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Water Supply & Waste Water Management - CE345

Written & Composed BY ENGINEER SAQIB IMRAN

Cell no: 0341-7549889
Email: [email protected]
Student of B.TECH(Civil) at Sarhad University of Science &
Information Technology Peshawer.
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Chapter No 01
COMPONENTS OF WATER SUPPLY PROJECT
There are four components of water supply project or water supply scheme.
Collection works: In collection works, water is collected from the source. There are two major
source of water. Surface water and ground water. In order to collect surface water, dams and
barrages are constructed whereas to collect ground water, tube wells are used.
Treatment works: In treatment works, water obtained through the source is treated. Most of
the surface water need treatment as it is contaminated by suspended particles. Ground water
may or may not need treatment. One of the problems with ground water is high salt
concentration. It is more expensive to treat this. In such case surface water is used, when
ground water contains high salt concentration. Ground water may also contain elements like
iron, magnesium.
If collected water is contaminated with pathogens, it must be treated to kill the germs. So
treatment works may or may not be the part of water supply project.
Transmission works: If source of water is away from the community, transmission work is
required to transport water the treatment plant and then the treated water from treatment
plant to the community. In some cases, transmission work may be eliminated.
Distribution works: In Distribution works, treated water is supplied to the consumers at the
point of use from overhead tanks. Following two requirements should be fulfilled while
distribute water to the community: 1. Quantity of water must be sufficient according to
demand. 2. Pressure should be sufficient.
DESIGN PERIOD
Design period may be defined as: It is the number of years in future for which the given facility
is available to meet the demand. OR The number of years in future for which supply will be
more than demand. OR The future period for which a provision is made in the
water supply scheme is known as the design period. It is the number of years in future for
which the proposed facility would meet the demand of the community. Selection of an
appropriate design period for a particular facility / component of water supply system is very
important and dependent upon following factors.  Length or life of structure,  Ease of
extension,  First cost,  Rate of interest (design period is shorter),  Economy of scale
 Lead time. Keeping in view these points the design period of our water supply system is
 For reservoir, the design period is 25-50 years (in our design it for 20years).
 For tube well, design period is 5-years (easy to install).
 For distribution system design period is 25-years (difficult to replace) Water Supply Design
Adequate design period in water supply system is provided because
 Too frequent extension in water supply system is not possible.  Reasonable economics of
scale are achieved. Water supply projects includes permanent constructions at Intakes,
treatment plants and overhead tanks and laying of pipe lines.  They cannot be replaced or
resized or reconstructed easily in every year, as per the needs of the increased population, as it
includes huge amount of capital. The design periods for various project components may be
taken as follows:
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Component Design period

Storage reservoir 50 years
Infiltration works 30 years
Pipe connections 30 years
Distribution systems 30 years
Water treatment units 15 years
Electric motors and pumps 15 years
Why Design period is provided?
Design period is provided because,
It is very difficult or impossible to provide frequent extension.
It is cheaper to provide a single large unit rather to construct a number of small units.
FACTORS AFFECTING DESIGN PERIOD
Following are some factors, which affect the design period of the structure.
Life of the structure: Life of structure is the number of years in future for which the design
period is physically suitable to provide the intended facility. Therefore, it should be less than life
of structure.
Ease or difficulty in extension: For the projects whose extension is easily possible, it is kept low.
For example, we can install new tube wells at any time, so we do not need to install all tube
wells which would be required after 20 years. But for the projects whose extension is difficult,
their design period is kept greater. For example, dams and reservoirs cannot be extended
easily.
Rate of population growth: If the rate of population growth is higher, then for that region
shorter design period is required.
Lead-time: It is the time from the commencement of a project to its completion. Design period
should be greater than lead-time.
Economy of scale: The decrease in average cost as the size of facility increase is known as
economy of scale. If the economy of scale is small, smaller design period will be used. It is
economical to build a large structure, for longer design period.
Performance time: Structures are checked under working condition for some time, which
should not be considered in design period. During this time, it is not providing facility to
community.
Chapter No 02
POPULATION FORECASTING
Population is one of the most important factors for design of the water systems, so it should be
estimated, so as to know the increasing demand and ensure continuous supply to them.
Calculation or prediction of some future events as a result of study and analysis of available
records or data is the population forecasting. Population data is obtained by previous records
and the rate of increase is found out and this used for further analysis, which may be by using
the methods described below:
Methods of population forecasting
• Arithmetic increase method, • Geometrical increase method, • Incremental increase method
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• Graphical method, • Comparative graphical method, • Master plan method, • Logistic curve
method, • Ratio method etc.
Arithmetic increase method: This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable
development. In this method the average increase in population per decade is calculated from
the past census reports. This increase is added to the present population to find out the
population of the next decade. Thus, it is assumed that the population is increasing at constant
rate. Hence, dP/dt = C i.e. rate of change of population with respect to time is constant.
Therefore, Population after nth decade will be Pn= P + n.C
Where, Pn is the population after n decades and P is present population.
Geometric Increase Method: In this method the percentage increase in population from
decade to decade is assumed to remain constant. Geometric mean increase is used to find out
the future increment in population. Since this method gives higher values and hence should be
applied for a new industrial town at the beginning of development for only few decades.
The population at the end of nth decade ‘Pn’ can be estimated as: Pn = P (1+ IG/100)n
Where, IG = geometric mean (%), P = Present population, n = no. of decades.
Incremental Increase Method: This method is modification of arithmetical increase method
and it is suitable for an average size town under normal condition where the growth rate is
found to be in increasing order. The incremental increase is determined for each decade from
the past population and the average value is added to the present population along with the
average rate of increase. Hence, population after nth decade is: Pn = P+ n.X + {n (n+1)/2}.Y
Where, Pn = Population after nth decade, X = Average increase, Y = Incremental increase.
Graphical Method: In this method, the populations of last few decades are correctly plotted to
a suitable scale on graph. The population curve is smoothly extended for getting future
population. This extension should be done carefully and it requires proper experience and
judgment. The best way of applying this method is to extend the curve by comparing with
population curve of some other similar cities having the similar growth condition.
Example: Population forecasting: Predict the population for the year 2021, 2031, and 2041
from the following: population data using. • Arithmetic increase method, • Geometrical
increase method, • Incremental Increase method, • Graphical method.
Year 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
Population 8,58,545 10,15,672 12,01,553 16,91,538 20,77,820 25,85,862
Arithmetic increase method
Year Population Increment
1961 858545 ---
1971 1015672 (1015672-858545)=157127
1981 1201553 185881
1991 1691538 489985
2001 2077820 386282
2011 2585862 508042
Avg. increment per decade, C, = 345463
Population in year 2021 = P2021 = 2585862 + 345463 x 1 = 2931325
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Population in year 2031 = P2031 = 2585862 + 345463 x 2 = 3276788

Population in year 2041 = P2041 = 2585862 + 345463 x 3 = 3622251
Geometric increase method
Year Population Increment Geometric increase
(rate of growth)
1961 858545 --- -----
1971 1015672 157127 (157127/858545) = 0.18
1981 1201553 185881 (185881/1015672)=0.18
1991 1691538 489985 (489985/1201553)=0.40
2001 2077820 386282 (386285/1691538)=0.23
2011 2585862 508042 (508042/2077820)=0.24
Avg. Geometric mean per decade, IG, = (0.18 x 0.18 x 0.4 x 0.23 x 0.24)1/5
Avg. Geometric mean per decade, IG, = 0.235
Population in year 2021 = P2021 = 2585862(1 + 0.235)1 = 3193540
Population in year 2031 = P2031 = 2585862(1 + 0.235)2 = 3944021
Population in year 2041 = P2041 = 2585862(1 + 0.235)3 = 4870866
Increment increase method
Year Population Increment (X) Increment (Y)
1961 858545 --- ----
1971 1015672 157127 ----
1981 1201553 185881 (185881 - 157127)=28754
1991 1691538 489985 304104
2001 2077820 386282 -103703
2011 2585862 508042 121760
Total 1727317 350915
Avg. 345463 87729
Population in year 2021 =P2021=2585862+(345463 x 1)+(1(1+1)/2)x 87729=3019054
Population in year 2031 =P2031=2585862+(345463 x 2)+(2(2+1)/2)x 87729=3539975
Population in year 2041 =P2041=2585862+(345463 x 3)+(3(3+1)/2)x 87729=4148625
Graphical Method

Comparative Graphical Method: In this method the census populations of cities already
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developed under similar conditions are plotted. The curve of past population of the city under
consideration is plotted on the same graph. The curve is extended carefully by comparing with
the population curve of some similar cities having the similar condition of growth. The
advantage of this method is that the future population can be predicted from the present
population even in the absent of some of the past census report.
Example: Let the population of a new city X be given for decades 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000
were 32,000; 38,000; 43,000 and 50,000, respectively. The cities A, B, C and D were developed
in similar conditions as that of city X. It is required to estimate the population of the city X in the
years 2010 and 2020.
The population of cities A, B, C and D of different decades were given below:
(i) City A was 50,000; 62,000; 72,000 and 87,000 in 1960, 1972, 1980 and 1990, respectively.
(ii) City B was 50,000; 58,000; 69,000 and 76,000 in 1962, 1970, 1981 and 1988, respectively.
(iii) City C was 50,000; 56,500; 64,000 and 70,000in 1964, 1970, 1980 and 1988, respectively.
(iv) City D was 50,000; 54,000; 58,000 and 62,000 in 1961, 1973, 1982 and 1989, respectively.
Population curves for the cities A, B, C, D and X were plotted. Then an average mean curve is
also plotted by dotted line as shown in the figure. The population curve X is extended beyond
50,000 matching with the dotted mean curve. From the curve the populations obtained for city
X are 58,000 and 68,000 in year 2010 and 2020.

Figure: Comparative graphical method

Master Plan Method: The big and metropolitan cities are generally not developed in haphazard
manner, but are planned and regulated by local bodies according to master plan. The master
plan is prepared for next 25 to 30 years for the city. According to the master plan the city is
divided into various zones such as residence, commerce and industry. The population densities
are fixed for various zones in the master plan. From this population density total water demand
and wastewater generation for that zone can be worked out. So by this method it is very easy
to access precisely the design population.
Ratio Method: In this method, the local population and the country's population for the last
four to five decades is obtained from the census records. The ratios of the local population to
national population are then worked out for these decades. A graph is then plotted between
time and these ratios, and extended up to the design period to extrapolate the ratio
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corresponding to future design year. This ratio is then multiplied by the expected national
population at the end of the design period, so as to obtain the required city's future population.
Drawbacks: Depends on accuracy of national population estimate. Does not consider the
abnormal or special conditions which can lead to population shifts from one city to another.
Logistic Curve Method: This method is used when the growth rate of population due to births,
deaths and migrations takes place under normal situation and it is not subjected to any
extraordinary changes like epidemic, war, earth quake or any natural disaster etc. The
population follows the growth curve characteristics of living things within limited space and
economic opportunity. If the population of a city is plotted with respect to time, the curve so
obtained under normal condition will look like S-shaped curve and is known as logistic curve.
Ps
P= Where, Ps = Saturation population, P0 = Population of the city at the start point
1+men.t
J, K = Constant, t = Years. t is time interval from t0.

Figure: Logistic curve for population growth

McLean further suggested that if only three pairs of characteristic values P0 , P1 , P2 at times t0 =
0, t1 and t2 = 2t1 extending over the past record are chosen, the saturation population Ps and
constant m and n can be estimated by the following equation, as follows:

, ,
t1 is interval between successive census.
Example: The population of a city in three consecutive decades i.e. 1991, 2001 and 2011 is
80,000; 250,000 and 480,000, respectively. Determine (a) The saturation population, (b) The
equation of logistic curve, (c) The expected population in 2021.
Sol: It is given that, P0 = 80,000 t0 = 0 (Year 1991).

,
The saturation population can be calculated by using equation
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Population in 2021

Note: t is time interval from t0 which is 30 in this case i.e. 2021 – 1991 = 30.
Water Quantity Estimation
The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be
designed requires following data:  Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in liters per
day per head)  Population to be served.  Quantity = Per capita demand x Population.
Water Consumption Rate: Very difficult to assess the quantity of water demanded by the
public, since there are many variable factors affecting water consumption.
Water Demand: To properly design a water supply system, the engineer must evaluate the
amount of water that is required, known as the “water demand”.
 There are various types of water demands in a city.  Domestic water demand,  Industrial
demand,  Institution and commercial demand,  Demand for public use,  Fire demand
 Loses and wastes.
Domestic water demand: water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing
etc.  mainly depends upon the habits, social status, climatic conditions and customs of the
people.  As per IS: 1172-1963, under normal conditions, the domestic consumption of water
in India is about 135 litres/day/capita. The details of the domestic consumption are
a) Drinking ------ 5 litres, b) Cooking ------ 5 litres, c) Bathing ------ 55 litres, d) Clothes washing ----
--20 litres, e) Utensils washing ------10 litres, f) House washing ------ 10 litres.
Total = 135 litres/day/capita.
Industrial demand: The water required in the industries mainly depends on the type of
industries, which are existing in the city.  The water required by factories, paper mills,
Cloth mills, Cotton mills, Breweries, Sugar refineries etc. comes under industrial use.
 The quantity of water demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to 25% of the total
demand of the city.
Institution and commercial demand: Universities, Institution, commercial buildings and
commercial centres including office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping
centres, health centres, schools, temple, cinema houses, railway and bus stations etc comes
under this category.
Demand for public use: Quantity of water required for public utility purposes such as for
washing and sprinkling on roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public
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fountains etc. comes under public demand.  To meet the water demand for public use,
provision of 5% of the total consumption is made designing the water works for a city.
The requirements of water for public utility shall be taken as…
Sr.No. Purpose Water Requirements
1 Public parks 1.4 litres/m2/day
2 Street washing 1.0-1.5 litres/m2/day
3 Sewer cleaning 4.5 litres/head/day
Fire demand: During the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it over
the fire to extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply sufficient
quantity of water or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose.  The quantity of
water required for firefighting is generally calculated by using different empirical formulae. 
For Indian conditions kuiching’s formula gives satisfactory results.
Q=3182 √p  Where ‘Q’ is quantity of water required in litres/min,  ‘P’ is population of
town or city in thousands.
Loses and wastes: Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and broken pipes, faulty valves
and fittings.  Losses due to, continuous wastage of water.  Losses due to unauthorized and
illegal connections.  While estimating the total quantity of water of a town; allowance of 15%
of total quantity of water is made to compensate for losses, thefts and wastage of water.
Water Consumption for Various Purposes
Sr.No Types of Consumption Normal Range Average %
(lit/capita/day)
1 Domestic Consumption 65-300 160 35
2 Industrial and Commercial Demand 45-450 135 30
3 Public Uses including Fire Demand 20-90 45 10
4 Losses and Waste 45-150 62 25
Per capita demand: If ‘Q’ is the total quantity of water required by various purposes by a town
per year and ‘p’ is population of town, then per capita demand will be
𝐐
Per capita demand = litres/day.
𝐏 𝐱 𝟑𝟔𝟓
 Per capita demand of the town depends on various factors like standard of living, no. and type
of commercial places in a town etc.  For an average Indian town, the requirement of water in
various uses is as under:  Domestic purpose -------- 135 litres/c/d,  Industrial use -------- 40
litres/c/d,  Public use -------- 25 litres/c/d,  Fire Demand -------- 15 litres/c/d,  Losses, Wastage
and thefts -------- 55 litres/c/d, Total : 270 litres/capita/day.
Factors affecting per capita demand
 Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for
smaller towns .  Presence of industries-  Climatic conditions-  Habits of people and their
economic status-  Pressure in the distribution system
Quality of water: If water is aesthetically & medically safe, the consumption will increase .
 Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and
unauthorized use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.  Cost of water-
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 Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: on the
basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
Fluctuations in Rate of Demand
 Average Daily Per Capita Demand = Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)
 If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the
fluctuations.  Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand
 Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand
= 1.5 x average hourly demand, = 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24, = 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily
demand)/24, = 2.7 x average daily demand/24, = 2.7 x annual average hourly demand.
 Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Firebreak outs are generally more in
summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation .
 Daily variation depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and Festival
days, thus increasing demand on these days.
 Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range. During active household
working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of
the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible.
 Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during short
duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply.  So, an adequate
quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand.  To meet all the fluctuations,
the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly proportioned.  The
water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system must be designed
to meet the peak demand.  The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage
reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and service reservoirs.
 As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.
Chapter No 03
AVERAGE WATER CONSUMPTION OR DESIGN FLOW
It is the amount of water consumed in a community or city for various purposes. It is generally
expressed as the” Quantity of water per person in one day on the average.”
Mathematically: Average Daily per Capita Demand = Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x
Population). Its units are lpcd, gpcd or m3pcd.
Maximum daily water consumption: It is the maximum amount of water used in one day
throughout the year. Maximum daily water consumption or demand is calculated as follows:
Maximum daily water consumption = 1.8 × Average daily demand
Peak hourly water consumption: It is the maximum amount of water consumed in one hour of
maximum day during any month of year. Peak hourly water consumption.
= 1.5 x average hourly demand, = 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24, = 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily
demand)/24 = 2.7 x average daily demand/24 = 2.7 x annual average hourly demand.
Water Consumption: It is the amount of water consumed by a community in one day. Water
consumption is expressed as Liters/Capita/Day i.e lpcd Water Supply Design.
Per Capita Water Consumption: It is that amount of water in Liters/day which a person uses
daily on average. Its average value is 150-600 lpcd.
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Average Daily Consumption: It is the average amount of water used by a person/ Community in
one day divided by the number of people served. Water Supply Design
Average Daily consumption (lpcd) = total water used in one year/(365 or 366 x mid year
population). Avg. Daily consumption = Avg. daily Consumption x population.
Maximum Daily consumption: It is the maximum water consumption during any one day in the
year. It is about 150 to 180 % of the avg. daily consumption. Maximum Daily consumption
= 1.5 x Avg. Daily
Peak Hourly Consumption: It is the peak consumption during any one hour of the years
excluding the fire demand. The peak hourly consumption can be between 150 to 400 percent of
the average hourly consumption during a peak day. It is around 150% of the maximum daily
consumption. Water Supply Design: Peak Hourly demand = 1.5 x Max. Daily Demand = 2.25 x Avg.
Daily Demand.
The different ratios that are widely used by used by Water and Sanitation Authority Lahore are
Average Daily Consumption Maximum Daily Consumption
1 1.5
Average Daily Consumption Peak Hourly Consumption
1 2.25
Maximum Daily Consumption Peak Hourly Consumption
1 1.5
OR The required capacities consist of various combinations of the maximum daily demand,
maximum hourly demand, and the fire demand. Typically, the delivery pipelines from the water
source to the treatment plant, as well as the treatment plant itself, are designed with a capacity
equal to the maximum daily demand. The flow rates and pressures in the distribution system
are analyzed under both maximum daily plus fire demand and the maximum hourly demand,
and the larger flow rate governs the design. Pumps are sized for a variety of conditions from
maximum daily to maximum hourly demand, depending on their function in the distribution
system. Additional reserve capacity is usually installed in water-supply systems to allow for
redundancy and maintenance requirements.
FACTORS AFFECTING WATER CONSUMPTION
The various factors affecting the water consumption are given below:
Climate conditions: Warm dry regions have higher consumption rates than cooler regions. In
addition, water usage is affected by the precipitation levels in the region.
Size of the city. In small cities, it was found that the per capita per day water consumption was
small due to the fact that there are only limited uses of water in those cities. Small cities have
larger area that is inadequately served by both water and sewer systems than larger cities.
Characteristics of the population. Domestic use of water was found to vary widely. This is
largely dependent upon the economic status of the consumers, which will differ greatly in
various sections of a city. In high value residential areas of a city the water consumption per
capita will be high and vice versa.
Metering. Communities that are metered usually show a lower and more stable water use
pattern.
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Water quality. Consumer perception of bad water quality can decrease the water usage rate.
Cost of water. A tendency toward water conservation occur when cost of water is high.
Water pressure. Rates of water usage increase with increases in water pressure.
Water conservation. Public awareness and implementation of water conservation programs by
utilities tend to have an impact on the water usage rate.
FIRE DEMAND:
The amount of water that is required for fighting fire is called Fire Demand. As you might have
expected it depends on the population. There are many methods available for determining the
fire demand and they are unique in their own way. We will be discussing the following:
1. Insurance Services Office Formula (ISO, 1980), 2. Kuching’s Formula, 3. Boston’s Formula,
4. Freeman’s Formula, 5. National Board of Fire Underwriters formula.
Insurance Services Office Formula (ISO, 1980):
NFFi = CiOi(X + P)I, Where, C is the construction factor based on the size of the building and its
construction. O is the occupancy factor reflecting the kinds of materials stored in the building
(ranging from 0.75 to 1.25), and (X + P) is the sum of the exposure factor and the
communication factor that reflect the proximity and exposure of the other buildings.
Ci = 220 F√𝑨𝒊 , where: C(L/min), A(m2) is the effective floor area, typically equal to the area of
the largest floor plus 50% of all other floors, F is a coefficient based on the class of construction.
Maximum and Minimum Value of C: The value of C shall not exceed
8,000 gpm (32000L/min) for Construction Class 1 and 2
6,000 gpm (24000L/min) for Construction Class 3, 4,5, and 6
6,000 gpm (24000L/min) for a 1-story building of any class of construction
The value of C shall not be less than 500 gpm (2000L/min).
ISO rounds the calculated value of C to the nearest 250 gpm (1000L/min).
Needed Fire Flow (NFF); For 1- and 2-family dwellings not exceeding 2 stories in height, ISO
prescribes the following needed fire flows based on the distance between buildings:
500 gpm (2000L/min) where the distance is more than100 feet
750 gpm (3000L/min) where the distance is between 31 and 100 feet
1,000 gpm (4000L/min) where the distance is between11 and 30 feet
1,500 gpm (6000L/min) where the distance is 10 feet or less.
ISO rounds the final calculation of NFF to the nearest 250 gpm
(1000L/min) if less than 2,500 gpm (10000L/min) and to the nearest 500 gpm (2000L/min) if
greater than 2,500 gpm (10000L/min).
Construction Coefficient, F
Class of construction Description F Max. Ci(L/min)
1 Frame 1.5 30,000
2 Joisted masonry 1.0 30,000
3 Noncombustible 0.8 23,000
4 Masonry, noncombustible 0.8 23,000
5 Modified fire resistive 0.6 23,000
6 Fire resistive 0.6 23,000
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Occupancy Coefficient, O
Combustibility class Examples Oi
C-1 Noncombustible Steel or concrete products storage 0.75
C-2 Limited combustible Apartments, mosques, offices 0.85
C-3 Combustible Department stores, supermarkets 1.0
C-4 Free-burning Auditoriums, warehouses 1.15
C-5 Rapid burning Paint shops, upholstering shops 1.25
Exposure coefficient (X+P):Its value range from 1.0 to 1.75 and has an average value of is 1.4.
Required fire flow durations:
Required fire flow (L/min) Duration (h) Required fire flow (L/min) Duration (h)
<9000 2 26000 - 30000 7
11000 - 13000 3 30000 – 34000 8
15000 - 17000 4 34000 – 38000 9
19000 - 21000 5 38000 – 45000 10
23000 - 26000 6 ---
Example-1: Estimate the flowrate and volume required to provide adequate protection to 10-
story non-combustible building with and effective floor area of 8000 m2.
NFFi = CiOi(X + P)I Ci = 220 F√𝑨𝒊
The construction factor is calculated as (F = 0.8 for class 3 noncombustible construction and the
floor area is 8000 m2): Ci = 220 (0.8)√8000𝑚2 = 16,000L/min.
The occupancy factor Oi is 0.75 (C-1 non-combustible) and the (X+P) is estimated using the
median value of 1.4. Therefore the required fire flow is: NFFi = Ci Oi (X+P)i
= 16000(0.75)(1.4) = 17000L/min
The flow must be maintained for a duration of 4 hours, the total required volume is therefore:
V = 17000L/min(4 hours)(60 min/hr) = 4.08 x 106 L = 4,080m3.
Fire Hydrant: A fire hydrant an active fire protection measure, and a source of water provided
in most urban, suburban and rural areas with municipal water service to enable firefighters to
tap into the municipal water supply to assist in extinguishing a fire.
Fire Demand: Fire Hydrants Spacing and Discharge: Guidelines are not uniformly defined and
varies wide according to municipality. Typical information on spacing and discharge are given
below; Capacity of a fire hydrant is 30 m3 /h (500L/min) to 60 m3 /h (1000L/min) and should be
within 40m (130ft) to 50m(165ft) from every object. This results in fire hydrants every 80m
(262ft) to 100m(328ft) in a distribution network. Looking at single- family houses with an
average width of 4 (13ft) to 5 (16ft) meters, this means that for every 20 to 25 houses a fire
hydrant is needed. Required fire flows, plus domestic demand, must be available within the
water system at a minimum of 20 psi (150kPa) residual pressure. For details refer to guideline
of fire hydrant spacing & fire flow requirements issued by municipality.
Kuichling’s Formula: The following formula is used to determine the quantity of water (Q)
required for pacifying fire in a city of population P:
P
Q = 3182 √1000 or Q = 3180√𝑃
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NOTE: Here the value of Q obtained is in liters per minute.

