Lighting Guide LG3: 1996

The visual environment

for display screen use
CIBSE
The visual environment
for display screen use

CIBSE
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
Delta House, 222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9B5
The rights of publication or translation ore reserved.

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retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means
without the prior permission of the Institution.

© March, 1 996 The Chartered Institution of Building Services

Engineers, London

Registered charity number 278104

ISBN 0900953 71 3

Second edition, first published 1 989

This document is based on the best knowledge available at the

time of publication. However no responsibility of any kind for any
injury, deoth, loss, damage or delay however caused resulting
from the use of these recommendations can be accepted by the
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, the authors
or others involved in its publication. In adopting these
recommendations for use each adopter by doing so agrees to
accept full responsibility for any personal injury, death, loss,
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Typeset by CIBSE Editorial Unit

Printed in Great Britain by Yale Press Ltd, Norwood, London

11
Foreword
This edition of LG3 has been produced to address a number of issues that have arisen
since the publication of the last edition in 1989 and to clarify a number of problems with
the interpretation and application of the previous edition.
There has been a worrying emphasis amongst some designers and users of the previous
edition of this Lighting Guide on selecting luminaires purely on their ability to reduce
screen reflections, without paying due attention to potential problems that this may cause
to the general visual environment in the area. Because of this, greater emphasis has been
given in this new Lighting Guide to the overall visual environment. To highlight this and
the widened scope (to include all display screens) the title of the document has been
changed from 'Areas with visual display terminals' to 'The visual environment for display
screen use'.

The introduction of the Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulationsu in
January 1993 resulted in the Health and Safety Executive issuing guidance('5 to the Regu-
lations which referred to LG3 for 'specific and detailed guidance' on lighting for these
areas. The style and terminology of LG3 have been modified, therefore, to be more
consistent with the Regulations and the HSE's guidance document. This has been done to
make cross-referencing easier and should remove any existing ambiguity between LG3
and the Regulations. A section has been introduced covering the assessment of lighting in
areas where users work with display screens and information has been included on the
Regulations themselves.

The more widespread use of higher quality screens and software with white screen
backgrounds is reducing the problems encountered with screen reflections. This has been
taken into account in this new Lighting Guide by allowing designers working with
known users and screen types more freedom to tailor the lighting to the screens being
used and their locations within the working areas.

It has been found that bright skylight from windows and the effect of sunlight on blinds
are major sources of visual and screen reflection problems. For this reason guidance on
windows and daylighting has been increased from a single subsection in the old edition to
an entire chapter in this one.

Finally it was necessary to update the guidance to match the changing types of display
screen such as flat panel displays and new screen display technologies, and the changing
uses to which display screens are put, such as multimedia and 'at desk' video conferen-
cing.
Paul Ruffles
Task Group Chairman

Task Group
P Ruffles Chairman (Lighting Design and Technology)
E Glenny (Philips Lighting Ltd)
M Perry (Building Research Establishment)

Editor Co-ordinating Editor

S Hodgson R Yarham

Acknowledgements
Philips Lighting is thanked for providing facilities for experimental work on issues
relevant to this Lighting Guide.

Crown copyright is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO.

Cover photograph supplied by Thorn Lighting Ltd.

111
Note from the publisher
This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible for the
design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of building services. It is
not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be necessary for users of the
guidance given to exercise their own professional judgement when deciding whether to
abide by or depart from it. For this reason also, departure from the guidance contained in
this publication should not necessarily be regarded as a departure from best practice.

Plates
Please note that the comments in the captions to the plates refer to the impression given
by the photographs — with their limited contrast range — and should not be taken as
comment or judgement on the actual scheme.

iv
Contents
1 Introduction to using LG3 1

Part 1 Display screen equipment: its use and environment

2 Display screen equipment 3

2.1 Ergonomic aspects 3
2.2 Technical aspects 4

3 Principal lighting issues 4

3.1 Luminance adaptation 5
3.2 Disability glare and discomfort glare 6
3.3 Veiling reflections and their effect on focusing 7

4 Lighting assessment for the Health, and Safety Regulations 7

4.1 General lighting assessments 7
4.2 The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 8
4.3 The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 9
4.4 The link between LG3 and The Health and Safety (Display Screen
Equipment) Regulations 10
4.5 Assessment of the visual environment of display screen areas 10

Part 2 Design and implementation

5 Design process 14
5.1 New installations for a known user 14
5.2 Refurbishment of existing lighting systems 14
5.3 Speculative space for an unknown user 15

5.4 Design criteria 15

5.5 Main considerations in planning 15

5.6 The influence of display screen and task type 17

6 Design options for daylighting 18

6.1 General requirements for daylighting DSE areas 19
6.2 Minimising the brightness of windows 19
6.3 Interaction between daylight and electric lighting 20
6.4 Window shading techniques 20

7 Design options for electric lighting 22

7.1 Physical restrictions of the space 23
7.2 Selection of illuminance 24
7.3 Direct lighting 24
7.4 Indirect lighting 25
7.5 Indirect/direct lighting 25
7.6 Other options 26
7.7 Room decor and surface reflectances 26

V
Part 3 Detailed design

8 Designing with direct lighting 27

8.1 Characteristics 27
8.2 Criteria 27
8.3 Luminance limit angle selection 28
8.4 Lighting layout 30

9 Designing with indirect lighting 31

9.1 Characteristics 32
9.2 Criteria 32
9.3 Luminaire selection 32
9.4 Lighting layout 34
9.5 Room decor and surface reflectances 34

10 Designing with direct/indirect lighting 35

10.1 Characteristics 35
10.2 Criteria 35
10.3 Luminaire selection 35
10.4 Lighting layout 36
10.5 Room decor and surface reflectances 36

11 Designing with supplementary task lighting 36

11.1 Task/ambient design 36
11.2 Special screen geometry 37
11.3 Task lighting design 37
11.4 Regulations relating to task-specific lighting 37

12 Designing for graphics workstations 38

13 Conclusions 38

Appendix 1 Eye-screen-luminaire geometry 40

Appendix 2 Direct light luminance limit calculation 44

Appendix 3 Luminance above indirect lights 46

Appendix 4 Checklists for assessing lighting quality in a space 48

Appendix 5 Display screen equipment technology 50

References 53

Bibliography 53

Glossary 54

Index 60

vi
The visual environment for display screen use

Introduction to using LG3

This introduction takes the reader through the structure of the Lighting
Guide and advises on the correct way to use it. Without consideration of
the many aspects of lighting design that go to ensure a well lit environ-
ment, compliance with LG3 cannot be ensured. The guide has been
written for use by many different types of reader: the specialist lighting
designer, the facilities manager, the contractor/installer, the user and
owner of display screen equipment (DsE) and the designers of office spaces
in which the DSE is housed.

The document is divided into three parts. The first gives the background
to problems of using DSE in the working environment and an assessment
of the impact of lighting on users in that environment. The second part
describes the design process and the selection of the most appropriate
lighting design solution for each type of working environment. The last
part gives detailed advice on the application of each lighting design
technique. A number of appendices contain further technical details and
background information.

For those looking at the possible need to provide new lighting in existing
areas of DSE use, a number of important principles should to be taken into
account. A thorough understanding of the use and types of DSE in the area
needs to be gained. Reference to sections 2 and 3 may assist in this
process. If no DSE assessment of the workplaces has been carried out then
a recommendation to the client to carry out such an assessment should be
made. The procedures contained in section 4 will assist this process. It
should be remembered that existing lighting in an installation that does
not conform with the technical specifications in LG3 may well provide
lighting that satisfies The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment)
Regulations(').

For new buildings where the use of DSE is intended there is still a need to
consider what type of DSE and users are likely to occupy the space. The
type of lighting and the quality of the lit environment provided will have
quite a bearing on the usability of the space for DSE.

For both new and refurbished lighting schemes, details of the existing or
proposed decor and the physical characteristics of the space need to be
known before an appropriate selection of design technique can be made.
Suitable forms of lighting may be indirect, direct, combined direct and
indirect or task/ambient lighting with one of the main types forming the
general background lighting. The design procedures outlined in sections
5 and 7 will assist in this process. The detailed requirements for the
provision of daylight and the screening of windows, contained in section
6, should also be consulted.

Once the most appropriate form of lighting has been chosen the detailed
application criteria for that choice need to be considered. These criteria
are contained in sections 8 to 11. Technical methods to support some of
the criteria are set out in the appendices.

The following list contains a number of key items that need to be con-
sidered in the design of any area for display screen use. However, they are
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

not the only points which should be considered and reference to the text
will be required to obtain the most appropriate guidance for each instal-
lation.
(a) This guidance constitutes an assessment and design process.
Compliance with this Lighting Guide can only be ensured by the
application of the guidance as a whole and not just by the use of
the sections on luminaire specification.
(b) Providing a suitable visual environment is key to the efficient use
of DSE in an area, see section 3.
(c) The lighting for DSE tasks should not compromise the lighting for
other tasks performed in that space nor degrade the overall visual
environment of the space, see sections 2, 3 and 4.2.
(d) A full assessment of the risks to the users should be carried out
before expensive, and possibly unnecessary, alterations to the
existing lighting are carried out, see section 4.
(e) Reflections are always present in glass-fronted display screens. It
is the elimination of distracting reflections that is important, see
sections 4.3, 5.4 and Appendix 1.
(f) Disturbing reflections at a workstation can often be eliminated by
suitable re-orientation of the screen and/or the workstation rather
than by relighting the entire space, see sections 4.3, 5.4, 5.5 and
Appendix 1.
(g) Windows and sunlit translucent window screening are likely to
cause more problems with glare and screen reflections than
electric lighting, see sections 4.3 and 6.
(h) The room decor and colours of furniture are very important in
determining the overall appearance of the working space. Light in
a space is interreflected and coloured by the surfaces in that space,
see sections 5 and 7.7.
(i) Simple replacement of lighting equipment without the con-
sideration of the decor and workstation use and orientation rarely
leads to satisfactory interiors or compliance with LG3, see
sections 4.3, 5 and Appendix 1.

2
Part 1 Display screen equipment: its use and
environment
Display screen equipment
Until the general introduction of display screen equipment (DsE) into the
workplace, particularly the office, paper was the most commonly used
medium for recording, manipulating and transmitting information.
Whilst computer technology, and its associated DSE, have not displaced
paper tasks, they have added a new class of visual task to the working en-
vironment. Therefore it is important in the design of lighting for DSE
installations to consider both the lighting, and visual ergonomic require-
ments, of screen-based and non-screen-based visual tasks.

Ergonomic aspects Paper-based tasks have a number of typical characteristics. Paper-based

information is physically moved about the office from hand to hand, hand
to in-tray or via internal mail to in-tray. The user of the workstation pro-
cesses the paper and then passes it on again or files it. All these actions
involve the user in movement to and from the desk and in a variety of
physical activities.
As more of the tasks are transferred to purely computer-based manipu-
lation, this situation changes. Information may arrive at a user's screen by
electronic mail (e-mail), it can be manipulated on the screen, it can be re-
trieved from on-line databases or analysis performed on-screen. The result
will then be filed on the network or transmitted on by e-mail or fax. The
work carried out may be on text, line drawings or graphic images or a
combination of these, see Plate 1. During all these operations the user has
not left the desk, nor ceased using the display screen equipment.

Work on paper-based tasks generally takes place on a horizontal, or near

horizontal, plane with the input to the paper tasks being by hand using
pens or pencils. The physical act of 'inputting' information takes place at
the point at which the user is looking. The visibility of details on the
paper relies on the difference in reflection of light between the paper and
the detail, i.e. paper-based tasks are reflective.

As paper-based visual tasks are well established, many of the criteria for
designing lighting schemes for the paper-based office are well understood.
Lighting design techniques have been developed to ensure that, with care,
most of the difficulties of illuminating paper tasks can be avoided.

The characteristics of purely DSE-based visual tasks are different. In

general the visual part of the task is carried out with the user viewing a
screen in the vertical, or near vertical, plane; thus the user's line of sight is
at, or near, the horizontal axis for proportionately more time. Consequent-
ly, the user's field of view more often includes walls, partitions, ceiling
and windows, see Plate 2. Control of luminances on these surfaces and the
avoidance of glare and distraction from ceiling-mounted luminaires and
windows take on added importance.

The most commonly used display screens are self-luminous and do not
rely on reflected light to make their contents visible. The use of a glass
screen in front of the screen phosphors places a partially reflective filter
between the user and the visual task. Input to DSE tasks is predominantly
by keyboard and mouse, operations which are often non-visual and
separate from the screen which the user is viewing.

The more common mixture of paper-based and DSE-based tasks leads to

another set of difficulties. The use of DSE with paper-based tasks can often
require the user to focus on two different planes, the vertical and the

3
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

horizontal, and at different focusing distances. Large differences in lumi-

nances of the screen and paper lead to problems with adaptation. Some
DSE-based tasks push the user along by prompting for inputs or actions,
whereas similar paper-based tasks require the user to be self-motivated to
act.

2.2 Technical aspects Before addressing the lighting requirements for a DSE installation it is
important to ensure, as far as is practicable, that the appropriate standard
of DSE is being used. No amount clf enhancing the electric lighting and
daylighting will improve an intrinsically poor screen image, which may
occur if low quality DSE, which does not conform to the relevant stand-
ards, is used.

To be clearly visible and visually comfortable a screen image must be well

formed and of sufficient contrast to the background. Poor screen image
quality can directly and adversely influence productivity by decreasing
job performance, for example by increasing the amount of time taken to
complete a task and by increasing the error rate.

It is therefore essential in any DSE installation to use equipment that at

least conforms to the relevant parts of BS 7179: Ergonomics of design and
use of visual display terminals (VDT5) in offices(2). This standard is being
superseded, part by part, by the harmonised European Standard BS EN
29241: Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals
(vDTs)3). The International Standard ISO 9241 forms the basis for the
European Norm EN 29241, the parts of which are in various states of
preparation at the time of writing (see Appendix 5 for details of the parts
of these standards current at the time of publication). The use of DSE
conforming to the relevant standards will ensure that the characteristics of
the screen image and other ergonomic aspects of the equipment meet
minimum requirements. For instance, the design and use of workstations
that meet part 5 of BS 7197 or the future parts of BS EN 29241 will ensure
an adaptable workstation where repositioning equipment to avoid
reflections should be possible.

Some elements of the DSE workstation are non-visual, e.g. the mouse and
keyboard. The ease, or difficulty, of use of these elements directly affects
the operation of the workstation. Paper holders can be used to position the
paper in a similar plane to that of the screen, thus helping to avoid
frequent changes of focusing range or direction of gaze. Although not
directly under the control of the lighting designer or architect, it is impor-
tant to ensure, as far as possible, that the ergonomics of the DSE work-
station are suitable for the task to be carried out. This will contribute to
minimising any visual and lighting problems. It will also help to ensure
that no other ergonomic problems arise, for example problems related to
incorrect posture. See Appendix 5 for a discussion of available screen
technologies and related equipment.

3 Principal lighting issues

The previous section has highlighted the need to ensure that an adequate
quality of DSE is used if maximum performance and least strain on the
users is to be achieved. This section looks at the way the lighting can en-
hance or degrade the ease of use of the equipment, particularly the screen
image.

The effectiveness of a user at a given workstation can be affected by high

luminance contrasts or glare in the working area or by reflections on the
screen itself. The former degrades the overall performance of the user
while the latter affects their ability to read the information presented on
the screen. This can lead to an increase in the time taken to complete a
task and an increase in the error rate, see Plates 3 and 4.

4
 PRINCIPAL LIGHTING ISSUES

Poor image quality can also lead to postural problems, e.g. stiff necks and
hands, as the user tries to adjust position to avoid glare or reflected
images. The direct cost of medical treatment of injuries caused by poor
posture, for example carpel tunnel syndrome, may be substantial. There
are additional hidden costs associated with loss of productivity caused by
the injury to the user.

In order to produce a visual environment suitable for the use of DSE as

well as other tasks to be carried out in the area the designer needs to
consider the range of luminances present, the avoidance of disability glare
and the avoidance of reflected images on the screen. Each of these issues is
discussed in the sections below, see also Figure 3.1.

Luminance of
lighting

Luminance of principal
room surfaces not
excessively different
from workstation No windows
in front
of screen

Illuminonce on
task generally
between 300
and 500 lux

Light, matt
work surface

Figure 3.1 Controlling luminance and illuminance in areas with display screen equipment

3.1 Luminance The human visual system is able to see over a very wide range of lumi-
nances: from brightly lit sunny scenes to moonlight. The eye is not able,
adaptation however, to cope with this range all at once. Car headlights by day look
dim but can dazzle a dark-adapted driver at night. Similarly, coming into
a dark room from a sunlit garden can make objects in the room difficult
to see for a while. Looking out from a DSE area onto large areas of sunlit
white cloud can be uncomfortable and viewing information on a rela-
tively dark screen can be difficult, see Plates 4 and 5. This aspect of lumi-
nance adaptation is also likely to contribute to the sensation of discomfort
glare, see section 3.2.

The ability to see detail on a screen relies on the contrast of the informa-
tion being displayed with its background. The ability to perceive this
difference is in part controlled by the level of adaptation of the eye. If it
has been looking at very bright areas of the room then the screen image
and background will both appear dark and it will be difficult to resolve
detail. Similarly in very dark surroundings the eye adapts to the lower
light levels present and the image and background on the screen will both
appear to be bright and again difficult to discern. The ideal luminance of
areas surrounding DSE is close to that of the screen display itself. This
allows the user to look away from the screen and then back again without

5
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

losing the ability to discriminate between the luminance of the detail on

the screen and that of the background, see Plate 2.

The eye can have particular problems when glancing between two areas
that have significantly different luminances. This can happen, for exam-
ple, when a user is copying a source document at one luminance onto a
self-luminous DSE screen at a significantly different luminance. This
contributes to eye strain or visual fatigue in the user. Therefore, it is
necessary to ensure that luminances in the visual field near to the screen
do not, in general, exceed the screen luminance by more than a ratio of 10
to 1.

When determining the range and distribution of surface illuminances,

and hence luminances, in the space the designer needs to consider the
range of non-DsE-based tasks that may be carried out in that space. Apart
from the potential effects on task visibility and discomfort glare, it is also
possible that users of the space may find too wide a range of luminances
distracting or unappealing and too limited a range visually unstimulating
or bland.

The introduction of personal video links also requires careful consider-

ation. Such systems allow video conferencing or visual communication
between screen users by means of camera mounted on, or by, the screen.
Small pictures of the other party, or parties, appear on the user's screen.
For acceptable pictures on such systems, attention needs to be paid to the
appearance of users' faces when viewed from the screen position. Initial
research into this problem suggests that a ratio of vertical to horizontal
illuminance at the face of less than 1 to 3 will make the face appear rather
flat or bland. At ratios above 1 to 5, however, picture acceptability starts to
decrease and dark shadows appear on the face. At and above ratios of 1 to
20 the camera can no longer cope with the contrast range and highlights
flare. Attention should also be paid to background luminance, which
preferably should not differ by more than a ratio of 3 to 1 from that of the
subject's face.

3.2 As noted in the previous section, the effect of a bright light to an eye
Disability glare and
adapted to a lower luminance level is a sensation of dazzle or glare. This
discomfort lare is thought to be partially due to the brightness of the light being above
the upper limit of the adaptation range that the cells in the retina can
cope with and partially due to light scatter within the media of the eye.
This scattered light acts as a luminance veil across the task, reducing the
contrast of the task and making it more difficult to see. The reduction of
task visibility caused by light scatter has been called disability glare. This
type of glare may occur if there is an area of very high luminance close to
the line of sight, for example a high luminance window or luminaire.

At luminances below those normally associated with disability glare,

discomfort glare may occur. The causes of discomfort glare are not well
understood, but luminance differences in the field of view, as well as the
size and the position of the glare source relative to the line of sight are
thought to be the main determinants5.

