresight Distance (FSD) – horizontal distance
from the center of the instrument to the rod
on which a FS is taken

~ADJUSTMENT OF THE DUMPY Turning Point (TP) – an intervening point

between two BM upon which point FS and BS
LEVEL~ readings are taken to enable a leveling
operation to continue from a new instrument
1. Adjustment of the Cross Hairs
position
- the cross hair ring is adjusted to see to it that
Height of Instrument (HI) – the elevation of
the horizontal cross hair lies in a plane
the line of an instrument above or below a
perpendicular to the vertical axis of the
selected reference datum
instrument
2. Adjustment of the Level Vial
- To make the axis of the level vial
PROCEDURE OF DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
perpendicular to the vertical axis of the
instrument - HI = Elev BMa + BS

3. Adjustment of the line of sight - Elev TP1 = HI –FS

- The line of sight is adjusted to make it LEVELING NOTES

parallel to the axis of the level vial

- All data gathered in differential leveling work
be properly recorded in a special field
notebook ruled with suitable lines
Lesson 17

CHECKING LEVEL NOTES

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
- The calculations in differential leveling work
- The process of determining the difference
are limited only to determining height s of
between two or more points some distance
instrument and the elevation of stations or
apart
points

~Definition of Terms~

Bench Mark (BM) – a fixed point of reference

whose elevation is either known or assumed
Backsight (BS) – a reading taken on a rod held
on a point of known or assumed elevation
Foresight – a reading taken on a rod held on a
point whose elevation is to be determined
Lesson 18 Intermediate Foresights – are taken along
the centerline of the proposed project to provide an
DOUBLE- RODDED LEVELING accurate representation of the ground surface

Full Stations – points which are established

- A method of determining differences in
along the profile level route at uniformly measured
elevation between points by employing two
distances
level routes simultaneously
Plus Stations – any other intermediate point
established along a profile level route which is not
THREE WIRE LEVELING designated as a full station

- A method of determining differences in Vertical Exaggeration – a process of drawing

elevation wherein three horizontal hairs are the vertical scale for a profile much larger that the
horizontal scale
read and recorded rather than from a single
horizontal hair Profile Paper – a special heavy grade graphing
paper used for plotting profiles
- s = ↑stadia hair reading + ↓stadia hair reading
- Mean hair reading (m) = (a+b+c)/3

- Elev = HI - m PROCEDURE OF PROFILE LEVELING

- HD = Ks + C
-
- K = 100
STATIONING
- C=0
- The line along which the profile is required must
be properly marked by stakes on the ground

Lesson 19 PROFILE LEVELING NOTES

- The level notes are similar to those for differential

PROFILE LEVELING
leveling except for the addition of a separate
- The process of determining differences in column for intermediate foresights (IFS)
elevation along a fixed line at designated short
measured intervals PLOTTING PROFILES
- Necessary for the design & construction of roads,
- The plotted profile should give an accurate and
railroads, canals, culverts, bridges…
useful representation of the existing ground
configurations
~Definition of Terms~ - Information required during actual phase of
construction:
Profile – a curved line which graphically portrays a. Plotting scales – the horizontal & vertical
the intersection of a vertical plane with the surface scales used in plotting the profile should be
of the earth properly identified
Stationing – a numerical designation given in b. Stationing - the full stations along the level

terms of horizontal distance any point along a route should be indicated

profile line is away from the starting point c. Reference Points – important reference
points must be easily seen
 d. Marginal Information – any other valuable
information which should explain the profile
better should be indicated
- the ratio of exaggeration depends upon:
a. Use of the Profile
b. Character of the Terrain
- DE1 = (a - b)
c. Horizontal Scale
- DE2 = (a’ – b’)
(DE 1 + DE 2) ( a−b ) +(a' −b' )
- TDE = =
2 2
Lesson 20
2. OBTAINING MORE ACCURATE

RISE AND FALL METHOD OF LEVELING MEASUREMENTS

- Accurate observations can only be obtained if
refraction remains constant during the
1. PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD
leveling process
- Two consecutive readings from the
same instrument position gives the
difference in elevation of the two
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
points sighted
- “indirect leveling”
2. FORMAT OF LEVEL NOTES USED - The determination of differences in elevation
3. ARITHMETICAL CHECKS from observed vertical angles and either
- The customary arithmetic check horizontal or inclined distances
should always be made either at the
end of the leveling work or at the end
of each page Lesson 22

BAROMETRIC LEVELING
Lesson 21
- Differences in elevation of points are
determined by observations of the prevailing
RECIPROCAL LEVELING atmospheric pressure

- Is employed to determine the difference in BAROMETERS

elevation between two points when it is
difficult or impossible to keep BS & FS short - An instrument for measuring variations in

and equal atmospheric pressure

1. PROCEDURE ~TYPES OF BAROMETER~

1. MERCURIAL BAROMETER
 - Measures atmospheric pressure by the - Required for most route projects such
height of a column of mercury as roads and railroads
supported by the atmosphere in an 2. BORROW-PIT CROSS-SECTIONS
evacuated glass tube - Also employed in the construction of
2. ANEROID BAROMETER structures and buildings, and in the
- Luciene Vidie (1843) excavation of borrow pits
- The instrument functions by using an
airtight metal box which corresponds
to changes in air pressure Lesson 24