Buston’s Formula: This formula is similar to Kuichling’s formula. The equation for calculating
the quantity of water (Q) required for battling fire in a city of population P is:
P
Q = 5663 √1000
Freeman’s Formula: Apart from calculating the fire demand this formula also gives us the
number of simultaneous fire streams required. The equation is as follows:
𝑃 𝑃
Q = 1136 ( 5000 + 10 ) or Q = 1135 ( 5 + 10)
Here, Q = Fire demand, P = Population of the city
The number of simultaneous fire streams is given by the following equation:
P
F = 2.8√1000, Where, F = number of simultaneous fire streams.
National Board of Fire Underwriters/ American Insurance Association Formula: If ‘Q’ is the fire
demand and ‘P’ is the population of the city then formula for calculating ‘Q’ is as follows:
P P
Q = 4637 √1000 ( 1 – 0.01 √1000 ) or Q = 3860√𝑃 ( 1 – 0.1√𝑃 ) By Public health book.
Where, Q = demand of water in liters/min, P = Population in thousands.
Chapter No 04
WATER QUALITY PARAMETER
A wide range of water quality parameters are monitored within the Lower Lakes with key
parameters reported herein being pH, alkalinity, salinity, turbidity, nutrients (total nitrogen and
total phosphorus), chlorophyll a and metals (aluminium and iron). A brief description of these
parameters and typical historical (pre-drought) levels are provided below:
Alkalinity: Alkalinity is a measure of the buffering capacity of water, or the capacity of the
water to neutralise acids and resist pH change. Alkalinity within water bodies is consumed as
acid is released from acid sulfate soils. Adding limestone contributes alkalinity to waters,
helping to neutralise any acid released from the sediments. Historically, alkalinity levels within
this region have been between 80 and 250 mg/L as CaCO3.
Turbidity: Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter in the water.
The character and amount of turbidity depends upon the type of soil over which the water has
moved ground waters are less turbed than the surface water. Turbidity is a measure of
resistance of water to the passage of light through it. Turbidity is expressed as NTU
(Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (parts per million) or Milligrams per litre (mg/l).
Turbidity is measured by 1) Turbidity rod or Tape 2) Jacksons Turbidimeter 3) Bali’s
Turbidimeter The Sample to be tested is poured into a test tube and placed in the meter and
units of turbidity is read directly on the scale by a needle or by digital display. Drinking water
should not have turbidity more than 10 N.T.U. This test is useful in determining the detension
time in settling for raw water and to dosage of coagulants required to remove turbidity.
COLOUR AND TEMPERATURE: Colour in water is usually due to organic matter in colloidal
condition but some times it is also due to mineral and dissolved organic impurities. The colour
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produced by one milligram of platinum in a litre of water has been fixed as the unit of colour.
The permissible colour for domestic water is 20ppm on platinum cobalt scale. The colour in
water is not harmful but objectionable.
Temperature of water is measured by means of ordinary thermometers. The temperature of
surface water is generally at atmospheric temperature, while that of ground water may be
more or less than atmospheric temperature. The most desirable temperature for public supply
between 4.4°C to 10°C. The temperature above 35°C are unfit for public supply, because it is
not palatable.
TASTE AND ODOUR: Taste and odour in water may be due to presence of dead or live micro-
organisms, dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbon dioxide or oxygen
combined with organic matter, mineral substances such as sodium chloride, iron compounds
and carbonates and sulphates of other substances. The tests of these are done by sense of
smell and taste because these are present in such small proportions that it is difficult to detect
them by chemical analysis. The water having bad smell and odour is objectionable and should
not be supplied to the public.
The intensities of the odours are measured in terms of threshold number. This number is
numerically equal to the amount of sample of water in C.C’s required to be added to one litre of
fresh odourless water.
TOTAL SOLIDS AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS: Total solids includes the solids in suspension colloidal
and in dissolved form. The quantity of suspended solids is determined by filtering the sample of
water through fine filter, drying and weighing. The quantity of dissolved and colloidal solids is
determined by evaporating the filtered water obtained from the suspended solid test and
weighing the residue. The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by
evaporating the filtered water obtained from the suspended solid test and weighing the
residue. The total solids in a water sample can be directly determined by evaporating the water
and weighing the residue of the residue of total solids is fused in a muffle furnace the organic
solids will decompose where as only inorganic solids will remain. By weighing we can determine
the inorganic solids and deducting it from the total solids, we can calculate organic solids.
PH VALUE OF WATER: PH value denotes the concentration of hydrogen ions in the water and it
is a measure of acidity or alkanity of a substance.

Depending upon the nature of dissolved salts and minerals, the PH value ranges from 0 to 14.
For pure water, PH value is 7 and 0 to 7 acidic and 7 to 14 alkaline range. For public water
supply PH value may be 6.5 to 8.5. The lower value may cause tubercolation and corrosion,
where as high value may produce incrustation, sediment deposits and other bad effects. PH
value of water is generally determined by PH papers or by using PH meter. PH can read directly
on scale or by digital display using PH meter.
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HARDNESS OF WATER: It is a property of water, which prevents the lathering of the soap.
Hardness is of two types.
1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates and sulphates of
calcium and magnesium. It is removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides and nitrates of calcium
and magnesium. It is removed by zeolite method. Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or
p.p.m. of calcium carbonate in water. Hardness of water is determined by EDTA method. For
potable water hardness ranges from 5 to 8 degrees.
Quality of Water: Total dissolved solids(ppm), < 1000 fresh water, 1000-10,000 brackish water,
10,000 to 1,00,000 saline, > 1,00,000 hypersaline or brine.
Total suspended solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water which will not pass
through a filter. Suspended solids are present in sanitary wastewater and many types of
industrial wastewater.
CHLORIDE CONTENT The natural waters near the mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride and
also presence of chlorides may be due to mixing of saline water and sewage in the water.
Excess of chlorides is dangerous and unfit for use. The chlorides can be reduced by diluting the
water. Chlorides above 250p.p.m. are not permissible in water.
NITROGEN CONTENT The presence of nitrogen in the water indicates the presence of organic
matters in the water. The nitrogen may be present in the water may be in one or more of the
following forms. 1. Nitrates 2. Nitrates 3. Free ammonia 4. Albuminoid nitrogen. Excess
presence of nitrogen will cause “MATHEMOGLOBINEMIA” disease to the children.
METALS AND OTHER CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES Water contains various minerals or metal
substances such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, barium, cadmium, selenium, fluoride,
arsenic etc. The concentration of iron and manganese should not allow more than 0.3 ppm .
Excess will cause discolouration of clothes during washing and incrustation in water mains due
to deposition of ferric hydroxide and manganese oxide. Lead and berium are very toxic, low
p.p.m of these are allowed. Arsenic, Selenium are poisonous and may cause totally, therefore
they must be removed totally. Human beings are effected by presence of high quality of copper
in the water. Fewer cavities in the teeth will be formed due to excessive presence of fluoride in
water more than 1 p.p.m. A laxative effect is caused in the human body due to excessive
presence of sulphate in the water.
Arsenic is a known carcinogen (cancer-causing agent). Breathing inorganic arsenic increases the
risk of lung cancer. Ingesting inorganic arsenic increases the risk of skin cancer and tumors of
the bladder, kidney, liver, and lung.
Tests can measure a person's exposure to high levels of arsenic. These tests are not routinely
performed in a doctor's office. Arsenic can be measured in the urine. This is the most reliable
test for arsenic exposure. Since arsenic stays in the body only short time, one must have the
test soon after exposure. Tests on hair or fingernails can measure exposure to high levels of
arsenic over the past 6-12 months. These tests are not very useful for low level exposures.
These tests do not predict whether you will have any harmful health effects.
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The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets limits on the amount of arsenic that
industrial sources can release. It restricted or canceled many uses of arsenic in pesticides and
may restrict more. EPA set a limit of 0.05 parts per million (ppm) for arsenic in drinking water.
EPA may lower this further. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
established a maximum permissible exposure limit for workplace airborne arsenic of 10
micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m³).
Fluoride is found naturally in soil, water, and foods. It is also produced synthetically for use in
drinking water, toothpaste, mouthwashes and various chemical products.
Water authorities add fluoride to the municipal water supply, because studies have shown that
adding it in areas where fluoride levels in the water are low can reduce the prevalence of tooth
decay in the local population. Tooth decay is one of the most common health problems
affecting children. Many people worldwide cannot afford the cost of regular dental checks, so
adding fluoride can offer savings and benefits to those who need them.
However, concerns have arisen regarding fluoride's effect on health, including problems with
bones, teeth, and neurological development.
Fast facts about fluoride: Fluoride comes from fluorine, which is a common, natural, and
abundant element. Adding fluoride to the water supply reduces the incidence of tooth decay.
Fluoride protects teeth from decay by demineralization and remineralization. Too much
fluoride can lead to dental fluorosis or skeletal fluorosis, which can damage bones and joints.
Hydrogen Sulfide: Hydrogen Sulfide, H2S, is a gas which is best known for giving water a "rotten
egg" odor. The objectionable odor makes water unfit for drinking, household use, and for
industrial processes. It interferes with water tests and cannot be easily tested in a laboratory.
Testing must be done on site because the gas goes away quickly when exposed to air.
According to Wikipedia: "Hydrogen sulfide (or hydrogen sulphide) is the chemical compound
with the formula H2S. It is a colorless, very poisonous, flammable gas with the characteristic
foul odor of rotten eggs. It often results from the bacterial breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen, such as in swamps and sewers (anaerobic digestion). It also occurs in
volcanic gases, natural gas, and some well waters. The body produces small amounts of H2S and
uses it as a signaling molecule. “Hydrogen sulfide can also blacken plumbing fixtures and the
fumes can even blacken painted surfaces.
Coliforms: Coliforms are bacteria that are always present in the digestive tracts of animals,
including humans, and are found in their wastes. They are also found in plant and soil material.
WHO's drinking water standards
WHO's Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality
Sr.No. Parameter WHO desirable level WHO maximum
PPM (mg/L) permissible level PPM
(mg/L)
Constituents
1 PH 7.0 - 8.5 8.5 - 9.2
2 Total dissolved solid 500 1500
3 Calcium 75 200
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4 Magnesium (as mg) 50 150

5 Chloride (as Cl) 200 600
6 Sulfate (as So4) mg/l 200 400
7 Bicarbonate 100 500
8 Copper 1.0 1.0
9 Iron (as Fe) 0.1 1.0
10 Zinc 3.0 5.0
11 Phenolic compounds (as 0.1 0.1
phenol)
12 Fluoride (as F) 4.0 4.0
13 Total coli-form (Bacteria) Free from Bacteria 1.0 MF/1.00 ml
Physical Parameter
1 Odour Unobjectionable Should be acceptable
2 Colour 5 units 30 units
3 Taste Unobjectionable Should be acceptable
4 Turbidity 5 NTU 25 NTU
5 Temperature ----------- Should be acceptable
Chapter No 05
WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS IN PAKISTAN (ARSENIC, FLUORIDE, NITRATE, COLIFORM; THEIR
SOURCES, HEALTH IMPACTS, REGION, CONCENTRATION)
WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS IN PAKISTAN: Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and
contains number of impurities in varying amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure, also
absorbs various gases, dust and other impurities while falling. This water when moves on the
ground further carries salt, organic and inorganic impurities. So this water before supplying to
the public should be treated and purified for the safety of public health, economy and
protection of various industrial process, it is most essential for the water work engineer to
thoroughly check analyse and do the treatment of the raw water obtained the sources, before
its distribution. The water supplied to the public should be strictly according to the standards
laid down from time to time. Over the last century • Human population has increased 3x, •
Global water withdrawal has increased 7x, • Per capita water withdrawal has increased 4x.
About one-sixth of the world’s people don't have easy access to safe water. Most water
resources are owned by Government and are managed as publicly owned resources.
Use of Water Resources in Pakistan: Agriculture: 93%, Industry: 5%, Domestic: 2%.
Principal source of drinking water
Ground water: Most of the rural areas and many major cities rely on it, although some cities
such as Islamabad, Karachi, Hyderabad etc. get water from a number of other sources.
About 80% of Punjab has fresh Groundwater. In Sindh, less than 30% of groundwater is fresh. In
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, increasing abstraction has resulted in wells now reaching into saline
layers. Baluchistan also has saline groundwater.
Problems Using Groundwater: Water Table Lowering, Depletion, Saltwater intrusion is the
movement of saline water into fresh water aquifers, Reduced Stream Flow. The drying up of
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wells, Groundwater in the sub basin of Quetta would be exhausted by 2016. In Islamabad, the
drop has been 50 feet between 1986 and 2001. In Lahore, the drop has been about 20 feet
between 1993 and 2001.
Rural Water Supply in Pakistan: Punjab has the best rural water supply. The vast majority of
the rural population has either piped water or water from a hand pump or motor pump. Only 7
% of the rural population depends on a dug well or a river, canal or stream.
Sindh is considerably worse: some 24% of the rural population depend on these sources.
Situation in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is worse still 46%.
In Baluchistan, 72% of the rural population depend on dug well or from a river/canal/stream.
Human Water Needs: •A person needs about 1-gallon water/day for hydration. In the Pakistan
each person uses about 188 gallons/day. An additional 657 gallons/person/day are used for
irrigation, industrial use. If world’s water supply were 100 liters, the usable supply would be
about 0.5 tsp.
WATER QUALITY IN PAKISTAN
• Domestic and Industrial waste are discharged directly or indirectly in fresh water
• Only 3 waste treatment plants are present in Pakistan
• Only some 8% of urban wastewater is treated in municipal treatment plants.
• In Sindh 95% of shallow groundwater supplies are bacteriologically contaminated
• In Punjab, approximately 36% of the population is exposed Arsenic (10ppb)
• Rapid increase in Population, • Urbanization, • Industrial Development
• Non development of Water resources
Sources of water pollution
• Municipal Sewage, • Industrial Water Pollution, • Agriculture Water Pollution.
Municipal Sewage: It has been estimated that around 2,000 million gallons of sewage is being
discharged to surface water bodies every day in Pakistan (Pak-SCEA 2006). NCS states that 40%
of death are related to water born diseases, Drinking Water Supply Lines Conditions in Pakistan:
Water is contaminated with • Lead, • PCBs, • Cyanides, • Mercury, • Hospital Waste, • Pharma
Waste. It is estimated that 50% Nationally (less than 20% in many rural areas), with only about
10% of collected sewage is effectively treated.
Industrial Water Pollution: Most industries in the country are located in or around major cities
and are recognized as key sources of increasing pollution in natural streams, rivers, as well as
the Arabian Sea to which the toxic effluents are discharged.
Major Industrial Contributors to Water Pollution in Pakistan:
Petrochemicals, Paper and pulp, Food processing, Sugar, Textile, Cement and fertilizer produce
more than 80% of the total industrial effluents.
Sugarcane Based Industry: • A major cause of industrial water pollution due to discharge of
wastewater containing high pollutant concentrations. • Several hundred thousand tons of
wastewater is generated per day.
In Pakistan, only 1% of wastewater is treated by industries before being discharged directly into
rivers and drains.
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Tanneries: It may take hundreds or even thousands of years for pollutants such as toxic metals
from the tanneries to be flushed out of a contaminated aquifer.
In K.P, 80,000 m3 of industrial effluents containing a very high level of pollutants are discharged
every day into the river Kabul. In Karachi, Sindh Industrial Trading Estate (SITE) and Korangi
Industrial and Trading Estate (KITE), two of the biggest industrial estates in Pakistan, there is no
effluent treatment plant and the waste containing hazardous materials, heavy metals, oil etc. is
discharged into rivers. In Multan, a fertilizer factory discharges its waste untreated to cultivated
land causing death of livestock and increasing health risk to humans. (WB-CWRAS Paper 8,
2005). In Lahore, only 3 out of some 100 industries using hazardous chemicals treat their
wastewater. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) levels in water courses receiving these wastes
are as high as 800mg/l and Mercury levels over 5 mg/l. In Faisalabad, one of the biggest
industrial cities, there is little segregation of domestic and industrial wastes.
Agriculture Water Pollution: According NWP, the irrigation network of Pakistan is the largest
infrastructural approximately $ 300 billion of investment, 25% to the country's GDP provides 90
% of food and fiber The remaining 10 % arid.
Agriculture & its effect on ground water
This includes runoff and leaching Fertilizers pesticide drift and volatilization erosion and dust
from cultivation, animal manure.
The study revealed that in Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan and all drains were carrying saline and
sodic waters due to high values of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Residual Sodium Carbonate
(RSC) and all of them also had very high values for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and
Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD). The contribution of agricultural drainage to the overall
contamination of the water resources exists but is marginal compared to the industrial and
domestic pollution. For example, in Sindh, the pollution of water due to irrigation is only 3.21%
of the total Pollution (SOE 2005)
Phosphates and Nitrates: • Phosphates—mostly a result of sewage outflow and from Fertilizer,
phosphate detergents, • Nitrates—sewage and fertilizers, • The combustion of coal leads to the
release of mercury in the atmosphere. This enters the rivers, lakes and groundwater. This is
very hazardous for pregnant women and infants.
Arsenic Toxicity: • Investigations revealed the presence of excessive arsenic in many cities of
Punjab (Multan, Sheikhupura, Lahore, Kasur, Gujranwala & Bahawalpur) Sindh (Dadu &
Khairpur) provinces. • The concentration of arsenic was found to be 50ppb five times higher
that the prescribed limit of 10 ppb by WHO. (PCRWR). • Arsenic contamination is also becoming
a serious problem. • In Sindh and the Punjab, approximately 36% of the population is exposed
to a level of contamination higher than 10ppb, • 16% is exposed to contamination of 50ppb.
(SOE 2005).
Health Impacts: • As per USAID report, an estimated 250,000 child deaths occur each year in
Pakistan due to water-borne disease. • The WHO reports that 25-30% of all hospital admissions
are connected to water borne bacterial and parasitic conditions, with 60% of infant deaths
caused by water infections. • Small rural areas in Sindh do not receive adequately-treated
water, • Of course, major cities, like Karachi, get contaminated water.
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Chapter No 06
WATER TREATMENT TECHNIQUES
It’s extremely important to confirm your water has been purified or treated before drinking. If
your water is contaminated and you don’t have bottled water, there are various water
purification methods that are used today, and each method has its merits and demerits.
Filtering is good for basic water tasks such as sediment and chlorine removal, but in the long
run reverse osmosis is the best option. At Schultz Soft Water we focus on reverse osmosis units
because they require a lot less energy and time required to make water versus distillation.
When reverse osmosis is not available, there are 4 water purification methods that you can use
to make your water safe for drinking.
1 – Boiling: Boiling water is the cheapest and safest method of water purification. Water
sources and or channels of distribution may render your water unsafe. For example, parasites
and germs are things you may not see by bare eyes, but their effects can be life threatening.
In this method, clean water should be brought to boil and left at rolling-boil for 1-3 minutes. For
people living in high altitude areas, it is recommended to boil your water for longer than water
boiled at lower altitudes. This is because water boils at lower temperatures in higher altitudes.
Boiled water should be covered and left to cool before drinking. For water drawn from wells,
leave it for compounds to settle before you filter out clean water for use.
2 – Filtration: Filtration is one of the effective ways of purifying water and when using the right
multimedia filters it’s effective in ridding water of the compounds. This method uses chemical
and physical processes to purify water and make it safe for human consumption. Filtration
eliminates both large compounds and small, dangerous contaminants that cause diseases with
a simple and quick filtration process.. Since filtration does not deplete all the mineral salts,
water that has been filtered is considered healthier compared to water purified using other
methods. It’s one of the effective water purification methods that utilize chemical absorption
process that effectively removes unwanted compounds from water.
Compared to reverse osmosis, filtration is considered effective when it comes to selective
elimination of much smaller molecular compounds such as chlorine and pesticides. The other
factor that makes filtration less costly is that it does not require a lot of energy needed in
distillation and reverse osmosis. It is an economic method of water purification because little
water is lost during purification.
3 – Distillation: Distillation is a water purification method that utilizes heat to collect pure
water in the form of vapor. This method is effective by the scientific fact that water has a lower
boiling point than other contaminants and disease-causing elements found in water. Water is
subjected to a heat source until it attains its boiling point. It is then left at the boiling point until
it vaporizes. This vapor is directed into a condenser to cool. Upon cooling, vapor is reversed into
liquid water that is clean and safe for drinking. Other substances that have a higher boiling
point are left as sediments in the container.
This method is effective in removing bacteria, germs, salts and other heavy metals such as lead,
mercury and arsenic. Distillation is ideal for people who have access to raw, untreated water.
This method has both advantages and disadvantages. A notable disadvantage is that it is a slow
22 | P a g e

process of water purification. In addition, it requires a heat source for the purification to work.
Although cheap sources of energy are being developed, distillation remains a costly process of
purifying water. It is only ideal (effective and least costly) when purifying small quantities of
water (It is not ideal for large scale, commercial or industrial purification).
4 – Chlorination: Chlorine is a powerful chemical that has been in use for many years to treat
water for home consumption. Chlorine is an effective water purification method that kills
germs, parasites and other disease-causing organisms found in ground or tap water. Water can
be purified using chlorine tablets or liquid chlorine. As an off-the-shelf water purification
product, chlorine is cheap and effective. However, caution should be taken when using chlorine
liquid or tablets to treat drinking water. For example, people suffering from thyroid problems
should talk to a medical practitioner before using this product. When using chlorine tablets, it is
important to apply them in heated water, as they dissolve well in water that is at 21 degree
Celsius or higher. Chlorine tablets kill all bacteria leaving your water clean and safe.
Flow sheet diagram of a conventional water treatment plant.
TREATMENT UNIT FLOW DIAGRAM Water treatment includes many operations like Aeration,
Flocculation, Sedimentation, Filtration, Softening, Chlorination and demineralization.
Depending upon the quality of raw water and the quality of water desired. Several
combinations of the above processes may be adopted as shown in the flow diagram. I. When
turbidity of water is less than 10 N.T.U.

THE LOCATION OF TRETMENT PLANT One complete water treatment plant requires the
following process starting from the source of water upto the distribution zone in order of
sequence.
Sr.No. Name of the unit Purpose
1 Intake work including pumping plant Raw water from the source for treatment
2 Plain sedimentation To remove suspended impurities such as
silt, clay, sand etc.
3 Sedimentation with coagualtion To remove the suspended matter
4 Filtration To remove microorgans and colloidal
matter
5 Water softening plant To remove hardness of water
6 Miscellaneous treatment plants To remove dissolved gases, tastes and
odours.
7 Disinfection To remove pathogenic bacteria
8 Clear water reservoir To store the treated water
9 Pumps for pumping the water in service If town or city is situated at higher
reservoirs elevation then pumping is required.
10 Elevated or underground service For distribution of treated water.
reservoir
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The following points should be kept in mind while giving layout of any treatment plant.
1. The W.T.P. should be located as near to the town so as to avoid the contamination.
2. All the units of plant should be located in order of sequence and flow from one unit to other
by gravity.
3. All the units are arranged in such a way that minimum area is required so as to reduce the
cost of construction.
4. Sufficient area should be reserved for the future expansion.
5. Staff quarters and office should be provided near the treatment plants so that the operators
can watch the plants easily.
6. The site of treatment plant should be very neat and give very good asthetic appearance.
Chapter No 07
Water treatment and design
Water available in various sources contains various types of impurities and cannot be directly
used by the public for various purposes, before removing the impurities. For portability water
should be free from unpleasant tastes, odours and must have sparkling appearance. The water
must be free from disease-spreading germs. The amount and type of treatment process will
depend on the quality of raw water and the standards of quality of raw water and the
standards of quality to be required after treatment as per the table No. The surface sources
generally contain large amount of impurities therefore they require sedimentation, filtration
and chlorination as treatment. If the water contains algae or other microorganisms, pre
chlorination has to be done tastes and odours , dissolved gases like CO2, H2S are removed by
aeration. During the flood season, the turbidity of the surface water may be high and
flocculation may become necessary to remove turbidity. Ground water which are usually clear
may require only disinfection and chemical treatment for the removal of pathogens, Iron
removal, Softening etc. Sometimes ground water contains dissolved gases like hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) carbon dioxide (CO2), which gives very bad odour and requires its removal by
aeration.

Fig 17.1 conventional water treatment model

Stages of Water Treatment
1. Screening, 2. Sedimentation, 3. Coagulation, 4. Filtration, 5. Disinfection, 6. Water Softening.
SCREENING: Screening is usually the first major step in the water pretreatment process (see
Figure 17.1). It is defined as the process whereby relatively large and suspended debris is
removed from the water before it enters the plant. River water, for example, typically contains
24 | P a g e

suspended and floating debris varying in size from small rocks to logs.
Removing these solids is important, not only because these items have no place in potable
water, but also because this river trash may cause damage to downstream equipment (e.g.,
clogging and damaging pumps, etc.), increase chemical requirements, impede hydraulic flow in
open channels or pipes, or hinder the treatment process. The most important criteria used in
the selection of a particular screening system for water treatment technology are the screen
opening size and flow rate. Other important criteria include costs related to operation and
equipment, plant hydraulics, debris handling requirements, and operator qualifications and
availability. Large surface water treatment plants may employ a variety of screening devices
including rash screens (or trash rakes), traveling water screens, drum screens, bar screens, or
passive screens.
SEDIMENTATION TANK & ITS DESIGN
SEDIMENTATION: It is the process in which the suspended solids are made to settle by gravity
under still water conditions is called plain sedimentation.
After raw water and chemicals have been mixed and the floc formed, the water containing the
floc (because it has a higher specific gravity than water) flows to the sedimentation or settling
basin (see Figure 17.6). Sedimentation is also called clarification. Sedimentation removes
settleable solids by gravity. Water moves slowly though the sedimentation tank or basin with a
minimum of turbulence at entry and exit points with minimum short-circuiting. Sludge
accumulates at bottom of tank or basin. Typical tanks or basins used in sedimentation include
conventional rectangular basins, conventional center-feed basins, peripheral-feed basins, and
spiral-flow basins. In conventional treatment plants, the amount of detention time required for
settling can vary from 2 to 6 h. Detention time should be based on the total filter capacity
when the filters are passing 2 gal/min/ft2 of superficial sand area. For plants with higher filter
rates, the detention time is based on a filter rate of 3 to 4 gal/min/ft2 of sand area. The time
requirement is dependent on the weight of the floc, the temperature of the water, and how
quiescent (still) the basin. A number of conditions affect sedimentation: 1. Uniformity of flow of
water through the basin, 2. Stratification of water due to difference in temperature between
water entering and water already in the basin, 3. Release of gases that may collect in small
bubbles on suspended solids, causing them to rise and float as scum rather than settle as
sludge, 4. Disintegration of previously formed floc, 5. Size and density of the floc.
DESIGN ASPECTS OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS: The design aspects of sedimentary tanks are:
1. Velocity of flow 2. Capacity of tank 3. Inlet and outlet arrangements 4. Shapes of tanks 5.
Miscellaneous considerations.
(1) Velocity of flow: The velocity of flow of water in sedimentation tanks should be sufficient
enough to cause the hydraulic subsidence of suspended impurities. It should remain uniform
throughout the tank and it is generally not allowed to exceed 150mm to 300mm per minute.
(2) Capacity of tank: capacity of tank is calculated by i) detension period ii) Overflow rate
(i) Detension period: The theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass between entry
and exit of a settling tank is known as the known as the detention period. The capacity of tank
is calculated by C = Q x T where, C → Capacity of tank Q → Discharge or rate of flow T →
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Detension period in hours The detention period depends on the quality of suspended impurities
present in water. For plain sedimention tanks, the detension period is found to vary from 4 to 8
hours.
(ii) Overflow Rate: in this method it is assumed that the settlement of a particle at the bottom
of the settlement of a particle at the bottom of the tank doesnot depend on the depth of tank
and depends upon the surface area of the tank.
Distance of descend 𝐷
Detention period, T = Velocity of descend = 𝑉 -------------(1)
𝐶
But, T = 𝑄 ---------- (2)
𝐶 𝐷
From (1) & (2) =𝑉
𝑄
𝐷.𝑄 𝐷𝑥𝑄 𝑄
Surface overflow rate, V = = 𝐿𝑥𝐵𝑥𝐷 = 𝐿𝑥𝐵
𝐶
Where, L → Length of tank B → Breadth of tank D → Depth of tank = Side water depth = S.W.D
C → Capacity of tank T → Detention period U → Discharge or rate of flow V → Velocity of
descend of a particle to the bottom of tank = Surface overflow rate = S.O.R
(3) INLET AND OUTLET ARRANGEMENTS: The inlet is a device, which is provided to distribute
the water inside a tank, and the outlet is a device, which is meant to collect outgoing water.
These arrangements should be properly designed and located in a such a way that they do not
form any obstruction or cause any disturbance to the flowing water.
(4) SHAPES OF TANKS: Following are the three shapes of settling tank.
(i) Rectangular tanks with horizontal flow (ii) Circular tanks with radial or spiral flow (iii) Hopper
bottom tanks with vertical flow.
The following are the parameters for satisfactory performance.
1. Detention period ….. 3 to 4 hours for plain settling
2 to 21/2 hours for coagulant settling
1 to 11/2 hours for up flow type
2. Overflow rate ……… 30 – 40 m3/m2/day for horizontal flow 40-50m3/m2/day for up flow
3. Velocity of flow…….. 0.5 to 1.0 cm/sec
4. Weir loading………... 300m3/m/day
5. L:B ………………….. 1:3 to 1:4
Breadth of tank…….. (10 to 12m) to 30 to 50m
6. Depth of tank………. 21/2 – 4m
7. Dia of circular tank …. upto 60m
8. Solids removal efficiency ….. 50%
9. Turbidity of water after sedimentation – 15 to 20 N.T.U.
10. Inlet and Oulet zones ………. 0.75 to 1.0m
11. Free board …………………… 0.5m
12. Sludge Zone… ………………. 0.5m
(5) SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION:When water contains fine clay and colloidal
impurities which are electrically charged are continually in motion and never settle down due
to gravitational force. Certain chemicals are added to the water so as to remove such impurities
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which are not removed by plain sedimentation. The chemical form insoluble, gelatinous,
flocculent precipitate absorbs and entagle very fine suspended matter and colloidal impurities
during its formation and descent through water. These coagulants further have an advantage of
removing colour, odour and taste from the water. Turbidity of water reduced upto 5-10 ppm
and bacteria removes upto 65%.
COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
COAGULATION: Coagulation water treatment is the first step in chemical wastewater
treatment. Instead of passing over particles that would otherwise slip through the filter and fall
too slowly to be trapped as sediment, coagulation clumps them together so they are more
easily removed. Most of us know coagulation from anatomy class. It’s what our blood does
when it combines with oxygen, thereby making a scab or a blood clot. It’s the same principle
with wastewater treatment.
In coagulation treatment, a harmless chemical such as alum causes all of the particles to give
off a positive charge and thus clump together, making them easier to filter. Coagulation is
especially useful in removing the chemical phosphorus from water. Yet coagulation water
treatment is far from being a new process. In fact, it was in use by the Egyptians as early as
2,000 B.C. Later the Romans used the coagulation process in water treatment, as did the
English in the 18th century.
FLOCCULATION: As we see in Figure 17.5, flocculation follows coagulation in the conventional
water treatment process. Flocculation is the physical process of slowly mixing the coagulated
water to increase the probability of particle collision — unstable particles collide and stick
together to form fewer larger flocs. Through experience, we see that effective mixing reduces
the required amount of chemicals and greatly improves the sedimentation process, which
results in longer filter runs and higher quality finished water. Flocculation’s goal is to form a
uniform, feather-like material similar to snowflakes — a dense, tenacious floc that entraps the
fine, suspended, and colloidal particles and carries them down rapidly in the settling basin.
Proper flocculation requires from 15 to 45 min. The time is based on water chemistry, water
temperature, and mixing intensity. Temperature is the key component in determining the
amount of time required for floc formation. To increase the speed of floc formation and the
strength and weight of the floc, polymers are often added.