Users of DSE may experience discomfort glare caused by external views

through windows. The recommended course of action to avoid glare from
windows is to ensure that adjustable window blinds are installed (see
section 6). This philosophy is also recommended in the CIBSE Appli-
cations Manual Window design6. Users of the space then have the choice
of attenuating, or obscuring, the high luminance at the window, see Plates
4, 5 and 6.

6
 LIGHTING ASSESSMENT FOR THE HEALTH AND SAFETY REGULATIONS

3.3 Veiling reflections Veiling reflections occur when the principal visual task is overlaid with a
luminance veil; examples of veiling reflections on display screens of
and their effect on differing display polarities are shown in Plates 3(a) and 3(b). Veiling
fOCUSIfl9 reflections on display screens are caused by both electric light and
daylight, and can cause severe reductions in task visibility to the point
where it is impossible to see the screen task. This is a particular problem
where a high luminance reflection may mask a warning indication or a
change of status of a critical value on a displayed screen.

It had also been thought that a clear image reflected in a display screen
caused undue visual fatigue to users by causing them to focus back and
forth between the distant image reflected on the screen and the infor-
mation displayed on the screen itself. However, recent research7 has
thrown this hypothesis into doubt, although it is still likely that clear
reflected images on a screen are more distracting to the user than diffuse
images. For this reason the use of screens with some form of surface
treatment is recommended.

4 Lighting assessment for the Health and Safety Regulations

Lighting is covered, to a greater or lesser extent, in four of the six British
regulations covering the European safety and health directives. There is
an overall requirement for assessment of the workplace in The Manage-
ment of Health and Safety at Work Regulations8, a general requirement to
provide suitable and sufficient lighting in The Workplace (Health, Safety
and Welfare) Regulations(9, and more specific requirements in The Health
and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations1 and The Provision and
Use of Work Equipment Regulations'°. This Lighting Guide is mainly con-
cerned with The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations,
although certain aspects of the other Regulations are noted where
appropriate. A fuller description of the Regulations appears in the CIBSE
Guidance Note Healthy workplaces".

4.1 General lighting The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations require
assessments employers to carry out an assessment of the risks to the health and safety
of employees and others visiting the premises. In lighting terms this
generally relates to the illumination on tasks, glare from electric lighting
and windows and the lighting equipment itself.

For many tasks the required illuminance is given for the horizontal plane
where the task is carried out. The most obvious example of this is the desk
or work bench. The working plane may, however, be inclined or vertical,
e.g. a drawing board or the control panel of a printer. To perform a task
safely and adequately in these places lighting is required to fall on the
principal face of the task and this is where the resulting lighting level
should normally be measured. Recommended lighting levels for the many
tasks found in working interiors are to found in the CIBSE Code Jr
interior lighting 12)•

Glare from lighting equipment, sky through windows, bright room sur-
faces or from reflections on equipment can all be distracting or disabling
to workers. A low level of glare, normally referred to as discomfort glare,
is a discomfort to operatives and can, by distracting an operative's atten-
tion from their task, be dangerous. A higher level of glare, normally from
excessively bright luminaires, which causes a reduction in operatives'
ability to perform their task is termed disability glare. This can lead to
higher levels of error and an increased risk of injury in the workplace.
Acceptable levels of discomfort glare for varying tasks are given in the
CIBSE Code for interior lighting12, although the measurement or assess-
ment of glare within the workplace is difficult.

7
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Lighting equipment itself can be a direct risk in a number of ways: by

being in such a position or suspended at such a level that operatives may
strike the luminaire; by heat generated by lamps and control gear causing
direct burns, fire or noxious fumes from overheated materials touching
the luminaire or being in the beam of light from a high intensity source;
or from electrical shock or mechanical failure caused by faulty or poorly
designed luminaires. The heat from luminaires, either from the close
proximity of high intensity indirect lights or tungsten desk lights or from
the beams of spotlights, can cause inconvenience and risk through fatigue
to affected users. With certain types of lamps there is a small risk of des-
tructive failure, i.e. the lamp shattering. These types of lamp are normally
only installed in enclosed light fittings. The risk from each luminaire, or
type of luminaire, within the workplace should be assessed. BS 4533
Luminaires('3) has been replaced by BS EN 60598 Luminaires14) and all
new luminaires should be selected for compliance with this standard and
installed in such a way that they pose no risk to users of the space or to
maintenance staff.

4.2 The Workplace Among the provisions of The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)
HeIth Safe and Regulations(9) are requirements for every workplace to have 'suitable and
sufficient lighting', that it shall 'as far as is reasonably practicable be by natural
Welfare) light', and for suitable and sufficient emergency lighting to be provided 'in
Regulations any room in circumstances in which persons at work are specially exposed to
danger in the event offailure of electric lighting'.

The primary requirement for any workplace is that suitable and sufficient
lighting is provided for each task to be carried out. This means that for
each task performed in the workplace the lighting level, and for certain
tasks the colour rendering of the light, is suitable for the continuous safe
and effective performance of that task. The CIBSE Code for interior
lighting('2) gives the recommended lighting level for carrying out tasks effi-
ciently and without strain on those carrying them out. It includes guid-
ance on corrections to the recommended lighting levels where the task is
more or less visually demanding than normal, or where the criticality or
duration of the task or the age of the operatives is different from normal.

The Code'2 also defines the various aspects that establish the quality of
lighting. Glare needs to be controlled, good modelling should be provid-
ed, and the correct luminance balance between the surfaces in the work-
place and between the task and surfaces need to be provided. Minimum
colour rendering indices are also specified where colour is important for
the performance of a task, such as in some textile and graphics work.

By requiring the provision, as far as is reasonably practicable, of daylight

at each workplace the Regulations recognise the preference of users for a
link to the outside world. Such provision is usually of great benefit to
users, helping to make them feel less confined and providing the space
with a more airy feel. It is also believed that a view of the changing
daylight provides cues to help regulate the body's circadian rhythms.

In a new building good daylighting of the interior is achieved by con-

sidering the overall shape of the building at the planning stage and
providing adequate windows, roof lights, atria or light wells. Improving
the amount and extent of daylight provision in an older building often
involves expensive and disruptive major building work which is seldom
considered reasonably practicable. There are, however, some simpler
measures that can be considered as part of a general building refurbish-
ment, including reducing window bar obstruction and improving the
reflective properties of the window surround. The insertion of light
shelves may lead to a greater penetration of daylight into a space and
reduce overlighting of the area by the window, but the overall lighting
level in the space is likely to be reduced. The simple measure of increasing
the frequency of window cleaning can lead to improvements in the
amount of daylight entering a space.

8
 LIGHTING ASSESSMENT FOR THE HEALTH AND SAFETY REGULATIONS

The improvement of daylight levels can also have direct advantages for
the building owner over and above possible improvements to staff morale.
Extra daylight can supplement or replace electric lighting during part of
the day and thus lead to energy savings. However, it should be remem-
bered that the requirements of the The Display Screen Equipment Regu-
lations' mean that ways of controlling the brightness of windows are
needed. This will naturally reduce the level of daylight available in the
space. The CIBSE Applications Manual Window design6 provides a great
deal of information to help the architect or designer to achieve a good bal-
ance between the conflicting requirements of windows within the space.

4.3 The Health and The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations', which
came into effect in January 1993, do not include a specific regulation on
Safe (Dis Ia
lighting. However, Regulations 3(1) and 3(2) refer indirectly to lighting.
Screen Equipment) Regulation 3(1) requires employers to 'ensure that any workstation put into
Regulations service on or after 1st January 1993 ... meets the requirements laid down in the
schedule to these regulations' and Regulation 3(2) requires employers to
'ensure that any workstation first put into service on or before 31st December
1992 ... meets the requirements laid down in the schedule to these regulations
not later than 31st December 1996.'

The schedule to which the Regulations refer sets out the minimum
requirements for workstations and states, in section 1, that 'an employer
shall ensure that a workstation meets the requirements laid down in this schedule
to the extent that:
(a) those requirements relate to a component which is present in the
workstation concerned,
(b) those requirements have effect with a view to securing the health, safety
and welfare of persons at work, and
(c) the inherent characteristics of a given task make compliance with those
requirements appropriate as respects the workstation concerned.'

As the definition of workstation covers the 'immediate work environment

around the display screen equipment', lighting needs to be considered.
Sections 2 and 3 continue:

Equipment 2(b) Display screen: 'The screen shall be free of reflected glare and
reflections liable to cause discomfort to the operator or user.'

Note here that there will always be reflections from a glass fronted screen,
unless working in a black room with black clothing. The requirement is
to avoid those reflections which cause actual discomfort to the user.

Environment 3(b) Lighting: 'Any room lighting or task lighting provided shall
ensure satisfactory lighting conditions and an appropriate contrast between the
screen and the background environment, taking into account the type of work and
the vision requirements of the operator or user.'

The requirements look very firmly at the user's whole visual environ-
ment, including the lighting conditions of the space and, specifically, the
background or view beyond the screen.

Section 3(b) continues: 'Possible disturbing glare and reflections on the screen
or other equipment shall be prevented by coordinating the workplace and
workstation layout with the positioning and technical characteristics of the
artificial light source.'

This requirement points out that reflections on the screen can be pro-
duced or prevented by space planning, screen orientation, furniture layout
etc., as well as by lighting.

Environment 3(c) Reflections and glare: 'Workstations shall be so designed

that sources of light, such as windows and other openings, transparent or

9
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

translucid walls, and brightly coloured fixtures or walls cause no direct glare and
no distracting reflections on the screen. Windows shall be fitted with a suitable
system of adjustable covering to attenuate the daylight that falls on the
workstation.'

Again, the planning of the whole space is shown to be important to pre-

vent screen reflection problems from windows.

It can be seen that The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment)
Regulations') impose requirements on the employer beyond those of The
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations(9). In areas of DSE use
the lighting system, workstation and equipment used need to be con-
sidered together in order to ensure that no disturbing reflections appear
on the screen and that the visual environment provides the appropriate
contrast between the screen and its background. It is not sufficient to
consider the lighting in isolation. Indeed, the Regulations only consider
lighting in relation to workstation equipment.

4.4 The link between There is no specific requirement to comply with LG3 contained in the
LG3 and The Health Regulations. The link is provided by the Health and Safety Executive's
Display screen equipment work — Guidance on Regulations (1993)(15). The
and Safely (Display guidance to the schedule of minimum requirements, paragraph 24, refer-
Screen Equipment) ring to lighting, states that 'Specific and detailed guidance is given in t
CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 Lighting for visual display terminals'.
Regulations
This means that LG3 provides guidance to designers and users but does
not provide a 'deemed to satisfy' route to compliance with the Regulations.
Indeed the introduction to the HSE document states that 'The guidance
covers these regulations only but employers should ensure that they also comply
with the general duties placed on them by other health and safety legislation,
particularly their general obligation under the Health and Safety at Work etc.
Act 1974 and associated legislation'. A full and detailed assessment of the
installed workstations will be needed whatever lighting is used in the
space.

Such arrangements, where legislation refers on to 'approved' guidance,

mean that if a competent designer takes due cognisance of the guidance or
standards relating to the legislation then it is generally taken that the
designer's obligations have been fulfilled. That does not mean that the in-
stallation, once tested against the letter of the Regulations, will necessarily
comply. In other words, whilst having LG3 luminaires in an installation is
a very sound basis for compliance, it does not guarantee that an instal-
lation will meet the Regulations. Conversely having non-LG3 luminaires
does not mean that the installations will fail.

The Regulations only cover those workstations at which defined display

screen work is carried out. Workstations that contain DSE but are not used
by 'users', as defined by the Regulations, are not covered. It is not possible
to say that an empty office floor complies with the Regulations, as only
workstations where users work can be so defined. Each workstation with-
in an installation must be assessed against the criteria of the Regulations
and it is possible that one workstation will 'fail' whilst all those around it
'pass'.

4.5 Assessment of the The following guidance has been written to aid the assessment of the
visual environment lighting in an existing DSE installation. References are given to other
sections of LG3. Some of the items refer to non-lighting issues that may
of display screen affect the posture or position of the user, leading to problems with seeing
areas the screen adequately. As installations vary, the assessor may need to
prepare an assessment procedure tailored to each installation. A summary
checklist is provided in Appendix 4.

10
 LIGHTING ASSESSMENT FOR THE HEALTH AND SAFETY REGULATIONS

4.5.1 Existing lighting Assess the lighting installation as a whole for the level of discomfort glare
present. If levels exceed those set out in the CIBSE Code for interior light-
ing'2 then corrective action will be needed.

For each individual workstation check the lighting level against the
recommended level. The contribution of daylight should normally be
excluded from these measurements. If the level does not meet the
recommended level then action should be taken to increase the lighting
available to that workstation. This may be by provision of local supple-
mentary lighting; the removal or repositioning of partitions or furniture
that may be obstructing the light; cleaning or redecoration of walls or
ceilings; cleaning of the luminaires; replacement of old lamps or an
upgrade of the lighting system as a whole.

Where the illumination is judged to be excessive in relation to the DSE

types present and the tasks for which they are used, steps should be taken
to reduce it. Levels of more than twice that recommended would normally
be regarded as excessive. Any reduction in illumination should be
achieved in a way that does not jeopardise other lighting criteria, e.g. poor
uniformity caused by the disconnection of every other luminaire.

Check the view for each user for sources of high luminance or distracting
features in the scene visible around the display screen. The workstation
itself should also be checked for unusual levels of brightness or shadow-
ing. Correcting any imbalances may require alterations to the furnishings
or changes to the decor or lighting system.

Check each screen for reflected images of luminaires and bright surfaces.
Where present, they should be assessed in terms of whether they are likely
to distract the user. Users should be asked whether they find them
troublesome. Changes to the position on the work surface, orientation or
tilt of the screen are likely to resolve most reflection problems. Reorien-
tation or repositioning of the workstation itself may be necessary in some
cases.

4.5.2 Existing windows Check workstations positioned with unscreened windows behind or in
front of the user to see if the windows cause distracting reflections on the
screen or are a source of distraction or glare to the user (see Plates 4 and
5). If they are, then check the response of the user when the windows are
temporarily screened or obscured. It should be remembered that the
height and position of the sun and the relative cloud cover vary through-
out the year. Existing window screening material should be suitably
opaque to avoid sunlight on the material turning it into a bright source of
glare. See section 6.4 for information on various window screening tech-
niques.

It is normally better to orientate workstations such that the windows are

to the side of the operators. It is also advisable to screen the upper parts of
windows to avoid a direct view of bright clouds and to reduce solar gain
directly on users near to the window. Reflections from nearby mirror
fronted buildings may cause sunlight to enter rooms from unexpected
directions. This may be a particular problem in buildings where auto-
matically controlled blinds or louvres are used, as some users may not be
protected by a centrally control regime, see section 6.

4.5.3 Screen position and Check each screen is located at a suitable height and orientation for easy
viewing distance viewing from the user's normal viewing position. Whilst this position is
usually obvious for a seated user, some screens are used from a standing
position, e.g. in some hotel receptions, library counters or industrial loca-
tions. The location and height of the seat also affects the viewing angles
and comfort of the user. Although the workstation, and particularly the
screen, should be positioned to provide the best ergonomic position for
the user in terms of body posture and comfort, the screen to eye relation-
ship is crucial in minimising screen reflection problems, see Appendix 1.

11
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR I)ISPLAY SCREEN USE

All DSE users are entitled to an eyesight test to establish if they need
corrective glasses or to change their existing glasses prescription. This is
because the viewing distance to a screen is normally greater than that used
for viewing paper-based tasks and existing reading glasses may not be
suitable. If the user has not had an eyesight test then one should be
recommended.

4.5.4 Display screen image Examine the quality of the image on the display screen. The image should
be clear and stable. Whilst technical standards are available for display
screen quality2 it is possible to check some of the desirable charac-
teristics of a display image by a close examination of the working unit.
Checking whether it is easy to distinguish between X and K, 0 and Q, T
and Y, S and 5, I and L, U and V, I and 1, 0 and 0 (zero), with the screen
displaying the character fonts normally used by the user, will help.

The other aspect of the display to consider is stability. The frequency with
which the screen phosphors are refreshed (refresh rate) should be as high
as possible with a non-interlaced display to minimise flicker. If an opera-
ting DSE is showing flicker, jitter or drift, the possibility of an instability
in the power supply or in the associated circuitry should be considered. If
the image is stable but is too small, blurred, or in any other way unsatis-
factory, it should be checked against the manufacturer's specification.

4.5.5 DSE luminance Check that the luminance and/or contrast of each display is adjustable
adjustment and that the user has been instructed in the use of the controls. The
extent of adjustment should be sufficient to provide a wide range of com-
fortable display contrasts. Contrast can be produced by either dark char-
acters on a light background or light characters on a dark background.
The former has the advantage that the light background diminishes the
prominence of any high luminance reflections but the disadvantage of
making any instability in the display more noticeable. Thus a display
consisting of dark characters on a light background has to be associated
with a high refresh rate to be satisfactory. A display of light characters on
a dark background makes any display instability less noticeable but
intensifies the effect of high luminance reflections.

4.5.6 Display screen Where display units can be tilted and rotated, ensure that the users are
movement fully aware of the scope of these movements and that the screens are
suitably adjusted. These adjustments provide flexibility in working
posture and aid the avoidance of high luminance reflections. The screen
centre should typically be 15_200 below a horizontal line from the eye
with the screen face normal to the direction of sight, see Appendix 1.

4.5.7 Special DSE Large high resolution displays are particularly difficult to position on
some desks. This can lead to poor ergonomic positioning or locations that
are not suitable from a lighting point of view. Check that suitably large
and/or adapted desks have been provided for unusually large screens.

Where screens are mounted in furniture the ability of the user to move the
screen to remove reflection is reduced or removed. Ensure that lighting is
suitable around these locations. Where screens are mounted near to
horizontal ensure that overhead lighting does not cause reflections on the
screen, see Plate 7.

4.5.8 Bright sources For isolated problems with screen reflections or glare in an office, check
whether the affected users have tried reorienting their screens or work-
stations to avoid the reflections or glare sources. If they are being affected
by particular unshaded windows or bright luminaires then it may be
possible to shield or eliminate these bright sources. As a last resort it may
be worth experimenting with new screens or add-on filters before con-
sidering general relighting. Such filters should be used with care as whilst
they may reduce reflection problems they may degrade image quality,
reduce acceptable viewing angles or introduce fringing at the corners of
the screen.

12
 LIGHTING ASSESSMENT FOR THE HEALTH AND SAFETY REGULATIONS

4.5.9 DSE hoods and barriers Hoods or flaps are sometimes attached to display screens. These can help
to avoid reflections but can also restrict the directions from which the
screen can be seen, which may affect working posture. Check to see if
alternative means of screening bright sources are possible.
4.5.10 Document holders Check to see that, where users have requested them, workstations are
equipped with document holders on which working documents can be
mounted. Not all users like using these, but they can, in most cases, ease
problems associated with frequent referral between screen and document.
Ideally document holders should be positioned such that the documents
are mounted near to the plane of the screen and at the same distance from
the eyes.

Unfortunately such exact positioning is rarely possible but even a simple

lectern can be of use. The user needs to be able to move their hand to the
line marker on the holder easily or to use a foot control on an automated
text holder. As a general rule the closer the screen and documents are to
the same plane the less likely are problems with changes of focus.

4.5.11 Separate keyboards Ensure that keyboards are separable from the display units and that the
keys are matt finished and easily cleaned. Separating the keyboard from
the display allows greater flexibility in working posture. Keys with a matt
finish reduce specular reflections and ensuring that they are easily
cleaned allows the greasy specular film that builds up on keys to be
removed. Symbols on the keys should be large and clear to aid legibility.
Old keyboards with worn or polished keys may need replacing.

4.5.12 Surrounding areas Check that the keyboard surround and the surround to the display are of a
light colour in a matt finish. Black surrounds should not be used as they
increase the contrast with light screens and cause problems with the
adaptation range that needs to be covered. A matt finish avoids high
luminance reflections near to the screen or keys.

4.5.13 Luminance range Check that the luminance ratio between the display screen and other
items in the visual field close to the screen, e.g. documents and partitions,
is not too large, see Plate 2. A maximum range of 1 to 10 is a good
standard to aim for. In other words dark backgrounds should not have
less than one tenth of the screen luminance, nor white paper text more
than ten times the screen luminance.