SURVEYING ALTIMETERS ~MERIDIANS~

- Precise aneroid barometers which are 1. TRUE MERIDIANS
designed specifically for surveying - “astronomic” or “geographic meridian”
applications - Line that passes through the geographic
North and South poles of the earth
ALTIMETER SURVEYS 2. MAGNETIC MERIDIANS
- Fixed line on reference which lies parallel
1. Single Base Method
with the magnetic lines of force of the earth
- Two altimeters and two thermometers
- Direction is defined by a freely suspended
are employed
magnetic needle of a compass held at the
2. Two-base Method
observer’s position
- Designed to eliminate the need to
3. GRID MERIDIAN
apply correctness for the effects of
- Fixed line of reference parallel to the central
temperature and relative humidity
meridian of a system of plane rectangular
coordinates
INVERSE LEVELING
4. ASSUMED MERIDIAN
- The rod is held upside down and its base is - An arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference
placed up at the desired point which is taken for convenience

Lesson 23

CROSS-SECTIONS ~METHODS OF ESTABLISHING

- Short profiles taken perpendicular to MERIDIANS~
the centerline of projects
Establishing Magnetic Meridian by Compass
- May also be taken for borrow-pits and
Determining True North by Aid of Sun and a
excavations required for buildings,
Plumb
structures, and quarries
Determining True North by the Rising and
Setting of the Sun
1. ROADWAY CROSS-SECTIONS
 Determining True North by Polaris needle when there are no local
Determining True South by the Southern attractions affecting it
Cross 3. GRID NORTH
Determining Direction of True North Using - A north point which is established by
Wrist Watch lines on a map which are parallel to a
selected central meridian
4. ASSUMED NORTH
~UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT~ - Used to portray the location of any
arbitrarily chosen north point
1. THE DEGREE
- Sexagesimal system
- The circumference of a circle is
divided into 360 parts (degrees) Lesson 25

2. THE GRAD
DIRECTION OF LINES
- Centesimal system
- The horizontal angle the line makes with an
- The circumference of circle is divided
established line of reference
into 400 parts (grad)
3. THE MIL INTERIOR ANGLES
- The circumference is divided into 6400 - Angles between adjacent lines in a closed
parts (mils) polygon
- 1600 mils = 90°
4. THE RADIAN EXTERIOR ANGLES

- One radian is defined as the angle - Located outside a closed polygon

subtended at the center of a circle by - “explements of interior angles”

an arc length exactly equal to the

DEFLECTION ANGLES
radius of the circle
- The angle between a line and the
π
- 1°= prolongation of the preceding line
180
ANGLES TO THE RIGHT
- Measured clockwise from the preceding line
to the succeeding line

~DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS~ BEARINGS

- The acute horizontal angle between the
1. TRUE NORTH
reference meridian and the line
- The north point of the true meridian
- < 90°
2. MAGNETIC NORTH
- North point that is established by FORWARD BEARING
means of a magnetized compass - When the bearing of the line is observed in
the direction in which the survey progresses
BACK BEARING ~TYPES OF COMPASSES~
- If the bearing of the line is observed in an BRUNTON COMPASS
opposite direction - One of the most versatile and widely
used
AZIMUTH
- Combines the main features of a
- The direction of a line given by the angle
prismatic compass, sighting compass,
between the meridian and the line measure
hand level, and clinometer
in a clockwise direction from either the north
LENSATIC COMPASS
or south branch of the meridian
- Designed for military use such as in
reconnoitering, determining

~RULES TO DETERMINE THE BACK directions, orienting maps, artillery fire

direction control…
AZIMUTH~
SURVEYOR’S COMPASS
RULE 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is
- Popularly used earlier for running
greater than 180°, subtract 180° to get the back
limited plane surveys of reasonable
azimuth.
accuracy
RULE 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is
- Now commonly used for forest
less than 180°, add 180° to get the back azimuth.
surveys, in retracting old land surveys,
and in geological explorations
Lesson 26
PLAIN POCKET COMPASS
- Similar to the surveyor’s compass,

THE COMPASS except that is has not sight vanes

- A hand-held instrument for determining the PRISMATIC COMPASS

horizontal direction of a line with reference to - The graduations are found on a

the magnetic meridian rotating card instead of being on the

compass box
FORESTOR’S COMPASS
~FEATURES OF A MAGNETIC COMPASS~
- Another type of a pocket compass
1. COMPASS BOX
which is usually made of aluminum or
- has a horizontal circle which is graduated
some type of metal which does not
from 0° to 90° in each quadrant
affect the free movement and
positioning of the magnetic needle
2. LINE OF SIGHT
TRANSIT COMPASS
- fixed along the index mark on the north
- Has a compass box which is similar in
graduation of the circle
construction to the surveyor’s compass
3. MAGNETIC NEEDLE
- magnetized temper steel balanced at its
center on a jeweled pivot so that it swings
MAGNETIC DECLINATION
freely in a horizontal position
- The horizontal angle and direction by
which the needle of a compass deflects
from the true meridian at any
particular locality