FIGURE 17.5 Flocculation.

FILTRATION: In the conventional water treatment process, filtration usually follows
coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation (see Figure 17.7). At present, filtration is not
always used in small water systems. However, recent regulatory requirements under EPA’s
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Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) may make water filtering necessary
at most water supply systems. Water filtration is a physical process of separating suspended
and colloidal particles from water by passing water through a granular material. The process of
filtration involves straining, settling, and adsorption. As floc passes into the filter, the spaces
between the filter grains become clogged, reducing this opening and increasing removal.

FIGURE 17.7 Filtration.

Some material is removed merely because it settles on a media grain. One of the most
important processes is adsorption of the floc onto the surface of individual filter grains. This
helps collect the floc and reduces the size of the openings between the filter media grains.
In addition to removing silt and sediment, floc, algae, insect larvae, and any other large
elements, filtration also contributes to the removal of bacteria and protozoans such as Giardia
lamblia and cryptosporidium. Some filtration processes are also used for iron and manganese
removal.
TYPES OF FILTER TECHNOLOGIES: The Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) specifies four
filtration technologies, although it also allows the use of alternate filtration technologies (e.g.,
cartridge filters). These include slow sand filtration or rapid sand filtration, pressure filtration,
diatomaceous earth filtration, and direct filtration. Of these, all but rapid sand filtration are
commonly employed in small water systems that use filtration. Each type of filtration system
has advantages and disadvantages. Regardless of the type of filter, filtration involves the
processes of straining (where particles are captured in the small spaces between filter media
grains), sedimentation (where the particles land on top of the grains and stay there), and
adsorption (where a chemical attraction occurs between the particles and the surface of the
media grains).
SLOW AND RAPID FILTERS
Slow Sand Filters: The first slow sand filter was installed in London in 1829 and was used widely
throughout Europe, though not in the U.S. By 1900, rapid sand filtration began taking over as
the dominant filtration technology, and a few slow sand filters are in operation today. However,
with the advent of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and its regulations (especially the
Surface Water Treatment Rule) and the recognition of the problems associated with Giardia
lamblia and cryptosporidium in surface water, the water industry is reexamining slow sand
filters. This is because low technology requirements may prevent many state water systems
from using this type of equipment. On the plus side, slow sand filtration is well suited for small
water systems. It is a proven, effective filtration process with relatively low construction costs
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and low operating costs (it does not require constant operator attention). It is quite effective
for water systems as large as 5000 people; beyond that, surface area requirements and manual
labor required to recondition the filters make rapid sand filters more effective. The filtration
rate is generally in the range of 45 to 150 gal/d/ft2.
Components making up a slow sand filter include the following: 1. A covered structure to hold
the filter media, 2. An underdrain system, 3. Graded rock that is placed around and just
above the underdrain, 4. The filter media, consisting of 30 to 55 in. of sand with a grain size of
0.25 to 0.35 mm, 5. Inlet and outlet piping to convey the water to and from the filter, and the
means to drain filtered water to waste.
Flooding the area above the top of the sand layer with water to a depth of 3 to 5 ft and allowing
it to trickle down through the sand operates slow sand filters. An overflow device prevents
excessive water depth. The filter must have provisions for filling it from the bottom up. It must
also be equipped with a loss-of-head gauge, a rate-of-flow control device (e.g., an orifice or
butterfly valve), a weir or effluent pipe that assures that the water level cannot drop below the
sand surface, and filtered waste sample taps.
When the filter is first placed in service, the head loss through the media caused by the
resistance of the sand is about 0.2 ft (i.e., a layer of water 0.2 ft deep on top of the filter will
provide enough pressure to push the water downward through the filter). As the filter
operates, the media becomes clogged with the material being filtered out of the water, and the
head loss increases. When it reaches about 4 to 5 ft, the filter needs to be cleaned.
For efficient operation of a slow sand filter, the water being filtered should have a turbidity
average less than 5 turbidity units (TU), with a maximum of 30 TU.
Slow sand filters are not backwashed the way conventional filtration units are. The 1 to 2 in. of
material must be removed on a periodic basis to keep the filter operating.
Rapid Sand Filters: The rapid sand filter, which is similar in some ways to slow sand filter, is one
of the most widely used filtration units. The major difference is in the principle of operation —
the speed or rate at which water passes through the media. In operation, water passes
downward through a sand bed that removes the suspended particles. The suspended particles
consist of the coagulated matter remaining in the water after sedimentation, as well as a
small amount of uncoagulated suspended matter. Some significant differences exist in
construction, control, and operation between slow sand filters and rapid sand filters. Because
of the construction and operation of the rapid sand filtration with its higher filtration, the land
area needed to filter the same quantity of water is reduced.
The rapid sand filter structure and equipment includes the following: 1. Structure to house
media, 2. Filter media, 3. Gravel media support layer, 4. Underdrain system, 5. Valves and
piping system, 6. Filter backwash system, 7. Waste disposal system.
Usually 2 to 3 ft deep, the filter media is supported by approximately 1 ft of gravel. The media
may be fine sand or a combination of sand, anthracite coal, and coal (dual-multimedia filter).
Water is applied to a rapid sand filter at a rate of 1.5 to gal/min/ft2 of filter media surface.
When the rate is between 4 and 6 gal/min/ft2, the filter is referred to as a high-rate filter; when
the rate is over gal/min/ft2, the filter is called ultra-high-rate. These rates compare to the slow
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sand filtration rate of 45 to 150 gal/d/ft2. High-rate and ultra-high-rate filters must meet
additional conditions to assure proper operation.
Generally, raw water turbidity is not that high. However, even if raw water turbidity values
exceed 1000 TU, properly operated rapid sand filters can produce filtered water with a turbidity
or well under 0.5 TU. The time the filter is in operation between cleanings (filter runs) usually
lasts from 12 to 72 h, depending on the quality of the raw water; the end of the run is indicated
by the head loss approaching 6 to 8 ft. Filter breakthrough (when filtered material is pulled
through the filter into the effluent) can occur if the head loss becomes too great. Operation
with head loss too high can also cause air binding (which blocks part of the filter with air
bubbles), increasing the flow rate through the remaining filter area.
Rapid sand filters have the advantage of lower land requirement, and have other advantages as
well. For example, rapid sand filters cost less, are less labor-intensive to clean, and offer higher
efficiency with highly turbid waters. On the downside, operation and maintenance costs
of rapid sand filters are much higher because of the increased complexity of the filter controls
and backwashing system. In backwashing a rapid sand filter, cleaning the filter is accomplished
by passing treated water backwards (upwards) through the filter media and agitating the top
of the media. The need for backwashing is determined by a combination of filter run time (i.e.,
the length of time since the last backwashing), effluent turbidity, and head loss through the
filter. Depending on the raw water quality, the run time varies from one filtration plant to
another (and may even vary from one filter to another in the same plant).
Note: Backwashing usually requires 3 to 7% of the water produced by the plant.
Pressure Filter Systems: When raw water is pumped or piped from the source to a gravity filter,
the head (pressure) is lost as the water enters the floc basin. When this occurs, pumping the
water from the plant clear well to the reservoir is usually necessary. One way to reduce
pumping is to place the plant components into pressure vessels, maintaining the head. This
type of arrangement is called a pressure filter system. Pressure filters are also quite popular for
iron and manganese removal and for filtration of water from wells. They may be placed directly
in the pipeline from the well or pump with little head loss. Most pressure filters operate
at a rate of about 3 gal/min/ft2.
Operationally the same as and consisting of components similar to those of a rapid sand filter,
the main difference between a rapid sand filtration system and a pressure filtration system is
that the entire pressure filter is contained within a pressure vessel. These units are often
highly automated and are usually purchased as self-contained units with all necessary piping,
controls, and equipment contained in a single unit. They are backwashed in much the same
manner as the rapid sand filter. The major advantage of the pressure filter is its low initial cost.
They are usually prefabricated, with standardized designs. A major disadvantage is that the
operator is unable to observe the filter in the pressure filter and determine the condition of the
media. Unless the unit has an automatic shutdown feature on high effluent turbidity, driving
filtered material through the filter is possible.
Direct Filtration: The term direct filtration refers to a treatment scheme that omits the
flocculation and sedimentation steps prior to filtration. Coagulant chemicals are added, and the
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water is passed directly onto the filter. All solids removal takes place on the filter, which can
lead to much shorter filter runs, more frequent backwashing, and a greater percentage of
finished water used for backwashing. The lack of a flocculation process and sedimentation basin
reduces construction cost, but increases the requirement for skilled operators and high quality
instrumentation. Direct filtration must be used only where the water flow rate and raw water
quality are fairly consistent and where the incoming turbidity is low.
Alternate Filters: A cartridge filter system can be employed as an alternate filtering system to
reduce turbidity and remove giardia. A cartridge filter is made of a synthetic media contained in
a plastic or metal housing. These systems are normally installed in a series of three or four
filters. Each filter contains a media that is successively smaller than the previous filter. The
media sizes typically range from 50 to 5µ or less. The filter arrangement is dependent on the
quality of the water, the capability of the filter, and the quantity of water needed. EPA and
state agencies have established criteria for the selection and use of cartridge filters. Generally,
cartridge filter systems are regulated in the same manner as other filtration systems.
Because of new regulatory requirements and the need to provide more efficient removal of
pathogenic protozoa (e.g., giardia and cryptosporidium) from water supplies, membrane
filtration systems are finding increased application in water treatment systems. A membrane is
a thin film separating two different phases of a material that acts as a selective barrier to the
transport of matter operated by some driving force. Simply, a membrane can be regarded as a
sieve with very small pores. Membrane filtration processes are typically pressure, electrically,
vacuum, or thermally driven. The types of drinking water membrane filtration systems include
microfiltration, ultrafiltration, Nano filtration, and reverse osmosis. In a typical membrane
filtration process, there is one input and two outputs. Membrane performance is largely a
function of the properties of the materials to be separated and can vary throughout operation.
Comparisons of slow sand filter and rapid sand filter
Sr.No. ITem S.S.F R.S.F
1 Area Need very large area Needs small area
2 Raw Water Not more than 30 NTU Not more than 10NTU hence
Turbidity needs coagulation
3 Sand Media Effective size 0.2 to 0.3 mm Effective size 0.45 to 0.7 mm
uniformity coefficient 2 to 3 uniformity coefficient 1.3 to 1.7
single layer of uniform size multiple graded layers of sand.
4 Rate of Filtration 2.4 to 3.6m3/m2/day 100-150 m3/m2/day
5 Loss of Head 0.6m to 0.7 m 1.8m to 2.0m
6 Supervision No skilled supervision is Skilled supervision is required
required
7 Cleaning of Filter Scraping of 21/2cm thick layer Back wash with clean water
washing and replacing. under pressure to detach the
Cleaning interval that is dirt on the sand. Backwashing
replacement of sand at 1 to 2 daily or on alternate days.
months.
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8 Efficiency Bacterial removal, taste, There is no removal of bacteria.

odour, colour and turbidity Removal colour taste, odour
removal. and turbidity is good.
DISINFECTION OF WATER
The process of killing the infective bacteria from the water and making it safe to the user is
called disinfection. The water which comes out from the filter may contain some disease –
causing bacteria in addition to the useful bacteria. Before the water is supplied to the public it is
utmost necessary to kill all the disease causing bacteria. The chemicals or substances which are
used for killing the bacteria are known as disinfectants.
REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD DISINFECTANTS
1. They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for use.
2. They should not take more time in killing bacteria.
3. They should be economical and easily available.
4. They should not require high skill for their application.
5. After treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user.
6. The concentration should be determined by simply and quickly.
METHODS OF DISINFECTION: Disinfection of water by different physical and chemical methods
I. PHYSICAL METHODS
1. BOILING: Boil the water for 15 to 20 minutes and kills the disease causing bacteria. This
process is applicable for individual homes.
2. ULTRA-VIOLET RAYS: Water is allowed to pass about 10cm thickness by ultraviolet rays. This
process is very costly and not used at water works. Suitable for institutions.
3. ULTRASONIC RAYS: Suitable for institutions.
II. CHEMICAL METHODS
1. CHLORINATION : Using chlorine gas or chlorine compounds.
2. BROMINE AND IODINE : It is expensive and leaves taste and odour.
3. POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE: This method is used for disinfection of dug well water, pond
water or private source of water.
4. OZONE : Very expensive process, leaves no taste, odour or residual.
5. EXCESS LIME TREATMENT: Needs long detension time for time interval and large lime
sludges to be treated. OR
Water Disinfection Methods
Purpose of disinfection: To make Drinking water free of any disease causing bacteria and
microbes. There are 3 mainly used disinfection methods at large scale.
• CHLORINATION, • OZONATION, • ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION.
CHLORINATION: Chlorine is the most common cost-effective means of disinfecting water in the
U.S. The addition of a small amount of chlorine is highly effective against most bacteria, viruses,
and protozoa. But cysts (durable seed-like stages) formed by parasitic protozoa such as
Cryptosporidium and Giardia can survive chlorine. Chlorine is applied to water in one of three
forms: elemental chlorine (chlorine gas), hypochlorite solution (bleach), or dry calcium
hypochlorite. All three forms produce free chlorine in water.
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OZONATION: OZONE is Strongest oxidant/disinfectant available. More effective against

microbes than chlorination. But, costly and difficult to monitor and control under different
condition.
Ozonation process: Ozone (O3) is generated on-site at water treatment facilities by passing dry
oxygen or air through a system of high voltage electrodes.
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION: When UV radiation penetrates the cell wall of an organism, it
damages genetic material, and prevents the cell from reproducing.
Now a days emerging technology made UV radiation to find a place in both household and large
scale drinking water disinfection.
Ultraviolet light is most typically generated from a low pressure or a medium pressure lamp
generating UV light.
Treatment Methods: Two common methods are used to reduce hardness:
ion exchange and cation exchange.
Ion Exchange Process: The ion exchange process is the most frequently used process for
softening water. Accomplished by charging a resin with sodium ions, the resin exchanges the
sodium ions for calcium and magnesium ions. Naturally occurring and synthetic cation
exchange resins are available. Natural exchange resins include such substances as aluminum
silicate, zeolite clays (Zeolites are hydrous silicates found naturally in the cavities of lavas
[greensand]; glauconite zeolites; or synthetic, porous zeolites.), humus, and certain types of
sediments. These resins are placed in a pressure vessel. Salt brine is flushed through the resins.
The sodium ions in the salt brine attach to the resin. The resin is now said to be charged. Once
charged, water is passed through the resin and the resin exchanges the sodium ions attached to
the resin for calcium and magnesium ions, removing them from the water.
The zeolite clays are most common because they are quite durable, can tolerate extreme
ranges in pH, and are chemically stable. They have relatively limited exchange capacities, so
they should be used only for water with a moderate total hardness. One of the results is that
the water may be more corrosive than before. Another concern is that addition of sodium ions
to the water may increase the health risk of those with high blood pressure. OR
Ion exchange is a water treatment process commonly used for water softening or
demineralization, but it also is used to remove other substances from the water in processes
such as DE alkalization, deionization, and disinfection.
Ion Exchange in Drinking Water Treatment
Recently ion exchange resins have been increasingly used to create drinking water.
Specialized resins have been designed to treat various contaminants of concern, including
perchlorate and uranium. There are many resins designed for these purposes, such as strong
base/strong anion resin, which is used to remove nitrates and perchlorate. There are also resin
beads that can be used for water softening.
Cation Exchange Process: The cation exchange process takes place with little or no
intervention from the treatment plant operator. Water containing hardness-causing cations
(Ca++, Mg++, Fe+3) is passed through a bed of cation exchange resin. The water coming through
the bed contains hardness near zero, although it will have elevated sodium content. (The
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sodium content is not likely to be high enough to be noticeable, but it could be high enough to
pose problems to people on highly restricted salt-free diets.) The total lack of hardness in the
finished water is likely to make it very corrosive, so normal practice bypasses a portion of the
water around the softening process. The treated and untreated waters are blended to produce
an effluent with a total hardness around 50 to 75 mg/L as CaCO3.
Hardness Treatment: Hardness in water is caused by the presence of certain positively charged
metallic irons in solution in the water. The most common of these hardness-causing ions are
calcium and magnesium; others include iron, strontium, and barium. As a general rule, ground
waters are harder than surface waters, so hardness is frequently of concern to the small water
system operator. This hardness is derived from contact with soil and rock formations such as
limestone. Although rainwater will not dissolve many solids, the natural carbon dioxide in the
soil enters the water and forms carbonic acid (HCO), which is capable of dissolving minerals.
Where soil is thick (contributing more carbon dioxide to the water) and limestone is present,
hardness is likely to be a problem. The total amount of hardness in water is expressed as the
sum of its calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and its magnesium hardness. For practical purposes,
hardness is expressed as calcium carbonate. This means that regardless of the amount of the
various components that make up hardness, they can be related to a specific amount of calcium
carbonate (e.g., hardness is expressed as mg/L as CaCO3 — milligrams per liter as calcium
carbonate).
Note: The two types of water hardness are temporary hardness and permanent hardness.
Temporary hardness is also known as carbonate hardness (hardness that can be removed by
boiling); permanent hardness is also known as noncarbonated hardness (hardness that cannot
be removed by boiling).
Hardness is of concern in domestic water consumption because hard water increases soap
consumption, leaves a soapy scum in the sink or tub, can cause water heater electrodes to burn
out quickly, can cause discoloration of plumbing fixtures and utensils, and is perceived as a less
desirable water. In industrial water use, hardness is a concern because it can cause boiler scale
and damage to industrial equipment. The objection of customers to hardness is often
dependent on the amount of hardness they are used to. People familiar with water with a
hardness of 20 mg/L might think that a hardness of 100 mg/L is too much. On the other hand, a
person who has been using water with a hardness of 200 mg/L might think that 100 mg/L was
very soft.
Classification of Hardness: Classification mg/L CaCO3
Soft: 0–75, Moderately hard: 75–150, Hard: 150–300, Very hard: Over 300.
THEORY OF ADSORPTION
• Adsorption: is the process of attraction of atoms or molecules (generically known as
"monomers") from an adjacent gas or liquid to an exposed solid surface. Such attraction forces
(adhesion or cohesion) align the monomers into layers ("films") onto the existent surface.
Adsorption defines the property of some materials, more or less reversibly, fixing ions or
molecules (gases, metals, organic molecules…) on their surfaces. Matter is transferred from the
aqueous or gas phase towards the solid surface.
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The capacity for adsorbing a solid will depend on: the developed surface area or specific surface
area (m2·g–1) of the material. Some solids found in the natural environment (clays, silica …)
have very high specific surface areas that vary with the physical-chemical state of the aqueous
medium (pH, nature of bonded cations). Thus, some clays such as the bentonites
(Montmorillonite, for instance) have a surface that is accessible to most molecules and that
varies from 40 to 100 m2·g–1. These materials have an extremely variable adsorption capability
but constitute a parameter that is essential to the regulation of exchanges and to the mobility
of elements in the natural environment.
Industrial adsorbents (mainly activated carbons) develop significantly greater specific surface
areas (600 to approximately 2 500 m2·g–1), indicative of an extremely high micro porosity.
Other adsorbents such as metal hydroxides formed during the coagulation-flocculation process,
also develop extremely large surface areas whose extension is closely linked to the pH;
on the nature of the adsorbate-adsorbent bond, i.e. G interaction-exempt energy between the
adsorption sited and the part of the molecule that is in contact with the surface. This energy
can be measured direct in the case of gas adsorption. However, in an aqueous medium,
calorimetric techniques will only measure the adsorption differential enthalpy for the
difference between adsorbed molecule adsorption energy on the one hand and the desorption
energy of the water associated with the interface, on the other. In the main, the Van der Waals
active forces and the electrostatic forces (Coulomb) cause the adsorption. For example, we can
observe that aromatic molecules have a strong affinity with the graphitic structure of carbon
and will repel non aromatic polar molecules; the contact time between the adsorbant solid and
the solutes: this is the time allowed to enable pollutants to migrate to the surface of the
carbon. OR
The adhesion of a substance to the surface of a solid or liquid. Adsorption is often used to
extract pollutants by causing them to attach to such adsorbents as activated carbon or silica gel.
Hydrophobic (water-repulsing) adsorbents are used to extract oil from waterways in oil spills.
In wastewater treatment, adsorption, using granular activated carbon (GAC), is utilized to
remove organics not removed and other chemical treatment processes. Adsorption can also be
used for the dechlorination of wastewater before final discharge of treated effluent. Typically,
adsorption (using GAC) is used on chlorinated water supplies that would not contain pathogenic
bacteria, but nonpathogenic bacteria may be present in the water supply and grow on the
media.
Chapter No 08
WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Distribution System: Water-distribution systems move water from water sources to treatment
plants, and from treatment plants to homes, offices, industries, and other water consumers.
The major components of a water-distribution system include pipelines, pumps, storage
facilities, valves, and meters. The primary objectives in designing a water-distribution system
are to: (1) supply each customer with water at an adequate r ate and at an adequate pressure;
(2) deliver water that meets water-quality criteria for drinking; and (3) have sufficient capacity
and reserve storage for fire protection and emergency conditions. Water-distribution systems
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should be designed to meet these objectives in a cost-effective manner while taking into
account safety, applicable regulations, environmental impact, societal concerns, and
sustainability.
Requirements of Good Distribution System
Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution pipes.
It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended places with sufficient pressure
head. It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of water during firefighting.
The layout should be such that no consumer would be without water supply, during the
repair of any section of the system. All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one
meter away or above the sewer lines. It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to
leakage to the minimum.
Layouts of Distribution Network
The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different types of pipe
networks; any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular place.
They are: Dead End System, Radial System, Grid Iron System, Ring System.
Dead End System: It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads.