4.5.14 Non-visual problems It is worth remembering that lighting is often the most obvious environ-
mental factor that discontented staff can blame, even though it may not
be the actual source of discontent. An individual may experience eye
strain due to the wrong posture rather than glare, or be frustrated at the
inability to affect the environment, e.g. control the lighting or pace of
work. A detailed ergonomic assessment will reveal if complaints with the
lighting have their origin in postural problems, general staff discontent-
ment, or are restricted to one particular group or a specific area of the
office.

13
Part 2 Design and implementation
5 Design process
This section outlines the design process necessary to establish a high
quality visual environment for an area that is to be refurbished or for the
design for a new area to accommodate users of DSE. It is assumed that, for
existing areas, an assessment of the existing lighting has established the
need for new lighting suitable for DSE.

Where the designer is involved with new office space for a known client it
is essential to liaise with the client to determine the types of DSE and
potential tasks to be carried out in the space. Existing sites where the
client already has DSE in use may provide valuable insights into the
equipment and working practices of the client's staff.

Designers of speculative office space where working areas for DSE are
proposed may have no existing DSE installation on which to judge the
severity of the DSE tasks or screen types likely to be used in the space.
Users could bring in any type of DSE or task. For this reason the exact
nature of the lighting and decor to be provided must be established with
the owner or developer. Trying to let a space as suitable for high intensity
DSE activity, e.g. dealing, when the lighting has been designed for
moderate use of basic applications on general display screens can lead to
serious problems for all concerned.

5.1 New installations When starting the design of a new installation it is important to find out
as much as possible about the types of display equipment to be used,
for a known user where it is to be installed and the way the users intend to work with the
equipment. This may mean visiting the client's existing premises or
premises where equipment and operating methods are similar. Possible
applications vary widely from control centres, with control consoles with
many fixed position screens, to open plan offices with randomly
orientated screens of varying types.

It is equally important to establish early liaison with the room designer to

ensure that surface reflectances, window screening techniques and office
layouts are compatible with the intended lighting solution. For example,
indirect lights cannot be used if there is no floor space allowed for free-
standing units or the furniture is unsuitable for mounting indirect lights.
Close liaison with the client/user and architect/interior designer is there-
fore vital to the achievement of an acceptable DSE working environment.
Similarly, it is important to feed back design decisions on the lighting to
other members of the design team. Subsequent changes by any member of
the team need to be circulated to other members for any necessary action
on their part.

5.2 Refurbishment of Lighting refurbishments often involve existing users and DSE in the space
gg
existing Ii htin and the need for a refurbishment has often arisen following a detailed
assessment of the lighting. This should have gathered a great deal of
systems information on the DSE in use and the way users are operating it which
can be used in the preparation of the design. Refurbishment of an empty
building should proceed as with a new design.

Refurbishment usually imposes more physical restraints on the design

than a new building. The refurbishment may be purely of the lighting
itself or a more extensive refurbishment of the ceiling system and related
services. Where only the lighting is to be refurbished there is always the
temptation to retain the existing lighting points or even to try to convert
the existing luminaires to become 'suitable' for DSE areas. Whilst this may
be thought to be cheaper, possible pitfalls should be considered. These
include electrical or mechanical dangers inherent in a poor conversion,

14
 DESIGN PROCESS

loss of guarantee on the original luminaire, a change of thermal charac-

teristics of luminaires leading to changes in light output of the lamps and
changes to the uniformity of the resultant illumination on the working
plane.

An existing space also offers the opportunity to examine existing windows

and their screening systems. If the latter are sufficient to provide attenua-
tion of bright sky areas, opaque enough not to be over-bright in sunlight
and easily adjustable by the users of that space, then they may be suitable
for retention. If not, new window shading is likely to be required, see
section 6.

5.3 Speculative space Before starting the design process for space that will be let to an unknown
for an unknown user, it is important to establish with the building owners, and possibly
the letting agent, the types of user to which the space will be marketed.
user This helps to establish the likely types and quantity of DSE to be used in
the space. The space planning flexibility also needs to be established. This
helps determine the likely effect of partitioning options on both the
illuminance levels and cut-off given by the partitions to long views of
luminaires across the space.

It is important to then liaise with the architect or interior designer on

finishes and window types and their screening. Once these points are
established, design philosophies can be agreed that will allow some flexi-
bility in letting options. For example, it is possible that what was intended
as a small factory start-up unit may eventually be let to a high-tech com-
puter-based user. Adaptable design options and their costs should be
explored with the building owner.

5.4 Design criteria The primary aim of any lighting design for a working interior is to
provide a pleasant visual environment free from disturbing glare or lumi-
nance imbalances whilst providing sufficient visual variety and the
correct levels of task illuminance. Factors such as the colour of the light
source in relation to the interior decor, the shape and form of the lumi-
naires themselves and their energy consumption and methods of control
are all important factors. Reference should be made to the CIBSE Code for
interior lighting('2) for details of general criteria for lighting design.

In order to avoid distracting reflections on the screen it is necessary to

either eliminate high luminances from the room or to ensure that any
high luminances present are not directed or reflected towards the opera-
tor. High luminance sources can be eliminated by the correct selection of
luminaires, as described in sections 7.3 and 8 on direct lighting, sections
7.4 and 9 on indirect lighting or sections 7.5 and 10 on indirect/direct
lighting, and by screening or covering windows in one of the ways
described in section 6.

5.5 Main considerations To avoid luminance adaptation problems caused by excessive variance of
surface luminance in the area around the DSE it is important to consider
in lanning those surfaces that are looked at in rapid succession. These are likely to be
the display screen, source documents and keyboard as well as adjacent
desk and partition/wall surfaces. Problems can be minimised by selecting
equipment and furnishings which have similar reflectances, which are
matt and which are not brightly coloured or have high contrast patterns.
Lighting systems should be selected and positioned so as to avoid sharp
differences in lighting level or heavy shadowing in the workstation area.

To avoid problems with glare and reflections a larger area of the interior
needs to be considered. For direct glare the area close to the main line of
sight is important, see Plate 2. Relevant surfaces may be distant walls or
the view through windows. Reducing the luminance of such surfaces,
either by reducing the reflectance, decreasing illuminances or shielding
the bright sky, will usually eliminate this problem, see Plates 4, 5 and 6.

15
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Problems with reflections on the screen are likely to involve the whole of
the interior. This is a simple matter of geometry. Figure 5.1 shows the
area within which high luminances may be reflected towards an observer
looking at a conventionally mounted screen. The area is large and extends
a considerable distance behind the DSE user. In cellular offices, and near
to walls in open plan offices, the chances of luminaires or bright ceiling
images appearing on a screen are greatly reduced, see Figure 5.2.

Screen angle and height have a significant effect on the likely intrusion of
reflections on the screen. Compare Figure 5.1 with Figure 5.3, in which
the screen has been raised and tilted forward slightly to give the user an
almost perpendicular view of the screen. The effect of the changes is to
reduce the area of the ceiling that is reflected onto the top of the screen.
Any luminaires seen further back in the room are seen at higher angles
where their luminance is normally lower.

Figure 5.1 Typical geometry for eye, screen and luminaire

of reflected image in
fop of screen

Screen tilt
the same

Figure 5.2 Reflected images of the window and luminaire seen in Figure 5.1 are avoided

16
 DESIGN PROCESS

All luminaires above the line L2J Ceiling

of reflection in the screen

Curvature of top of
screen the some
Area seen reflected
in screen reduced

Tilt of VDT screen

decreased

Height of screen
increased

Figure 5.3 Screen positson altered to remove reflected images of nearby luminaires

5.6 The influence of The finish of a screen affects the degree of clarity of any reflected image.
display screen and If the front glass of the display has no surface treatment to soften the
reflected image then the image will be more distracting to the user, can
task type reduce task effectiveness and may lead to tiredness. In general a higher
luminance reflection can be tolerated if the image is diffused by some
surface treatment of the front glass. Part 7 of Iso 9241 (in draft only at
the time of publication) proposes two categories of display screen: one
with enhanced treatment of the screen surface and one with reduced sur-
face treatment. The use of the enhanced screens will help to minimise any
problems with screen reflections.

Whilst the addition of 'anti-reflective' or 'contrast enhancement' filters,

polarising or mesh filters and hoods to the front of the display screen can
diminish the luminance and/or sharpness of any reflections in DSE
screens, they rarely eliminate totally problems caused by screen reflec-
tions. They can also introduce other problems such as fringing or restric-
ti()ns in view angle and can create a maintenance problem. They should
be treated as a palliative for isolated screens with problems rather than as
a solution to more widespread problems with reflected images.

The type of task being carried out on the DSE also affects the need to limit
the luminance of screen reflections. If the screen is displaying critical
information, such as in a control room; or changing information in fixed
positions on a screen, such as stock exchange rates; the obscuring of part
of the screen by a reflected image can have serious consequences. If
information is moving across the screen the human visual system is more
able to filter out static reflections from the information. Thus a standard
word processing task can accommodate a few reflected images without
causing too great a strain on the user. There are limits, however, and even
the simplest of tasks can have the information so degraded by high
luminance screen reflections that the user cannot perform their task cor-
rectly or safely.

The luminance and contrast of the information being displayed also

affects its visibility. The luminance of the screen should be adjustable by
the user to suit their own needs. The average luminance of the screen
should be set so that it is similar to the luminance of areas of the work-
place and the other task items looked at in the course of work on the

17
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

screen. If this level is much lower than the luminance of any reflected
image on the screen then the reflected image will start to dominate and
will obscure part of the screen information. The contrast inherent in the
displayed image will also affect the relative visibility of the image and
screen reflections. If text contrast is inherently soft, such as grey on a
white background then reflected images, especially sharp ones, will easily
distract. If on the other hand the text contrast is bolder, such as black on
white or yellow on blue, then a reflected image will be less noticeable.

The luminance of reflections of luminaires and windows on DSE screens

can be comparable with or greater than the luminance of the display itself,
although the problem is reduced with positive polarity displays, i.e. dark
letters on a bright background. Therefore, using a positive polarity display
will reduce complaints caused by reflections from the screen as well as
presenting the user with a reduced contrast between the screen infor-
mation, the room surfaces and any paper-based tasks on the desk. This is
the ideal solution to the problem, see Plates 3(a) and 3(b). Unfortunately,
some older or cheaper displays suffer from instability and/or poor charac-
ter formation when displaying in positive polarity. As the existing stock of
screens is gradually replaced over the next decade problems with screen
reflections and general complaints due to flicker and jitter will be re-
duced.

6 Design options for daylighting

It is widely acknowledged that daylight is an almost universal require-
ment for workers because people mainly prefer a working environment
with daylight to one without. Additionally, people like to have access to
an external view through windows even if the view is not particularly
pleasant. An external view provides contact with the outside world and
also allows eyes to relax, which is particularly useful if the work involves
looking at detail at close distances. The admittance of daylight also tends
to make a space feel brighter.

A range of documented evidence confirms the intuition that excluding

daylight can lead to increases in the number of complaints about the
working environment, and may have potentially adverse effects on
productivity'6"7.

BS 8206: Part 2 Code of practice for daylighting18) states that: 'an interior
which looks gloomy, or does not have a view of the outside where this can reason-
ably be expected, will be considered unsatisfactory by the users.' Regulation 8(2)
of The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations9) states that: 'The
lighting [in every workplace] shall, as far as is reasonably practicable, be by
natural light.'

There are, of course, working environments where daylight has to be

excluded, such as photographic dark rooms, or where the amount or avail-
ability of daylight has to be controlled, such as most art galleries.

Daylighting for DSE areas is often thought to be difficult and in many

instances in the past the policy was to divorce, as far as possible, DSE from
daylight. This is clearly not an ideal policy, given the popularity among
the workforce of daylight and external views and the requirements of The
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations9). Additionally, using
only electric lighting for DSE work can waste energy and leave the designer
with the problem of providing a suitable visual environment in the
workplace without the use of daylighting.

18
 DESIGN OPTIONS FOR DAY LIGHTING

6.1 General In common with electric lighting the general design principle for day-
requirements for lighting DSE areas is to maximise the visibility of the screen display while
ensuring the best possible visual environment for the DSE users and other
daylightung users of the space. The same problems apply with daylighting as with
DSE areas electric lighting, namely luminance adaptation, glare and veiling reflec-
tions. The main differences are that the light source, i.e. the window, is
generally much larger and its luminance varies widely throughout the day
and from month to month. The very bright sun within a bright window is
effectively a luminaire within a luminaire.

One of the simplest and most effective methods for achieving a satis-
factory luminance adaptation range is to arrange viewing geometry for the
DSE workstation to avoid users looking directly out onto potentially bright
patches of sky or having windows behind them reflecting on their screens.
This generally requires that the plane of the display screen is placed as
near to the perpendicular to the plane of the window as is practical, so that
the user's viewing axis runs nearly parallel to the window plane.

Glare from windows can be caused both by diffuse skylight and, more
seriously, by direct sunlight or sunlight on light window coverings. Glare
from these sources can be reduced by lowering the contrast between the
sources and the internal wall surface. This can be achieved by either
reducing the brightness of the sky seen through the window, by covering
the window, or by increasing the apparent brightness of the window
surround, see Plates 5 and 6. It should be noted that susceptibility to dis-
ability glare increases markedly with age.

However, these measures will not be sufficient to reduce glare from direct
sunlight, which requires some form of nearly opaque shading device, such
as roller blinds. Black-out blinds are not appropriate in most situations,
and should only be used where there is a specific requirement for them.
Whatever form of shading device is installed, its control should be imme-
diately adjacent to the window, and easy to use. Where this is not the case,
and glare from sunlight is a problem, users may keep the blinds down and
the lights on. This leads not only to a poor environment but also to exces-
sive and unnecessary energy consumption by the electric lighting.

Optimising visual conditions in a daylit space usually hinges on con-

trolling the range and distribution of luminances present and careful
arrangement of the geometry and location of DSE equipment. It also means
retaining the positive features of a daylit environment such as variability
with changing weather and the provision of an external view.

6.2 Minimising the Lighting designers may be able to affect overall window design if they are
involved at an early stage of the building design. Windows which are
bri htness of wider and less tall than conventional windows, so as to minimise the area
windows of bright visible sky, are more suitable for effective DSE lighting. Reveals
should be splayed and of a light colour to reduce the magnitude of the
luminance step that occurs between the window and surrounding wall.

Where this is not possible, it may be helpful to place a row of luminaires

close to the window wall. This will increase the illuminance of the
window surrounds and may improve the night-time appearance of the
space. Care needs to be taken to avoid over-lighting the wall or giving
bright scallops on the wall that may appear as images on screens.

Reducing sky brightness by using tinted glazing is not generally recom-

mended because it reduces daylight in the interior of the space, adversely
affecting the energy efficiency of an installation, as well as depriving users
of the benefits of daylight. Even tinted windows normally require screen-
ing measures to reduce high sky brightness and sunlight penetration. See
the CIBSE Applications Manual Window design6) for a fuller discussion.

19
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

6.3 Interaction between The field of view adjacent to a screen may include both the interior envi-
and views through a window, possibly onto bright sky. In such
daylight and electric ronment
cases the range of luminances in the field of view can be very large,
•
hg ting possibly greater than the simultaneous luminance adaptation range of the
eye, so causing visual discomfort and potential visibility problems.
Electric lighting can be used to balance the range of luminances. The use
of electric lighting with lighting controls, especially controls that are
daylight linked, is recommended.

Whether controls are manual or automatic the control zones within the
overall space should be local to the DSE workstations, i.e. individual zones
should have switches close to the user to allow easy and convenient con-
trol of the lights in that zone.

The appearance and luminance balance of a space should be considered

for all lighting conditions. The appearance during bright sunny days,
when the electric lighting may be off, will be considerably different to that
in late winter afternoons or evenings where the daylight contribution may
have faded completely.

6.4 Window shading Screening a window from DSE screens can be a simple matter of adding
techni ues free-standing, part-height partitions between the screens and the window.
These allow adjustability in positioning whilst allowing some daylight to
pass over the partition. Some obstruction to daylight penetration into the
office is, however, inevitable. Other methods of screening include posi-
tioning high furniture or fixed partitioning between the DSE and win-
dows, though this may prove difficult where there are a large number of
windows. The main disadvantage of such screening is the loss of a view
out of the window. Widespread use of high partitioning is likely to
degrade the quality of the space for most occupants. High partitioning is
also likely to throw hard shadows from the electric lighting across the
working space and will affect the uniformity of light in the space.

For areas where DSE is in widespread use it is preferable-to screen the light
at source, i.e. at the window. Many forms of internal window screening are
available, from curtains to vertical louvre drapes. Whatever method is
chosen simple local control and adjustability of the screening is impor-
tant. This allows users to feel more in control of their environment and
allows them to determine the degree of shading or admission of daylight.

External screening systems include awnings, structural overhangs and

light shelves. The window itself can include prismatic refractors or tinting
to reduce brightness. Each system has its advantages and drawbacks; these
are discussed below.

Another effect of direct sunlight is thermal gain, which can cause consid-
erable thermal discomfort, especially for users near to windows. Although
beyond the scope of this Lighting Guide, consideration should be given to
minimising adverse thermal effects when selecting shading devices.
Where windows provide a means of ventilation any screening system must
be selected to allow users safe and easy access to the window opening
device. The movement of air through a window can cause annoying flap-
ping or vibration of some screening systems.

6.4.1 Curtains Full length curtains have a major drawback in that, once drawn, they
cover the entire window thus cutting out not only the bright sky, but also
the view. With changing sunlight conditions curtains will normally need
to be drawn forwards and backwards across the entire window. To avoid
obscuring part of the window when curtains are open, over-runs of track
should be provided to store the curtains away from the window opening.

To retain some contact with the outside environment, curtains should not
be totally opaque, but of a dense, translucent fabric. Their colour should
be light, with a material reflectance of greater than 0.5 so that they do not

20
 DESIGN OPTIONS FOR DAYLIGHTING

present too great a luminance contrast with the surrounding walls once
daylight has faded. Where curtains are liable to be lit directly by sunlight
there is a danger of the material becoming too bright and appearing as a
bright image in DSE. Here the material should have a close weave and have
a transmittance less than 0.1.

6.4.2 Vertical louvre drapes Vertical louvre drapes are similar to curtains in that they generally need
to be drawn across the entire window to be effective, but have the
advantage that the louvres may be part opened, see Plate 5. This can help
vary the lightness of the louvres by allowing some daylight to inter-reflect
through them but may cause a striped reflection on display screens facing
the windows. If no DSE is positioned to one side of a window, then the
louvres can be opened in that direction to allow daylight in and a view out
by office users on that side. DSE and its users on the other side remain
screened from the bright sky by the angle of the louvres. The louvre angle
may need to be altered during the day as the sun moves across the sky.

The material of the louvres should conform to the reflectance and trans-
mission characteristics given above for curtains.

6.4.3 Horizontal (Venetian) Horizontal blinds, unlike curtains or vertical louvres, can be useful when
blinds part lowered, cutting off the bright sky whilst allowing a view out. They
are least useful when made of a glossy material which can transmit bright
highlights into the interior by inter-reflection and may cause a striped
reflection on display screens facing the windows.

Horizontal blinds should have a matt surface finish and be of a light

colour with a surface reflectance of greater than 0.5. The type of blade
with small perforations can allow more of a feeling of contact with the
outside world when the blind is fully lowered.

6.4.4 Roller blinds Roller blinds can be an inexpensive and effective solution to existing
problems with window glare. They have the advantage of being able to be
part-drawn to shield the bright sky, see Plate 6. The material of the roller
blinds should conform to the same reflectance and transmission charac-
teristics as for curtains.

6.4.5 Overhangs and Overhangs and awnings, which need to be considered early in the design
awnings of a building, act in similar ways, shielding a window from high bright
sky areas, although neither device is able to shield users inside a room
from low winter sun. To help lower the contrast between the underside of
these devices and the sky beyond, they should have as light a surface
finish as possible. Automated awnings can be used but careful setting-up
and regular maintenance is needed.

6.4.6 Light shelves Light shelves are a specialised form of overhang consisting of a light-
reflective shelf located part way down the window. They may be mounted
externally, internally or a mixture of the two. Light shelves are designed
to shade the areas of a space by the windows while reflecting daylight and
sunlight from their reflective upper surface onto the ceiling. This helps to
redistribute daylight away from the generally overlit periphery deeper
into the space, thus reducing contrast within the space. To maintain their
effectiveness, regular cleaning is needed. Some additional form of screen-
ing is likely to be needed to restrict direct sun penetration.

In order to avoid areas of ceiling near the window becoming too bright
(greater than 1500 cd/m2) or sunlight penetrating directly into the build-
ing through the gap above the shelf, it is vital to study the geometry of the
shelf in relation to yearly sun paths, see the CIBSE Applications Manual
Window design6). The relative benefits and disadvantages of internal, ex-
ternal or both types of mounting should also be assessed.

21
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

6.4.7 Prismatic glass Prismatic glass, usually a panel of prismatic refractors installed in the
upper part of a window, gives a similar effect to that of a light shelf. Its
effect is to bend the light from the upper sky up onto the ceiling. This can
be effective in throwing daylight deep into the space and reducing the
brightness of the upper window.

When purpose designed for the room, the refractor panel appears quite
dark and the ceiling wash is uniform. If poorly designed, the ceiling close
to the window may be too bright and, if low quality refractor systems are
used there is a danger of light and dark banding occurring within the
prisms which can be very distracting in DSE screens.

6.4.8 Tinted or reflective Whether tinted or reflective glass are incorporated within the glazing or
glass as a stick-on surface film, the result is the same — they both provide a
uniform reduction in light transmission. Not only is the high sky lumi-
nance reduced by a certain percentage, but also the luminance of the
general view. Other forms of screening are also required to limit the
brightness of direct sunlight and high sky luminances.

Tinted or reflective glass can result in a dull view, especially in dull

weather, with the bright parts of the sky and the sun only partially dimin-
ished. If tinting is required for solar control then it is recommended that
the tint of the glass is close to neutral, to avoid adaptive colour shifts
between the external view and the room interior.

6.4.9 Fritted glass Fritted glass has small coloured dots, or frits, fixed to its surface. These
are used to reduce the transmission of and, where the outer surface of the
dots is white, to reflect the sun's rays. Where the inner face of the dots is
also white the window restricts the view out. Where they are black a view
out is possible.

If uniformly applied to a window, fritted glass can lead to a dull view out
but the technique could be extended to allow a gradation in the density of
dots from the top to the mid-part of the window. This would allow maxi-
mum attenuation of the bright, upper part of the window progressively
reducing until the bottom where a clear view out is provided. Other forms
of screening are also required to limit the brightness of direct sunlight
and high sky luminances.

7 Design options for electric lighting

This section describes in detail the various lighting techniques available
to the designer to provide a suitable environment for the use of DSE.
Techniques include lighting directly onto the working plane from lumi-
naires on, or suspended from, the ceiling; indirect lighting via the light-
ing of the ceiling and upper walls by free-standing, furniture mounted,
wall mounted or suspended indirect lights; lighting from combined
indirect/direct lights suspended from the ceiling; and lighting the task
area with local lights combined with one of the above luminaire types pro-
viding general lighting for the space.

The selection of the type of lighting most suitable for the space depends
on the physical constraints of the space; the proposed decor; user and
designer preferences; and capital, energy and maintenance costs. Electric
lighting needs to provide the appropriate lighting level for all tasks to be
carried out in the space without causing glare or leading to wide variances
in luminance between various surfaces.

22
 DESIGN OPTIONS FOR ELECTRIC LIGHTING

7.1 Physical restrictions One of the most obvious restrictions on the selection of lighting types is
of the s ace room height, which can vary from as low as 2.2 m to a lofty 4 to 6 m in
banking halls or factory units. Indirect lighting can be considered for
higher spaces with sufficient height above the luminaires to allow a wide
distribution of light without overlighting the area of ceiling directly over
luminaires. Careful thought needs to be given to suspension height and
layout for suspended indirect lights or indirect/direct luminaires. Units
need to be low enough to provide a good distribution of light across the
ceiling but be high enough to avoid being a physical danger or a visual
intrusion to those below.

If the proposed space has a floor to ceiling height of less than 2.5 m it is
difficult to use indirect lights successfully without causing bright patches
on the ceiling that may appear as images on display screens. Below 2.3 m
direct lighting is likely to be the only viable option. For heights above 3.2
m suspended indirect or indirect/direct lighting may be used, as these can
be suspended far enough from the ceiling but high enough for people to
pass underneath without feeling that they are going to hit their heads:
typically not lower than 2.3 m. For high spaces, access for relamping and
maintenance must be considered before using ceiling mounted or sus-
pended luminaires; wall or column mounted indirect lights may be more
suitable.

The electrical supply for free-standing indirect lights comes from floor
level, so a number of aspects of the electrical system need to be con-
sidered. Due to the relatively high power load, and even higher starting
loads for discharge lamps, it is recommended that the number of indirect
lights that can be plugged into a single circuit is checked. Starting in-
direct lights may cause voltage spikes which could interfere with personal
computers using the same circuit, so a separate floor power system may be
preferred for supplying floor mounted indirect lights. To avoid other
equipment being plugged into these circuits, non-standard plugs and
sockets can be used. This arrangement allows the central control and
switching of the indirect lights but also results in a further set of floor
services in addition to the normal power, data and telecoms services. This
may not be a problem where false floors are used but difficulties may arise
with floor trunking due to overcrowding. Floor supplied indirect lights
can, however, be an advantage where they remove the need for lighting
supply trunking and conduit in an otherwise congested ceiling void.

The use of ceiling mounted or suspended luminaires frees the floor, not
only of additional power supply distribution but also the area occupied by
the indirect lights. Their major disadvantage is that in general the light-
ing array is fixed. This tends to make the use of the space less adaptable
where full height partitioning is required, unless individual luminaire
regulation is used. Where direct lighting luminaires are recessed they
need to be physically co-ordinated with other services in the ceiling.
Surface mounted luminaires can be considered unsightly in certain spaces
and may interfere with air distribution across the ceiling from supply air
grilles in mechanically ventilated buildings.

Unless a system of track mounting or similar is proposed then in-

direct/direct luminaires are as fixed as direct lights. It is possible, how-
ever, to exchange luminaires or alter the number of lamps or the ratio of
indirect to direct lighting to provide a range of task illuminances and
introduce some visual variety across large spaces. On the other hand free-
standing indirect lights provide a flexible lighting system as they can be
moved around to suit new office layouts or re-spaced to provide varying
illumination levels.

23
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

7.2 Selection of The CIBSE Code for interior lighting'2 and the CIBSE Lighting Guide
LG7: Lighting for offices'9) recommend that the design maintained illumi-
illuminance nance over the task area in any room containing DSE should be in the
range 300 to 500 lux. This is a compromise between the illuminance
necessary for reading working documents, which are frequently of poor
quality, and the most comfortable illuminance for operating DSE. A much
higher illuminance will normally produce difficulties because of the
difference in luminance between documents and screen while a much
lower illuminance may cause problems in reading documents. Where
tasks are mainly screen-based, such as data retrieval or telephone sales,
then illuminances at the lower end of the range should be used. Where
tasks are mainly document-based, such as data entry or copy typing,
illuminances towards the top of the range are more appropriate.

It is possible either to provide all the lighting from indirect lighting,

direct lighting or direct/indirect lighting, or to provide just background
lighting of, say 200 lux, supplemented with task lighting. Task lighting
may be either desk or furniture mounted or suspended beside the desk.
Local task lighting can present problems in terms of electrical supply,
safety and positioning but does allow for local switching and adjustment.
This generally leads to significant energy saving and greater user satis-
faction, by allowing them to have control over their environment.

The use of area or individual regulation or dimming of luminaires should

be considered. This allows users to reduce the lighting level if they prefer
to do so. It can also allow for reductions in electric lighting at times and in
areas where there is sufficient natural light. It should be checked that the
reduction by one user of their lighting level does not adversely affect that
in adjacent workspaces where users may prefer a higher level.

The CIBSE Code for interior lighting'2 also provides general recommen-
dations on limiting glare index, colour rendering, uniformity and energy
limits for lighting in many environments where DSE may be found, such
as factories, libraries, offices and reception areas. More detailed guidance
for the general lit environment in offices can be found in the CIBSE
Lighting Guide LG7: Lighting for offices('9).

7.3 Direct lighting Figure 5.1 illustrates how large areas of the ceiling can be visibly reflected
in a typical display screen. Luminaires within this area will appear as
distinct objects reflected on the screen unless their luminance is limited
at the angles from which they are seen. It is therefore essential that the
luminance of direct lights which can be seen from any screen in the space
is low enough to ensure that any reflected image seen does not distract the
user.

Figure A1.2 in Appendix 1 illustrates the geometry of this situation and

the principle upon which the direct lighting approach to rooms contain-
ing DSE is based. If the DSE is assumed to be standing on a desk, viewed by
someone sitting in front of it, then limiting the luminance of the lumin-
aire at the angle of view from the screen will also limit the luminance of
reflections on the screen. The lower the luminance at this angle, the lower
the luminance of the screen reflections. For installations where the tilt of
the screen and the positions of the users are known, then by simple
geometry the angle above which the luminance needs to be limited can be
found. For the more typical installation where the screen tilt and orien-
tation is at the discretion of the user then a luminaire luminance limit
needs to be chosen that is not likely to cause a problem to those users that
set their screens at reasonable positions. Those who insist on unusual
screen tilts or operating positions will need advice from their employer on
workstation repositioning. It cannot be emphasised too strongly that
direct lighting only works if the assumptions of the geometry on which it
is based are realistic. Direct lighting is unlikely to provide a satisfactory
solution for display screens which are tilted too far back or users who sit
too low down, see Plate 7.

24
 DESIGN OPTIONS FOR ELECTRIC LIGHTING

Because the light output from a direct light is directed downward, illumi-
nances on horizontal surfaces predominate and those on vertical surfaces
are lower. There can be strong shadows and it is possible for strong
veiling reflections to occur on keyboards and documents, especially where
there are few, high output luminaires in a space. If this effect is to be
minimised and the problems of shadows and luminance imbalance
reduced, reflectances in the interior surfaces, and particularly the floor,
must be kept high. This is explained further in section 8. If designed
badly, directly lit interiors can be rather oppressive or cave-like in appear-
ance; done well they can be bright and comfortable to work in. Plates 8
and 9 show the effect of low and high surface luminances on the appear-
ance of a space.

7.4 Indirect lighting As the significance of reflections on a display screen is determined not
only by their contrast relative to the display luminance but by the clarity
of individual images, another approach is to reduce the luminance of the
luminaires themselves. Indirect lighting does this by directing light
upwards and using the ceiling as a large area, low luminance secondary
reflector. Although reflections in display screens of the light ceiling are
inevitable, they will not appear as distinct and distracting objects as long
as the peak luminance on the ceiling is low and the luminance changes
gradually over a large area. Particular care needs to be taken where in-
direct lights are mounted on walls to avoid high brightness images on the
wall above them. Where indirect lights are mounted on columns there is
likely to be a sharp transition between the bright image on the column
and the relatively dark room beyond.

Indirect lighting does not involve any assumptions about the geometry of
the viewer/DSE/luminaire. Instead, the essential characteristic of an
indirect lighting installation is a uniform, or gradually varying luminance
on the ceiling and upper walls. Unless this is achieved, conspicuous reflec-
tions will be seen on display screens. Care needs to be taken to prevent
sharp shadows being thrown by, or highlights caused by, ceiling beams or
features. The top face of the indirect light should be above the eye height
of a standing person — typically 1.8 m. Unshielded indirect lights should
not be positioned on staircases or in positions where they can be viewed
from balconies.

Plates 10 to 12 show typical indirect lighting installations. If the surfaces

are light and uniform in tone the space could be described as appearing
light and airy but also bland and diffuse. In interiors lit by indirect
lighting, particular attention should be paid to the interior decor. Areas of
different colour and texture on walls or columns can help to add variety to
the space, such as the interior shown in Plate 10. This is explained further
in section 9.

7.5 Indirect/direct Indirect/direct lighting combines direct and indirect light, either by
Iig hting separate indirectand direct luminaires or by a single suspended luminaire
producing both indirect and direct light. With separate systems the
physical constraints of each, such as power supply and ceiling height
limitation, need to be considered. With a single unit the physical prob-
lems are similar to those for suspended indirect light, requiring distance
from the ceiling for uniformity and height above the floor so as not to feel
too intrusive. Examples of indirect/directly lit interiors are shown in
Plates 13 to 15.

The design assumptions involved in both direct lighting and indirect

lighting apply in varying degrees to such installations. However, the
balance achieved between characteristic appearances associated with
direct and indirect lighting will depend on the proportion of direct and
indirect light emitted by the luminaire. Usually the characteristics
associated with either approach are softened. The other main property of
combined units is that the luminaire is seen silhouetted against the

25
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

ceiling which it lights. Ways in which indirect/direct lighting can be used

are described in section 10.

7.6 Other options In principle, the only options available for controlling reflections from
display screens are those listed above. In practice other possibilities such
as cove lighting, luminous ceilings, and task/ambient lighting are also
available. These are either special cases of direct or indirect lighting or
combinations of them.

Cove lighting, luminous ceilings and coffered ceilings can be effective in

reducing the effects of reflections in display screens. The principle on
which they operate is similar to that of indirect lighting, i.e. using the
ceiling as a large area, low luminance luminaire. They do not involve
assumptions of geometry but, like indirect lighting, require care in creat-
ing a uniform or gradually varying pattern of luminances on the ceilings
and walls. Each presents additional problems to the designer which are
examined in section 9.

In task/ambient lighting between a third and half of the task illumination

is provided by a general background illumination to the whole space and
the remaining half to two thirds by lighting local to the task. The ambient
lighting can be achieved by either direct or indirect lighting, with all the
consequences for the appearance of the interior that this choice implies,
although the appearance will be modified by the type of task lighting
chosen. The local lighting of a task is generally achieved by an adjustable
desk or partition mounted luminaire. Careful attention should be given to
the distribution of light from the luminaire if the range of luminances
within the workstation is to be kept within acceptable limits and reflec-
tions of the luminaire in the DSE being served or in adjacent DSE pre-
vented. Desk task lighting is treated more fully in section 11.

7.7 Room decor and Emphasis for direct lighting schemes should be placed on high floor
surface reflectances cavity reflectance and, to a lesser degree, high wall reflectance. This is to
ensure that light is reflected back up onto the ceiling so as to avoid an
oppressive atmosphere and to allow users to look around without having
to cope with a wide range of surface luminances. A variety of colour
finishes in the interior is to be encouraged to help avoid a gloomy appear-
ance caused by the inherently low vertical illumination on walls. Highly
coloured desk or carpet finishes will result in colour patches being reflect-
ed back up onto the ceiling.

For indirect lighting schemes, emphasis should be placed on high ceiling

cavity reflectance and, to a lesser degree, wall reflectance. This is to ensure
greater indirect lighting from this, directly lit, plane. The intention must
be to allow as much inter-reflected light back from the ceiling as possible
to maintain efficiency. To avoid colour casts in the room the ceiling cavity
surfaces should not be coloured. A variety of colour finishes in the rest of
the interior is to be encouraged as this helps to counteract the tendency
for indirect lighting to be bland and monotonous.

26
Part 3 Detailed design
8 Designing with direct lighting
Direct lighting uses luminaires designed to emit the majority of their
light output directly onto the working plane. Any light emitted upwards
plays an insignificant part in lighting the task. Direct luminaires can be
surface mounted, recessed into the ceiling or suspended. They are gener-
ally viewed as individual lit objects in the space and for this reason can
appear as a distinct and distracting object when reflected on a display
screen.

8.1 Characteristics The downward flow of light from direct lights means that the lower sur-
faces of a room are lit in preference to the upper walls and ceiling. The
extent of this effect varies from one luminaire to another, with some lumi-
naires emitting some light sideways or upwards and thus providing some
direct light to the walls and ceiling. However, where downlights with a
restricted distribution to the side are deliberately used to reduce direct
and reflected glare for display screen users, little light will reach the walls
directly. This can lead to rather dark walls unless the floor and working
plane surfaces are light and reflect light onto the walls and ceiling.
Alternatively, it is possible to deliberately wash light over the walls to
offset their dark appearance. The walls and ceilings themselves should be
light coloured so as to appear brighter, see Plates 8 and 9.

8.2 Criteria There is a danger of luminaires on or near the ceiling directing light
downwards being visible in display screens below. Whether they are
visible or not will depend on the geometry of the screen, user and lumin-
aires. If luminaires can be seen then it needs to be established whether
they are likely to be a distraction to the user.

The likelihood of a reflected image distracting a user depends partially on

the clarity or sharpness of the image on the screen and partially on its
luminance compared to the luminance of the information on the screen.
The eye is more likely to notice sharp images and the higher the
luminance of the reflected image the more difficult it is to read the screen
information behind and around it.

If the display screen has a smooth, specular front glass the luminaire
image will appear as a sharply defined object which the user can clearly
see. If the screen has some anti-reflective treatment then the reflected
object will be less well defined and less likely to distract the user.

If the software running on the screen uses light characters on a dark

screen background, such as white text on a blue background, the reflected
image will be seen against this dark background. However, if the
information is presented with dark characters on a light background the
reflections will be less visible against the lighter background. Thus if a
luminance value for a luminaire is to be set such that it is unlikely to
distract the majority of users running typical applications on standard
screens, it needs to be established whether the screens in the area have
surface treatment and whether the information displayed is in dark
characters on a light background (positive polarity) or light characters on
a dark background (negative polarity).

In many cases it cannot be established with any certainty that all screens
in an area will be modern and incorporate surface treatment, or that all
software being run displays dark characters on a light background. In
these cases the luminance limit for luminaires should be set for the worst
case of dark background display on clear fronted screens. Where the
designer can establish with a client or user group that all screens in an

27
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

area have screen treatment, or that all software is running with light back-
grounds then a higher luminance limit can be selected.

Luminance limits have been established for these cases based on typical
screen luminances and qualities, these are shown in Table 8.1. The terms
are defined in Appendix 2.
Table 8.1 Luminaire luminance limits for screen and software types
Screen type Maximum Luminance (cd/rn2) where
some Negative polarity software used

Type I and II 1000 cd/rn2

Good or moderate screen treatment
Type III 200 cdlm2
No screen treatment

Where positive polarity software only is being used on Type I and II

screens the luminanc limit can be increased to 1500 cd/m2.
Where positive polarity software only is being used on Type ifi screens
the luminanc limit can be increased to 500 cd/m2.

Notes:
(a) The appropriate luminance limit for luminaires can be selected
where the nature of the screens and software to be used is known. When
this information is unknown or subject to doubt the lower limit of 200
cd/rn2 should be selected.

(b) Where only a few screens in an area have poor screen treatment or
run negative polarity software it is generally better to move these to
positions where the lighting will not affect them and to use the higher
luminance limits.
Other conditions where stricter luminance control may be needed are:
(a) terminals that are unusually large such as some 'portrait' word
processing or CAD screens,
(b) older, highly curved screens or where contrast or definition may
be poor.
In addition to the luminance limits given in Table 8.1, limits have also
been established for peak luminances of bright spots or patches on the
luminaire. These are shown in Table 8.2 and the method of their measure-
ment given in Appendix 2.
Table 8.2 Spot luminance limits for screen and software types
Screen type Maximum spot luminance (cd/rn2)
Some negative Positive polarity
polarity software software only
used
Poor surface treatment 500 1000

All with anti-reflective 1000 1500

surface treatment

8.3 Luminance limit Once selected, it needs to be ensured that the luminance limit is not
exceeded at the angle of elevation at which luminaires are likely to be seen
annie selection from screens in the space. If the heights and typical angles of tilt of the
screens are known, this angle can be established by simple geometry as
described in Appendix 1. If they are not known, then assumptions need to
be made before a set angle can be chosen.