Advantages: Relatively cheap. Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less
number of valves.
Disadvantages: Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.
Radial System: The area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the
distribution reservoir kept in the middle of each zone.  The supply pipes are laid radially
ending towards the periphery.
Advantages: It gives quick service. Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
Grid Iron System: It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and
branches are laid in rectangles.
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Advantages: Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.
In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other direction.
Disadvantages: Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on
all branches.
Ring System:  The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch out
from the mains.  This system also follows the grid iron system with the flow pattern similar in
character to that of dead end system.  So, determination of the size of pipes is easy.
Advantages: Water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.
Methods of water distribution
For efficient distribution system adequate water pressure required at various points.
Depending upon the level of source, topography of the area and other local conditions the
water may be forced into distribution system by following ways.
1. Gravity system, 2. Pumping system, 3. Combined gravity and pumping system.
1. Gravity system: Suitable when source of supply is at sufficient height. Most reliable and
economical distribution system. The water head available at the consumer is just minimum
required. The remaining head is consumed in the frictional and other losses.
2. Pumping system: Treated water is directly pumped in to the distribution main without
storing. Also called pumping without storage system. High lifts pumps are required. If
power supply fails, complete stoppage of water supply. This method is not generally used.
Fig.2.
3. Combined gravity and pumping system: Most common system. Treated water is
pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir. Then supplies to consumer by
action of gravity. The excess water during low demand periods get stored in reservoir and get
supplied during high demand period. Economical, efficient and reliable system.
The water may be supplied to the consumers by either of the two systems.
1. CONTINUOUS SYSTEM: This is the best system and water is supplied for all 24 hours. This
system is possible when there is adequate quantity of water for supply. In this system sample of
water is always available for firefighting and due to continuous circulation water always
remains fresh. In this system less diameter of pipes are required and rusting of pipes will be
less. Losses will be more if there are leakages in the system.
2. INTERMITTENT SYSTEM: If plenty of water is not available, the supply of water is divided into
zones and each zone is supplied with water for fixed hours in a day or on alternate days. As the
37 | P a g e

water is supplied after intervals, it is called intermittent system. The system has following
disadvantages: 1. Pipelines are likely to rust faster due to alternate wetting and drying. This
increases the maintenance cost. 2. There is also pollution of water by ingress of polluted water
through leaks during non-flow periods. 3. More wastage of water due to the tendency of the
people to store more water than required quantity and to waste the excess to collect fresh
water each time. In spite of number of disadvantages, this system is usually adopted in most of
the cities and towns of India. In this system water can be supplied in the high level localities
with adequate pressure by dividing the city in zones. The repair work can be easily done in the
non-supply hours.
Residual pressure: It is generally measured at the ferrule and should be about 7m head of water.
Distribution system should be designed for the following minimum residual pressures at ferrule
points: Single storey building - 7 m. Two storey building - 12 m. Three storey
building - 17 m
Distribution system should not ordinarily be designed for residual pressures exceeding
22m. Multi-storeyed buildings needing higher pressure should be provided with boosters.
Residual pressure is pressure available at the end of a pipe run for a given flow rate after
subtracting friction losses.
Residual Pressure Requirements: During flow of the required quantities of water for
firefighting, a residual pressure should be maintained in the hydraulically remotest or highly
demanding system to ensure that an adequate density or reach of firewater streams is
maintained for all application devices. Additionally, most localities require that a residual
pressure of 140 kPa (20 psi) be maintained in the city municipal water supply mains. A total of
140 kPa (20 psi) is required because this is minimum requirement for the supply of water to fire
department pumper trucks, to prevent collapse of water mains or failure of fittings, and also to
ensure that negative pressures do not occur on portions of the system that are at a higher
elevation. Negative pressures will cause a backflow to occur in the system.
The hydraulic designs of most deluge and water spray systems require a specific residual
pressure to meet the required performance. Additionally, most fixed firewater monitors, hose
reels and hydrants for high hazard chemical or petroleum process areas need at least a 700 kPa
(100 psi) residual pressure to provide effective coverage. NFPA Class I, II, and III standpipes for
buildings require a 455 kPa (65 psi) residual pressure with the required waterflow on
the highest or most remote outlet for the system.
EQUIVALENT PIPE METHOD:
In this method, a complex system of pipe is replaced by a single hydraulically equivalent pipe.
The equivalent pipe is one which will replace a given system of pipes with equal head loss for a
given flow. The method of equivalent pipes make use of two hydraulic axioms: (1) the head
losses through pipes in series, such as AB and BD in Fig.14.12 are additive, and (2) that flows
through pipes in parallel, such as ABD and ACD in Fig 14.12 must be so distributed that the
38 | P a g e

head losses are identical. Where the equivalent

pipe is required to replace a series system of
pipes, the equivalent pipe may be designed to
have the same length as the system, in which
case it is probable that the diameter will be non-
standard or the equivalent pipe may be
designed for a specified standard diameter but
length of differing from the system. Similarly in
the case of a parallel system, the diameter of an
equivalent pipe of given or specified length can
be formed, or the length of an equivalent pipe of given diameter can be found.
Any pipe flow formula may be used for the computations. If Hazen-Williams formula is used,
the length LE of the equivalent pipe of diameter DE and discharge coefficient CE = 100 is given by
𝟏𝟎𝟎 1.85 𝑫𝑬 4.87
LE = ( ) (𝑫) L ……………………..(14.10)
𝑪
Where C, D and L are the corresponding properties of the existing pipe. If the head loss
𝑲𝑳𝑸𝒏
equation is of the form hF = or Q = KDaSb
𝑫𝒙
the length or diameter of equivalent pipe will be as given in Table 14.8.

Note: For Hazen-Williams formula, x = 4.87, a = 2.63, and b = 0.54.

For the flow met work shown in Fig.14.12, let use the simple head loss formula:

or
Hence n = 2 and x = 5.
The length of equivalent pipe, for pipes AB and BD in series is given by relation:
39 | P a g e

or or in General …(14.11)
This is same as tabulated in Table 14.8. Similarly, for the pipes in parallel (i.e. pipes ABD & ACD),
(hf)ABD = (hf)ACD

, , or Q1 = AQ2 ……..(a)
Also Q = Q1 + Q2 = Q2(A + 1), now if LE & DE are the properties of equivalent pipe AD, we get,

or , …(14.12)
Example 1: Find the equivalent length of 30 cm diameter pipe for the network shown in Fig.
14.13, using the (a) Darcy’s formula, (b) Hazen Williams formula.

Fig 14.13
Solution: (a) Darcy’s formula
𝟏𝟔𝒇𝑳𝑸𝟑 𝑲𝑳𝑸𝟑
Hf = =
𝑫𝟓 𝑫𝟓

= 4268 m.
(b) Hazen Williams formula
From Eq. 14,5: V = 0.355 CD0.63 S0.54

or or ….(14.13)

= 4080.5 m.
Example 2: Find the equivalent length of 30 cm dia, pipe for the network shown in Fig. 14.14.
Use Hazen Williams formula.
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Solution: Let the loops BCD (Discharge = Q’) & BED (Discharge Q’) be replaced by an equivalent
pipe BD of length LS & diameter DS (= 0.30 m).
(hf)BCD = (hf)BED. But

Equivalent length for AB

Similarly, for DF,

Total equivalent length = 24.6 + 375.5 + 49.2 = 449.3.

Hardy Cross Method
Hardy cross method is essentially a relaxation technique involving controlled trial and error. In
any system of pipes, connected together and conveying water under pressure, the following
three laws are applicable:
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(i) In each separate pipe or element comprising the system there will be a relation between the
head loss in the element and the quantity of water flowing through it.
(ii) At each junction the algebraic sum of the quantities of water entering and leaving the
junction is zero, i.e. ∑ 𝑄 = 0.
(iii) In any closed path or circuit, the algebraic sum of the head loss in the individual elements is
zero, i.e. ∑ ℎ = 0.
R.J. Cornish has given two methods based on Hardy Cross method; (a) Method of balancing
heads by correcting assumed flow. (b) Method of balancing flows by correcting assumed heads.
The modification suggested by Cornish ensure that the third law is complied with at each step
in the calculations.
Method (a): Balancing Heads by Correcting Assumed Flow: In this method, clockwise flows and
associated head losses are assigned positive sign while the counter clockwise flows and
associated head losses are assigned negative sign. Reasonable values of flows in all elements of
the system are assumed, subject of course to the second law mentioned above. The
corresponding head losses in one closed circuit are next calculated by using any flow formula.
𝑛ℎ𝑓
The total gain or loss of head ∑ ℎ𝑓 = 0. The value of the quantity for each element is
𝑄
computed and results added together without regard to sign. The initial assumed flow is then
corrected by the following formula:

The proof of the above formula is given below: Any head loss formula can be expressed in the
form hf = KQn ………………………………. (14.16)
For Hazen Williams formula (Eq. 14.13), n = 1.85

Fig. 14.15 shows a small circuit in which inflow at junction B is Qf and outflow at D is Q0 = Qt. At
B, let the assumed flows in BCD and BED are Q1 and Q2 respectively. The value of Q1 and Q2
should finally be such that hfBCD and hfBED are equal. If, however, hfBCD > hfBED, then a new value
for Q1 will be Q1 - ∆Q = Q1’ and the new value of Q2 must be Q2 + ∆Q = Q2’. The corresponding
Values of head loss will be hfBCD and hfBED is ∆Q is not correction, then
HfBCD – hfBED = 0 = K1(Q1 - ∆Q) – K2(Q2 + ∆Q)
Expanding the Binomials,
K1(Q1n - n∆Q.Q1n-1 + ……) – K2(Q2n + n∆Q.Q2n-1 + …..) = 0.
Since ∆Q is small, its higher powers can be neglected.
K1Q1n – nK1∆Q.Q1n-1 – K2Q2n + nK2∆Q.Q2n-1 = 0.
Substituting hfBCD for K1Q1n and hfBED for K2Q2n and rewriting the terms KQn-1 as K(Qn/Q), we get.
42 | P a g e

𝑄1𝑛 𝑄2𝑛
hfBCD - ∆Q.nK1 – hfBED - ∆Q.nK2 = 0.
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝐻𝑓𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝐻𝑓𝐵𝐸𝐷 hfBCD − hfBED
hfBCD – hfBED = ∆Q.n ( + ) or ∆Q = H H
𝑄1 𝑄2 n( fBCD + fBED )
Q1 Q2
Expanding this to a more general case, the equation for the flow correction ∆Q becomes:
∑ℎ
∆Q = - 𝑛 ∑ ℎ 𝑓/𝑄 ….. (14.15)
𝑓
It should be noted that in computing the numerators, proper sign of individual hf in each pipe should be
taken into consideration, while the denominator is the absolute sum without regard to sign convention.
Since hf = KQn, Eq. 14.15 can also be expressed in the following form:
In the above method, it is very essential that the values of Q1 and Q2 should be reasonable so
that the trials are minimized. If two pipes are meeting at a junction, the following relationship
may be used:

Junction is then calculated and the results added without regard to sign. The correction hf, to be
applied to the assumed head losses is computed from the following equation:
𝑛∑𝑄
Hf = - ∑ 𝑄/ℎ ……….. (14.21)
Each junction is corrected in turn in a similar manner, thereby completing the first correction of
the whole system.
Example 2: Analyze the pipe network shown in Fig. 14.16. Take C = 100 in the Hazen William’s
formula.
Sol: The head loss is given by Eq. 14.18 (a)
10.62 L
Hf = KQ1.85 where Q is in m3/sec. Where K = ………. (14.18)
C1.85 D4.87
In our problem, discharge Q is expressed in m3/min. This can be reduced to the units of m3/sec
by dividing it by 60.
𝑄 𝐾 𝐾
Hence hf = K(60)1.85 = 1948 Q1.85 = K1Q1.85 , Where K1 = 1948.
 43 | P a g e

Fig 14.16.
It is essential to calculate K1 for various pipes.
The values of K1 for C = 100 are tabulated in Table 14.9.
Pipe No Length (m) Dia. (cm) K K1
1 1000 25 1812 0.93
2 2000 40 367 0.188
3 1000 15 21841 11.21
4 2000 15 43682 22.44
5 830 20 4463 2.29
6, 9 670 20 3620 1.86
7,10 2150 20 11560 5.93
8 2000 30 1491 0.765
The initially assumed values of the flow are marked near the arrows in Fig. 14.16, along with the
directions of flow. Pipes 3 and pipe 1 have one loop. Hence they are subject to combined
corrections for loops 1 to 3 and 1 to 2 respectively. The computations are arranged in Table
14.10, spread over two pages. The final values of flow are marked in Fig. 14.16, near the initially
assumed value of each flow.
Table 14.10
Trial-1 Trial-2
Pip K1 Q hf hf/ n ∑ 𝐡𝐟 ∆Q Q1 Hf Hf/Q n ∑ 𝐡𝐟 ∆Q
e Q ∑ 𝒉𝒇 / ∑ 𝒉𝒇 /
No (3) (4) (5) 𝑸 (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 𝑸 (14) (15)
(2) (6) (7) (13)
1 0.93 -2.0 -3.35 1.6 0.00 -2.0 -3.35 1.68 +0.0
8 7
2 0.18 -4.0 +2.4 0.6 0.00 +4.0 +2.4 0.61 +0.0
8 4 1 4 7
3 11.2 +0.4 +2.0 5.1 +0.2 +0.6 +4.9 7.67 +0.0
1 6 5 4 4 1 3
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4 22.4 -0.20 -1.14 5.7 24.31 +0.01 -0.34 -0.54 -7.17 13.2 42.98 -3.17 +0.1
2 0 8 2
4 22.4 +0.2 +1.1 5.7 +0.3 +0.5 +7.1 13.2 -0.12
2 0 4 0 4 4 7 8
6 1.86 +0.2 +0.1 0.5 +0.3 +0.5 +0.5 1.09 -0.05
0 0 0 4 4 9
7 5.93 -0.80 -3.92 4.9 +0.3 -0.46 -1.41 3.06 -0.05
0 4
5 2.29 -1.80 -6.79 3.7 27.51 -9.47 +0.3 -1.46 -4.61 3.16 38.10 +1.74 -0.05
7 4
3 11.2 -0.40 -2.06 5.1 -0.24 -0.64 -4.91 7.67 -0.03
1 5
8 0.76 +3.6 +8.1 2.2 -0.24 +3.3 +7.2 2.14 +0.0
5 0 8 7 6 0 4
9 1.86 -0.40 -0.34 0.8 -0.24 -0.64 -0.81 1.26 +0.0
5 4
10 5.93 -0.40 -1.09 2.7 19.78 +4.89 -0.24 -0.64 -2.60 4.06 28.0 -1.12 +0.0
2 4
Table 14.10 (Contd.)
Trial-1 Trial-2 Final
Q
(2 (3 (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (1
) ) 6)
1 -1.93 -3.14 1.61 -0.01 -1.94 -3.17 1.63 +0.04 -
1.9
0
2 +4.0 +2.5 0.62 -0.01 +4.0 +2.5 0.62 +0.04 +4.
7 2 6 1 10
3 +0.6 +5.3 7.97 -0.04 +0.6 +4.7 7.66 -0.05 +0.
7 4 3 3 48
4 -0.42 -4.50 10.7 38.7 +0.2 -0.06 -0.48 -5.77 12.0 40. -1.66 +0.05 -
0 2 2 2 6 0.4
3
4 +0.4 +4.5 10.7 +0.0 +0.4 +5.7 12.0 -0.05 +0.
2 0 0 6 8 7 2 43
6 +0.4 +0.5 1.02 +0.0 +0.5 +0.5 1.09 -0.01 +0.
9 0 5 4 9 53
7 -0.51 -1.71 3.35 +0.0 -0.46 -1.41 3.06 -0.01 -
5 0.4
7
5 -1.51 -4.91 3.25 33.9 -1.62 +0.0 -1.46 -4.61 3.16 35. +0.3 -0.01 -
5 8 4 1.4
7
3 -0.67 -5.34 7.97 +0.0 -0.63 -4.77 7.57 -0.05 -
4 0.6
8
 45 | P a g e

8 +3.4 +7.3 2.16 +0.0 +3.4 +7.4 2.18 0.00 +3.

0 6 3 3 8 43
9 -o.60 -0.72 1.20 +0.0 -0.57 -0.66 1.16 0.00 -
3 0.5
7
10 -0.60 -2.30 3.83 28.0 -1.03 +0.0 -0.37 -2.01 3.52 26. +0.0 0.00 -
6 3 7 4 0.5
7
Water Transmission (Distribution System Piping)
Water transmission refers to the transportation of the water from the source to the treatment
plant and to the area of distribution. It can be realized through free-flow conduits, pressurized
pipelines or a combination of the two. For small community water supplies pressurized
pipelined (e.g., piping system)are most common, since they are not very limited by
the topography of the area to be traversed. Free-flow conduits(e.g., canals, aqueducts and
tunnels) are preferred in hilly areas or in areas where the required slope of the conduit
more or less coincides with the slope of the terrain.
The Pipe System: Primary mains, Secondary lines, Small distribution lines.
Primary Mains (Arterial Mains): Form the basic structure of the system and carry flow from the
pumping station to elevated storage tanks and from elevated storage tanks to the various
districts of the city. Laid out in interlocking loops. Mains not more than 1 km (3000 ft) apart.
Valved at intervals of not more than 1.5 km (1 mile).
Smaller lines connecting to them are valved.
Secondary Lines: Form smaller loops within the primary main system. Run from one primary
line to another. Spacing of 2 to 4 blocks. Provide large amounts of water for firefighting without
excessive pressure loss.
Small distribution lines: Form a grid over the entire service area. Supply water to every user
and fire hydrants. Connected to primary, secondary, or other small mains at both ends. Valved
so the system can be shut down for repairs. Size may be dictated by fire flow except in
residential areas with very large lots.
Pipe Sizes in Municipal Distribution Systems
Small distribution lines providing only domestic flow may be as small as 100mm (4in) but,
<1300 ft in length if dead ended or <2000 ft if connected to system at both ends
• Otherwise small distribution mains > 150mm (6in) • High value districts-minimum mains >
200mm (8 in), • Major streets - minimum size 300mm (12 in), • Firefighting requirement
>150mm (6 inch), • National Board of Fire Underwrites > 200mm (8inch).
Chapter No 09
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SANITARY SYSTEM
Sanitary sewer system means the complete sanitary sewer system of the City which discharges
sewage directly or indirectly into the sewage treatment plant, including sanitary sewer
pipelines, manholes and flushing inlets and appurtenances to the foregoing, but shall exclude
any portion or facilities of the sewage treatment plant.
How to Set Up Sewer Sanitary System Layout?
46 | P a g e

Sewer sanitary system consists of network of pipelines to carry wastewater from houses to
wastewater treatment system. Setting up layout for sewer sanitary system with procedure is
discussed.
Requirements for Sewer Sanitary System Layout Setup
Following are the several parameters or requirements that should be specified by the design
before setting up layout for sewer sanitary system:
• Specify an outlet for sewer sanitary system which is based on the conditions of the project.
So, the system might discharge into pumping station, treatment plant, or trunk or main sanitary
sewer. • Estimating tributary area. • Positioning main sewers and trunk. • Decide whether
pumping station is required or not. • Specify the location of the pump station, if needed.
Setting Up Sanitary Sewer System Layout
The initial layout of sewer sanitary system is set up based on the topography of the area and
related information. The slope of the sewer system is dependent on the gradient of the area.
The slope of the sewer system is joined by trunk or main sewers but the exact location is
influenced by number of factor such as position of utilities, type and extent of pavement that
might be encountered, availability of right of way and traffic conditions.
Sewer system drainage district border is governed by separated area, water drainage basin,
ridgelines or high points. Sub-district boundaries located in a district is controlled by
topography, economy of sewer sanitary layout or any other practical factor that needs
considered. It should be known that, the need for main, trunk and intercepting sewer sanitary
system is not only dependent on the topographical limitations but also construction
restrictions. Main, trunk and intercepting sewer sanitary system should be positioned at a lower
elevation in a specific area. Sanitary sewer system should be designed in such a way that it
takes the future requirements into consideration unless economic restriction prevents the
execution of such considerations.
Regarding the location of sewer sanitary system in relation of public water supplies, almost all
codes and state standard specified certain distance between sanitary sewer mains and water
mains both horizontally and vertically. For example, face to face horizontal distance between
water mains and sewer mains should be minimum 3m and vertical distance should be less than
0.45m, and water mains should be located above sewer mains. If sewer mains are close to
public water supplies, then it is required to take measures into account regarding sewer mains,
such as, pressure type sewer pipe should be employed and concrete encasement of sewer pipe
should be considered. As far as the location of manholes are concerned, they are commonly
positioned at sewer sanitary junctions, at any variations in grade, size of the sewer pipes,
alignments apart from curved alignment and at locations which are provided to offer access to
sanitary sewer system for maintenance and emergency purposes.
There are recommendations regarding manhole intervals which can be considered for the
determination of manhole positions while sewer sanitary system is established. These
recommendation is based on the diameter of the sewer pipe. For instance, 120m and 150m
spacing can be adopted for sewer pipe diameter of 37.5cm and 75cm respectively and larger
spacing can be employed for greater pipe diameter. This trend of adopting greater spacing
47 | P a g e

cannot be used based on sewer size only because the ability of available cleaning equipment
should also be considered and cleaning crew should be consulted in this regard.
Another consideration about manhole placement determination is the prevention of manhole
installation at low positions otherwise excessive inflow would occur due to water flow
concentration over the top of the manhole. This measure might lead to construction of large
number of manholes. If manholes are constructed at low locations, then it should be
waterproofed and prevented against floatation. Manholes which are not needed in the future
should be placed at street right of way instead of street intersection pavement to decrease
problems while possible pavement rehabilitation is conducted in the future. The location of
terminal manhole at the upper of sewer sanitary system should be within street right of way to
ease accessibility of manhole and sewer for emergency and maintenance reasons. However,
such manholes may be placed at street intersection pavements if necessary measures are taken
to ease manhole accessibility. When the location of manhole is such that surface water
penetration is permitted, then either the location of the manhole should be changed or
waterproofed manhole cover must be utilized.
TYPES OF SEWAGE SYSTEMS
Sewage systems may seem pretty straightforward and uncomplicated but there are various
aspects that are needed to make it functional and effective. Wastes from different houses have
nowhere to go but stagnant in a place because the whole house to stink and be littered
everywhere. A Sewage system carries the responsibility to get rid of household waste. Sewers,
however, are more complicated than what most think. There is a specific sewer type for each
kind of waste that needs transportation. Here are the 6 types of sewage system:
1. Sanitary Sewer: Sanitary sewers are composed mainly of pipes that are buried below the
ground to transport sewage and waste water from households, industrial establishments and
residential buildings to treatment plants. The wastewater comes from bathrooms, kitchen sinks
and toilet bowls. The sanitary sewer line is responsible for carrying the water to sanitary
treatment plants for them to get filtered, treated and finally, discharged to different bodies of
water. This process is necessary to prevent environmental and health issues when the water is
dumped back to the environment.
2. Storm Sewer: Storm sewers are made to carry storm water or rainwater. This system should
not be used as a sanitary sewer since the pipes used for this is usually not resistant to corrosive
and harmful substances that can be found in wastewater such as chemical solutions. These
pipes are directly connected to seas, rivers, and lakes which are why there should not be any
form of harmful contaminants in the water since those can cause pollution and kill the marine
ecology. Chemical solutions are harmful to the environment.
3. Combines Sewer: A combined sewer line is the fusion of the storm water sewer and the
sanitary sewer. This system will carry both wastes in one pipe into a treatment pipe. However,
since the pipe is carrying two forms of sewage trash, it is prone to overflows and leaks. When
this happens, environmental and health problems will likely arise. This problem can cause the
death of countless marine life, the destruction of habitats and killing of trees due to a polluted
environment. All those are brought about by the chemical content present in the waste water.
48 | P a g e

4. Lateral Sewer: The lateral sewer line is often used in private and residential properties to
connect the buildings, waste system to the main sewer lines. This will carry the household’s
wastes into the sewage system of the community. This will also connect the other houses to the
sewage system that is responsible for transporting the community’s wastes to treatment plants
before they are released into the environment.
5. Sub main Sewer: A sub main sewer can be privately owned. This is responsible for carrying
the wastes from two or more buildings as long as they are situated on the same property and
carry the waste to the main sewer line. It is the property owner’s responsibility to install,
maintain and repair the sub main sewer in cases of emergency and damage.
6. Main Sewer: This type of sewer is the main vessel in a sewage system. It is a big pipe that
collects all the sewage from different lateral and sub main sewage systems into one giant pipe.
It holds the wastewater and sewage of many households at one time and transports everything
to a treatment plant for cleaning and sanitation. Main sewer lines are these centralized waste
pipes. OR
What are the different types of Sewage?
There are two types of sewage: treated and untreated.
Treated sewage: Treated sewage refers to wastewater or sewage which has passed through a
treatment plant. Sewage goes through several stages in the treatment process ensuring that all
harmful bacteria, pollutants and contaminants are eliminated. The stages of sewage treatment
include pre-treatment, primary, secondary and tertiary sewage treatment. The last stage
usually involves the use of UV light to ensure all bacteria and/or viruses are removed. After
treatment, the water will usually pass into rivers or seas or be reused for irrigation and
agricultural purposes. Coming into contact with treated sewage is rare, but can arise if large
flooding events affect sewage treatment plants or in very rare cases there is a pump or other
equipment failure that results in wastewater spreading over land and potentially into property.
Untreated sewage: Untreated sewage refers to wastewater which contains harmful
waterborne pathogens and bacteria and which has not yet gone through a sewage treatment
plant. Raw sewage originates from broken toilet pipes, overspills, industry leakages and heavy
storms. It poses an extremely high risk to human and animal health and the longer it sits and
stagnates a home or a business, the greater amount of bacteria it will contain.
Quite often, in the poorer areas of the world, sewage can get dumped anywhere and this is
unfortunate as people have no access to proper treatment plants, therefore increasing health
risks in those areas. When a flood occurs, more often than not, the water contains untreated
sewage and it therefore must be dealt with straight away. CleanSafe Services respond
immediately and we can get to you within less than 2 hours, reducing business interruption and
majorly decreasing the risk of damage to your health and your property. OR
Types of Sewage:
Domestic Sewage - This Type of sewage is generally due to household activities. Cleaning of
utensils, Washrooms and other household activities pollute water and this water is called
wastewater which cannot be used again without proper treatment.
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Industrial Sewage - It is due to industrial and commercial activities. Industries perform such
kind of activities and therefore polluted the water and this wastewater cannot be used again as
it is full of chemicals and other contaminants.
Storm Sewage - Storm sewage is runoff from precipitation that is collected in a system of pipes.
Sewage Treatment Plant process is similar to that of a Septic Tank works but mechanical
components provide additional processes to help break down solids to produce a more
environmentally friendly effluent. Sewage Treatment Plants or STP PLANTS proved to be
beneficial for Industries. Companies are manufacturing Sewage Treatment Plants as per
customers need.
Sewage treatment is a process of removing pollutants from municipal waste water and mainly
contains domestic waste water and some industrial waste water. Physical, chemical and
biological processes are used to remove contaminants and produce treated sewage water that
is safe enough to be released into the environment.
What is Sewerage System & Disposal of Sewage?
It is the system and infrastructure of collecting, treating and disposal of sewage. There are
three sewerage systems types.
1. Separate System, 2. Partially Separated System, 3. Combined System.
1. Separate Sewerage System: In this system the sanitary sewage and storm water are carried
separately in two sets of sewers. The sewage is conveyed to waste water treatment plant
(WWTP) and the storm water is discharges into rivers without treatment. The separated system
is suitable when separate outlet for storm water is available and the topography is such that
storm water can be disposed of in natural drains.
Advantages of Separate System: • The load on treatment plant is less as only sewage is carried
to the plant. • The size of sewer is mall, thus economical, • When pumping is required, the
system proves to be economical. • Natural/storm water is not unnecessarily polluted by
sewage.
Disadvantages of Separate System: • Cleaning of sewer is difficult due to their small size. • The
self-cleansing velocity is not easily obtained. • The storm sewers come in operation in rainy
season only. They may be chocked in dry season by garbage. • Maintenance cost is high. •
Sewage sewers are provided below storm sewer which causes greater depth and pumping at
waste water treatment plant (WWTP).
2. Partially Separate Sewerage System: This system is the compromise between separate and
combine system taking the advantages of both systems. In this system the sewage and storm
water of buildings are carried by one set of sewers while the storm water from roads, streets,
pavements etc. are carried by other system of sewers usually open drains.
Advantages of Partially Separate Sewerage System: • It combines the good features of both
systems. • The silting is avoided due to entry of storm water. • The storm water from houses is
easily disposed off. • The sewers are of reasonable size.
Disadvantages of Partially Separate Sewerage System: A very small fraction of bad features of
combined system are there in partially separated system.
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3. Combined Sewerage System: In this system the sewage and storm water are carried
combine in only one set of sewers to the waste water treatment. Plant (WWTP) before disposal.
Advantages of Combined Sewerage System: • Easy cleaning because of larger diameter. •
Reasonable maintenance cost. • Strength of sewage is reduced due to dilution of sewage by
storm water. • This system requires only one set of sewer making it economical.
Disadvantages of Combined Sewerage System: • In storm season sewer may overflow and the
sewer may damage causing serious health risks. • The combine sewer gets silted and becomes
foul in dry days. • Load on treatment plant is more because storm water is also carried there. •
The storm water gets polluted unnecessarily. • The system becomes uneconomical when
pumping is needed.
CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTIC AND COMPONENTS OF A MANHOLE
Classification and Dimensions of Manholes:
Manholes are classified according to depth as: (i) Shallow manholes,
(ii) Normal manholes, and (iii) Deep manholes.
(i) Shallow Manholes: Shallow manholes are those which are about 0.75 to 0.90 m in depth.
These manholes are of rectangular shape with minimum internal size 0.9 m x 0.8 m. These are
constructed at the beginning of branch sewers or on sewers laid at places which are not
subjected to heavy traffic. These are also known as inspection chambers and are provided with
light cast iron cover and frame at the top.
(ii) Normal Manholes: Normal manholes (or medium manholes) are those which have depth
more than 0.9 m and up to 2 m. These manholes may be of square or rectangular shape with
minimum internal size 1 m x 1 m or 1.2 m x 0.9 m, or of circular shape with minimum internal
diameter 0.9 m. The section of square or rectangular manholes is not changed with depth.
The circular manholes are of uniform section in lower portion and slanting in top portion so as
to narrow down the top opening equal to internal diameter of manhole cover. These manholes
are provided with heavy cast iron cover and frame at the top.
(iii) Deep Manholes: Deep manholes are those having depth more than 2 m. These are mostly
circular in shape. Depending upon the depth of manhole, the diameter of manhole changes. For
different depths the internal diameter of circular manholes may be kept as follows:
Depth of Manhole Internal diameter
Above 2.0 m up to 2.3 m 1.2 m
Above 2.3 m up to 9.0 m 1.5 m
Above 9.0 m up to 14.0 m 1.8 m
The circular manholes are of uniform section in lower portion and slanting in top portion so as
to narrow down the top opening equal to internal diameter of manhole cover.
However, for depths above 2.0 m and up to 2.5 m, manholes may be of rectangular shape with
minimum internal size 1.2 m x 0.9 m. The size of rectangular manholes is reduced in the upper
portion to reduce the size of manhole cover. The reduction in size is achieved by providing an
offset constructed of either R.C.C. slab or brick arch. The rectangular manholes with arch type
offset are also known as arch type manholes. The arch type manholes may be constructed for
depths of 2.5 m and above with minimum internal size 1.4 m x 0.9 m.
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Deep manholes are provided with steps on one of the vertical wails to enable the workers to go
down up to the bottom. These manholes are also provided with heavy cast iron cover and
frame at the top. According to the Indian Standard IS: 4111 (Part 1)-1991 manholes are
classified on the basis of depth as: (i) Shallow manholes and (ii) Deep manholes.
In this classification shallow manholes are those having depth less than or equal to 2 m, and
deep manholes are those having depth more than 2 m. In other words, shallow manholes of
this classification includes both shallow and normal (or medium) manholes of the previous
classification. Further for manholes of different depths, minimum internal sizes have also been
recommended by the Indian Standard IS: 742-1990 which are given in Table 6.2.