The normal viewing position of a display screen is with the screen tipped
slightly back from vertical with the user looking slightly downwards
towards it. This means that an area of the ceiling behind the user is seen
reflected on the screen, see Figure 5.1. The angle at which each luminaire
is seen will depend on the screen tilt, height and size and the angle from
which the user looks down at the screen. It is possible in installations

28
 PLATES

Plate 1 The trend in screen usage is towards larger screens displaying

more than one task or information window. Some of these may be
graphic or pictorial, most will be in colour. (Photograph supplied by
Lighting Design and Technology.)

Plate 2 The mainly light tones and pastel colours of

the room decor, and the relatively soft direct lighting,
ensure that users do not have to contend with an
extreme change in surface luminance either at the
workstation or when they look out into the main
office. (Photograph supplied by Thorn Lighting
Ltd.)
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

(a) (b)
Plate 3 The reflected image of the single luminaire on these screens is
less noticeable on the screen with a light background (a) than on that
with a dark background (b). (Photographs supplied by Lighting Design
and Technology.)

Plate 4 When facing the window the user has difficulty reading the Plate 5 With the blinds closed the user has to cope with a much reduced
information on the relatively dark screen. (Photograph supplied by luminance range around the screen and can therefore see the screen
Lighting Design and Technology.) information more easily. Note the vertical stripes produced by these
louvre blinds. (Photograph supplied by Lighting Design and
Technology.)

Plate 6 The use of light coloured partitions in front

of these users shields them from the bright windows
beyond and provides a light background for
workstations. The roller blind to the side can be
lowered to obscure bright sky. (Photograph supplied
by Oscar Faber Consulting Engineers.)
 PLATES

Plate 7 Direct lighting has completely obscured the text on this near-
horizontal feature display on a dealer desk. (Photograph supplied by
Lighting Design and Technology.)

Plate 8 In this directly lit space the relatively dark

furnishings and carpet have resulted in a rather dark
ceiling. Note the bright scallops where luminaires are
close to the walls. (Photograph supplied by Thorn
Lighting Ltd.)

C-
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Plate 9 Circular direct lights have been used in this

area. The use of relatively light furnishings helps to
ensure a reasonably well lit ceiling. (Photograph
supplied by ERCO Lighting Ltd.)

Plate 10 In this installation of free standing indirect

lights coloured furniture and columns help to add
visual variety to the space. (Photograph supplied by
Thorn Lighting Ltd.)
 PLATES

Plate 11 These wall mounted indirect units have

been spaced to provide even lighting of the ceiling.
The use of a limited range of greys in the decor has
produced a slightly bland space. (Photograph
supplied by Thorn Lighting Ltd.)

Plate 12 These special indirect lights provide a

strong visual element within the space. Some
obstruction to light coming back from the ceiling is
inevitable. Note that the only oiurful element
within the space is some of the desk accessories.
(Photograph supplied by Ove Arup and Partners.)
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Plate 13 Sufficient ceiling height is available in this

space for combined direct and indirect units to
provide a soft ceiling wash and controlled light down
onto the working plane. (Photograph supplied by
Zumtobel Lighting Ltd.)

Plate 14 Separate direct and indirect systems allow

some flexibility in lighting. Here the indirect units
may be too sparse to produce an even ceiling wash.
(Photograph supplied by Philips Lighting Ltd.)

F
 PLATES

Plate 15 Part of the light from these units comes

directly from the central translucent diffuser with the
remainder being reflected from the integral canopy
above. There is a danger of tbe canopy becoming too
bright in some units of this type if the canopy area is
too amall in comparison with the lamp output.
(Photograph supplied by Zumtobel Lighting Ltd.)

Plate 16 Despite the ornate detail and sloping

ceilings this space has been successfully uplit.
(Photograph supplied by Thorn Lighting Ltd.)
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Plate 17 Graphics workstations may contain more than one screen, a

graphics pad or digitiser table as well as a keyboard. These need to be
viewed in rapid succession and are usually at different orientations and
inclinations. (Photograph supplied by Thorn Lighting Ltd.)

1-k
 DESIGNING WITH DIRECT LIGHTING

where screen positions, orientations and tilts are known, or can be con-
trolled or specified, to select luminance limit angles that avoid any high
luminance part of the luminaires being reflected in the screens. Appendix
1 gives more detail on determining the angle of view for any given
geometry.

8.3.1 Known screen geometry Where the screens in an installation are fixed, such as in some dealing
and control rooms, the calculation of an acceptable luminance limit angle
is straightforward. However, fixed installations are unusual in general
office environments and other DSE areas. It may be possible, with a known
client, to look at the types of screens that are, or will be, used in the space
and to establish with the users and client a worst case geometry that
allows the selection of a fairly wide luminance limit angle which also
gives the users some freedom of adjustment.

For example, it could be agreed that all screens will be mounted on their
base computer units or be raised on arms. This brings the top of the
screen up to a comfortable viewing position and means that the screen is
tilted back only slightly. If the maximum reasonable tilt back is establish-
ed and agreed then the designer can calculate the luminance limit angle.
If at a later stage an individual wishes to alter their screen tilt or height
they can do so, but will be advised to be aware of the possible introduction
of screen reflections at the top of their screens. They may of course not
find such reflections distracting in any case.

8.3.2 Unknown screen If we know that display screens are to be used in a space but we know
geometry little about them, then we can not tell at what angle of tilt ir heights they
will be used in. We have to assume that they will be used within the standard
erognomic limits as described in appendix 1. The designer needs to select
luminaires with an appropriate liminance limit based on the type(s) of screens
likely to be used in that space. This luminance limit will be applied at a
standard 65° limit angle unless it is known that the likely screen tilts would
require a lower limit angle.

Considering only the lnminaire's light distribntion, however, does not

gnarantee a snccessfnl lighting installation. The designer needs to
consider all aspects of the gnidance in order to design an installation
that complies with Lighting Gnide 3. The key to success is the avoidance
of any very high luminance patches in a space and any abrupt change in
luminance accross a surface or between adjacent surfaces. It is therefore
necessary for the designer to have some influence over the control of
daylighting and the specification of the reflectance of ceiling, wall and other
surfaces.

29
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

8.3.3 Relaxation of category Category 2 or 3 luminaires are also acceptable where the space planning is
applications either small cellular offices, or open plan with screen dividers where, by
simple geometrical checking, it can be shown that the luminaires will not
be seen at angles below their limiting angle from the display screens. See
Figure 5.2 and Appendix 1 for further details.

8.4 The luminaire layout adopted will depend on the type of installation, the
Lighting layout illumination level selected and the constraints of the space. In multi-
function control rooms where there may be horizontal glass-faced instru-
mentation and inclined screens, the design process will usually result in a
dedicated layout to the console, possibly with special luminaires. Some
dealing rooms may also have horizontally mounted instrumentation or
keying screens, large numbers of screens per station and many work-
stations in different orientations. Such specialised installations need
careful consideration of the geometry and relative positions of luminaires
and screens. Proving the design by use of a full scale mock-up can be
invaluable.

Designers are often confronted with a space brief indicating the likelihood
of display screens being present but without any guidance on space

30
 DESIGNING WITH DIRECT LIGHTING

planning. In such cases, the designer must establish the correct standard
category of luminaires, and design the lighting layout accordingly. The
designer must justify the use of Category 1 or 2 luminaires, where
selected, rather than Category 3. Particular care must be taken over
spacing limitations. It should be emphasised that Category 1 lurninaires in
particular have small space-to-height ratios and can easily be over-spaced
leading to poor uniformity. The number and height of partitions will also
affect the overall uniformity of illumination over the working space.

Where there are open plan areas which may be divided into cellular
offices the selection and layout of luminaires is more problematic. Cellular
offices are unlikely to require category lurninaires as the geometry of small
rooms means that luminaires are unlikely to be seen in the screens, see
Figures 5.1 and 5.2. However, luminance limitation is needed in the open
plan areas due to the long views to luminaires. If non-Category luminaires
are installed in cellular areas which are later opened up to become part of
the open plan, there are likely to be problems with screen reflections.
Luminaires with exchangeable louvres may be a possible solution
although the luminance limit and angle need to be known for both situa-
tions. If the luminaires used in open plan areas are used at the same
spacing in cellular offices, the lighting level in the cellular offices will be
lower than that in the open plan areas due to a lower room index. Desk
task lighting may be used in the cellular spaces to bring the illumination
up to that of the open plan areas.

It is important to consider the perimeter spacing of luminaires and their

proximity to walls and columns as some luminaires can produce bright
scallops on adjacent surfaces. This is especially likely at the ends of a
linear luminaire. Due to the sharp transition from the high luminance of
the scallop to the adjacent lower luminance, the peak luminance of the
scallop should not exceed 500 cd/rn2. If this cannot be readily calculated it
may be preferable to keep luminaires set back from walls. However this
may lead to reduced task illuminance near to the wall, poorly illuminated
walls and luminaires offset from a regular array. Another approach is to
use asymmetric luminaires to serve as wall washers, as even illumination
is preferable to uncontrolled scalloping. Dimming control may be re-
quired to limit the brightness of the wall.

9 Designing with indirect lighting

Indirect lighting uses luminaires where all, or almost all, of the light
produced is reflected off a surface, usually the ceiling, before reaching the
working plane. Indirect lighting can be used successfully to light rooms
containing DSE as the surfaces being lit act as large area, low luminance
luminaires. As long as the luminance of these surfaces is less than the
limits discussed below, any reflections seen on a screen are of a low and
gradually changing luminance. This 'wash' adds a certain amount of light
to both the foreground screen information and the screen background. As
long as the luminance of the foreground information is sufficiently higher
than that of the background there will be sufficient contrast for it to be
visible.

Indirect lighting can be used to provide the general lighting to an entire

area or to provide localised lighting in the centre of groups of work-
stations. Indirect luminaires can take several forms depending on the
means of mounting. The most widely used mounting positions are free-
standing, floor mounted units; units mounted on furniture, walls or
columns; and units suspended from the ceiling, see Plates 10 to 12. All of
these types directly light the ceiling and upper parts of the walls and so
indirectly light the working plane. To ensure maximum efficiency ceiling
surfaces must be of a high reflectance, matt finish.

31
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

This section considers the standard types of indirect lighting in common

use, and two other, less commonly used, forms of lighting which can meet
the requirements of using the ceiling as a large area, low luminance
luminaire — cove lighting and luminous ceilings.

9.1 Characteristics While the characteristics of room surfaces affect the appearance of a space
for all types of lighting installations, they are especially important for
indirect lighting. The lighting produced by an indirect lighting instal-
lation is typically diffuse, without strong modelling effects or strong
shadows. It is important to use the interior decor to create some variety
and interest in the interior. This could involve small areas of strong
colour or the picking out of salient architectural features, for example, but
care should be taken to avoid abrupt changes in reflectance. It is also
possible to add variety to a space by introducing some feature lighting,
using gentle spotlighting of features such as notice boards or works of art.
Spotlighting should not be so bright that the objects become sources of
reflection in the display screens.

In addition, the colour scheme should be matched to the colour properties

of the light source used. For example, an interior filled with blues and
greens will look subdued under high pressure sodium discharge lamps,
but one filled with orange and yellow would appear vibrant. Viewing
proposed colours under the light source being considered is the best
method of assessing the overall effect. To avoid undue colour cast in the
space the ceiling should be white or a light pastel colour.

9.2 Criteria For indirect lighting to be successful it is essential that the luminance of
the reflecting surfaces be limited. It is recommended that:
(a) the average luminance on the major surfaces used for reflecting
light (such as the ceiling) should be less than 500 cd/m2,
(b) the maximum luminance of any point on the major surfaces
reflecting light should not exceed 1500 cd/m2,
(c) the value of luminance should change gradually across the sur-
faces, i.e. with no sudden changes in luminance across or between
surfaces.

The calculation for maximum ceiling luminance over a single indirect

light will give a guide to the expected maximum in the final installation.
However, it should be remembered that adjacent indirect lights in a real
installation will add perhaps an additional 25% to the calculated maxi-
mum value from a single source. Where mobile, free-standing units are
recommended then the client/user should be reminded that standard sym-
metrical units should not be placed close to walls or columns as this will
reduce the efficiency of the indirect light and produce a high luminance
flash on the wall or column. Such flashes are likely to be a source of com-
plaint to DSE users both in terms of direct glare and from being reflected
in their screen. The calculation methods for checking the ceiling lumi-
nance are given in Appendix 3.

9.3 Luminaire selection The desirable photometric properties of all indirect lights are that they
should have as high an upward light output ratio as possible and spread
the light emitted over as wide an area as possible without allowing a view
of the lamp or luminaire interior. Unless the luminaire gives a widespread
luminous intensity distribution there is a risk of a high luminance spot
immediately above the light and hence of exceeding the maximum lumi-
nance criterion. For wall mounted indirect lights the luminous intensity
distribution should be asymmetrical such that there are no high lumi-
nance spots, above 1500 cd/rn2, immediately above the unit on the wall or
ceiling, see Plate 11.

Indirect lights should not give a sharp cut-off in the luminous intensity
distribution at any angle, as this produces a step change in luminance on
the ceiling or wall of the interior. Another feature which needs care is the

32
 DESIGNING WITH INDIRECT LIGHTING

reflectance of the underside of suspended luminaires, which are fre-

quently seen in silhouette against the ceiling. Unless they have high
reflectance undersides, a sharp change in luminance will be evident.

As most indirect lights rely on upward facing reflectors it is essential that

ease of maintenance is carefully considered. Easy access is essential if good
maintenance is to be achieved. Floor mounted indirect lights may offer
the possibility of replacing units for ease of maintenance. Ease of main-
tenance, and safety, may be enhanced by ensuring that indirect lights are
fitted with removable glass covers, but to ensure full lamp life and to aid
the self cleaning of the lamp and reflector, covers should not be sealed.
This is to allow a convective airstream to pass through the luminaire
when the lamp is lit.

Free-standing indirect lights should incorporate tilt switches to ensure

that the unit switches off if it is knocked over. The effect of direct radiant
heat from the body of the light to nearby users should also be considered.

9.3.1 Free-standing, wall or Indirect lights rely on height to shield a direct view of the lamp and
furniture mounted interior from occupants. This is why the majority of floor mounted
indirect lights are 1.8 m high. Similarly, wall mounted and furniture
mounted indirect lights should have their top surface located at least 1.8
m above the floor. This minimum height imposes a limit on the ceiling
height acceptable for indirect lighting. As a rule of thumb, most commer-
cial floor mounted indirect lights are designed to be used with ceiling
heights of between 2.5 and 3.5 m above floor level. Indirect lights can
only be successfully used with ceiling heights below 2.5 m if particular
attention is paid to the luminous intensity distribution and means are
taken to avoid the creation of a high luminance spot immediately above
the light. Ceiling heights greater than 3.5 m can be used at extra cost in
terms of installed power. Indeed, if indirect lighting is required in a space
with a ceiling height above 3.5 m, wall mounted or suspended indirect
lights should be considered.

Care should be taken when positioning large indirect lights over, or close
to, a desk or work surface as the lights can themselves act as an obstruc-
tion to the lit ceiling above. Although any shadow thrown by the indirect
light would be very soft — due to the large lit area of ceiling — it may
reduce the total illumination locally.

9.3.2 Suspended indirect Here the major requirement is to ensure that units are suspended far
lights enough below the ceiling to provide a wide, soft spread of light onto the
ceiling. There is often a temptation in very large spaces to install a few
high wattage units to save money. This may result in separate high
luminance spots appearing on the ceiling.

In all cases fittings need to be suspended well above normal head height
to prevent users of the space feeling that they may strike their heads on
the units. A minimum height of 2.3 m is recommended.

9.3.3 Cove lighting Cove lighting aims to throw light evenly onto the ceiling from a ledge or
recess high up on the wall. Unless luminaires with purpose designed
Rear wall shielded from reflectors are used there is a danger of the back wall of the cove and the
direct illumination if possible ceiling adjacent to it becoming very prominent, see Figure 9.1. Great care
/ has to be taken to ensure that the luminance of the surfaces in the cove
Even throw
of light over does not exceed 1500 cd/m2, the limit set for maximum ceiling luminance
ceiling with indirect lights. Depending on the distance from the cove to the
ceiling it may be difficult to light the ceiling evenly beyond the first two
to three metres from the cove, due to light fall-off. Ceiling illuminance is
likely to be more even if the ceiling curves up gently from the cove. The
average illuminance on the working plane can be calculated using the
lumen method once the utilisation factor has been calculated by the
Figure 9.1 Cross-section of a typical cove lighting methods given in CIBSE Technical Memoranda TMS: Calculation and use
system of utilisationfactors (2O)

33
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

9.3.4 Luminous ceilings Whilst the use of luminous ceilings is not an indirect system of lighting,
it creates a similar effect of soft, even ceiling luminance — although often
too even and perhaps bland. Luminous ceilings were popular 30 years ago
but appear only rarely today. They generally pose major problems of
access for relamping and cleaning. The cavity above a luminous ceiling
should be painted white and be high enough to conceal the light sources
from view through the diffusing material below.

Luminous ceilings can vary widely in efficiency, depending on the form

and transmission of the ceiling material and the light source used. They
can use lights flooding up into the cavity or an array of closely spaced
fluorescent lamps across the top of the cavity. The average illuminance on
the working plane can be estimated using the lumen method once the
utilisation factor has been estimated by the principles discussed in CIBSE
Technical Memoranda TM5: Calculation and use of utilisation factors(20).
The average luminance of the ceiling needs to be below 500 cd/m2.

Frosted or opal lay-lights below roof lights can have some of the charac-
teristics of a luminous ceiling although their luminance is variable and
depends on prevailing daylight conditions. They are often small and
hence suffer from contrast problems with the relatively dark ceiling along-
side.

9.4 Lighting layout Indirect lighting can be used to provide general lighting to an area or to
provide localised lighting in the centre of groups of workstations. Where
used as localised lighting the ceiling uniformity should be considered to
prevent a 'patchy' appearance.

Whichever type of indirect lighting is chosen it is important to avoid the

possibility of views down into unscreened uplights from balconies and
staircases.

9.5 Room decor and To ensure a reasonable level of energy efficiency with indirect lighting, it
is desirable to use high reflectance room surfaces, especially the ceiling. A
surface ref lectances minimum reflectance of 0.7 is recommended. To allow for the build-up of
dirt and degrading of the surface an initial surface reflectance of 0.8
should be aimed for. Ceilings of lower reflectance can be used but at the
cost of additional installed load. The surface should have a matt finish as
specular finishes produce high luminance images of lamps when viewed
from particular directions. Even relatively small areas of specular material
used in the ceiling or ceiling support system can produce unacceptably
bright reflections of the bright interior of uplighters.

In an indirect lighting installation all the light that reaches the working
plane does so after reflection from the ceiling and upper walls. Light
falling on the working plane will thus be highly coloured if these surfaces
are highly coloured. White or very pale colours should be used for the
major areas of reflecting surfaces, although this recommendation does not
rule out the possibility of adding small areas of strong colour to add visual
variety. In indirectly lit areas, dark columns can appear reflected in dis-
play screens as distracting dark bands against the bright background of
the ceiling.

It is sometimes assumed that a smooth surface is necessary for a successful

indirect lighting installation. This is incorrect; a degree of texture or
structure in the main reflecting surface can provide some variety in the
appearance of the space, see Plate 16. Similarly, inclined ceilings, whilst
requiring more thought in the calculation of light levels and distribution
of the lights, can provide very interesting spaces. For ceilings with an
exposed structure, care should be taken to avoid sharp contrasts between
directly lit and unlit areas as these may appear as distinct objects when
reflected in display screens. The structure should have as smooth a profile
as possible to minimise sharp changes in luminance.

34
 DESIGNING WITH DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING

10 Designing with direct/indirect lighting

This section examines design where the intention is to provide illumi-
nation for the working area by a combination of indirect lighting and
direct lighting together. While it does not address direct lights that allow
a small proportion of indirect 'spill' light onto the ceiling, nor indirect
lights that use downward light as a feature, the users of such lights should
he aware of the need to avoid 'spill' light components causing problems to
the users of DSE.

The combination of direct lighting and indirect lighting can be very

effective, as the two types of lighting are in many ways complementary.
Lighting can take many forms, from the simple addition of free-standing
indirect lights to an existing direct lighting scheme, to purpose designed
suspended indirect/direct lights. The proportion of direct to indirect light
can also vary. At one extreme are indirect lights that also provide direct
light, either from translucent elements or reflectors. At the other are sus-
pended fluorescent direct lights that allow some soft indirect light from
the top of the luminaire.

10.1 Characteristics By combining indirect and direct lighting a lit environment can be pro-
duced which has well lit walls and ceilings and some directional element
to provide modelling. Horizontal illumination is good without either
creating a gloomy interior or having over-bright ceilings and walls. The
exact proportion of indirect to direct light is not critical in most circum-
stances, although a room's visual characteristics change markedly as the
proportions are altered.

10.2 Criteria When using separate systems of floor standing indirect lights and ceiling
mounted direct lights it is important to ensure that each system meets the
criteria laid down in sections 8 and 9 for direct and indirect lighting.
Direct lights still need luminance limit angles suitable for the intended
DSE and its use, and indirect lights still need to provide an even wash of
light over the ceiling. However, if the ceiling is uniformly lit then it is
acceptable to allow the luminance of the direct light to increase to match
the average luminance of the ceiling. Indeed if the direct light luminance
is much lower than that of the ceiling it is possible for direct lights to
appear on a display screen as dark objects against the brighter ceiling.

For suspended indirect/direct lights it is important to realise that the

luminaire body will be viewed against a relatively bright ceiling. This
means that the body should be light to avoid the contrast of a dark body
against a light background, as this effect would be noticeable on a display
screen. Another approach is for the sides to be made of translucent or
light mesh material, but the luminance of the sides should not exceed the
design luminance of the ceiling they are to be viewed against.

10.3 Luminaire selection The first type of installation to be examined uses a combined suspended
unit, see Plate 13 for an example. Units are suspended from the ceiling
and provide both indirect and direct light, either from separate lamps and
reflectors, or from the same lamp or array of lamps, see Figure 10.1. This
type of luminaire can be highly efficient. The lamp type used can vary
widely. Most typical are high efficiency fluorescent lamps in linear
luminaires, but discharge lamps and compact fluorescent lamps can also
be used.

Figure 10.1 Luminaire with The second type of installation uses an indirect lighting system and a
direct and indirect components direct lighting system in conjunction, see Plate 14. Sometimes indirect
lights are added to an area to soften or alter the effect of an existing direct
lighting installation. When this is done it may be necessary to reduce the
light output of the direct lights to prevent excessive horizontal illumi-
nance. This can sometimes be achieved by the removal of one lamp in a
twin lamp luminaire (although the diffuser or louvre may also need to be
changed to improve light control), this may reduce the light output and

35
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

affect the luminaire's light distribution. Where two systems are to be used
together care is needed to ensure that high luminance images of the in-
direct light do not appear on the flanges or louvre elements of the direct
lights.

The final type of combined lighting uses a luminaire complete with its
Figure 10.2 Recessed fitting
own indirect light. 'canopy', see Figure 10.2. The
. .
canopy may take the
with indirect light into a canopy form of large white wings that catch and redirect the indirect light.
as well as direct light Luminaires may be suspended or the wings integrated into the ceiling in
place of one or more ceiling tiles, see Plate 15. Luminaires can also be
positioned within coffers which are either part of the ceiling or the
structural soffit. The coffer then forms a large upper reflector to utilise the
indirect light from the luminaire.

1 0.4 Lighting layout Suspended luminaires should use the same ceiling offset and headroom
criteria as suspended indirect lights, as described in section 9. Where the
installation uses a single set of lamps this can be supplied by a single
electrical circuit, but where there are two separate lamp sets the indirect
and direct lighting components can be controlled separately. This can
provide reduced level lighting for cleaning or when under standby power
supply.

The switching and control of luminaires needs to be considered carefully.

With many luminaires an option exists to switch or dim the direct and
indirect elements of the luminaire independently. This can be useful as it
allows the users another degree of freedom in selecting their preferred
visual environment. It can, however, lead to problems. The indirect light
from a unit may affect a number of users and any reduction of the
luminance of the ceiling may make the direct element of the luminaires
more prominent.

1 0.5 Room decor and The criteria for room surface reflectances, especially that of the ceiling,
are as for indirect lighting, see section 9.5. The advantage of mixing some
surface reflectances direct lighting with indirect lighting is that room surface luminances
tend to be more balanced. This allows the interior designer or architect
more freedom in their choice of colours and reflectances.

11 Designing with supplementary task lighting

There are two primary situations where task lighting is used with DSE:
where task/ambient lighting design is used and where specific screen
geometry requirements need to be satisfied.

11 .1 Task/ambient In task/ambient lighting design, the task light provides top-up lighting
from the lower ambient level up to the selected task illumination level.
desi n Positioning local lights in front of a reader provides a potential source of
glare and the reflection of light from paper towards the reader will result
in low contrast between the text and background of the paper. Local
lights should therefore be positioned to throw light from the side of the
task area. It should be possible to provide light from either the left or
right hand side of the desk, to suit the user. The spread of light should
cover the area of the desk used for reading written text as evenly as
possible. A uniformity over the task area of 0.8 should be achieved. It is
essential that the luminaire be provided with a local switch or, ideally, a
dimmer control.

The luminaire should have a limited range of adjustment, sufficient to

allow the user some control over its position but not enough for it to
become a source of glare to other office users. The light source itself
should be shielded from the direct view of the user and of those nearby.
This can be achieved by transverse louvres below the lamp or careful
screening of the lamp by the reflector or body of the luminaire. The

36
 DESIGNING WITH SUPPLEMENTARY TASK LIGHTING

luminaire should be positioned high enough to prevent deep shadows

being formed by light being across the desk at too shallow an angle. It is
recommended that the height should not be less than half the width of the
area being lit, i.e. a height of at least 0.5 m to light 1 m of desk.

11 .2 Special screen Where special workstations are being designed with fixed screen geome-
try, perhaps set into control desks or in graphics stations, the lighting
geomet may need to be integrated into the desk or surrounding partitions or
furniture. Although fixed local lighting systems seldom meet with user
approval, the luminaire position may need to be fixed to avoid possible
screen reflections. Such fixed units should generally be located to the side
of the user to throw light evenly across the working plane. It is important
in these circumstances that dimming control is provided for the users.

11 .3 Task lighting design The ability to adjust the level of light provided by a task light and the
screen luminance provides the user with a large degree of control over the
luminance contrast between the screen, written text and the room. Users
need to be shown the range of adjustments available to them and allowed
to set their own levels. This should minimise any adaptation problems for
the user.

The light source in any type of desk light system should be of a good
colour quality and have a low heat output. Suitable lamps would be linear
fluorescent lamps or compact fluorescent lamps with high frequency
control. In certain installations it may be possible to use low wattage
discharge lamps, but the difficulty in dimming these and their slowness to
restrike after switching off reduces the user's control.

As the desk light will be accessible to the user it must be electrically safe
and comply with BS EN 6O598' (which has replaced BS 4533(13)). This
is especially important with desk lights designed for a one-off project.
Steps should be taken to ensure that power wiring in desks can be
segregated from any unscreened data or telecommunications cabling that
may be sensitive to electrical interference.

11 .4 Regulations relating Extra care is needed in the selection and positioning of luminaires that
are within the reach of users. Luminaires need to be cool to the touch and
o askspec. ic be electrically and mechanically safe. This is especially so in public access
lighting areas, such as libraries, where the users may not be familiar with the
operation of the lighting.

The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations('°) are one of the six
sets of health and safety regulations based on the European directives
mentioned in section 4. Whilst these regulations were drafted mainly in
relation to the lighting of industrial machines the definition of work
equipment does include any machine, appliance, apparatus or tool.

Regulation 21, Lighting states that: 'Every employer shall ensure that suitable
and sufficient lighting, which takes account of the operations to be carried out, is
provided at any place where a person uses work equipment.'

Where ambient lighting is sufficient to provide the required level of task

illumination this requirement is met (see also the similar requirement of
The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations(9), section 4).
Supplementary local lighting will be needed where a task requires the
perception of finer detail than in the rest of the working area or the task is
more onerous or sustained, or the workstation is designed so that ambient
light does not reach the task area.

If local lighting is wall mounted or suspended the fittings should be above

head height or located such that accidental impact is unlikely. If the lights
are located below head height they should be of the low temperature type

37
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

and easily adjustable, but not enough to become a source of glare to other
users. They should also stay fixed in the user's preferred position and have
local on/off or dimming control. Such an installation will provide a safe
and adaptable lighting system which users can tailor to their own needs.

12 Designing for graphics workstations

A graphics workstation can take many forms, but normally consists of a
digitiser platen or drawing board and a large, high definition colour
monitor, see Plate 17. Some use two screens — one to display the graphic
image and the other to display text for menus and control. The digitiser
and graphics screen present the main problem for the lighting designer.

The digitiser board is often positioned at right angles to the desk con-
taining the screens, and can be used almost vertically by some operators.
As drawing work is rarely carried out on such boards a high level of task
lighting is not normally required. The task normally performed is to
move a digitiser 'mouse' across the sketch or drawing to strategic points
where a button on the 'mouse' is pressed. For a drawing of normal clarity
300 lux on the digitiser surface is sufficient for this task, but supple-
mentary lighting should be provided for the viewing of any poor quality
drawings. If normal drafting work is to be carried out at the same position
then supplementary lighting to increase the level to 750 lux should be
made available.

The operator will normally look from the digitiser to the graphics screen
to ensure that the graphic image being built up is correct. Reference to the
control screen, to the keyboard and to a flat keyboard on the side of the
digitiser board will also need to be made. The range of visual tasks is
therefore quite wide and can involve the user in some movement and in
frequent changes of view. For this reason it is advisable to keep the range
of luminances at the workstation and in the immediate surroundings
within a range of 1 to 10.

Where a digitiser board is lit to around 300 lux its luminance is approxi-
mately 70 cd/m2. The luminances from background walls, desk, screen
and keyboard should, ideally, all lie in the range 20 to 200 cd/rn2. This can
be achieved by aiming for a fairly constant level of illurninance on the
desk and vertically on surrounding walls. The average reflectance of these
major surfaces should be kept within a range of 5 to 1. Indirect lighting is
recommended to achieve a constant illumination over an area both
horizontally and vertically. The soft, even illumination from indirect
lighting also helps avoid distracting shadows on the digitiser board.

13 Conclusions
A wide variety of DSE workstations are used across a diverse range of
applications and environments. However, most environments where DSE
is used must satisfy the statutory requirements for DSE contained in the
Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations1. This is true
even where only one person in the workplace uses DSE for a significant
proportion of the day. The Regulations cover all aspects of DSE and its
environment, including lighting. It is important, and good practice, to
ensure appropriate, quality lighting is installed for workstations irrespec-
tive of the type of work carried out. It is also important to ensure good
visual and workstation ergonomics. Good lighting and ergonomics will
encourage quick and efficient use of DSE, something which is particularly
important where the DSE workstation controls critical processes. The
principles of good practice lighting design for DSE should be applied
irrespective of the need to conform to the Regulations.

38
 CONCLUSIONS

The basis of any working environment where DSE is used should be a high
quality display screen and an ergonomically designed workstation. The
display screen itself should be a type that minimises the intrusion of re-
flected images on screen information. The screen and keyboard should be
movable so that they can be adjusted as desired by the user. The user's
seat and/or work surface should be adjustable to allow maximum postural
comfort. Users should receive training in the use and adjustment of all
these features. Users' eyesight should be checked to ensure that they can
cope with the viewing distances to the screen and any written material
that they have to view. Lighting within the workstation should provide
adequate illuminance on all tasks while avoiding undue contrasts between
the screen, its background and paper documents.

Beyond the workstation, the room must be lit in such a way that it appears
pleasant, with no large areas of extreme light or dark and with the
luminance of any area seen reflected in the screen low enough not to
obscure information on the screen. In addition, no object should be bright
enough to appear on the screen as a distinct object, as this will be
distracting. To achieve this, luminances across the room surfaces should
change gradually. The luminances of luminaire elements should not be
bright enough to cause distraction or disability to the user. Windows
should be screened to avoid a view of bright cloud. Local, user operable
lighting controls and window shading should be provided. If users feel
that they have control over their immediate environment they tend to feel
more able to cope with their tasks and any minor problems with the
lighting.

39
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Appendix 1 Eye—screen-Iuminaire geometry

This Appendix illustrates how user-to-screen geometry formed by the intersection of the line of sight and
affects the area of a room that may be reflected in a screen. the normal to the surface of the display where the
It shows the effect that the height and tilt of a screen have line of sight intersects the surface of the display,
on distracting reflections. It also illustrates how a suitable see Figure A1.1.
luminance limit angle can be selected for a given screen
geometry and the limitations imposed on the height and
inclination of the screen by this limit angle. Al .2 The effect of workstation
geometry
Al .1 Ergonomic criteria and
Figure A1.2 shows the factors that affect the angle of view
standards up into ceiling mounted luminaires from a screen.

Recommended ergonomic limits for viewing visual dis- The first factor to consider is a, the angle of view down
plays are laid down in BS EN 29241: Ergonomic require- onto the top of the screen. This is important as reflections
ments for office work with visual display terminals3 and all are most likely to be seen towards the top of the screen. As
DSE used in a working environment should conform to a increases the user looks further downwards onto the
this standard. Among specifications and guidance on all screen. If the screen face remains close to perpendicular to
aspects of DSE the standard provides a number of recom- the user's line of view then more of the ceiling will be
mendations of direct interest to lighting practitioners and reflected on the screen.
users:
(a) The minimum design viewing distance for usual The angle a is determined by the height of the user's eye,
office tasks shall not be less than 400 mm, with the height of the screen top and the horizontal distance
certain qualifications. between them, see Figure A 1.3:

(b) In order to avoid operator discomfort, the display

shall be capable of being positioned so that areas a = sin
—x
of it to be viewed continuously may be viewed V
with a line of sight angle from 00 to 600 below the
horizontal. The line of sight is the angle between
'a horizontal line and the visual axis of the eye', where:
where the axis is the line connecting the point of He = the height of the eye above the desk
fixation and the centre of the pupil, see Figure
A1.1.

(c) The angle of incidence shall not be greater than

40°, where the angle of incidence is that angle

Maximum angle of
view down to bottom
of screen 60°

Figure A1.1 Limits of ergonomic recommendations given in BS EN

29241 Part 3 Figure A1.2 Typical geometry for eye, screen and luminaire

40
 EYE—SCREEN—LUMINAIRE GEOMETRY

the back of the tube at the edges of the screen. This part of
the screen is normally masked by the case around the
screen. If screen curvature figures are not available from
the manufacturer then the angle of the upper screen
surface to the centre of the screen can be measured or
estimated, see Figure A1.2. The angle, 6, can be calculated
from the screen curvature R and the screen height H by:

6= sin'H/2R
The next factor to consider is /3, the screen inclination
angle. It can be seen from Figure A1.2 that, for someone
looking down onto the screen, as /3 gets smaller the screen
becomes closer to the vertical and the reflection on the
screen would be of the user's shirt and the desk. As /3 gets
larger the screen tilts back and more of the ceiling, and
any luminaires become visible. If the screen is angled too
Figure A1.3 Determination of the angle to the top of the screen far back it will be difficult to find individual direct lights
with a low enough luminance at the high angles of view
from the screen. At this stage alternative forms of lighting
x = the measured height of the screen top above should be considered.
the desk
V = the viewing distance The last factor to be considered is the resultant angle
with which a line from the user's eye reflected in the top
of the screen meets a luminaire positioned at a point on
Problems with reflection are often worst for the very tall, the ceiling. If a luminaire at this position has a luminance
who tend to look down on a screen that is tipped back, and limit angle of or less than y then the luminance of this
the very short, who tend to look horizontally or even up to luminaire will be within suitable limits for that screen
an almost vertical screen. Standard ergonomic recommen- position.
dations about the height of a user at a DSE desk allow the
determination of the seated eye height of the tallest All of these factors are linked by:
people, the 'ninety-fifth percentile' man, and the shortest
people, the 'fifth percentile woman'. The very few of the
general user population who lie outside these limits may y = 90—(2(/3+ 6)—a)
need special seating or desks.

The seated eye height of the 95% man is 1317 mm above A1.3 Luminance limit angle
the floor and for the 5% woman, 1028 mm. If we deduct a selection
desk height of 700 mm from these we arrive at the eye
height above the desk of 617 mm for the tall man and 328 Where the geometry of the user and screen relationship is
mm for the short woman. Using a viewing distance from known or assumed, reference to Figure Al.2 and the
the screen of 500 mm gives the following formula for nomogram in Figure A1.4 allows the correct luminance
calculating a for the 95% man: limiting angle to be determined. Luminaires meeting this
angle can then be selected from manufacturers' ranges.
a = sin1617—x
500 An example of the use of the nomogram, for a dealer's
desk with a fixed installation of screens, is described here
and shown on the nomogram by a dashed line. In this
and for the 5% woman: example the screens are 310 mm high and have a constant
radius of curvature of 1000 mm. This is equivalent to an
upper screen surface inclination of 9° to the centre screen
a = sin328—x surface.
500
Start at the screen height and take a vertical line to meet
The next factor to consider is 6, the curvature of the top the line of radius of curvature. Take a line from this point
part of the screen. Most screens in current use are slightly across the chart to meet one of the screen inclination lines
curved, although the trend seems to be towards flatter, and /3. In this example all screens are assumed to be set in the
indeed flat, screens. The curvature is equivalent to a desk at an angle of 10° to the vertical. At this point of
greater tilt back of the screen and brings more ceiling intersection take a line up to meet one of the angles from
luminaires into view. The use of flatter screens helps to the eye to top of screen a. In this example a is 10°. From
reduce the number of luminaires that may be seen. the point of intersection read across to the luminance
limit angle. In this case this is about 62°. To allow for
The screen curvature relates to the visible screen surface some future flexibility, an angle of perhaps 60° could be
and not the part where the screen glass turns back to form specified. If the screens were altered at a later date then

41
 VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

30
25
a,
0
S'a 20
C
a,
'1, 15
a)
a, 10
0
0
5

0
200 400 600 800 1000 30 20 10 0 —10

Screen height I-! (mm) Screen tilt angle 3

Figure A1.4 Nomogram of factors that determine luminance limit

necessary for a given installation

the luminance limit angle of the luminaires would need to If this data is not obtainable a sample luminaire could be
be checked again. sent for testing in a photometric laboratory.