Characteristics of a Manhole:

Component Parts of a Manhole:

A typical manhole consists of the following component parts:
(i) Access shaft; (ii) Working chamber; (iii) Base and side walls; (iv) Bottom or invert;
(v) Steps or ladder; (vi) Cover and frame.
(i) Access Shaft: The upper portion of a deep manhole is known as access shaft. It is a vertical
passage which provides access to the working chamber of the manhole from the manhole
cover. The minimum size of access shaft is about 0.75 m x 0.60 for rectangular manholes and
about 0.70 m diameter for circular manholes.
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For rectangular manholes built of brickwork the access shaft is corbelled inwards on three sides
to reduce its size to that of the opening in the cover frame, and to provide easy access on the
fourth side to step irons or ladder.
Alternatively, the access shaft may be covered by a reinforced cement concrete slab of suitable
dimensions with an opening for manhole cover and frame. For circular manholes the access
shaft is usually made slanting inwards so as to narrow down the top opening equal to internal
diameter of manhole cover.
(ii) Working Chamber: The lower portion of a manhole is known as working chamber which
provides working space to carry out cleaning and inspection of sewer line. The minimum size of
working chamber for deep rectangular manholes is 1.2 m x 0.9 m with larger dimension being in
the direction of flow. For deep circular manholes the minimum diameter of the working
chamber is 1.2 m. The height of working chamber should preferably be not less than 1.8 m.
The size of working chamber of a manhole is usually larger than that of its access shaft and
hence the working chamber is constructed by enlarging the access shaft at its bottom by
providing an offset constructed of R.C.C slab or brick arch or by corbelling.
(iii) Base and Side Walls: A bed, generally of plain cement concrete, is provided at the base to
support the side walls of the manhole and to prevent the entry of groundwater. The minimum
thickness of concrete bed is 15 cm for manholes of depth up to 0.8 m. 23 cm for manholes of
depth above 0.8 m and up to 2.1 m and 30 cm for manholes of depth more than 2.1 m. The
concrete bed may be provided with adequate reinforcement if necessary to withstand
excessive uplift pressure. The side walls of manholes are made of brick or stone masonry or
reinforced cement concrete. The brick walls are very common. The minimum thickness of brick
walls is 20 cm (or one brick) for manholes of depths up to 1.5 m and 30 cm (or one and a half
brick) for manholes of depths more than 1.5 m.
The following thumb rule may be used for determining the thickness of brick walls-
t = 10 + 4d … (6.1), Where, t = thickness of wall in cm. and, d = depth of manhole in m.
The inside and outside of brick work is plastered with cement mortar 1:3 (1 cement and 3
coarse sand) and inside finished smooth with a coat of neat cement.
The thickness of reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C.) walls will be much less as compared to
that of brick walls and can be designed by the usual methods of structural analysis. However,
R.C.C. walls are costly and hence these are adopted only under special circumstances.
(iv) Bottom or Invert: At the bottom of the manhole a semicircular or U-shaped channel of
cement concrete of diameter equal to that of sewer is constructed. Above the horizontal
diameter the sides of this channel are extended vertically, nearly up to the crown of the sewer
and then their top edge is suitably rounded off and made to slope towards the channel to form
benching. The slope provided for benching varies from 1 in 10 to 1 in 6. The benching enables
the floor of the chamber to be drained of backed up sewage. The bottom of the channel lies in
line with the invert of the sewer line. When two or more sewers enter a manhole at the same
level at the bottom of the manhole, in addition to main channel branch channels are similarly
constructed with respect to the benching. At the junction with the main channel the branch
channels are provided with easy curves.
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Where the sewers entering and leaving a manhole are of different diameters, the entering and
leaving sewers are placed with their crowns at the same level and necessary slope is given in
the invert of the manhole chamber. This is done to prevent backflow in the smaller sewer when
the larger sewer is flowing full. In exceptional cases and where unavoidable, the crown of
entering sewer may be fixed at lower level but in such cases to the peak flow- level of the two
sewers is kept the same.
(v) Steps or Ladder: In order to facilitate entry and exit of workers steps or rungs are provided
in all manholes of depth more than 0.8 m. The steps are made of cast iron and these are placed
staggered at a horizontal center to center distance of 38 cm and a vertical center to center
distance of 30 cm. The top step is placed 45 cm below the manhole cover and the lowest step
not more than 30 cm above the benching. The width of the step is usually 15 cm. However, if
steps are made of double width staggering is not required. The steps are firmly embedded in
the wall so that they do not overturn. In very deep manholes it is desirable to provide a ladder
instead of steps. The ladder gives a high sense of security to the workers.
(vi) Cover and Frame: The opening at the top of a manhole is provided with a cover set in a
frame. Mostly the openings are of circular shape and hence the manhole covers of circular
shape are most commonly used. The size of manhole covers is such that there is a clear opening
of at least 56 cm in diameter for manholes of depth more than 0.9 m.
Both cover and frame are of cast iron. The frame supporting the cover is generally 20 to 25 cm
high and its base is 10 to 12 cm wide. The weight of cover and frame varies from 90 to 270 kg.
The light type is adopted where light traffic load is to be borne and heavy type is adopted
where heavy traffic load is to be borne.
The frame is firmly embedded in cement concrete on the top of masonry and the cover rests in
the groove provided inside the frame. The top of manhole cover should be properly adjusted in
relation to the road surface. It should be in the plane of the pavement so that it does not
interfere with the traffic. The top surface of manhole cover is provided with small projections or
bosses to make it rough so that.it does not become slippery.
Chapter No 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE
The Characteristics of sewage arc classified as follows:
1. Physical characteristics, 2. Chemical characteristics and, 3. Biological characteristics.
1. Physical Characteristics of Sewage:
The physical characteristics of wastewater include those items that can be detected using the
physical senses. They are temperature, color, odor, and solids.
Temperature: Temperature of wastewater varies greatly, depending upon the type of
operations being conducted at your installation. Temperature of sewage the sewage is slightly
more than that of water, because of the presence of industrial sewage. The temperature
changes when sewage becomes septic because of chemical process. The lower temperature
indicates the entrance of ground water into the sewage.
Color; of fresh sewage is yellowish grey to light brown. While that of the septic is black or dark
due to oxidation of organic matter.
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Odor; smell of the fresh sewage is oily or soapy while the septic sewage develops an
objectionable. H2S is the major source of pollution.
Solids: All matter except the water contained in liquid materials is classed as solid matter. The
usual definition of solids, however refers to; “the matter that remain as residual upon
evaporation and drying at 103 ± 20C”.
Those solids that are not dissolved in wastewater are called suspended solids. When suspended
solids float, they are called floatable solids or scum. Those suspended solids that settle are
called settle able solids, grit, or sludge.
All solids that burn or evaporate at 500°C to 600°C are called volatile solids. These solids serve
as a food source for bacteria and other living forms in a wastewater treatment plant. Most
organic solids in municipal waste originate from living plants or animals.
Those solids that do not burn or evaporate at 500°C to 600°C, but remain as a residue, are
called fixed solids. Fixed solids are usually inorganic in nature and may be composed of grit,
clay, salts, and metals.
Turbidity: The term “turbid” is applied to water/wastewater containing suspended matter or in
which the visual depth is restricted.
2. Chemical Characteristics of Sewage (Wastewater):
Sewage contains both organic and inorganic chemicals in addition to various gases like H 2S, CO2,
CH4, and NH3 etc that are formed due to the decomposition of sewage. The chemical
characteristics of wastewater of special concern are pH, DO (dissolved oxygen), oxygen
demand, nutrients, and toxic substances.
PH: PH is used to describe the acid or base properties of water solutions. The pH of sewage is
initially high and drops when the sewage becomes septic but becomes increases again with the
treatment processes.
Dissolved oxygen (DO): Wastewater that has DO is called aerobic or fresh. The solubility of
oxygen in fresh water ranges from 14.6 mg/L at 0oC to about 07 mg/L at 35oC at 1.0 atm
pressure.
Oxygen Demand: It is the amount of oxygen used by bacteria and other wastewater organisms
as they feed upon the organic solids in the wastewater.
BOD: BOD is defined as the amount of oxygen required by the bacteria while stabilizing
decomposable organic matter under aerobic condition. It is written as by BOD or BOD520. “It is
the amount of oxygen required by aerobic bacteria to decompose/stabilized the organic matter
at a standard temperature of 20oC for a period of 05 days”. For domestic sewage 05 days BOD
represents approx. 2/3 times of demand for complete decomposition.
COD: By definition the COD is the amount of oxygen required to stabilized the organic matter
chemically, i.e. the COD is used as a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter
contents of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant.
Nutrients: Are life-supporting nitrogen and phosphorus.
Toxic Chemicals; most industrial use various types of toxic chemicals, the discharges of which
can be harmful to wastewater treatment processes.
3. Biological Characteristics of Wastewater:
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The three biological organisms present in wastewater are bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
Bacteria: Sewage consists of vast quantities of bacteria, most of which are harmless to man.
However, pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms such as typhoid, dysentery, and other
intestinal disorders may be present in wastewater. The bacteria in raw swage may be expected
to in the range from 500, 000 to 5,000,000 per mL. These bacteria are responsible for the
decomposition of complex compounds to stable compounds with the help of some extracellular
and intracellular enzymes. Depending upon the mode of action of bacteria may be divided into
the following three categories; • Aerobic Bacteria, • Anaerobic Bacteria, • Facultative Bacteria.
OR Domestic sewage consists of various types of plant or animal microorganism and the
biological characteristic of sewage is related to the presence of these microorganisms.
This microorganism whose presence is 22 — 25 millions numbers in a liter of sewage may be
pathogenic, indicator organisms etc. The main source of pathogenic microorganism is excreta
from sick people and these organisms require living tissues to grow and reproduce and harmful
to man. The microorganism can be broadly classified into:
• (a) Aquatic plants • (b) Aquatic animals • (c) Aquatic mold (fungi), bacteria and virus.
• Aquatic Plants consists of waterweeds algae etc.
• Aquatic animals consist of fish, snails, amphibians insects, earth Worms, hydra etc.
• Aquatic mold (fungi), bacteria and virus are also aquatic plant but categorized separately.
These are responsible for disease.
• The bacterium which needs free oxygen to survive is called aerobic bacteria and which
survives without free oxygen is called anaerobic bacteria and which survives in presence or
absence of free oxygen is called facultative bacteria.
• The decomposition of sewage is possible due to these bacteria. OR
Characteristics of Sewage:
(i) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Oxygen Consumption (OC) values are extremely high
in sewage. (ii) The sewage organic matter undergoes anaerobic or partial decomposition
resulting in the production of obnoxious gases, namely, CH3, CO and H2S due to anoxic
condition. Besides being toxic, these gases react with water and produce acids.
(iii) Production of acids in large quantity make the sewage more acidic thus making it unfit for
supporting life activities. (iv) Heavy metals are generally present in abnormal concentration in
sewage. All these characteristics of sewage, viz., anoxic condition, high acidity, high heavy metal
concentration, and reduced photosynthetic rate due to poor illumination cause death of
oxygen-dependent organisms such as aerobic microorganisms, plants and animals in sewage.
This is the reason why sewage is dominated by organisms capable of growing in anaerobic
environments.
COMPOSITION OF SEWAGE
In sewage there are 99.9% water & 0.1% solid matters are founded. The composition of sewage
mainly depends upon per capita consumption of water and varies from place to place and
season to season. The sewage composition can be studied under following two heads:
1. Chemical Composition: Chemically, the sewage consists of approximately 99% water and 1%
inorganic and organic matter in suspended and soluble forms. Lignocellulose, cellulose,
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proteins, fats, and various inorganic particulate matter exist in suspended state, whereas
sugars, fatty acids, alcohols, amino acids, and inorganic ions constitute the soluble forms.
However, on an average, the sewage of towns in our country contains about 350 ppm
biodegradable organic matter, 52 ppm N2, 45 ppm potassium and 16 ppm phosphorus. Salts of
several heavy metals such as Zn, Cr, Ni, Pb, etc. are also present above permissible levels in
sewage.
2. Microbial Composition: The microbial population per milliliter of sewage may vary from a
few lacs to several millions. Various types of microorganisms, viz., micro-fungi, bacteria and
protozoa, collectively called ‘sewage fungus’, are known to grow profusely in sewage.
In addition, viruses and many micro-algal genera have also been recorded from sewage.
Bacteria occurring in sewage are mainly intestinal and soil inhabiting and their common types
are coliforms, streptococci, Clostridia, micrococci, Proteus, Pseudomonas, and lactobacilli.
Chapter No 11
DESIGN OF SANITARY SEWERS AND STORM SEWERS
Sewer Design & Design flow in Sanitary Sewer
To find the design flow in sanitary sewer the following steps are followed
1. Forecast the design population (P) of the area;
2. Find the sewage flow per day by multiplying population with flow per day per capita of
sewage. The sewage is taken as (70-80)% of average water supply
If (q) is the average per capita per day water consumption of water then
Qavg = Average sewage flow = (0.7 – 0.8) *q*P
Note: average value of 75% i.e. 0.75 can be used
3. Select a peaking factor (P.F) to find the peak sewage flow (Note. Sewers are designed for
peak flow)
According to WASA (Water and Sanitary Agency)
P.F = 4 (for discharge upto 0.0283 m3/sec
P.F = 2 (for discharges ≥ 5.66 m3/sec
4. Calculate the allowance for industrial and commercial sewage at the rate of 3734
m3/km2/day
5. Calculate infiltration allowance of (5-10)% of average sewage flow as given by WASA
Qinf = (0.05 – 0.1) Qavg
6. Find the design sewage flow by adding Peak Flow industrial allowance and infiltration flow
Qdesign = Qpeak + Qind + Qinf
Manning's Formula of Sanitary Sewer Equation
Normally, Manning’s formula is used for design of sanitary sewer, which is

Where
V = Velocity of sewage flow

R = Hydraulic radius
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S = Slope of sewer
n = roughness co-efficient (0.013 – 0.015)
n = 0.01 (for smooth inside surface like PVC etc)
n = 0.013 (for brick masonry, concrete, RCC Pipe)
n = 0.017 (for stone masonry)
n = 0.025 (for earthen channels)
Chezy’s Formula for Sanitary Sewer

Where
C= Chezy constant value of c can be obtained by using either Kutter’s formula or Bazin’s formula
According to Kutter Sanitary Sewer

According to Bazin Sanitary Sewer

Where
k = constant depending upon the nature of sewer
Design Procedure of Sanitary Sewer
Calculate the design flow as already explained (Qd)
Select value of self cleansing velocity and compute area of pipe (sewer) by A = Q/V and
diameter. Find the slope of sewer by Manning's formula
Check the velocity, it should be greater than the minimum self cleansing velocity.
Storm Sewer Design Overview for Good Storm Water Management
A well designed, functional storm sewer system is an important part of any storm water
drainage system and is crucial to good storm water management. The right hydraulic design
gives the proper diameter, slope and depth for a storm sewer line, so that it will drain storm
water and not allow it to back up. The criteria to find the proper diameter, slope and depth for
a storm sewer line (calculated with the Manning equation), are minimum storm water velocity,
minimum depth, and adequate diameter to carry the design storm water runoff rate
(determined by the rational method). All of this is based on the rainfall intensity of the design
storm.
Overview of Hydraulic Design Procedure
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The hydraulic design of a storm sewer system starts after the manhole locations have been laid
out on a street map, as shown in the diagram at the left. The parameters to be determined for
the length of storm sewer between each set of manholes are the diameter of that section of
sewer line, its slope and the depth below the ground surface at each manhole. These
parameters are shown in the diagram at the right. The first step in the hydraulic design is
determination of the design storm water runoff flow rate for the given length of storm sewer.
The design drainage flow rate is typically calculated using the Rational method. Once the design
flow rate is known, then the criteria discussed in the next section are used to find the design
diameter, slope and depth.
The Criteria for Storm Sewer Hydraulic Design
Good storm water management makes use of the following three design criteria, which are
typically used for determination of diameter, slope and depth to drain storm water for a section
of storm sewer between two manholes:
1) Vfull> Vmin, carrying Qdes with pipe diameter and slope at their design values,
2) Qfull> Qdes with pipe diameter and slope at their design values
3) depth from ground surface to top of pipe > minimum required cover
Qfull and Vfull are the flow rate and velocity when the storm sewer is flowing full. V min is the
velocity required to keep suspended solids from settling out in the pipe. Vmin is usually specified
by a state or local agency. A commonly used value for Vmin is 3 ft/sec. Qdes is the peak runoff
rate, as calculated using the rational equation. Minimum required cover is that needed to keep
the storm sewer below the frost line and to provide structural stability for loads above the
storm sewer.
Calculation Procedure
The steps for calculation of the diameter, slope and depth of a given length of storm sewer are
as given below. (Qdes, Vmin, minimum cover, and the ground surface slope must be known at this
point.)
1) Calculate the minimum pipe diameter, D, using Qdes = (πD2/4)Vmin.
2) Set the pipe diameter at the next larger standard size (Dstd), and calculate the storm sewer
slope, S, using the Manning equation (V = (1.49/n)[(D/4)2/3](S1/2), with V = Vmin.
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3) If the calculated pipe slope is adequate to maintain minimum cover, check to be sure that
Qfull> Qdes, from Qfull = (πDstd2/4)Vmin. If Qfull>Qdes, then the values for Dstd and S can be used.
4) If the pipe slope, S, is too small to maintain minimum cover then set the pipe slope equal to
the ground surface slope.
5) Calculate the pipe diameter, D, from Qdes = (1.49/n)(πD2/4)[(D/4)2/3](S1/2)
6) Choose the next larger standard pipe diameter and calculate Vfull = (1.49/n)[(D/4)2/3)(S1/2) to
be sure that Vfull> Vmin. If not, adjust the slope and repeat. Otherwise the calculated diameter
and slope are ok. If the design starts at the manhole that is farthest upstream, and starts with
the pipe deep enough to give minimum cover, then this procedure will maintain minimum
cover.
Chapter No 12
WASTEWATER TREATMENT & ITS DESIGN
Wastewater treatment is the process of converting wastewater – water that is no longer
needed or is no longer suitable for use – into bilge water that can be discharged back into
the environment. It’s formed by a number of activities including bathing, washing, using the
toilet, and rainwater runoff. Wastewater is full of contaminants including bacteria, chemicals
and other toxins. Its treatment aims at reducing the contaminants to acceptable levels to make
the water safe for discharge back into the environment.
There are two wastewater treatment plants namely chemical or physical treatment plant, and
biological wastewater treatment plant. Biological waste treatment plants use biological matter
and bacteria to break down waste matter. Physical waste treatment plants use chemical
reactions as well as physical processes to treat wastewater. Biological treatment systems are
ideal for treating wastewater from households and business premises. Physical wastewater
treatment plants are mostly used to treat wastewater from industries, factories and
manufacturing firms. This is because most of the wastewater from these industries contains
chemicals and other toxins that can largely harm the environment.
According to Wikipedia, “Wastewater treatment is a process to convert wastewater – which is
water no longer needed or suitable for its most recent use – into an effluent that can be either
returned to the water cycle with minimal environmental issues or reused. The latter is called
water reclamation and implies avoidance of disposal by use of treated wastewater effluent for
various purposes.”
Step by Step Wastewater Treatment Process
The following is a step by step process of how wastewater is treated:
1. Wastewater Collection: This is the first step in waste water treatment process. Collection
systems are put in place by municipal administration, home owners as well as business owners
to ensure that all the wastewater is collected and directed to a central point. This water is then
directed to a treatment plant using underground drainage systems or by exhauster tracks
owned and operated by business people. The transportation of wastewater should however be
done under hygienic conditions. The pipes or tracks should be leak proof and the people
offering the exhausting services should wear protective clothing.
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2. Odor Control: At the treatment plant, odor control is very important. Wastewater contains a
lot of dirty substances that cause a foul smell over time. To ensure that the surrounding areas
are free of the foul smell, odor treatment processes are initiated at the treatment plant. All
odor sources are contained and treated using chemicals to neutralize the foul smell producing
elements. It is the first wastewater treatment plant process and it’s very important.
3. Screening: This is the next step in wastewater treatment process. Screening involves the
removal of large objects for example nappies, cotton buds, plastics, diapers, rags, sanitary
items, nappies, face wipes, broken bottles or bottle tops that in one way or another may
damage the equipment. Failure to observe this step, results in constant machine and
equipment problems. Specially designed equipment is used to get rid of grit that is usually
washed down into the sewer lines by rainwater. The solid wastes removed from the
wastewater are then transported and disposed off in landfills.
4. Primary Treatment: This process involves the separation of macrobiotic solid matter from
the wastewater. Primary treatment is done by pouring the wastewater into big tanks for the
solid matter to settle at the surface of the tanks. The sludge, the solid waste that settles at the
surface of the tanks, is removed by large scrappers and is pushed to the center of the cylindrical
tanks and later pumped out of the tanks for further treatment. The remaining water is then
pumped for secondary treatment.
5. Secondary Treatment: Also known as the activated sludge process, the secondary treatment
stage involves adding seed sludge to the wastewater to ensure that is broken down further. Air
is first pumped into huge aeration tanks which mix the wastewater with the seed sludge which
is basically small amount of sludge, which fuels the growth of bacteria that uses oxygen and the
growth of other small microorganisms that consume the remaining organic matter. This process
leads to the production of large particles that settle down at the bottom of the huge tanks. The
wastewater passes through the large tanks for a period of 3-6 hours.
6. Bio-solids handling: The solid matter that settle out after the primary and secondary
treatment stages are directed to digesters. The digesters are heated at room temperature. The
solid wastes are then treated for a month where they undergo anaerobic digestion. During this
process, methane gases are produced and there is a formation of nutrient rich bio-solids which
are recycled and dewatered into local firms. The methane gas formed is usually used as a
source of energy at the treatment plants. It can be used to produce electricity in engines or to
simply drive plant equipment. This gas can also be used in boilers to generate heat for
digesters.
7. Tertiary treatment: This stage is similar to the one used by drinking water treatment plants
which clean raw water for drinking purposes. The tertiary treatment stage has the ability to
remove up to 99 percent of the impurities from the wastewater. This produces effluent water
that is close to drinking water quality. Unfortunately, this process tends to be a bit expensive as
it requires special equipment, well trained and highly skilled equipment operators, chemicals
and a steady energy supply. All these are not readily available.
8. Disinfection: After the primary treatment stage and the secondary treatment process, there
are still some diseases causing organisms in the remaining treated wastewater. To eliminate
61 | P a g e

them, the wastewater must be disinfected for at least 20-25 minutes in tanks that contain a
mixture of chlorine and sodium hypochlorite. The disinfection process is an integral part of the
treatment process because it guards the health of the animals and the local people who use the
water for other purposes. The effluent (treated waste water) is later released into the
environment through the local water ways.
9. Sludge Treatment: The sludge that is produced and collected during the primary and
secondary treatment processes requires concentration and thickening to enable further
processing. It is put into thickening tanks that allow it to settle down and later separates from
the water. This process can take up to 24 hours. The remaining water is collected and sent back
to the huge aeration tanks for further treatment. The sludge is then treated and sent back into
the environment and can be used for agricultural use.
Wastewater treatment has a number of benefits. For example, wastewater treatment ensures
that the environment is kept clean, there is no water pollution, makes use of the most
important natural resource; water, the treated water can be used for cooling machines in
factories and industries, prevents the outbreak of waterborne diseases and most importantly, it
ensures that there is adequate water for other purposes like irrigation.
Conclusion: In summary, wastewater treatment process is one of the most important
environmental conservation processes that should be encouraged worldwide. Most wastewater
treatment plants treat wastewater from homes and business places. Industrial plant, refineries
and manufacturing plants wastewater is usually treated at the onsite facilities. These facilities
are designed to ensure that the wastewater is treated before it can be released to the local
environment. Some of the water is used for cooling the machines within the plants and treated
again. They try to ensure that nothing is lost. It illegal for disposing untreated wastewater into
rivers, lakes, oceans or into the environment and if found culpable one can be prosecuted.
WASTEWATER DESIGN
Following steps are involved in the design of wastewater treatment: A) Assessment of waste
quality, B) Desired Treated water quality, C) Selection of Treatment process, D) Treatment
System Design, E) Engineering of the Treatment Plant, F) Project Execution.
A - There are about 36 to 38 parameters that need to be analyzed to assess the wastewater
quality. These are called water quality Parameters and indicate presence of pollutants in the
water. These parameters are listed in State/Federal or Central pollution control board was site
or a standard water / wastewater treatment hand book.
Once the complete analysis is available it can be compared with the desired water quality or
the treated effluent quality desired. Normally each type of industry has a typical effluent quality
and can be accessed through state ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL AUTHORITIES.
Similarly, the effluent standard for each type of industry is pre scribed by the State/ Federal
Pollution Control Authority. Based on above data the treatment specialist decides the
treatment scheme. A typical treatment scheme involves Physicochemical treatment like
coagulation settlement of suspended solids. Biological Treatment to remove dissolved organics.
Filtration er for removal of residual pollutants. After this the Engineer is carried out followed by
62 | P a g e

project execution. The whole process needs experienced technologist, hope this clarifies the
concept. To give specific reply specific data will be required.
All Numerical Problems
Example 1: A service reservoir is to be designed for a water supply serving 250,000 people
with an average demand of 600 L/day/capita and a fire flow of 37,000 L/min.
Solution: The required storage is the sum of: (1) volume to supply the demand in excess of the
maximum daily demand, (2)fire storage, and (3)emergency storage.
1. Maximum Daily Demand: The volume to supply the peak demand can be taken as 25% of the
maximum daily demand. The maximum daily demand factor is 1.8 times the average demand.
The maximum daily flow rate is therefore:

The corresponding volume is therefore:

(2) The fire flow of 37,000 L/min (0.62 m3 /sec) must be maintained for at least 9 hours. The
volume to supply the fire demand is therefore:

(3) The emergency storage can be taken as the average daily demand:

The required volume of the service reservoir is therefore:

.
Runoff
Co-Efficient of Runoff: Coefficient of runoff = .
T𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐟𝐚𝐥𝐥
By rainfall records: Q = A.I.R & Q = 28 A.I.R (Lit/sec) where, Q = Discharge in cumecs(cusecs), A
= Area of catchment in hectares (acres), I = Constant of run off, R = Rain fall in mm (ins).
By stream discharge: There are two methods of stream discharge method.
Area velocity method: Q = A.V
where: A = cross sectional area of stream or river, V = Velocity of water.
Weir Method: Q = 1.84 LH1.5 cumecs, Q = 3.33 LH1.5 cumecs.
Where, Q = Discharge, L = Length of weir, H = Depth of water over weir crest.
By empirical formula: There are three formula used in it.
Dicken’s Formula: Q = 0.01387 CM3/4
Ryv’s Formula: Q = 0.015 CM2/3
319
Inglism’s Formula: Q =
√M
In these empirical formulae, Q = Density in cumecs. M = Area of catchment in K.M.
C = Constant depending upon characteristics of catchment area which is 250 for large area and
1600 for small areas in the case of Dicken’s formula.
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Example 2; What will be the average yearly demand of water for a town for an estimated
population of 75000 persons, with a rate of supply of 228 liters per day capita. Work out also
the average demand per day, per hour and per minute. Also find this demand in cumecs.
Solution: Average daily demand = 75000 x 228, = 171 x 105 liters. = 17100 m3.
Average Hourly demand = 124 x 171 x 105 = 712500 liters. = 712.5 m3.
Average demand per minute = 160 x 712500 liters. = 11875 liters = 11.88 m 3/minute.
11.88
Demand in cumecs = = 0.198 cumecs.
60
Example 3: What will be the average daily demand of water for a city of one lac population.
Supply rate is as under also determine the demand of water per second.
Domestic = 90 liters, Industrial = 37, Public use = 18, Losses = 46, Fire demand = 37 liters.
Sol: Daily supply rate = 90 + 37 + 18 + 46 + 37 = 228 liters No/day.
Average daily demand = 100000 x 228 = 22800000 liters. = 22800 m3.
22800
Average hourly demand = = 950 m3/hour.
24
950
Average demand per second = 60 𝑋 60 = 0.264 cumec.
Example 4: Supply rate of 80 liters per capita per day is proposed for a village of 3000
peoples. Depth of 4 meters is proposed for the settling tank for the treatment plant. Find out
detention period for this Clarifier.
Sol: Population of the village = 3000 persons, Rate of supply = 80 liters/No/day.
Daily demand of water = 3000 x 80 = 24 x 104 liters. = 240 m3.
24
Hourly demand of water = Q = 240 = 10 m3/hour.
𝑄 10
Depth of water = D = 4 meters. Detention period = T = 𝐷 = = 2.5 m3/hours.
4
Example 5: It has to supply water to a colony of 4000 inhabitants at the rate of 120
lit/No/day. Determine the size of circular clarifier for which surface loading is proposed as
500 lit/m2/hour.
Sol: Daily water demand = 4000 x 1320 = 4.8 x 105 liters.
48 𝑋 104
Hourly demand of water = = 2.0 x 104 liters.
24
Surface loading of clarifier = 500 lit/m2/hour.
2 𝑋 104
Surface area of tank = = 40 m2.
500
𝜋𝐷 2 40 𝑋 4
So = 40 m2. Diameter of tank = d = √ = 7.14 m. so: d = 7.14 m.
4 3.142
Example 6: Design a rectangular clarifier to treat 10 million liters per day. Assume maximum
velocity in the tank as 9m/hour and the detention period as 5 hours.
Sol: Length of the tank = 9 x 5 = 45 m.
5 𝑋 10 𝑋 106
Quantity of water treated in five hours = volume of tank = liters.
24
5 X 10 X 106
m3. = 2083.3 m3.
24 X 103
2083.3
Cross sectional area of tank = = 46.3 m2.
45
Assuming the depth as 5 meter and free board 0.5 m.
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46.3
Width of tank (Including sludge capacity) = = 9.26 m.
5
Size of tank = 45 x 9.26 x 5.5 m.
Impervious Factor: 1. Equivalent roof area = K1 a1, 2. Equivalent road area = K2 a2.
3. Equivalent courtyard area = K3 a3 4. Equivalent open area = K4 a4. Where, a1, a2, a3, a4 are the
actual areas, and K1, K2, K3, K4 are their respective impervious factors, values of impervious
factors for different surface are given below in the Table.
Sr.No Type of surface Impervious factor
1 Roof drained by rain water pipes. 0.85 to 0.95
2 Roof surface drained into courtyard. 0.75 to 0.95
3 Asphalts and concrete roads. 0.85 to 0.90
4 Water bound macadam roads. 0.40 to 0.50
5 Courtyard partly paved. 0.20 to 0.25
6 Open space depending on type of soil. 0.10 to 0.20
a1 K1+ a2 K2+ a3 K3 +⋯
K.A = a1 K1 + a2 K2 + a3 K3 + …….. or K = . Where, A = Total actual area.
A
K = Equivalent impervious factor for the whole area. It is denoted by I.
Percentage Impervious factor: (1): I = N + 20 for tar macadam road area. I = 2N + 10 for water
3
macadam road area. (2): I = 8.7 √𝑁, √𝑅. Where, I = Percentage equivalent Impervious factor,
N = Number of houses per hectare. R = Intensity of rainfall in cm/hour.
Determining Quantity of Storm Sewage
Rational Method: (1): Q = 28 AIR Lit/sec. (M.K.S System). (2): Q = AIR cusecs (F.P.S system).
Where, Q = Discharge of sewage in Lit/Sec (Cusecs), A = Area in hectares (acres), I = Impervious
factor (Run off co efficient), R = Intensity of rain fall cm (in).
4 𝑆 4 𝑆
Empirical Method: (1). Q = 29.5 A.I.R. √𝑅 Lit/sec (M.K.S System), Q = A.I.R √𝑅 Cusecs (F.P.S.
5 15 5 15
System). (2): Q = 29.2 A.I.R √ 𝐴 Lit/sec (M.K.S. System), Q = A.I.R √ 𝐴 Cusecs (F.P.S. System).
Example 7: A catchment area consists of various surfaces. The area and their individual
impervious factors are given below. Find out the average impervious factor for the whole
area.
Sr. # Surface Area Impervious factor
1 Roofs 25 hectares 0.90
2 Roads 25 hectares 0.60
3 Paving 15 hectares 0.40
4 Open space 35 hectares 0.12
Sol: Roof area = a1 = 25 hectares, Impervious factor for roof = K1 = 0.90, Road area = a2 = 25
hectares, Impervious factor for road = K2 = 0.60, Paving area = a3 = 15 hectares. Impervious
factor for paving = K3 = 0.40, Open area = a4 = 35 hectares, Impervious factor for open area =
K4 = 0.12. Total area = A = 25 + 25 + 15 + 35 = 100 Hectares.
Average impervious factor = I = a1k1 + a2k2 + a3k3 + a4k4/A
25 X 0.9+25 X 0.6+15 X 0.4+35 X 0.12
= 0.477.
100
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Example 8: Workout the quantities of dry weather flow and wet weather flow of a town with
following data. Total area = 500 hectares. Rate of supply = 150 lit/capita/day. Population = 10
x 105. Intensity of rainfall = 25 mm/hour. Average impervious factor = 0.55. Assume that 80 %
of water supplied reaches the sewer.
Sol: Dry weather flow: Population = 10 x 105 persons, rate of water supply = 150
lit/person/day. Total quantity of water supplied in 24 hours = 10 x 105 x 150 = 1.5 x 105 Lit.
Portion the sewer of water that reaches = 0.80 x 1.5 x 108 = 1.2 x 108 Lit
1.2 𝑋 108 1388.88
Discharge per second = 24 𝑋 60 𝑋 60 = 1388.88 Lit/sec. = = 1.389 m3/sec.
1000
Wet weather flow: Total area = A = 500 hectares, Impervious factor = I = 0.55, Intensity of rain
fall = 2.5 cm/hour, Discharge = Q =?
Q = 28 AIR, = 28 x 500 x 0.55 x 2.5 = 19250 Lit/sec. = 19.25 m3/sec.
𝐶 𝐶
Hydraulic Method: 1: Chezy’s formula: V = 0.55 √𝑚𝑖 m/sec. V = √𝑚𝑖 ft/sec. where, v = velocity
in meters/sec (ft/sec), C = Chezy’s constant, m = hydraulic mean depth (A/P) in meters (ft), it is
also denoted by r. I = slope of invert of sewer, it is also denoted by s.
157.5
K 157.5
i: Bazin’s Formula: C = 1 + for M.K.S. System. C = K for F.P.S. System.
√𝑚 𝑋 3.2 1+
√m
Where, m = hydraulic mean depth (i.e. Area/wetted perimeter). K = Bazin,s constant, the values
of K for different surfaces are given below:
K = 0.1 for very smooth concrete plaster surface, k = 0.3 for smooth brick and concrete surface,
k = 0.5 for rough brick and concrete surface, k = 0.8 for smooth rubble masonry surface, k = 1.5
for well-maintained earth channel, k = 3.2 for not properly maintained earth channel.
1 0.00155 1.811 0.00281
23+ + 41.6+ +
𝑁 𝑖 𝑁 𝑖
ii: Kutter’s Formula: C = 0.00155 √𝑁
, for M.K.S. System. C = 0.0028 √𝑁
, for F.P.S.
1+(23+ ) 1+(41.6+ )
𝑖 𝑚 𝑖 𝑚
System. Where, C = cutter’s constant chezy’s formula, m = hydraulic mean depth, I = gradient of
sewer, N = coefficient of roughness (rugosity factor), the value of n is given in the following
table:
No. Nature of inside surface of channel Value of N
1 Smooth cement plastered surface 0.010
2 Iron or steel surface or wood stave pipe 0.011
3 Surface of concrete or unplanned timber 0.012
4 Cast iron pipe 0.013
5 Stoneware pipe well laid 0.013
6 Stone ware pipe roughly laid 0.015
7 Ordinary brick work 0.015
8 Rough brickwork or stone masonry 0.017
9 Smooth earthen channels 0.020
10 Corrugated iron pipe 0.021
11 Earthen channels in average condition 0.025
12 Earthen channels in bad condition 0.030
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2: Manning’s Formula: V = 1/N m2/3 i1/2 meter/sec. v = 1.486/n m2/3 i1/2 ft/sec.
Where, V = velocity of flow in m/sec (ft./sec). m = hydraulic mean depth, I = Gradient of sewer,
n = coefficient of roughness (rugosity factor), (The value of N is given in the above table).
3: Hazen & William’s formula: V = 0.85 C r0.63 S0.54 meter/sec, V = 1.318 C r0.63 S0.54 ft/sec.
Where, V = velocity of flow in m/sec (ft./sec), r + Hydraulic mean depth in meters (ft), r =
hydraulic mean depth in meters (ft.), C = Constant, the value of C for surfaces are as under:
C = 100 for old cast iron and new brickwork. C = 110 for stone ware pipe in good condition. C =
130 for new cast iron sewers. C = 140 for very smooth surfaces.
4: Crimp & Brudge’s Formula: V = 83 m2/3 i1/2 M.K.S. System, V = 124 m2/3 i1/2 F.P.S. System.
Where, V = velocity of flow in m/sec (ft./sec). m = hydraulic mean depth in meters (ft). i =
gradient of sewer.
Example 9: Calculate the velocity of flow in a sewer of diameter 120 cm running full. The
sewer is laid at a gradient of 1 in 200. What will be the discharge of this sewer? Assume the
value of N = 0.012 in Manning’s formula. Compare this discharge with crimp and brudges
formula.
Sol: Dia of pipe = d = 120 cm =120/100 = 1.2 m.
𝜋𝑑2 3.142(1.2)2
Area of pipe = A = = = 1.13 m2. Wetted perimeter = P = πd = 3.142 x 1.2 = 3.77 m.
4 4
𝐴 1.13 1
Hydraulic mean depth = m = 𝑃 = 3.77 = 0.3 m. Gradient of sewer = i = 200 = 0.005. value of N =
0.012.
1 1
According to Manning’s Formula; V = 𝑁m2/3 i1/2 = 0.012 (0.3)2/3(0.005)1/2 = 2.64 m/sec. Discharge
= Q = V.A = 2.64 x 1.13 = 2.98 m3/sec.
According to Crimp & Brudge’s Formula: V = 83 m2/3 i1/2 = 83(0.3)2/3(0.005)1/2 =2.63 m/sec and Q
= V.A = 2.64 x 1.13 = 2.97 m3/sec. It is nearly to Q as in the case of Manning’s formula.
Example 10: A concrete lined smooth channel, 1.6 m wide and one meter deep built to a
slope of 1:200. Using Bazin’s coefficient in the Chezy’s formula, determine the discharge of
sewage.
Sol: Breadth of channel = B = 1.6 m, Depth of channel = D = 1 m. Area of channel = A = B.D = 1 =
𝐴 1.6
1.6 mm2. Wetted perimeter = A = 1.6 + 1 + 1 = 3.6 m. Hydraulic mean depth = m = 𝑃 = = 0.44
3.6
1
m. Value of K for smooth concrete surface = K = 0.30 (from Table). Gradient of sewer = i = =
200
0.005. Bazin’s constant for Chezy’s formula:
157.5 157.5
K 0.30
C= 1+ √𝑚 𝑋 3.2
= 1+ √0.44 𝑋 3.2
= 125.7.
V = 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖 = 125.7√0.44 𝑋 0.005 = 5.9 m/sec. Discharge = Q = V.A = 5.9 x 1.6 = 9.4 m3/sec.
Example 11: Calculate the velocity in a circular sewer of 24 in diameter laid to a slope of 1 in
300. What will be the discharge when the sewer is running full? Assume value of rugosity
factor as 0.012.
𝜋𝑑2 3.142(2)2
Sol: Dia of sewer = d = 24” = 2 ft. Area of sewer = A = 4 𝑋 2 (for half full) = 4𝑋2
= 1.57 ft2.
𝜋𝑑 3.142 𝑋 2 𝐴 12.57
Wetted perimeter = = = 3.142 ft. Hydraulic mean depth = m = 𝑃 = 3.142 = 0.5 m.
2 2
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1
Gradient of sewer = i = 300 = 0.033. Value of N = 0.012.
1 1
According to Manning’s Formula: V = 𝑁m2/3 i1/2 = V = 0.012(0.5)2/3 (0.0033)1/2 = 3 ft./sec. and Q =
V.A = 3 x 1.57 = 4.71 ft.3/sec.
Example 12: Design a sanitary branch sewer to serve an area having a population of 20000
persons with a rate of supply of 130 lit/person/day.
Sol: Total population of the area = 20000 persons. Rate of supply = 130 lit/no/day.
2600000
Average flow per day = 20000 x 130 = 2600000 liters. Average flow per second = 24 𝑋 60 𝑋 60 = 30
lit/sec. Maximum flow = 30 x 3 = 90 lit/sec = 0.09 m3/sec.
With this discharge, sewer pipe will flow 2/3 full and for full capacity of sewer the flow will be =
𝑄 0.135
0.09 x 1.5 = 0.135 m3/sec. Assuming velocity of 1 m/sec, Q = A.V, and area = A = = = 0.135
𝑉 1
m 2.
𝜋𝑑2 𝑑𝑋4 0.135 𝑋 4
= 0.135 => d = √ =√ = 0.42 m. A sewer of 45 cm dia will be used.
4 𝜋 3.142
Example 13: Design a sanitary main circular concrete sewer for a population of 50000 persons
with a rate of supply 30 gal/person/day.
Sol: Total population of the area = 50000 persons. Rate of supply = 130 gal/person/day.
1500000
Average flow per day = 50000 x 30 = 1500000 liters. Average flow per second = 24 𝑋 60 𝑋 60 =
17.36
17.36 gal/day. = = 2.78 cft./sec. Maximum flow = 2.78 x 3 = 8.34 cusecs.
6.24
With this discharge, sewer pipe will flow 2/3 and full sewer flow will be = 8.34 x 1.5 = 12.51
𝑄 12.51
cusecs. Discharge = Q = A.V, and area = A = 𝑉 = = 4.17 ft2.
3
𝜋𝑑2 𝑑𝑋4 4.17 𝑋 4
= 4.17 => d = √ =√ = 2.3 ft. A 30 inches’ diameter pipe will be used.
4 𝜋 3.142
Example: Determine the runoff coefficient for an area of 0.20 km2. 3000 m2 is covered by
buildings, 5000 m2 by paved driveways and walks, and 2000 m2 by Portland cement streets.
The remaining area is flat, heavy soil, covered by grass lawn.
Sol: Calculate the percentage of land area in each category.

,
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suburban sections with few buildings. The rational method should not be used for large areas
nor for regions incorporating significant surface storage such as ponds or swamps. The
technique is used for urban areas, generally not exceeding 5 km2 in area. For areas larger than
0.5 km2 other techniques may be more suitable.
Example 7.7: Design a rectangular sedimentation basin for the following data:
i. Volume of water to be treated = 3 million liters per day. Ii. Detention period = 4 hours.
iii. Velocity of flow = 10 cm/min.
Sol: Detention time = 4 hours = 4 x 60 = 240 min. Velocity of flow = 10 cm/min.
• Length of tank = 0.10 x 240 = 24 m.
3 𝑋 106 4 500
Volume of water in 4 hours = × 500 𝑚3 , Cross section area: A = 20.8 𝑚3
103 24 24
20.8
Assume a working depth of 3 m. • Width of tank = =7𝑚
3
Provide an extra depth of 1 m for sludge storage and 0.5 m for free board making a total depth
= 3 + 1.5 = 4.5. Hence providing a settling tank of size 24 m x 7 m x 4.5 m.
3 𝑋 106
Check: Volume of water per hour =
24
3 𝑋 106 1
Surface loading rate = ( 24 ) 𝑋 24 𝑋 7 = 744 liters/hour/m2 which is satisfactory.
Example 7.8: Design a circular sedimentation basin for the above (Example 7.7) data.
Sol: A circular sedimentation tank is generally provided with its bottom cone shaped, with a
slope of 1 vertical to 12 horizontal. Under this condition, its volume V, in terms of its diameter D
and height H is given by: V = D2 (0.011 D + 0.785 H).
3 𝑋 106 4
Now volume of water during detention period: = 3 × 24
500 𝑚3
10
Let the effective depth = 3 m. Substituting the values in above expression, we get
500 = D2 (0.011 D + 0.785 x 3). Solving this by trial, we get:
Providing the extra depth of 1.5 m for sludge storage and free board, the size of the tank is 14.2
m. dia x 4.5 m. depth.
Example 7.9: Design a plain sedimentation basin to treat 3 million liters per day to settle at
least 75 % of the particles of grain sizes 0.002 cm or more, Assume any suitable data required.
Sol: Velocity of settlement of 0.002 cm (or 0.02 mm) diameter as 260C can be determined from
Eq. 7.9 (a) by assuming an average specific gravity of 2.65.
3 ×26 +70
Va = 418 (2.65 – 1)(0.02)2 ( ) = 0.408 mm/sec = 0.0408 cm/sec.
100
From Eq. 7.18, 1 cm per sec settling velocity corresponds to a surface loading of 8,64,000 liters
per day/m2. Associated surface loading = 864000 x 0.0408 = 35278 liters/day/m2.
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Assume the depth of tank as 3 m. The time required to safe with the above velocity of 0.0408
300
cm/sec will be = 0.0408 ×60 = 104 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
As per past experience, 75% removal of the particles of the designed category, (i.e., 0.002 cm),
the surface loading should be reduced by an average of 52% and the detention time increased
by 120%.
• Design surface loading = 35278 x 0.52 = 18345 liters/day/m2.
120 229
Design detention period = 104 (1 + 100) = 229 min. = 3.81 hours.
60
3 ×106
• Surface area = = 163.5 m2.
18345
3 𝑋 106 3.81
Volume of water in 3.81 hours = × = 476.2 m2. L = 10 x 3 = 30 m.
103 24

30
Displacement velocity flow = = 0.13 m/min.
229
Provide an extra depth of 1 m for sludge storage and 0.5 m. for free board, making a total depth
= 3 + 1.5 = 4.5. Hence provide a tank of 30 m. x 16 m. x 4.5 m. size.
Example 5.3: Compute the fire demand for a city having population of 1,40,000 using various
formulae.
Sol: P = population in thousands = 1.40.
Kuichling,s formula: Q = 3182 √𝑃 = 3182 √140 = 37650 litres/min. = 0.627 cumecs.
Buston,s formula: Q = 5663 √𝑃 = 5663 √140 = 67000 litres/min. = 1.117 cumecs.
𝑃 140
Freeman,s formula: Q = 1136 ( 5 + 10) = 1136 ( + 10) = 43168 litres/min. = 0.719 cumecs.
5
National board of fire underwriter,s formula: Q = 4637 √140 (1 – 0.01 √140) = 48,374
liters/min. = 0.806 cumecs.
Example 8.1: A city has a population of 20,000 with an average of demand as 150 litres per
capita per day. Find the area of slow sand filters.
Sol: Max. daily demand = 20,000 x 150 x 1.5 = 4,500,000 litres.
Let us assume the average of filtration as 150 litres per hour per m2 of filter area.
4,500,000
Area of filters = = 1250 𝑚2
150 ×24
Let us provide each filter unit of size 20 x 12.5 m, giving as area of 250 m 2. Total number of filter
units will be 5. However, provide 1 unit as standby, making a total of 6 units of each 20 x 12.5 m.
Example 8.2: A city has a population of 100,000 with an average of demand as 160 litres per
capita per day. Find the area of rapid sand filters.
Sol: Max. daily demand = 100,000 x 160 x 1.5 = 24,000,000 litres.
Let us assume an average filtration rate of 4500 litres per hour per m2 of filter area.
24,000,000
Area of filters = = 222.2 𝑚2 . Let the size of each filter unit be 9 m. x 5 m. No. of
4500 ×24
222.5
units required = Area of filters = = 5. Keeping one unit as standby, provide a total of 6 units.
9×5
These may be arranged in series with 3 units on either side.
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Example: Design the SSF for a WTP working 16 hr/d, if the design flow is 32,000 m 3/d.
Solution: Qd = 32000 m3/d = 32000/16 = 2000 (m3/h), Assume that ROF = 6 m3/m2/d = 6/24
(m3/m2/hr). SA = 2000/(6/24) = 8000 m2. Assume L = 50 m, B = L/1.25 = 40. SA = 50 * 40 = 2000
m2. n = 8000/2000 = 4 filters (ok). Take total No. of filters = 4 + 1 = 5 filters.
Example: Design the RSF for a WTP working 16 hr/d, if the design flow is 32000 m 3/d.
Solution: Qd = 32000 m3/d = 32000/16 = 2000 (m3/h). Assume ROF = 200 m3/m2/d = 200/24
m3/m2/hr = 5 (m3/m2/hr). SA = 2000/5 = 400 m2. Assume L = 8 m, B = L/1.25 = 6.25. SA1 =
8*6.25 = 50 m2. nw = 400/50 = 8 filters (ok). nT = 8 + 2 = 10 filters. Assume that ROW = 5 ROF =
25 m3/m2/hr. Amount of wash water (m3/d) = no. of washing by day (1) * time of washing (10
min)* nT (10) * ROW (25) (m3/m2/hr)/(60 min/hr) * SA (50) (m2) = 2083 m3/d.
% WW = (2083/32000) *100 = 6.5 %.
Example 8.3: A flat bottom trough is to receive the wash water from a section of the filter
which is 2 m. wide and 3 m. long. The wash water rate is 700 litres per min. per sq.m. If the
water is to have a depth of 25 cm at the upper end of the trough, what should be the
dimensions of the trough ?
Sol: In Eq. 8.1, Q = 700 x 2 x 3 = 4200 litres per min. y = 25 cm. Q = 0.8 by3/2
or 4200 = 0.8 b(25)3/2, From which: b = 42 cm.
Providing a free board of 5 cm, the depth of trough will be = 25 + 5 = 30 cm.
Example: 1. The residential area of a city has a population density of 15000 persons/ km2 and
an area of 120000 m2. If average water consumption is 400 litres per capita day. Find the
average and maximum sewage flow in m3 /day.
Sol: Pop. Density = 15000 per / km2, Area = 120000 m2, Avg. Water Consumption= 400 lpcd
Total population = 15000 x 120000 / (1000)2 = 1800 persons
Avg. Sewage flow = 1800 x 400 x (80/100) = 576000 l/day = 576 m3/day
Peak factor: M = 1 + 14/(4 +P) (in thousands), M = 1 + 14/(4 +1.80) = 3.62
Max sewage flow = 3.62 x 576 = 2085.12 m3/day = 1.448 m3/sec.
Example 2: Calculate the size and slope of a sanitary trunk sewer serving a population of 0.4
million. Use peak flow as 2.3. Water consumption is estimated to be 300 lpcd. Pipe used is
RCC. Take infiltration as 10% of average sewage flow.
Solution: water supply = Population * per capita demand = 0.4 x 1000000 x 300 = 120000 m 3 /
day = 1.388 m3 / sec
Dry weather flow: Average Sewer flow = 1.388 x 80/100 = 1.11 m3 / sec = 96000 m3 / day
Peak Factor (WASA) = 2.3: Peak Flow =2.3 x 96000 = 220800 m3 / day; Infiltration = 10/100 x
96000 = 9600 m3 / day. Design Flow = Peak Flow + infiltration = 220800 + 9600 =230400 m3 /
day = 2.67 m3 / sec. Dia of sewer: Q = AV = 230400 x 1 / 24 x 60 x 60 = A x 0.6 => A = 4.45 m2
=> Diameter = 2.38 m ; Slope of sewer: V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2 => 0.6 = 1/0.013 x (2.38/4)2/3 (S)1/2 =>S
= 1.2157 x 10‐4. S = 0.0001215 mm.
Example 3: A watershed to contribute an urban storm drainage is 50 hectares, of which 30 ha.
having C value of 0.36 with 7% slope, and 20 ha. of 0.5 with 3% slope. The length of run is 720
meters. Calculate peak runoff if rainfall intensity is 15 cm/hour. Velocity of flow is 1.2 m/s
Given Information: Area = 50 hectares of which 30 ha. Having C = 0.36 and 20 ha = 0.5 I= 15
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cm/hr. Required : Peak Discharge