It is important to realise that a 5° change in angle of the

screen tilt will produce a 100 change in luminance limit Once a limiting angle is known a line be drawn across
angle. It is essential, therefore, that the nomogram is only the nomogram from this angle. If the screen type is also
used where truly fixed geometry units are being installed. known, a second line can be drawn across the lower part of
the nomogram. It is then possible to see which combina-
As an alternative to the nomogram the luminance limit tions of screen tilt and angle to screen top are possible. By
angle ycan also be determined from: moving a vertical ruler across the right hand part of the
nomogram combinations of angles can be checked where
the horizontal luminaire type and screen type lines cross
y= 90— (2(/3 + 5) — a) the vertical rule.
where /3 is the screen inclination angle; S is the inclination
angle of the screen face at the top of the screen; and a is As an example, assume a Category 2 luminaire and a
the angle of the line of sight below the horizontal. All screen with an upper screen slope, 5, of 15°. To determine
angles are in degrees. the range of screen inclinations and screen heights
allowed, start by drawing a line across the nomogram from
the Category 2 point and another from the S = 15° point.
A1.4 Existing luminaires Then, if a vertical ruler is placed where the S = 15 line
crosses the /3 = 0 screen tilt line it can be seen where a
For an existing array of luminaires in an area with known vertical screen would need to be positioned. The rule
luminance characteristics, a check can be made on the crosses the Category 2 (650) line where a = 5°, indicating
range of screen heights and inclinations that are suitable that the top of the vertical screen needs to be 5° or more
for luminaires not to be troublesome to users. below eye height. By moving the ruler across to the left it
can be seen that if the screen top is positioned 20° below
It is first necessary to obtain information on the lumi- the eye line then the screen can be tilted back by up to
nance limit angle from the manufacturer of the luminaire. 750

42
 EYE—SCREEN—LUMINAIRE GEOMETRY

This way of using the nomogram is not only useful in the screen top 10° below the eye height of the 5% woman.
checking for the allowable movement of a known screen (For taller people the reflection problem will be less severe
with existing luminaires, but can also check for the maxi- in this case.)
mum allowable screen curvature for a fixed screen posi-
tion.
Using the nomogram from y = 55° (Category 1), across to
a = 10°, down to /3 = 15° gives us an upper screen slope,
Assume that Category 1 luminaires are installed through- ö of 50 maximum. For a maximum screen height of 300
out the area. The dealing desks are designed to take 300 mm, the screen must have a radius of curvature of more
mm high screens, inclined back at an angle of 15°, with than 1800 mm.

43
 VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Appendix 2 Direct light luminance limit calculation

Where the lighting designers are unable to obtain information about the display screens in use in
an area, they will need to select a luminaire with a luminance limit of 200 cd/rn2 at 65° elevation, or
55° in special circumstances. This is referred to as the luminance limit angle. Section 2.1 below
defines how the luminance has to be measured and uuoted for a niven luminaire. These
calculations will normally be carried out by the luminaire manufacturer and will be quoted in their
catalogues. There may however be circumstances when a designer or user wishes to assess or
check the luminance limit of a particular luminaire.

Where the designer is working with a known client and the parameters of the screen to be used in
the space are known, then the lurninaires selected can have luminance limits of 500 cd/m2, 1000
cd/rn2 or 1500 cd/rn2, with the limit angle defined by the designer.

A2.1 Luminance limit calculations

Photometric compliance is achieved by establishing that the calculated average luminance at any
point above the specified luminance limit angle does not exceed the required luminance limit. The
luminance limit is 200 cd/rn2 for areas where screens with no surface treatment are in use with
software using a negative polarity presentation (light characters on a dark background). Higher
limits are possible where screens with an anti-reflective surface treatment and/or use software with
a positive polarity presentation (dark characters on a light background).

The manufacturers should check for compliance at each 15° angles of azimuth around the
luminaire and at each 5° angle of elevation above the limit angle up to 85°. The information
required for this calculation is the louvre/reflector luminous plan area, the luminous intensity above
the limiting angle in elevation, for azimuth planes 0, 15, 30,...330 and 345°, and the lamp/ballast
data (see Figure A2.l).

For preliminary manual check purposes QflIY the luminance can be quickly checked by designers
using the figures for the axial, transverse, 30° and 60° azimuth planes to see how close to
compliance a particular luminaire is.

For recessed luminaires, or those with little or no emission of light from the sides of the luminaire,
the following equation should be used to calculate the luminance of the luminaire at the luminance
limit angle, and at every 5° angle of elevation above that to 85°, in each specified azimuth plane:

I.N.F.K
B =________
'.
l.w.cos 1000
where:
B = Luminance in azimuth plane C (cd/rn2)
C = Azimuth plane angle 0°, 15°, 30° ... 345°
= Angle of elevation from the downward vertical
I= Intensity at angle yin azimuth plane C (cd/i 000 lm)
N = Number of lamps
F= Initial lumen output of lamp (lumens)
1 = Sum of bottom plan length of louvre elements (meters)
w = Sum of bottom plan width of louvre elements (meters)
K = Factor to account for any fixed turn down ratio when regulated or dimmed ballasts are used,
or factor to account for higher output from standard high frequency ballasts

44
 DIRECT LIGHT LUMINANCE LIMIT CALCULATION

For luminaires with significant emission of light from the sides of the luminaire the more complex
equation within CIBSE TM1O should be used (this will be superseded by a section on the
calculation of glare in the Society of Lighting Code for Lighting 2002)..

The calculations for luminance limit should normally be carried out with the lamp (or lamps)
normally used in the luminaire and with the standard luminaire ballast and taking the initial lumen
output value. If the luminaire only meets a certain limit with a lower output lamp or different
ballast then this must be stated in the luminaire data. If certain luminaire lengths, normally the
longer lengths, do not meet the limit achieved for the rest of the range then this must also be stated
in the luminaire data.

A2.2 Use of materials

Manufacturers may use whatever materials and construction methods that they wish to achieve the
criteria set out above in sections 2.1. However, other standards, relating to electrical, mechanical
and fire safety, will limit the range of materials and construction techniques that can be employed.

45
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Appendix 3 Luminance above indirect lights

This Appendix gives the methods for calculating average I, = luminous intensity in the direction of interest
and peak luminances of surfaces above free-standing and (cd)
wall mounted uplighters.
p= the reflectance of the ceiling

d = the distance between the light source and the

A3.1 Calculation of surface ceiling at point of interest (m)
luminance above uplighters
0 = angle between a line joining the indirect light
For a regular array of indirect lights in a known room, the to the point of interest and the normal to the
average luminance of the ceiling can be calculated from: ceiling (0 equals y for the usual horizontal ceiling
above horizontal indirect lighting).

B = NFpuF An alternative formula for horizontal ceilings is given

Ar below (as cosy = H/d then d2 = H2/cos2y; as the ceiling
is horizontal, y = 0 and cos2y = cos20):
where:
B = average luminance of the ceiling (cd/rn2) B = Ipcos30
N = number of indirect lights H .71
F = initial light output of the light source
(lumens) where H0 is the vertical height of the ceiling above the
indirect light (m), see Figure A3.2.
UF = luminaire's utilisation factor for the ceiling
(see TMS(20))
p = reflectance of the ceiling A3.2 Maximum surface luminance
A = area of the ceiling (m2) over free-standing indirect
For irregularly spaced indirect lights, the average lumi- lights
nance can be estimated from the luminances calculated
for a regular array of points on the ceiling. The luminance Estimation of the maximum luminance achieved above an
at each point can be calculated using the following indirect lighting installation requires knowledge of the
forrnula (see Figure A3.1): luminous intensity distribution of the indirect light and
the reflectance properties of the surface. This information
will enable the likely location of the maximum luminance
= IpcosO to be predicted. Once this has been done the luminance at
d2.ir that location can be calculated using the formula given
above. In general the point directly over the indirect light,
the point where I, is highest, and the points at 50 inter-
where: vals between, should be checked. The contribution of
= luminance of the ceiling at a specified point neighbouring uplighters to the peak value must also be
(cd/rn2) taken into account.

Figure A3.1 Geometry needed to Figure A3.2 Geometry needed to

calculate luminance over indirect calculate luminance over indirect
lights for sloping ceiling lights for horizontal ceiling

46
 LUMINANCE ABOVE INDIRECT LIGHTS

A3.3 Maximum surface luminance As 0 = 90 — y, then cosO = siny, so we can also use the
formula in the following form:
over wall mounted indirect
lights B = Ipsin3y
For wall or column mounted uplighters the following for-
mula should be used to calculate the peak intensity on the
surface above the uplighter, see also Figure A3.3:

B=I pcose
dir

Alternatively as cos6 = HJd then d2 = H2/cos26.

B = Ipcos3O

Figure A3.3 Geometry needed

where H is the horizontal distance from the optical to calculate wall luminance above
centre of the uplighter to the wall. wall mounted indirect light

47
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Appendix 4 Checklists for assessing lighting quality in a space

This Appendix outlines the checks likely to be required to screen, nor distinct enough to be distracting.
ensure that the visual environment in display screen areas Remember that the changing sunlight position
is acceptable and can be maintained in that manner. may affect certain windows and blinds at different
Section A4.1 describes the reasoning behind the checks times of the year.
while sections A4.2 and A4.3 outline the checks that —
should be made to an installation, both initially and then Check that there are no disturbing reflections
through its life. A full description of health and safety from the desk surfaces: generally matt surfaces of
regulations can be found in the CIBSE Guidance Note a light tone are required. Glossy surfaces reflect
GN2: Healthy workplaces(' 1)•
images of overhead lighting and dark desks cause
high contrasts with white documents.
— Check that there are no extremely bright reflec-
A4.1 Checklist criteria tions from room surfaces: these can be distracting
— Check that there is sufficient ambient light in and may cause reflection in display screens.
each area: it is recommended that 200 lux is — Check that desk task lights are provided where the
provided in any continuously occupied area to type of task or work environment requires them:
avoid it appearing gloomy or oppressive to the such lights are needed where reading text-based
occupants. information is carried out in an area lit to a low
— Check that there is sufficient illumination on each
ambient level.
task: the recommended lighting levels for typical, — Check that, where desk task lights are provided,
purely screen-based tasks are 300 lux and, when they do not act as a source of heat to the user, are a
combined with paper-based tasks, 500 lux. Light- danger to the user or allow light to stray onto
ing levels for other tasks are given in the schedule adjacent workstations: desk task lights should be
of the CIBSE Code for interior lighting('2). adjustable and remain in the position required by
— Check that there is no undue glare from the room the user. The light should be of a low energy
lights: this is difficult to check in detail. The most design to minimise heat output and should be
extreme cases will be obvious but in marginal shielded or have a range of movement that does
cases expert assistance will be required to deter- not allow stray light to annoy adjacent users.
mine if recommended glare levels have been ex- Check that the direction of light falling on the
ceeded. task aids perception and that no disturbing shad-
— Check that there is no undue glare from windows: ows are cast over the task area: directional lighting
as with room lights the more extreme cases will be can be used to provide task lighting to text adja-
cent to a screen or on a text holder and avoid stray
obvious, although the situation will change con-
siderably with season and weather conditions. If light reaching display screens. However, poorly
there is a problem, screening in the form of roller positioned light sources can throw shadows across
blinds or similar may be needed. the workplace and lead to luminance imbalance.
— Check that there is no undue contrast between
windows or window shading and adjacent wall A4.2 Primary checks
surfaces: this often occurs with small windows in
otherwise dark walls. The solution is normally The following checks should be carried out in each
either to increase the brightness of adjacent in- display screen area when it is first assessed:
ternal wall surfaces or to increase the shading of —
the window opening. Check that the ambient lighting level in the space
provides sufficient general light.
— Check that there is no undue contrast between any
display screen and its immediate surround: if Check that the lighting level is sufficient for the
there is, then the lighting of the workstation or task(s) being carried out at each workplace.
surface reflectances within the workstation may Check that for any workstation where local task
need to be altered. lighting is provided to boost the ambient lighting
— Check that there is no undue contrast between a that it is not providing a risk to the users and is
display screen and the room seen beyond it: if not allowing stray light to affect other users.
there is, the room lighting or room surface reflec- — Check to see if existing lighting equipment or
tances may need to be altered. windows are a source of glare.
— Check that there are no distracting or disturbing — Check that the windows are clean and are not un-
reflections on any display screens: some reflec- necessarily obstructed. Consider the relocation of
tions are inevitable but they should be of a level existing workplaces to increase the proportion of
low enough not to obscure the image on the daylight available for lighting the task.

48
 CHECKLISTS FOR ASSESSING LIGHTING QUALITY IN A SPACE

— Check that there is no undue contrast between the Check that there are no distracting or disturbing
windows or window shading and adjacent wall reflections on any display screen or desk surface.
surfaces.
Ensure that all new lighting schemes are designed
— Check that no lighting equipment provides a to provide the correct level of task illuminance
danger of striking or being struck by an employee and that the lights do not provide a source of glare
or items being carried by employees. to the occupants.
— Check that there is no risk of burns, fire or over- — Ensure that all new lighting equipment is in-
heating of materials near to lamps or light sources, stalled in such a manner and in such a location
especially mobile lighting or workplace mounted that it does not constitute a risk of collision with
lighting. staff or items they may be carrying, and that the
— Check for safe access to all lighting equipment for equipment itself can be safely maintained and
maintenance and lamp changing. relamped.

A4.3 Continuous checks A4.4 Summary

The following checks should be carried out at intervals as The provision of a safe and well lit environment is funda-
the circumstances of the individual workplaces dictate: mental to good working practice. The most important
Assess the impact of the lighting during each principles to consider are:
workplace assessment. — Monitor all changes to the type and location of
Provide local task lighting for any workstation that workstations, the equipment being used, the tasks
is located or is relocated such that the ambient being carried out and their relationship to the
lighting does not provide sufficient lighting on the lighting equipment and windows. Assess the
task. impact of the changes on the health and safety of
the occupants and take any necessary action.
— Monitor the provision, use and maintenance of
window shading in display screen areas. Review all plans for changes to existing buildings,
— including plans for extensions and new buildings,
Check that there is no undue contrast between any
display screen and its immediate background.
to ensure that the designers have taken into
account the needs of the users and the assessment
— Check that there is no undue contrast between any system. Assess the impact of the proposed plans
display screen and the room seen beyond the on the workstations and users and take any
screen. necessary remedial action.

49
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Appendix 5 Display screen equipment technology

At present the great majority of computer display screens, A5.2 Alternative display screen
particularly those used in offices, employ cathode ray tube
(CRT) technology. Such screens are self-luminous, i.e. they equipment technologies
produce the light that the user sees. Alternative display
technologies such as liquid crystal displays (LCD) use The most common alternatives to CRT-based DSE tech-
reflected light to display the image. nology are plasma and electroluminescent screens, and
liquid crystal display (LCD) screens. These types of DSE are
relatively thin and can be used for applications where CRT
Until the start of the 1990s most display screens were screens would be too bulky.
monochrome, displaying bright, mainly alphanumeric
characters on a dark background. This has been changing
progressively to colour displays and the use of more A5.2.1 Plasma displays
graphical images, even in traditional word processing
applications. The screen polarity used by modern soft- Plasma display technology appeared at the beginning of
ware, including word processing software, has been chang- the 1970s and can be used for quite large screens. Plasma
ing from negative, i.e. light text on a dark background, to displays use a grid of vertical and horizontal electrodes on
positive, i.e. a light background with a darker foreground, the inside of two glass plates, between which is a layer
for example black text on a white background. composed mainly of neon gas. The gas is ionised, and
discharges when a voltage of about 200 volts is applied
between activated electrodes. Due to their red-orange
colour, given by the neon gas, plasma screens have a rela-
A5.1 Cathode ray tube technology tively low visual efficacy and are difficult to see under
certain conditions.
CRT displays consist of an evacuated glass tube (similar to
a television tube) encased within a fibreglass, metal or
plastic housing. In the tube a cathode emits an electron A5.2.2 Electroluminescent displays
beam which is focused by an electronic lens system and
deflected, by either electrostatic or electromagnetic forces, Electroluminescent displays (ELD) have an electrode
towards a screen which has been coated with a phosphor. system of the same type as plasma screens, but instead of
The display is formed by the phosphor, or phosphors in neon gas an electroluminescent element (manganese-
the case of colour displays, emitting light when activated doped zinc sulphide) emits light when exposed to an
by the electron beam. electric field. Like plasma display screens, ELD screens are
run primarily on AC. Their colour is usually pale yellow,
but modifications produce red, green, and blue light,
The phosphor begins to fade immediately after it is ex- which makes colour presentation possible. The image
cited. To obtain a steady image, the phosphor must be quality with ELD is better than that with the CRT. However
reactivated frequently. This is done by repetitive sweeping ELD can be susceptible to the same visibility problems as
of the electron beam across and down the screen. This plasma display screens. Also, they can require high
process is called the raster scan. Once the bottom of the operating voltages, up to 650 V. This makes the control
raster scan has been reached, the electron beam is de- circuits expensive.
flected back to the top of the screen to repeat the process.
A5.2.3 Liquid crystal displays
Because the raster scan takes some time to complete,
single scan CRT screens are susceptible to flicker. If succes- LCD
sive scans of the screen are not in registration with the technology allows lightweight and space-saving
screens to be produced. Image quality can be high, for
primary scan then the screen image will appear to jitter. example screen text can have a similar quality to printed
Some users find flicker and jitter distracting and un- text. Also, LCD screens are not susceptible to screen flicker
comfortable. Flicker and jitter can also lead to problems of or jitter. This is because screen images are not produced
screen task visibility. by a raster scan, but instead are produced by small volt-
ages applied to the screen grid. Other advantages include
To help the electron beam remain in focus across the their use of flat screens, which are less susceptible to
whole of the screen, the screen is curved both horizontally screen reflections, freedom from interference from mag-
and vertically. This slight convex curvature of the screen netic fields, and a complete absence of potentially harmful
results in a wide area behind the user being reflected in radiation.
the screen, see Figure A 1.2. The occurrence of reflections
on the screen can produce significant reductions in screen LCD screens are controlled by small to moderate control
task visibility. With advances in CRT technology, screens voltages, and do not therefore require the bulky control
are becoming less curved. Flatter, squarer tube (FsT) circuits of CRT, plasma display or ELD screens. Thus LCD
screens are now available which, because of their reduced screens consume negligible amounts of energy and,
curvature, are less susceptible to screen reflections. because of the absence of heavy control gear, can be made

50
 DISPLAY SCREEN EQUIPMENT TECHNOLOGY

very light in weight. A typical LCD screen weighs about 2 near and far images23. An unnatural posture adopted to
kg, compared to a typical CRT screen weighing approxi- attain a satisfactory line of sight will probably cause dis-
mately 12 kg. comfort.

However, despite its advantages LCD screen technology Text visibility can be enhanced by the use of positive
needs further development before it can be adopted for polarity displays. However, jitter and flicker are more
widespread use. LCD screens are therefore used mainly noticeable on positive polarity screens.
where small, lightweight screens are required, e.g. for use
with portable computers. Part 3 of BS EN 29241 sets the specification for visual
displays, and all DSE used in the working environment
The LCD technology that holds the greatest potential for should conform to this standard. The standard provides
development for widespread use as DSE is 'thin film specifications for manufacturers relating to average dis-
technology' (TFT). Screens using TFT provide a large range play luminance, colour of screen surround, glare reduction
of screen contrasts, enhancing visibility. They also allow and enhancement techniques and safety. Guidance on
the use of colour and have fast response times, allowing those aspects of DSE use within the control of the user,
screen animation to be run. Short term production prob- such as screen tilt, typical viewing angles and viewing
lems make TFT screens prohibitively expensive for wide- distances are also included. These issues are discussed
spread introduction. However, once these problems are more fully in Appendix 1.
overcome TFT screen technology is likely to become an
established component of the range of commonly used The regulations on DSE state that either a positive or
display screen technology. negative polarity display is acceptable. However, research
indicates that positive polarity is preferred by users,
despite the increase in problems related to flicker and
A5.3 The display image jitter. Two studies24'25 reported that 80%-and 94% of
users preferred positive polarity screens. Both studies also
The quality and resolution of screen-based graphic images found an improvement in performance with the use of
rely on the pixel size (larger pixels produce coarser positive polarity screens.
images), the range and stability of screen luminances, the
range and stability of screen colours, and the flicker and
jitter characteristics of the screen. The legibility of text
displayed on DSE is determined by the size, shape and A5.4 Portable display screen
layout of the characters, and by the overall quality of the equipment
screen image, which depends on the same characteristics
as those which control the quality of graphic images. The The use of portable computers, which often use flat, liquid
quality of a screen image contributes significantly to crystal display (LCD) screens, is increasing. Flat LCD
fixing the distance at which users can view the screen screens have very good reflected glare characteristics and
without undue effort, and hence to the visual comfort of are generally much less susceptible to screen reflections
the screen task. because they are flat. Also, because of their portability
they are easily relocated if reflected glare is a problem.
Visually demanding work, particularly under adverse However, they do rely on general lighting to produce an
viewing conditions, can result in visual fatigue or eye- acceptable contrast on the screen and suffer from a
strain, or both. This is likely to be due to the excess use of reduced quality image when viewed from an angle.
muscles in and around the eye. These include:
— the ciliary muscles employed in changing the Small portable computers are not generally used for pro-
shape of the lens for accommodation and focusing longed periods. However if they are, they must conform to
to allow viewing at different distances, The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regu-
—
lations'.
the extra-ocular muscles employed in convergence,
turning both eyes inward to focus simultaneously
The Regulations state that: 'While there are no hard and fast
on a single point of the visual field e.g. part of the
rules on what constitutes 'prolonged' use, portable equipment
display screen, that is habitually in use by a display screen user for a significant
— the constrictors and dilators of the pupils which part of his or her normal work, ... , should be regarded as covered
partly control the amount of light admitted, but by the regulations.' The definitions of 'habitual' and 'sig-
more importantly determine the quality of the nificant part' appear in the Regulations.
retinal image,
— the muscles controlling facial expression may also
be involved22. A5.5 Keyboards
The positioning of the screen relative to the user signifi- The keyboard is the most frequently used means of data
cantly influences the posture of the head and neck. Users entry and control of individual display screens. Most key-
should not have to twist their heads to avoid glare, stoop boards are separate from the screen console and main
forward to see more clearly, move their eyes or head to computer unit. This allows the user to move the keyboard
switch from image to image, or frequently refocus between to a comfortable operating position.