Solution: The weighted value of C = (30* 0.36/50) + (20*0.5/50) = 0.415 = 0.416
Time of concentration = Length of run/ velocity = 720/(1.2 * 60 ) = 10 minutes
Rational formula for peak discharge Q = 0.0278 C I A = 0.0278 * 0.416 * 15 *50 = 8.65 m3/sec.
A watershed of 4,000,000 m2 has a present CN of 70 and an average slope of 3%.
Development will modify 70% of the hydraulic length, increase the impervious area to 40%,
and increase CN to 80. compute the present and future peak discharge from a 100mm 24‐hr.
storm. Given information:‐Area =4,000,000 m2 ; CN= 70 Slope = 3% Modification caused area =
70% CN = 80 Rainfall = 100mm‐ 24hr storm Required: Present and future Peak discharge.
Solution: Peak discharge with CN 70 and 100 mm = 33.3 mm/24hr
So Peak discharge = 4,000000 * 33.3 mm*m/1000mm * 1/24hr *hr/60mint*mint/60 secs =
1.542 m3/sec
Development % CN Product
70 80 5600
30 70 2100
Average CN = 7700/100 = 77
By Interpolation (X ‐ X1/ X2 ‐ X1) =( Y ‐ Y1/ Y2 ‐ Y1) => (77 ‐ 75) / (80 ‐ 75)= (Y ‐ 41.8/(51.0 ‐ 41.8)
= 2/5 = Y ‐ 41.8/9.2 = 9.2*2 = 5Y ‐ 209 =Y => 18.4 + 209/5 = 227.4/5 = Y => 45.48 mm
Total Peak discharge = 4,000000 m2 * (45.48 mm/1000 mm/m) * (1/24hr*hr/60 minutes*
minutes/60 secs) = 2.106 m3 sec‐1 Answer.
Example 4: A 915 mm circular combined sewer is laid on a slope of 0.003 and it is flowing full.
Manning's n = 0.013 what will be the velocity and depth of flow when sewer is
carrying 0.142m3/s discharge? Let d/D = 0.3 and Va/Vf = 0.6
Solution D = 915 mm; S = 0.003; n = 0.013
Vfull = 1/n R2/3 S1/2. = 1/0.013 (915/4 x 1000)2/3 (0.003)1/2 =1.276 m/s
Q =AV = /4 x (0.915)2 x 1.276 = 1.036 m3/s
Qa = 0.142 m3/s Qa/Qf = 0.142/1.036 = 0.137  0.14
d/D = 0.3 d = 0.3 x 915 = 274.5 mm
Va/Vf = 0.6 Va = 0.6 x 1.576 = 0.946 m/s

Example 5: A community with a population of 22,000 has an average consumption of 600

Lpcd and a fire flow dictated by a building of ordinary construction with a floor
area of 1000 m2 and a height of 6 stories. Determine the required capacity of
the pipe distribution system.
Solution: Avg. daily consumption = 600 × 22000 = 132 × 105 Lpd = 13,200 m3 /day
Max. daily consumption = 1.8 × Avg. daily rate = 1.8×13,200 = 23, 760 m3 /day
Max. hourly consumption = 2.7×Avg. daily rate = 2.7×13,200 = 35,640 m3 /day
F = 320 C √A = 320 ×1× (√1000×6) = 24,787 m3 /day (17.2 m3 /min < 32 m3
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/min, o.k). The fire flow duration = 10 hr. The total flow required during this day = 23, 760 m3
/day + 24,787 (10/24) = 34,000 m3 /day < Max. hourly rate (35,640 m3 /day)
Then, the pipe capacity must be 35,640 m3/day.
Example 6: Estimate the municipal water demands for a city of 225,000 persons, assuming
the average daily consumption 600 Lpcd.
Sol: Step 1: Estimate the avg. daily demand "Qavg": Qavg = 600 L/cd × 225,000 c = 135,000,000
L/d = 1.35 × 105 m3/day.
Step 2: Estimate the max. Daily demand "Qmax": Qmax = 1.8 × 1.35 × 105 = 2.43 × 105 m3/day
Step 3: Calculate the fire demand: Q (m3/hr) = 231.6 √P (1 – 0.01 √P)
= 231.6 √225 (1 – 0.01 √225) = 2,952.9 m3/hr = 49.215 m3/min
For 10-hr duration of daily rate: Q = 2,952.9 m3/hr × (10 h/day) = 0.3 × 105 m3/day
Step 4: sum of max. daily demand and fire demand: The total flow required = 2.43 × 105 + 0.3 ×
105 = 2.73 × 105 m3/day.
Step 5: calculate the max. hourly demand: Qmax. Hourly = 2.7 × 1.35 × 105 = 3.645 × 105 m3/day.
Step 6: compare and we take the larger which will be 3.645 × 10 5 m3/day.
Annual rate of increase: Pn = Po (1+R/100)n, Where R = rate of increase, n = Time period (years)
Pn = Pop. After n years, Po = Present pop.
Example 7: If R = 2 % & Po = 60000 cap. It is required to estimate Pop. after 30 years
Sol: P30 = 60000 (1+2/100)30 = 108680 capita. Future Water Consumption, Percentage increase
in W.C. = 10 % of percentage increase in population. ∆ W.C. = (10/100) ∆Pop.
Example 8: R = 2 % (% increase of Pop.) W.Co (present W.C) = 200 L/c/d It is required to
determine W.C. after 30 years
Solution: W.C30 = W.Co (1+0.1R/100)n, W.C30 = 200 (1+2/1000)30 = 212.4 L/c/d
Example 9: For a town of Pop. 60000 cap. And an average water consumption of 200 L/c/d.
If the Pop. Increased at a rate of 2% per year and the increase of water consumption is 10 %
of the percentage increase of Pop. Per year. Find the max. monthly, daily and hourly
consumption discharge now and after 30 years.
Solution: Qaverage (now) = Pop. (now) × W.C. (now) = 60000 × 200 = 12 × 106 L/d = 12000 m3/d
Qmax. Monthly = 1.4 (12000) = 16800 m3/d, Qmax. daily = 1.8 (12000) =21600 m3/d.
Qmax. hourly = 2.7 (12000) =32400 m3/d, At future Qaverage (future) = Pop. (future) × W.C.
(future). P30 = 60000 (1+2/100)30 = 108680 capita. W.C30 = 200 (1+2/1000)30 = 212.4 L/c/d
Qmax. monthly = 1.4 (108680 × 212.4) = 32317 m3/d. Qmax. daily = 1.8 (108680 × 212.4) = 41550
m3/d. Qmax. hourly = 2.7 (108680 × 212.4) =62325 m3/d.
Example 10: In a city, the population growth is characterized as exponential with growth rate
of 2% and the annual increase in water consumption is 2 Lpcd. Estimate the avg. and peak
flow rates (m3/d) in both the current year 2009 and the year 2019, if the Current population
of a city = 150,000 and Current avg. water consumption = 100 Lpcd. Assume that 80% of the
water use reaches sewers, and exclude infiltration.
Solution: Avg. W.W. flow rate = 0.80 × 100 Lpcd × 150,000 c = 12 × 106 Lpd = 12,000 m3/d
P.F = 1 + 14/(4 + √P ) = 1 + 14/(4 + √150 ) = 1.86. Peak W.W flow = 12,000 × 1.86 = 22,320 m3/d
For the year 2019: Population = 150,000 × e 0,02 × 10 = 183,210. Avg. per capita water use = 10
73 | P a g e

y × 2 Lpcd/y + 100 Lpcd = 120 Lpcd. Avg. W.W flow rate = 0.8 × 120 × 183,210 = 17,588,160 Lpd
= 17,588 m3/d. P.F = 1 + 14/(4 + √183) = 1.8. Peak W.W flow = 17,588 × 1.8 = 31,658 m3/d.
Example: Determine the head loss in a 1000 m pipeline with a diameter of 500 mm that
is discharging 0.25 m3/s. Assume that C = 130.
Solution: Using the Hazen-Williams equation

Using the Nomo-graph for C = 100. At Q = 250 L/s and d = 500 mm  S100 = hf/L = 4.6 m/1000
m. S130 = S100 (100/C)1.85 = (4.6/1000) × (100/130)1.85 = 2.83/1000.
hf = S × L = (2.83/1000) × 1000 = 2.83 m.
Runoff Coefficient (C): C relates the combined effects of infiltration, evaporation and
surface storage. It increases as the rainfall continues (depends on characteristics of
drainage area: slope, moisture, soil type, ground cover, etc.).
For impervious surfaces: C = 0.175 t1/3 or C = t / (8 + t), Where t = duration of storm in minutes
For improved pervious surfaces: C = 0.3 t / (20 + t).
Table 13-2 presents C values Runoff coefficients for various surfaces
Type of surface C Type of surface C
Watertight roofs 0.70 - 0.95 Asphaltic cement streets 0.85 – 0.90
Portland cement streets 0.80 – 0.95 Paved driveways & walks 0.75 – 0.85
Graved driveways & walks 0.15 – 0.30
Type of surface C Type of surface C
Lawns, sandy soil Lawns, heavy soil
2% slope 0.05 – 0.10 2% slope 0.13 – 0.17
2-7% slope 0.10 – 0.15 2-7% slope 0.18 – 0.22
> 7% slope 0.15 – 0.20 > 7% slope 0.25 – 0.35
For a composite drainage area (e.g. residential area and business area) an effective runoff
coefficient can be obtained by estimating the percentage of the total area that is covered by
roofs, lawn, etc., multiplying each fraction by the corresponding C and then summing the
products: C effective = C1 (A1/Atotal) + C2 (A2/Atotal) + ………
C effective = (C1 A1 + C2 A2 + ……) / Atotal
Example: Determine the run off coefficient for an area of 0.2 Km2, of which 3000 m2 is
covered by buildings, 5000 m2 by paved driveways and walk, and 2000 m2 by Portland cement
streets. The remaining area is flat, heavy soil covered by grass.
Solution
Surface Type Area (m2) C (Table 13-2) Ci (Ai/Atotal)
Roofs 3000 0.7 – 0.95 0.7 (3000/200,000) – 0.95 (3000/200,000) =
0.0105 – 0.0143
Paved 5000 0.75 – 0.85 0.75 (5000/200,000) – 0.85 (5000/200,000) =
driveway 0.0188 – 0.0213
Cement 2000 0.8 – 0.95 0.8 (2000/200,000) – 0.95 (2000/200,000) =
streets 0.008 – 0.0095
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Lawn (Slope = 190,000 0.13 – 0.17 0.13 (190,000/200,000) – 0.17

2% ≈ flat) (190,000/200,000) = 0.124 – 0.162
C effective = ∑ 0.16 – 0.21
The effective C = 0.16 – 0.21.Ans. The higher C value can be used as a conservative practice. OR
Solution : From Table 13-2, one may obtain values of C for each area: Runoff-Coefficient-
Estimation: • Roofs 0.70 to 0.95. • Driveways and walks 0.7to 0.85. • Street 0.80 to 0.95.
• Lawn 0.13 to 0.17. The fraction of the area with each surface is: • Roofs 3000/200,000 = 0.015
• Driveways and walks 5000/200,000 = 0.025. • Street 2000/200,000 = 0.010. • Lawn
190,000/200,000 = 0.95. The average value of C, depending on the specific values chosen for
the individual areas, will thus lie between 0.16 and 0.21. Conservative practice, in the absence
of local knowledge, would be to use the higher values in the table, resulting in a runoff
coefficient of 0.21
Table 13-3 presents values for composite areas of specific characteristics.
Runoff coefficients for different areas3.
Description of area C Description of area C
Business
Downtown area 0.70 - 0.95 Neighborhood area 0.50 - 0.70
Residential (urban)
Single-family area 0.30 - 0.50 Multiunit, attached 0.60 - 0.75
Residential (sub-urban) 0.25 - 0.40 Multiunit, detached 0.40 -0.60
Apartment areas 0.50 - 0.70
Industrial
Light 0.50 - 0.80 Heavy 0.60 - 0.90
Parks, cemeteries 0.10 - 0.25 Playgrounds 0.20 - 0.35
Railroads yards 0.20 - 0.40 Unimproved areas 0.10 - 0.30
Example: A sewer drains a single-family residential area (A= 10,000 m2) with C = 0.35. The
distance from the most remote point is 60 m over ordinary grass with a slope of 4%.
Determine the design flow.
Solution: From Figure 13-3, inlet time = 15 min. = tc
From a curve of the intensity-duration-frequency relationship at t = 15 min for a certain return
period (say 10 year return period), the intensity can be found. i = 156 mm/h.
 Q = C i A = 0.35 x 0.156 m/h x 10,000 m2 = 546 m3/h.
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Example: It's required to design the ground storage of a WTP serves 300,000 capita with
average summer water consumption of 420 l/c/d. if the summer peak factor is 1.40
Solution: Calculations of flows: qmm = 420 l/c/d. qav = 420/1.4 l/c/d = 300 l/c/d
Qav = 300 * 300,000 = 90,000,000 l/d = 90,000 m3/d = 3,750 m3/hr. Qmm = 1.4* Qav = 5,250
m3/hr = 126,000 m3/d. Qmd = 1.8* Qav = 6,750 m3/hr = 162,000 m3/d.
Example: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank for a population of one lack persons. Rate
of water supply is 150 lit/no/day. Water will stay for 2 hours in tank (detention period).
Sol: Capacity of tank: Let’s consider 80% of water supply as sewage flow, average discharge:
Q = 150 x 100000 x 80% = 12000000 lit/day = 12000 m3/day.
12000 ×2
Capacity of tank = = 1000 m3. Length x Breadth x depth = 1000 m3.
24
Volume of tank = L x B x d = 1000 m3. Assume the depth = 3 meter & length = 3b.
1000 9𝑏2
Volume of tank = 3b x b x 3 = = = √111.111 = √𝑏 2 = 10.5 = b ⇒ b = 10.5 m.
9 9
L = 3b, L = 3 x 10.5, L = 31.5 m. Provide 4m for inlet & outlet then: L = 31.5 m + 4m = 35.5 m.
L = 35.5, b = 10.5, d = 3 m. Let’s Provide 1 m. for sludge & 0.5 m. as freeboard so total depth =
d = 3 m + 1 m + 0.5 m = 4.50 meter. So, L = 35.5m, b = 10.5m, d = 4.50m.
Examples: If the period of incubation is 10 days at 200C in the relative conductivity test on
sewage, calculate the percentage of relative stability.
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Sol: Relative stability = S. S = 100 [ 1 -(0795)t 20]. Where, t20 = 10 days (given)
S = 100 [ 1 -(0795)10]. S = 100 [1 - 0.0995875]. S = 90.04 %.
Examples: Calculate the population equivalent of a city: (i) The average sewage from the city
is 95 x 10 6 l/day, and (ii) The average 5 day BOD is 300 mg/l
Sol: Average 5 day BOD = 300 mg/l. Average sewage flow= 95 x 10 6 l/day
Therefore total BOD in sewage = 300 x 95 x 10 6 mg/day = 300 x 95 kg/day = 28500 kg/day.
Total 5 day BOD in kg /day 28500
Population equivalent = = = 3,56,250.
0.08 0.08
Example: A gravity pipe serving a community of 50,000 inch. The length of the pipe is 200 m,
and the average water consumption is 120 L/c/d. Use an infiltration rate of 30 m3/day.km,
and a wastewater production rate of 80% of the water supply. Neglect the inflow for this
example, Calculate Qdes and Qmin.
Sol: a. Calculate the average domestic WW flow: [Qavg]w = 0.8 Qavg = 0.80 x 120 L/c/d x 50,000
14 14
capita x 10-3 = 4800 m3/d. b. Calculate the peak factor: 𝑃𝑓 = 1 + =1+ = 2.26.
4+√𝑃 4+√50
a. Calculate the maximum wastewater flow: Qmax = [Qavg]w x Pf = 2.26 x 4800 = 10848 m3/d.
1
b. Calculate the minimum wastewater flow: 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.2𝑃 6 × [𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑔 ] = 0.2(50)16 ×
𝑤
1845𝑚3
4800 = .
𝑑
c. Calculate the infiltration flow: Qinfi = 30 x 0.20 = 6 m3/d
d. Calculate the design flow: Qdes = Qmax + QI/I = 10848 + 6 = 10854 m3/d.
Example: Design a circular sedimentation tank if the capacity of tank is 10000 m3/day. Water
will stay for 2 hours in tank (detention period).
10000 × 2
Sol: Capacity of tank = = 833.34 m3. Volume = area of base x height.
24
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷2 833.34 2.356𝐷2
Volume = x H. Assume height of tank as 3 meters. ⇒ 833.34 = x3⇒ =
4 4 2.356 2.356
⇒ √353.68 = √𝐷2
⇒ 18.8 = D ⇒ D = 18.8 m, Say dia = 19 m.
Diameter of sedimentation tank = 19 m, & height or depth = 3 meter.
Let,s provide 1 m. for sludge & 0.5 m. as freeboard so: Total height = 3 + 1 + 0.5 = 4.5 m.
Example: Deign a circular sewer pipe having average discharge equal to 40 liter/sec.
Sol: Max flow = 40 x 3 = 120 liter/sec = 0.12 m3/sec. ⇒ Max flow = 0.12 cumec.
𝑄 0.18
Full flow = 0.12 x 1.5 = 0.18 cumec. ⇒ Q = A x V or A = ⇒ A = = 0.12 sq.m.
𝑉 1.5
𝜋𝐷2 0.12 × 4
4x = ⇒ √𝐷 2 = √0.1527887454 ⇒ D = 0.3908820095 m. or D = 39 or 40 cm.
𝜋4 𝜋
Fire Demand: Annual volumes used are small but rate of use is high
 Fire demand can be estimated from the following formula: F (gpm) = 18 C (A)0.5 where A =
total building floor area excluding basement (ft2)
F (m3/day) = 320 C (A)0.5 where A in m2, C = a coefficient related to the type of construction
and existence of automatic sprinkler. C = 1.5 for wood frame construction,
C = 0.8 for noncombustible construction, C = 1.0 for ordinary construction
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 Fire demand calculated from above formulas should not be more than 8000 gpm
(32 m3 /min) in general, nor 6000 gpm (23 m3 /min) for one story construction.
 Fire demand can also be estimated in terms of population: F (m3/hr) = 231.6 √P (1 – 0.01 √P)
not exceed 1500 m3/hr Where P is population in thousands  Fire flow duration: The duration
during the required fire flow must be available for 4 to 10 hours. National Board of Fire
recommends providing for a 10 hours’ fire in towns exceeding 2500 in population.  The water
distribution system (the pipe network) should be designed to provide the larger of"  The
maximum hourly demand or  The maximum daily demand + fire demand.
Sewage flow storm water
1: Rational Formula: The simplest formula used for a catchment area of ≥0.5 km2 ≤3.0 km2. The
general form of Rational formula is Q = 0.0028 C i A where Q = peak discharge in m3sec‐1 ; C =
Runoff coefficient based on surface storage, infiltration and evaporation less for pervious and
more for impervious terrain ; I = rainfall intensity in mm hr‐1; A = catchment area in hectares.
• For impervious surfaces C= 0.175t1/3 or C= t /(8+t)
For pervious surfaces C= 0.3xt/(20+t) where t is the duration of storm in minutes.
Assumptions: (i) The maximum runoff rate to any design location is a function of the average
rate of rainfall during time of concentration, and
(ii) The Max. rate of rainfall occurs during time of concentration.
2: Time of concentration method: Time of concentration is defined as the flow time from the
most remote point in the discharge area to the point under consideration. Time of
concentration consists of two parts. (i) Inlet or overland flow time (Ti): the time taken by water
to flow overland from the critical point up to the point where it enters the drain. A number of
factors like rainfall intensity, surface slope and roughness, flow distance, infiltration capacity
and depression storage affect flow inlet time. Mathematically Ti =( 0.885 L3 /H)0.385 where Ti =
Inlet time in hours; L = length of overflow in km from critical point to drain mouth and H = total
fall of level from critical point to the mouth of drain in meters
(ii) The channel flow time (Tf): The time taken by water to flow in the drain channel from the
mouth to the considered point. Tf =Length of drain/velocity of drain.
Time of concentration Te = Ti+Tf
Differentiate between sewage and sewerage?
Ans: Sewers are the networks of small and big pipes that carry wastewater. All sewers together
form the sewerage. Sewers carry wastewater from home to the point of disposal, that is, the
wastewater treatment plant. After treating wastewater, the clean water is released into nearby
water bodies. Sewerage has manholes that can be used to clear blockages. Manholes are
located at every 50 to 60 meters in the sewerage.
Sewage is liquid waste containing dissolved impurities called as contaminants. Contaminants
are the harmful substances which can cause illness. It comprises of different types of impurities.
There are various types of sewage, depending upon the colour and odour.
What is water disinfection?
Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation or killing of pathogenic microorganisms.
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Microorganisms are destroyed or deactivated, resulting in termination of growth and

reproduction. When microorganisms are not removed from drinking water, drinking water
usage will cause people to fall ill. Sterilization is a process related to disinfection. However,
during the sterilization process all present microorganisms are killed, both harmful and
harmless microorganisms.
8 Types of Sewage Pipes: There are as many pipe choices for the sewage system as there are
for the supply mains. They difference, however, lies in the composition, level of resistance, pipe
capacity, unique characteristics and durability. It could be advantageous for a homeowner to
know the types, how they differ in performance and what sewage pipes to use in a given
environment. One that is strong, durable, efficient and apt without having to empty your
pockets. To this purpose, here are 8 of the most common types of sewer line pipes:
1. Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewer: As the name suggests, this type of sewer pipe is made up of a
mixture of asbestos fibre and cement. These materials make it easy for the sewer to hold
harmful materials such as sewage and wastewater. It has a smooth finish in the interior that
resists foreign objects from adhering to the walls. This feature of the AC pipe also allows
increased flow capacity has high resistance against corrosion.
2. Brick Sewer: This type of sewer pipe is common for large-scale sewer constructions.
However, this one requires a massive amount of work which is why very few homeowners opt
of it these days. This pipe is very prone to deformation and can support leaks and other
damages in a blink.
3. Fibre Cement Sewer: A fibre cement sewer pipe has the mixture of the qualities of concrete
and inorganic fibre. This pipe type has the lifespan of 50 to 70 years given proper maintenance
and occasional flush outs. Also, another feature of this pipe is its high resistance against
fluctuating temperature caused by varying chemical reactions. The system has a steady
maintained carrying capacity.
4. Cast Iron (CI) Sewer: Pipes that are cast iron are durable and definitely structurally sound
since they are made of metal. This has a high resistance to pressure, stress and varying
temperatures inside the pipe.
5. Steel Sewer: This sewer pipe is made of light materials foe easy sewer installation. However,
the light weight of the pipe also serves as a disadvantage. The feature reduces its capacity to
transport liquids.
6. Plastic Sewer: Plastic or PVC pipes are usually used because of its anti-corrosion features.
These pipes are light and are generally composed of plastic materials and compounds.
However, these pipes are not temperature resistance which makes them unsuitable for hot
locations and acidic contents. Such solutions may cause the pipe to weaken or expand and
deform.
7. Concrete Pipe: This is an eco-friendly pipe that has a strong structural foundation. Its
impressive structural strength gives the system protection and saves the system from various
plumbing issues. Its special feature include; high resistance to temperature change, corrosion,
pressure and dead weight, and it is proven that the pipe only gets better and grows stronger as
it grows in years.
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8. Ductile Iron Pipe: A ductile iron piping is fit for transporting sewage and wastewater from
residential establishments and industrial buildings. They have a short and easy installation
process since they are rarely damaged during this time because of their durability and ductility.
This pipe has the unique ability of elasticity that makes it convenient in handling the pipe.
Types of Sewers | Sewer Types according to Material
Following are different types of sewers according to material
1. Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewer: Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewers are manufactured from a
mixture of cement and asbestos fiber. Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewers are suitable for carrying
domestic sanitary sewage. Asbestos cement sewer is best as vertical pipe for carrying sullage
from upper floors of multistory buildings (in two pipe system of plumbing).
Advantages of Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewer: Smooth, Light in weight, can easily be cut, fitted
and drilled, Durable against soil corrosion
Disadvantages of Asbestos Cement (AC) Sewer: Brittle cannot withstand heavy loads, they are
easily broken in handling and transport.
2. Brick Sewers: Brick Sewers are made at site and used for construction large size sewer. Brick
Sewers are very useful for construction of storm sewer or combined sewer. Nowadays brick
sewers are replaced by concrete sewer. Brick sewers my get deformed and leakage may take
place. A lot of labour work is required.
Note: To avoid leakage the brick sewer should be plastered.
3. Cement Concrete: i. PCC – for dia upto 60 cm: Suitable for small storm drains. Not durable.
ii. RCC – for dia > 60 cm: They may be cast in situ or precast, resistant to heavy loads, corrosion
and high pressure. These are very heavy and difficult to transport.
4. Cast Iron (CI) Sewers: These types of sewer are High strength and durability water tight. Cast
Iron sewers can withstand high internal pressure and can bear external load. Cast Iron sewers
are suitable for the following conditions. When the sewage is conveyed under high pressure
When the sewer line is subject to heavy external load e.g. under railway line, foundation wall
etc, below highways. When there is considerable difference in temperature.
5. Steel Sewers: Steel sewers are Impervious, light, resistant to high pressure, flexible, suitable
when; The sewage is carried under pressure. The sewage has to be carried across a river under
water. The sewer has to cross under a railway track They are generally used for outfall and
trunk sewers.
6. Plastic Sewers: Nowadays PVC sewers are used for carrying sewage. Plastic sewers are
resistant to corrosion. Such types of sewer are light in weight, smooth and can be bent easily.
But Plastic sewers are having high co-efficient of thermal expansion and cannot be used in very
hot areas.
Other types of Sewer materials: Wooden Sewers (Rare now), Stoneware Sewers.
Factors that bring about the settlement of a particle in a sedimentation tank
factors affecting sediment transport are: 1. Velocity and depth of flow, 2. Size of sediment
particle, 3. Geometry of cross section, 4. Course of river flow.
Clear water condition may be followed in an open channel only if the velocity is as minimum as
to allow particles to settle down. Settling velocity of different particles can be calculated by
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using Stoke's Law. For analogy, take a rectangular sedimentary tank, where (length)/(flow
velocity) should be greater than or equal to (depth)/(settling velocity of slowest settling
particle).
Rainfall intensity: Rainfall intensity is defined as the ratio of the total amount of rain (rainfall
depth) falling during a given period to the duration of the period It is expressed in depth units
per unit time, usually as mm per hour (mm/h).
Inert Level: In civil engineering, the invert level is the base interior level of a pipe, trench
or tunnel; it can be considered the "floor" level. The invert is an important datum for
determining the functioning or flow line of a piping system. For example, the invert of a street
sewer connection could affect the feasibility of adding a toilet in the basement of a house.
Conversely, the obvert level is the highest interior level, and can be considered the "ceiling"
level.
45 lit of water per person per day is provided in Offices.
Chlorination of water is done to remove bacteria and other microbes.
In sludge tank, the gas mainly produced is Methane.or CO2.
Example; Calculate the population equivalent of a city given (i) the average sewage from the
city is 95 x 106 L/day and (ii) the average 5-day B.O.D. as the standard sewage.
Sol: The population equivalent of sewage is the number of the persons who could be
responsible for the sewage which would have the same characteristics of B.O.D. as the standard
sewage.
Again, 5-day B.O.D. per capita at 200C of a standard, sewage, is, measured between 73 to 82
gm/day.
Average sewage = 95 x 106 L/day. 5-day B.O.D. = 300 mg/L.
95 × 106 × 300
Total 5-day B.O.D. per day = 95 x 106 x 300 mg = .
106
Assuming 5-day B.O.D. per capita at 200C = 0.075 kg/day.
95 × 106 × 300
Population equivalent = = 380,000. Ans.
106 ×0.075
Example: Design a septic tank for a small colony of 300 persons with average daily sewage
flow of 85 liters per head. Detention period is 30 hours. Cleaning interval is 6 months.
Sol: The quantity of sewage produced = 85 x 300 liters/day = 25,500 liters/day.
The quantity of sewage produced during the detention period i.e.
30
Capacity of tank = 25,500 x = 31,875 liters.
24
Assuming the rate of deposited sludge as 30 liters/capita/year.
1
The volume of sludge deposited = 30 x 300 x = 4500 liters.
2
Total capacity of tank required – Capacity of sewage + Capacity for sludge
= 31,875 + 4500 = 36,375 liters = 36.375 cu-m.
Assuming 1.5 m as the depth of the tank, we have: The area of cross section of the tank =
36.375 2
m . = 24.25 m2. If the ratio of the length to width is kept as 3:1, we have: 3. B2 -24.25.
1.5
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24.25
B=√ = 2.84 m = 2.9 m say. Area of cross section provided = 8.4 x 2.9 = 24.36 m 2.
3
The overall dimensions of the septic tank are = 8.4 m x 2.9 x (1.5 + 0.3), where 0.3 is for free
board: 8.4 x 2.9 x 1.8 m Ans.
Example: The colony of an industrial estate has population of 2600 persons. The sewage flow
is 125 L/day. The 5 days B.O.D. of the sewage is 350 ppm. Design the oxidation pond for the
treatment of sewage.
Sol: The quantity of sewage to be treated per day = 2600 x 125 = 325000 liters.
= 0.325 M.liters = 325 cu.m.
The BOD content per day = 0.6 x 350 liters = 210 kg.
Assuming the organic loading in the pond as 300 kg/hectare/day, we have:
210 210
The surface area required = hectares = x 104 m2 = 7000 m2.
300 300
Assuming the length of tank L, twice the width B: 2. B2 = 7000
⇒ B = 59.16 say 60 m. L = 60 x 2 = 120 m.
Let the effective depth be 1.2 m.
The provided capacity = 120 x 60 x 1.2 = 8640 m3.
Capacity = sewage flow per day x detention time in days
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢.𝑚 8640
Detention period in days = 𝑝𝑒𝑟 = = 26.58 days.
𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢.𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦 325
𝑑𝑎𝑦
Provide an oxidation tank 120 m x 60 m with overall depth 1.2 + 1 = 2.2 m. and detention
period = 26.58 days. Ans.
Example: Design a sanitary sewer to serve a population of 5,000 people, if the average
consumption is 400 liters per capita per day (lpcd). How many extra persons can be served if
the slope is doubled? Using "n" value of 0.013 in the Manning's formula & the return flow as
70%. Check the minimum self-cleaning velocity. Neglect infiltration & inflow?
Given Data: Population (P) = 5000 Persons. Average water consumption (q) = 400 lpcd.
Manning Coefficient (n) = 0.013. Return Flow = 70 %. Assume Slope (s) = 0.005
Required: 1. Find the Velocity (V) =? Also check minimum self-cleaning velocity
2. When the slope is doubled find the extra population to be served =?
Sol: Part 1: Average waste water flow (qw) = P x Return flow (%) x q
⇒ = 5000 x 0.7 x 400, = 1,400,000 lpcd = 0.0162 m3/sec.
Let take peaking factor (P.F) = 3.
Peak Hourly Waste Water Flow = 3 x 0.0162, = 0.0486 m3/sec.
Now finding the diameter of sewer pipe line: Using discharge formula;
𝜋 1
Q = AV, ⇒ 0.0162 = ( 𝐷 2 )( 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 ) ⇒ D = 0.264 m (264mm or 10.40”)
4 𝑛
Use 12” Dia pipe. Checking the minimum self-cleaning velocity
1
V = ( 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 ), Where R = (D/4)2/3 for circular pipe. V = 0.96 m/sec
𝑛
Vmin = 0.6 m/sec < V = 0.96 m/sec < Vmax = 2.5 m/sec
Part 2: Doubling the slope i.e. 2 S = 0.01.
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𝜋 1
Q = ( 𝐷 2 )( 𝑅 2/3 𝑆 1/2 ) ⇒ Q = 0.0331 (m3/s),
4 𝑛
⇒ Q = P x qw, ⇒ P = Q/qw, Where qw = Return flow (%) * q (= 280 lpcd )
2,860,429.78 (𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝐷𝑎𝑦)
P= ⇒ P = 10,216 Persons.
280 (𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎/𝐷𝑎𝑦)
So, if the slop is doubled then total of 10,216 extra persons can be served.
Example: The maximum daily demand at a water purification plant has been estimated as 12
million liters per day. Design the dimensions of a suitable sedimentation tank (fitted with
mechanical sludge removal arrangements) for the raw supplies, assuming a detention period
of 6 hours and the velocity of flow as 20 cm per minute.
Solution. Quantity of water to be treated in 24 hours = 12 x 106 Liters.
12×106
Quantity of water to be treated during the detention period of 6 hours = x 6 liters.
24
= 3 x 106 Liters ⇒ 3 x 103 m3. ⇒ = 3000 m3.
Therefore, the capacity of tank required = 3000 m3.
Velocity of flow to be maintained through the tank = 20 cm/min = 0.2 m/min.
The length of the tank required = Velocity of flow x detention period. ⇒ 0.2 x (6 x 60) = 72 m.
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 3000
Cross sectional area of tank required = = m2. = 41.76 say 41.7 m2.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 72
41.7
Assuming the water depth in the tank as 4 m, the width of the tank required = = 10.42 m.
4
Using a free-board of 0.5 m, the overall depth = 0.5 + 4.0 = 4.5 m.
Hence, a rectangular sedimentation tank width an overall size of 72m x 10.5m x 4.5m can be
used. Alternatively,
Instead of assuming the depth, we may assume an overflow rate, say as 600 liters/hr./m 2.
𝑄 12 × 106
Therefore, = 600 L/hr.m2. But, Q = liters/hr. = 0.5 x 106 liters/hr.
𝐵𝐿 24
𝑄 0.5 × 106 833 3000
BL = = = 833 m2. ⇒ B = = 11.6 m. ⇒ Depth = = 3.6 m.
600 600 72 72 × 11.6
Hence, we can alternatively use a tank of dimensions = 72m x 11.6m x (3.6 + 0.5)m overall
depth. i.e., 72m x 11.6m x 4.1m size.
Example 2 Two million litres of water per day is passing through a sedimentation tank which
is 6 m wide, 15 m long and having a water depth of 3 m. (a) Find the detention time for the
tank (b) What is the average flow velocity through the tank? (c) If 60 ppm is the concentration
of suspended solids present in turbid raw water, how much dry solids will be deposited per
day in the tank, assuming 70% removal in the basin, and average specific gravity of the
deposit as 2. (d) Compute the overflow rate.
Solution: (a): The capacity of the tank =L.B.D = 15m x 6m x 3m = 270 m3.
Discharge passing through the tank = Q = 2 Million liters per day = 2x106 liters/day
12 × 106
= liters/hr. = 83.33 x 103 liters/hr. = 83.33 m3/hr.
24
Capacity of the tank 270
Detention Time = = hours = 3.24 hours. Ans
Discharge 83.33
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Discharge
(b): Average velocity of flow through the tank = , i.e. BH.
Cross−sectional area, i.e.BH.
83.33 83.33 100
= m/hr. = = cm/minute = 7.72 cm/minute. Ans.
6×3 6×3 60
(c): Quantity of water passing per day =2 million liters =2 x 106 liters.
Concentration of suspended solids = 60 ppm.
Concentration of suspended solids entering the tank per day:
60 120
= 2 x 106 x 6 = 0.12 m3.
liters = 120 liters.
10 1000
Given the average specific gravity of deposited material as 2, we have its density as 2000 kg/m 3.
Mass of suspended solid deposited (with 70% removal) per day = [0.12 x 0.7] [2000] kg = 168kg.
𝑄
(d): Overflow rate = Discharge per unit plan area =
𝐵.𝐿
(83.33 ×103 )𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠/ℎ𝑟
= 926 liters/hr./m2.
6 ×15 𝑚2
Example 2 In order to determine the max water demand during a fire, the fire flow must be
added to the maximum daily consumption. It is assumed that a community with a population
of 22,000 has an average consumption of 600 lit/capita/day and flow directed by a building of
ordinary construction (C = 1) with a floor area of 1000m2 and a height of 6 stories, the
calculation is as follows:
Average domestic demand = 22,000 x 600 = 18.2 x 106 lit/day.
Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x 13.2 x 106 = 23.76 x 106 lit/day.
F = 18(1) (1000 x 10.76 x 6) 0.5 = 17,288 lit/min = 24.89 x 106 lit/day.
Maximum rate = 23.76 x 106 + 24.89 x 106 = 48.65 x 106 lit/day = 2,211 lit/capita/day for 10
hours. The total flow required during this day would be = 23.76 + 24.89 x 10/24
= 34.13 x 106 liters = 1,551 lit/capita/day.
The difference between the maximum domestic rate and the above values is frequently
provided from elevated storage tanks.
Example: A rectangular settling tank without mechanical equipment is to treat 1.8 million
liters per day of raw water. The sedimentation period is to be 4 hours, the velocity of flow
8cm/minute and the depth of water and sediment 4.2m. if an allowance of 1.2m for sediment
is made, what should be: a) The length of the basin? b) The width of the basin?
Sol: Supply of water to be treated per day = 1.8 x 106 liters.
Supply of water to be treated during the detention period of 4 hours. i.e. the capacity of the
1.8 × 106
tank = x 4 = 0.3 x 106 liters. = 300 cu.m.
24
Flow velocity = 8 cm/min. Length of the tank = Flow velocity x Detention time
= 8 x (4 x 60) cm = 1920 cm. = 1920/100 = 19.2 m.
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 300 2
The cross sectional area of the tank = = m . = 15.63 m2.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 19.2
The depth of sediment and water = 4.2 m. depth of sediment = 1.2m. water depth = 3m.
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 15.63
The width of the tank = = = 5.21 m.
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 3
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Example 1: Design a bell mouth intake for a city of 80,000 persons drawing water from a
channel which runs for 10hrs in a day with depth of 1.8m. Also calculate the head loss in
intake conduit if the treatment plant is 0.5 km away and draw a net sketch of the canal intake
assume average consumption per person is 150L/day Assume the velocity through the screen
& the bell mouth to be less than 16cm/s & 32cm/s respectively.
Sol: 1) Q through intake: Daily discharge = 150 x 80,000 = 12,000,000 Liters/day.
Since the channel runs only for 10 hrs. Intake load/hour = (12,000,000 L/day)/ (10 hr./day).
= 1200m^3/hr. = 0.3333m^3/s.
𝑄 0.3333𝑚3 /𝑠
2) Area of coarse screen in front of intake: 𝐴𝑠 = ( ) = ( ) = 2.083m^2.
𝑉 0.16𝑚/𝑠
Let the area occupied by the solid bar be 30% of the total area:
2.083𝑚2
The actual area for the screen ( ) = 2.98 m2.
0.7
Let assume the minimum water level @ 0.3m below the normal water level.
Let us keep the bottom of the screen @ 0.2m above the channel bed.
Available height of screen = 1.8 – 0.3 – 0.2 = 1.3m.
Required length of screen = 2.98m/1.3m = 2.29m ≈ 2.3m.
Hence provide a screen size = 1.3m x 2.3m.
𝑄 0.3333𝑚3 /𝑠
3) Design a bell mouth entry: 𝐴𝑏 = ( )=( ) = 1.042 m2.
𝑉𝑏 0.32𝑚/𝑠
1.042 ×4
Diameter of bell mouth: 𝐷𝑏 = √( ) = 1.15 m. Hence provide a bell mouth of 1.2 m.
𝜋
4) Design of intake conduit: Let us assume a velocity of 1.5 m/s in the conduit:
0.3333 ×4
𝐷𝑖 = √( ) = 0.532 m. Provide 0.5 m diameter intake conduit.
1.5 × 𝜋
0.3333×4
Therefore, the actual velocity V = ( ) = 1.7 m/s.
𝜋×0.52
5) Head loss through the conduit: V = 0.849 CR0.63S0.54. But C = 130 for cast iron.
𝐷 0.5
R= = = 0.125. Substitute to the above Equation: 1.7 = 0.849 x 130 x 0.1250.63S0.54
4 4
𝐻1
S = 4.98 x 10-3. ⇒ S = ⇒ H1 = S x L = 4.98 x 10-3 x 0.5 x 1000 = 2.49 m.
𝐿
Example 2 Determine the building up of head loss through a bar screen when 50% of the flow
area is blocked off by the accumulation of coarse solids assume the following conditions are
applied. Approach velocity = 0.6m/s, Velocity through a clean bar screen = 0.9m/s and Open
area for flow through clean bar screen = 0.19m2.
1 𝑣22 −𝑣12
Sol: i. Compute the head loss through a clear Bar screen: ℎ𝑙 = ×( )
𝑐 2𝑔
1 0.92 −0.62
ℎ𝑙 = ×( ) = 0.0327 m.
0.7 2(9.81)
ii. Compute the Head loss through a clogged Bar screen:
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𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑖 = ( ) and 𝑉𝑓 = ( ) but 50% of Ai is only open. Therefore, Af = 50% Ai.
𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑓
50𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑄 𝑄
𝐴𝑓 = ( )= ⇒ 𝑉𝑓 = ( ) = 2 × = 2Vi.
100 2 𝐴𝑓 𝐴
From this the velocity through a clogged bar screen is doubled: V = 0.9 x 2 = 1.8 m/s.
1 𝑣22 −𝑣12 1 1.82 −0.62
ℎ𝑙 = × ( ) = 0.6 × ( ) = 0.2 m.
𝑐 2𝑔 2(9.81)
Example: Find the terminal settling velocity of a spherical particle with diameter of 0.5 mm
and a specific gravity of 2.65 settling through water at 200C (at µ = 1.002 x 10-3 Ns/m2, Þw =
1000 KG/m3).
Sol: Given: D = 0.5 mm, Sg = 2.65, µ = 1.002 x 10-3 Ns/m2, Þw = 1000 KG/m3.
𝜌𝑝
Sg = ⇒ 𝜌𝑝 = 𝑆𝑔 × 𝜌𝑤 = 998.2 × 2.65 ≈ 2650 𝐾𝑔/𝑚2 .
𝜌𝑤
𝑔𝑑 2 [𝜌𝑝−𝜌𝑤] 9.81×[0.5×10−3 ]2 [2650−998.2]
Assume the flow is laminar: 𝑉𝑝 = = = 0.22 m/sec.
18𝜇 18×1.002×10−3
24 𝜌𝑤×𝑉𝑝×𝑑 998.2×0.22×0.5×10−3
Check the flow is laminar or not: CD = , 𝑅𝑒 = = = 112 (Not)
𝑅𝑒 𝜇 1.002×10−3
24 0.3 24 0.3
The flow is transitional flow: CD = + + 0.34 = + + 0.34 = 0.84
𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒 112 √112
4𝑔𝑑 (𝜌𝑝−𝜌𝑤) 𝜌𝑤×𝑉𝑝×𝑑 998.2×0.11×0.5×10−3
Vp = √3𝐶𝐷 × = 0.111 m/sec. Check Re. 𝑅𝑒 = = = 55
𝜌𝑤 𝜇 1.002×10−3
(ok). Therefore, Vp = 0.11 m/sec.
Example: Find the dimension of a rectangular sedimentation basin for the following data: 
Volume of treated water = 3 x 106l/s  td = 4hr = 240 min  velocity of flow = 10cm/min.
Sol: Length of tank = velocity of flow x td = 0.1 x 240 = 24 m.
6
3×10 ×4 𝑉 500
Volume of water in 4 hr. = 3
= 500 m3. X-sectional area (B x H) = = = 20.8 m2.
10 ×24 𝐿 24
Assuming the work depth = 3m. width of tank = 7m. Provide 1m for sludge storage and 0.5m for
free board: Total depth = 3 + 1.5 = 4.5 m. Provide inlet zone = out let zone = 3m.
Total length = 24 + 6 = 30 m. Provide the sedimentation tank = 30 x 7 x 4.5 = 945.
Example: Find out the quantity of alum required to treat 18 million liters of water per day.
The dosage of alum is 14mg/lit. Also work out the amount of CO2 released per liter of treated
water.
Sol: Quantity of alum per day = (14 x 18 x 106)/106 = 252 kg. The chemical reaction as follow:
Al2(SO4)18H2O + 3Ca (HCO3)2 → 2Al (OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O +6CO2.
Molecular weight of alum: = 2 x 26.97 + 3 x 32.066 + 36 x 1.008 + 30 x 16 = 666.
Molecular weight of CO2 = (1 x 12) + 2 x 16 = 44. Thus 666mg of alum release 6 x 44mg of CO2.
14mg of alum will releases = (14 x 6 x 44)/666 = 5.55mg of CO2.
Example: Design six slow sand filter beds from the following data:
Population to be served = 50,000 persons. Per capita demand = 150 liters/head/day.
Rate of filtration = 180 liters/hr./sq. m, Length of each bed = Twice the breadth.
Assume max demand as 1.8 times the average daily demand.
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Also assume that one unit, out of six, will be kept as stand-by.
Sol: Average daily demand = population x per capita demand.
= 50,000 x 150 liters/day. = 7.5 x 106 liters/day.
Max. daily demand = 1.8 x 7.5 x 106 = 13.5 x 106 liters/day.
Rate of filtration per day = (180 x 24) liters/sq.m/day.
𝑀𝑎𝑥.𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 13.5×106
Total surface area of filters required = = sq. m = 3.125 x
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦 180×24
103 sq. m. = 3125 sq. m
Now, six units are to be used: out of them, one is to be kept as stand by, and hence only 5 units
should provide the necessary area of filter required.
1 1
The area of each filter unit = x Total area required = x 3125 = 625 sq. m.
5 5
Now, if L is the length and B is the breadth of each unit, then L = 2.B(given). 2B. B = 625 sq. m.
Or B2 = 312.5 sq. m. or, B = 17.7 m: say 18 m. L = 2(17.75) = 36 m.
Hence, use 6 filter units with one unit as stand by, each unit of size 36 x 18 m, arranged in series
with 3 units on either side.
Example: Chlorine usage in the treatment of 20,000 cubic meter per day is 8kg/day. The
residual after 10-minute contact is 0.20 mg/l. calculate the dosage in milligrams per liter and
chlorine demand of the water.
Sol: Water treated per day = 20,000 cum. = 20,000 x 103 liters. = 20 x 106 liters = 20 M.L.
Chlorine consumed per day = 8 kg. = 8 M.mg.
8 𝑀.𝑚𝑔
Chlorine used per liter of water = = 0.4 mg/L.
20 𝑀.𝑙
Hence, the given chlorine dosage = 0.4 mg/L. Now, residual chlorine left = 0.2 mg/L (given).
Hence, actual chlorine dosage, which has reacted in water, i.e. chlorine demand of water
= 0.4 – 0.2 = 0.2 mg/l.
Example: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million liters of raw water per day. The
detention period may be assumed to be 3 hours.
Solution: Raw water flow per day is 2.4 x 106 l • Detention period is 3h • Volume of tank = Flow x
Detention period = (2.4 x 103 x 3)/24 = 300 m3 • Assume depth of tank = 3.0 m • Surface area = 300/3 =
100 m2. • L/B = 3 (assumed), • L = 3B, • 3B2 = 100 m2 i.e. B = 5.8 m, • L = 3B = 5.8 X 3 = 17.4 m, • Hence
surface loading (Overflow rate) = 2.4 x 106 / 100 = 24,000 l/d/m2 < 30,000 l/d/m2.
Example: Design a rapid sand filter unit for 4 million liters per day of supply, with all its principal
components.
Solution: Water required per day = 4 MLD
Assuming that 4% of filtered water is required for washing of the filter, every day, we have
Total filtered water required per day = 4.16 ML/d.
4.16
Now assuming that 0.5 hours is lost every day in washing the filter, = = 0.177 ML/hr.
23.5
Now assuming the rate of filtration to be 5000 l/hr./sq. m,
Area of filter = 0.177 x 106/5000 = 35.4 m2.
Now assuming the length of the filter bed (L) as 1.5 times the width of filter bed (B), L = 1.5B
with two beds 2 x (L.B) = 35.4, 2 x (1.5B) (B) = 35.4, B = 3.4 m; L = 5.2 m;
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Hence provide 2 filter unit, each by 5.2 m x 3.4 m.

Example: Find the settling velocity of a discrete particle in water under conditions when
Reynold’s number is less than 0.5. The diameter and specific gravity of the particles is
5 x 10-3 cm and 2.65, respectively. Water temperature is 200C (Kinematic viscosity of water at
200C = 1.01 x 10-2 cm2/sec).
Solution: Using Stoke’s Eq.(1) and c.g.s units, we have: Vs = settling velocity in cm/sec.
𝑔 𝑑2
(G – 1). when d < 0.1 mm. Where G = 2.65. d = 5 x 10-3 cm = 0.05mm, which is < 0.1mm).
18 𝑣
V = 1.01 x 10-2 cm2/sec, g = 981 cm2/sec.
981 (5×10−3 )2
Therefore, 𝑉𝑠 = (2.65 − 1). 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.22 cm/sec.
18 1.01×10−2
Alternatively, the problem can be solved by Eqn. (2) as:
3𝑇+70
𝑉𝑠 = 418(G - 1).𝑑 2 . ( ) for d < 0.1 mm. Where G = 2.65. d = 5 x 10-3 cm, T = 200C.
100
3×20+70
Therefore, 𝑉𝑠 (in mm/sec) = 418(2.65 – 1).(5 x 10-2)2[ ] = 418 x 1.65 x 25 x 10-4 x 1.3
100
𝑉𝑠 = 2.24 mm/sec. = 0.224 cm/sec.
Example: A circular sedimentation tank fitted with standard mechanical sludge removal
equipment is to handle 3.5 million liters per day of raw water. If the detention period of the
tank is 5 hours, and the depth of the tank is 3m, what should be the diameter of the tank?
Solution: Quantity of the raw water to be treated per day = 3.5 x 106 Liters
Therefore, Quantity of the raw water to be treated during the detention
3.5×106 ×5
period of 5 hours, i.e. the capacity of the tank: liters. = 728 x 103 liters. = 728 m3.
24
The capacity of a circular tank of depth H and diameter d is given by
Volume = d2 (0.011d + 0.785 x 3) = d2 (0.011d + 2.255).
Solving this equation by Hit and Trial, we get, d = 17.3 m. Ans.
Example: Two primary settling basins are 26 m in diameter with a 2.1 m side water depth.
Single effluent weirs are located on the peripheries of the tank. For a water flow of 26,000
m3/d, calculate: (i) Surface area and volume; (ii) Overflow rate in m3/m2.d.
(iii) Detention time in hours; and (iv) Weir loading in m3/m.d.
𝑑 2 (0.011𝑑+0.785𝐻)
Solution. Detention period = , Where d = diameter of tank = 26 m.
𝑄
H = Side water depth = 2.1 m. Q = Half the total Discharge as two tanks are in operation
13000 3
= 13000 m3/day. m /hr.
24
(26)2 (0.011×26+0.785×2.1)
Detention period = 13000 ,hr. = 2.41 hr.
24
Qty. of water to be treated during the detention period of 2.41 hr.
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13000
= x 2.41 m3 = 1308 m3. (i) Capacity (volume) of each tank required = 1308 m3. Ans.
24
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1308
Surface area of tank required = = m2 = 623 m2. Ans.
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 2.1
(ii) Overflow rate, i.e. discharge per unit of surface area = Q/Surface area = 13000/623
m3/m2.day. = 20. 87 m3/m2.day. Ans.
(iii) Detention time is already determined as 2.41 hr. (iv) Weir Loading.
Length of the weir along periphery of the tank = Π.d = 3.14 x 26 = 81.64 m.
Weir loading per day = Discharge per day/ Length of weir = 13000/81.64 m3/m/day
= 159.23 m3/m/day. Ans.
Example: Design the approximate dimensions of a set of rapid gravity filters for treating
water required for a population of 50,000; the rate of supply being 180 liters per day per
person. The filters are rated to work 5000 liters per hour per m2. Assume whatever data that
are necessary but not given.
Solution: Assume that the given rate of supply is an average demand, and also assuming that
the maximum daily is 1.8 times the average daily demand , we have , by ignoring wash water
requirements: The maximum water demand per day = Population x Max. daily rate of supply =
50,000 x 1.8(180) = 16.2 x 106 liters. = 16.2 million liters.
16.2×106
Water demand per hour (ignoring time lost in cleaning) = liters/hr. = 675 x 103
24
liters/hr. Rate of filtration = 5000 liters/hr./m2. Therefore, Area of filter beds required =
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 16.2×106
= = m2. 135 m2.
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 24
Since two units are required to be designed, The area of each unit = 135/2 = 67.5 m2.
Assuming L = 1.5B, we have
1.5 B2 = 67.5, B2 = 45, or B= 6.75 m. or. Choose 6.75 m width and 10 m length. Hence, two units
of size 10m x 6.75m are required. One additional unit as stand-by may also be provided for
breakdowns, repairs, or cleaning operations.
EXAMPLE: What is the treatment volume for a 50 acre subdivision with a desired retention of
0.5 inches of runoff and a detention of 1.0 inches of runoff?
(50 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠)(0.5 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓)
Sol: a. Retention treatment = = 2.08 ac-ft.
12 𝑖𝑛/𝑓𝑡
(50 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠)(1.0 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓)
b. Detention treatment = = 4.17 ac-ft.
12 𝑖𝑛/𝑓𝑡