51
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Keyboards can suffer from distracting reflections if the Table A5.2 Iso 9241 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
key surface is glossy. This is sometimes called 'twinkle'. display terminals
Better keyboards have matt surface keys with the charac- Part Title Status
ters in a bold contrasting colour. The surround to the
keys is normally also matt, to avoid reflections, and of a 1 General introduction Current Standard (being revised)
similar colour and reflectance to the keys, to avoid large 2 Task requirements Current Standard
luminance contrasts with them. 3 Visual displays Current Standard
4 Keyboards Draft International Standard
5 Workstation layout Draft International Standard
A5.6 Ergonomic standards for DSE 6 Environmental Third committee draft
requirements
Tables A5.l and A5.2 summarise the development posi- 7 Reflections on displays Draft International Standard in
tion in 1995 of two standards on DSE. preparation
8 Displayed colours Draft International Standard
9 Non-keyboard input Committee draft
devices
Table AS.! BS 7179 Ergonomics of design and use of visual display 10 Dialogue principles Draft International Standard
terminals (VDTs) in offwes agreed
Part Title Status of replacement 11 Guidance on usability Draft International Standard in
I Introduction Now BS EN 29241 Part 1 preparation
12 Presentation of information Committee draft
2 Design of office tasks Now BS EN 29241 Part 2
13 User guidance Draft International Standard
3 Visual displays Now BS EN 29241 Part 3
14 Menu dialogues Draft International Standard
4 Keyboards Soon to become BS EN 29241 Part 4
15 Command dialogues Draft International Standard in
5 VDT workstations Current
6 VDT work environment Current preparation
16 Direct manipulation Committee draft
dialogues
17 Form filling dialogues Committee draft
Notes:

(a) Each committee produces committee drafts for international

comment. Once a committee draft is agreed it becomes a Draft
International Standard. This is again voted on internationally
until it gains approval and becomes an International Standard.

(b) Draft International Standards are voted on in parallel by ISO

and CEN member countries. This means that the standard
automatically becomes a Euro Norm once agreed.

52
 REFERENCES

References Workers (Berlin: Ergonomics Institute for

Occupational Sciences Research Co Ltd) (1991)
Social and
1 Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992
18 BS 8206: Lighting for buildings: Part 2: 1992 Code of practice for
(London: HMSO) (1992)
daylighting (London: British Standards Institution) (1992)
2 BS 7179: Ergonomics of design and use of visual display terminals
19 Lighting for offices CIBSE Lighting Guide LG7 (London:
(VDTs) in offices (London: British Standards Institution) (1990)
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1993)
3 BS EN 29241: Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
20 Calculation and use of utilisation factors CIBSE Technical
display terminals (London: British Standards Institution) (1993)
Memoranda TM5 (London: Chartered Institution of Building
4 ISO 9241: Ergonomic requirements for work with visual display Services Engineers) (1980)
terminals (Geneva: International Standards Organisation) (1992
21 BS 5225: Photometric data for luminaires (London: British
onwards)
Standards Institution) (1985—1988)
5 Calculation of glare indices CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM1O
(London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
22 Pheasant S T Ergonomics, work and health (London:
Engineers) (1985) MacMillan) (1991)
23 Ergonomic guidelines for visual display terminals Info Pro (BeU
6 Window design CIBSE Applications Manual AM2 (London:
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1987) Canada) (1986)
24 RadI G W Experimental investigation of optical presentation
7 Collins M, Davis B, Atchison D VDT Reflections and
mode and colour of symbols on CRT screens Ergonomic Aspects
accommodation response Opthal. & Physiol. Opt. 14 193—197
of Visual Display Terminals Eds. Grandjean E and Vigliani E
(April 1994)
(London: Taylor and Francis) (1980)
8 The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992
25 Bauer D and Cavonius C R Improving the legibility of visual
(London: HMSO) (1992)
display units through contrast reversal Ergonomic Aspects of
9 The Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992 Visual Display Terminals Eds. Grandjean E and Vigliani B
(London: HMSO) (1992) (London: Taylor and Francis) (1980)
10 The Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992
(London: HMSO) (1992)
11 Healthy workplaces CIBSE Guidance Note GN2 (London: Bibliography
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1993)
BS 4533: Luminaires: Part 101: 1990 Specification for general requirements
12 CIBSE Code for interior lighting (London: Chartered Institution and tests; Part 102: Particular requirements; Part 103: Performance
of Building Services Engineers) (1994) requirements (London: British Standards Institution) (1986—1990)
13 BS 4533: Luminaires (London: British Standards Institution) (superseded by BS EN 60598)
(1986—1990) (superseded by BS EN 60598) BS 5266: Emergency lighting (London: British Standards Institution)
(1981—1988)
14 BS EN 60598: Luminaires; BS EN 60598-1: 1993 General
requirements and test (London: British Standards Institution) BS 8206: Lighting for buildings (London: British Standards Institution)
(1993) (1992)
15 Display screen equipment work — Guidance on Regulations L26 Visual environment in lecture, teaching and conference rooms CIBSE Lighting
(London: HMSO) (1992) Guide LG5 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
16 Collins B L Review of the psychological reaction to windows Engineers) (1991)
Lighting Res. Technol. 8(2) 80—85 (1976) Calculation of glare indices CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM1O (London:
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1985)
17 Cakir A E An investigation on state-of-art and future prospects
of lighting technology in German office environments Light Emergency lighting CIBSE Technical Memoranda TM12 (London:
and Health — Influence and Well Being of Office and Computer Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers) (1986)

53
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Colour rendering index (cR1)

Glossary
The explanations and definitions given in this glossary are A measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces
illuminated by a given light source conform to those of the
intended to help readers to understand this Lighting same surfaces under a reference illuminant, suitable allow-
Guide. They are based on BS 4727: Part 4: 1971/2 Glossaiy
of terms particular to lighting and colour and on the Inter- ance having been made for the state of chromatic adap-
tation. See also adaptation and CIE publication 13.2.
national Lighting Vocabulary 1987 issued jointly by the
Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) and the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). These Colour temperature (Tv, unit: K)
documents should be consulted if more precise definitions
are required. The temperature of a 'full radiator' which emits radiation
of the same chromaticity as the radiator being considered.
Adaptation
Computer aided design (CAD)
The process which takes place as the visual system adjusts
itself to the brightness or colour (chromatic adaptation) of The use of computers to assist in the design of plans,
the visual field. The term is also used, usually qualified, to components, circuits, etc., normally using graphic display
denote the final state of this process. For example 'dark screens and digitising tablets.
adaptation' denotes the state of the visual system when it
has become adapted to a very low luminance.
Constancy
Average illuminance (Eave) See brightness constancy.
The arithmetic mean illuminance over a specified surface.
Contrast
Brightness A term used subjectively and objectively. Subjectively it
describes the difference in appearance of two parts of a
The subjective response to luminance in the field of view visual field seen simultaneously or successively. The
dependent upon the adaptation of the eye. difference may be one of brightness or colour or both.
Objectively, the term expresses the luminance difference
between the two parts of the field by relationships such as:
Brightness constancy
Sometimes referred to as 'lightness' or 'whiteness' con- Contrast = L-L1
stancy. The condition achieved under adequate illumi- L1
nance where the perceived 'lightness' of objects is relative-
ly unchanged through fairly large changes of illuminance.
For example, a dimly lit sheet of matt white paper may Quantitatively, the sign of the contrast is ignored. L1 is the
have a lower luminance than a brightly lit sheet of matt dominant or background luminance. L is the task lumi-
black paper but the former will still look white and the nance.
latter black.
Correlated colour temperature (CCT, unit: K)
Candela (cd)
The temperature of a full radiator which emits radiation
The SI unit of luminous intensity, equal to one lumen per having a chromaticity nearest to that of the light source
steradian. being considered, e.g. the colour of a full radiator at 3500
K is the nearest match to that of a white tubular fluores-
cent lamp.
Cathode ray tube (cRT)
An electronic vacuum tube in which an electron beam is Daylight factor (D)
generated and used to energise a phosphor screen which
emits visible light. The illuminance received at a point indoors, from a sky of
known or assumed luminance distribution, expressed as a
percentage of the horizontal illuminance outdoors from an
Colour rendering unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. Direct sunlight
is excluded from both values of illuminance.
A general expression for the appearance of surface colours
when illuminated by light from a given source compared,
consciously or unconsciously, with their appearance under Design maintained illuminance
light from some reference source. 'Good colour rendering'
implies similarity of appearance to that under an accept- The maintained illuminance used in a lighting specifi-
able light source such as daylight. cation. Design maintained illuminance is derived from the

54
 GLOSSARY

standard maintained illuminance by taking account of Downlighter

modifying factors.
Direct lighting luminaire from which light is emitted only
within relatively small angles to the downward vertical.
Design service illumunance (obsolete term)
See design maintained i/luminance. Downward light output ratio (DL0R)
The ratio of the total light output of a luminaire below the
Diffuse lighting horizontal under stated practical conditions to that of the
lamp or lamps under reference conditions.
Lighting in which the luminous flux comes from many
directions, none of which predominates.
Effective reflectance
Diffuse reflection Estimated reflectance of a surface, based on the relative
areas and reflectances of materials forming the surface.
Reflection in which the reflected light is diffused and Thus, 'effective wall reflectance' takes account of the
there is no significant specular reflection, as from a matt reflectances of the wall surface, windows, filing cabinets
surface. etc., that comprise the sides of a room.

Direct lighting Emergency lighting

Lighting in which the greater part of the luminous flux Lighting provided for use when the main lighting instal-
from the luminaires reaches a surface (usually the working lation fails.
plane) directly, i.e. without reflection from surrounding
surfaces. Luminaires with a flux fraction ratio less than 0.1
are usually regarded as direct.
Escape lighting
Emergency lighting provided to ensure that the means of
Direct ratio (DR) escape can be safely and effectively used at all times.

The proportion of the total downward luminous flux from Flicker

a conventional installation of luminaires which is directly
incident on the working plane. Visible modulation of luminous flux.

Directional lighting Flux fraction ratio

Lighting designed to illuminate a task or surface predomi- The ratio of the upward luminous flux to the downward
nantly from one direction. luminous flux from a luminaire. It is also the ratio of the
upper flux fraction to the lower flux fraction and the ratio
of the upward light output ratio to the downward light
Disability glare output ratio.
Glare produced directly or by reflection that impairs the
vision of objects without necessarily causing discomfort. General surround lighting
See also GTE publication 17.4 845-02-57.
Lighting designed to illuminate the non-working parts of
a working interior.
Discharge lamp
A lamp in which the light is produced either directly or by Glare
the excitation of phosphors by an electric discharge
through a gas, a metal vapour or a mixture of several gases The discomfort or impairment of vision experienced when
and vapours. parts of the visual field are excessively bright in relation to
the general surroundings.
Discomfort glare
Glare index system
Glare which causes visual discomfort.
A system which produces a numerical index calculated
according to the method described in CIBSE Technical
Display screen equipment (D5E) Memoranda TMJO. It enables the discomfort glare from
lighting installations to be ranked in order of severity and
Any alphanumeric or graphic display screen, regardless of the permissible limit of discomfort glare from an instal-
the display process involved. lation to be prescribed quantitatively.

55
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Glare rating system output to be expected under service conditions. Note:

previously, measurement of lamp flux was also made with
See glare index system. a practical ballast and required correction using a 'ballast
lumen factor'.
Gloss factor
Lightness
See luminance factor.
A subjective estimate of the proportion of light diffusely
reflected by a body or surface.
Illuminance (E, units: lm/m2, lux)
The luminous flux density at a surface, i.e. the luminous Lightness constancy
flux incident per unit area. This quantity was formerly
known as the illumination value or illumination level. See See brightness constancy.
also average, initial, maintained and minimum illuminance.
Limiting glare rating
Illumination
The maximum value of the glare rating which is recom-
The process of lighting. mended for a specific lighting application. See glare index
system.
Indirect lighting
Liquid crystal display (LCD)
Lighting in which the greater part of the flux reaches the
surface (usually the working plane) only after reflection at A display device which works on the principle that a
other surfaces, usually a roof or ceiling. Luminaires with a liquid crystal polarises light under an applied voltage.
flux fraction ratio greater than 10 are usually regarded as
indirect.
Local lighting

Indirect/direct luminaire Lighting designed to illuminate a particular small area

which usually does not extend far beyond the visual task,
A luminaire that is designed to give controlled downlight e.g. a desk light.
and widespread uplight. The ratio of up to downlight can
vary. Localised lighting
Initial illuminance (Eavji units: Im/m2, lux) Lighting designed to illuminate an interior and at the
same time to provide higher illuminances over a particular
Average illuminance for a new installation when lamps, part, or parts, of the interior.
luminaires and room surfaces are clean. See also maintain-
ed illuminance and maintenance factor.
Lumen (Im)
Initial light output (unit: Im) The SI unit of luminous flux, used to describe a quantity
of light emitted by a source or received by a surface. A
The luminous flux from a new lamp. In the case of dis- small source which has a uniform luminous intensity of
charge lamps this is usually the output after 100 hours of one candela emits a total of 4r lumens in all directions and
operation. emits one lumen within a unit solid angle, i.e. 1 steradian.

Isolux diagram Lumina ire

A diagram showing contours of equal illuminance. Apparatus which controls the distribution of light given
by a lamp or lamps and which includes all the components
necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps and for
Light output ratio (L0R) connecting them to the supply circuit. Luminaire has
The ratio of the total light output of a luminaire under officially superseded the term 'lighting fitting' which is
still used colloquially.
stated practical conditions to that of the lamp or lamps
under reference conditions. For a luminaire, the output is
usually measured in the designated operating position at Luminance (L, unit: cd/rn2)
25°C ambient temperature with control gear of the type
usually supplied in a luminaire and operated at its normal The physical measure of the stimulus which produces the
voltage. For a lamp the output is measured at 25°C ambi- sensation of brightness measured by the luminous in-
ent temperature and with control gear of standard proper- tensity of the light emitted or reflected in a given direction
ties. This is a practical basis for evaluating the total light from a surface element, divided by the projected area of

56
 GLOSSARY

the element in the same direction. The SI unit of lumi- Maintained ifluminance (Ems unit: lux)
nance is the candela per square metre.
The average illuminance over the reference surface at the
Luminance factor (b,, , b) time maintenance has to be carried out by replacing lamps
and/or cleaning the equipment and room surfaces. See also
Also known as gloss factor. The ratio of the luminance of a design maintained illuminance and standard maintained
reflecting surface, viewed in a given direction, to that of an illuminance.
identically illuminated 'perfect white' uniform diffusing
surface. For a non-matt surface the luminance factor may Maintenance factor (MF)
be greater or less than the reflectance.
The ratio of the illuminance provided by an installation at
Luminance limit angle some stated time, with respect to the initial illuminance,
i.e. that after 100 hours of operation. The maintenance fac-
Angle at and above which the calculated luminance does tor is the product of the lamp lumen maintenance factor,
not exceed the limits set out in this document. the lamp survival factor (where group lamp replacement
without spot replacement is carried out), the luminaire
maintenance factor and the room surface maintenance
Luminous area factor. Note: the introduction of maintained illuminance
has fundamentally changed the definition of this term
The area of a lamp or luminaire which emits light. For a which was formally associated with service illuminance.
flat surface the projected area varies with the cosine of the Because of this recent change, the definition in the
angle between the direction of view and the normal to the International Lighting Vocabulary, CIE publication 17.4 895-
surface. For a spherical surface the projected area is 09-59, is now incorrect.
constant for all directions of view. For less regular solids,
e.g. a surface diffuser luminaire, the luminous surfaces in
various planes must be calculated separately. For specular Maximum spacing-to-height ratio (SHRmOx)
reflectors or prismatic optics the 'flashed luminous area'
varies with viewing angle and no simple relationship The SHR for a four-by-four square array of luminaires that
applies in practice. gives a ratio of minimum to maximum direct illuminance
of 0.7 over the central region between the four innermost
Luminous flux f, unit: Im) luminaires. For the majority of luminaires SHRmaX is the
spacing-to-height ratio at which the mid-point (or mid-
area) ratio is 0.7.
The light emitted by a source, or received by a surface.
The quantity is derived from radiant flux by evaluating
the radiation in accordance with the spectral sensitivity of Maximum transverse spacing-to-height ratio
the standard eye as described by the CIE standard photo-
(SHRmax tr)
metric observer (ISO/CIE 10527).
The SHR in the transverse plane for continuous lines of
Luminous intensity (I, unit: Cd) luminaires that gives a ratio of minimum to maximum
direct illuminance of 0.7 over the central region between
A quantity which describes the power of a source or the two inner rows.
illuminated surface to emit light in a given direction. It is
the luminous flux emitted in a very narrow cone contain-
ing the given direction divided by the solid angle of the Minimum illuminance (Em•n unit: lux)
cone. Intensity is given by the product of illuminance
multiplied by distance squared, when distance is large The lowest value found by calculation or measurement on
compared with the source dimensions. points of a stated grid. Note that a search for the absolute
minimum value is rarely, if ever, justified.
Luminous intensity distribution
Mixed reflection
The distribution of the luminous intensity of a lamp or
luminaire in all directions. Luminous intensity distri-
butions are usually shown in the form of a polar diagram, Partly specular and partly diffused reflection, as from
or a table, for a single vertical plane, in terms of candelas smooth, glossy paint. See also luminance factor.
per 1000 lumens of lamp luminous flux.
Mounting height (hm)
Lux(lux)
Usually the vertical distance between a luminaire and the
The SI unit of illuminance, equal to one lumen per square working plane. In some cases the floor may be the effective
metre. working plane.

57
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Nominal spacing-to-height ratio (SHRnOm) Standard maintained illuminance

The highest value of SHR in the series 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 etc., The maintained illuminance recommended for the
that is not greater than SHRmax• Utilisation factor tables are assumed standard conditions of the application. See also
normally calculated at a spacing-to-height ratio of SHRnOm• design maintained illuminance.

Power factor Steradian (sr)

In an electric circuit, the power factor is equal to the ratio The unit of solid angle. A complete sphere subtends 4r sr
of the root mean square power in watts to the product of from the centre.
the root mean square values of voltage and current. For
sinusoidal waveforms the power factor is also equal to the
cosine of the angle of phase difference between voltage Stroboscopic effect
and current.
An illusion caused by modulation of luminous flux that
makes a moving object appear as stationary or as moving
Projected area in a manner different from that in which it is truly mov-
ing.
See luminous area.

Task area
Reflectance (factor) (R, r)
The area containing those details and objects that must be
The ratio of the luminous flux reflected from a surface to seen for the performance of a given activity, including the
the luminous flux incident on it. Except for matt surfaces, immediate background of the details or objects. In the ab-
reflectance depends on how the surface is illuminated but sence of precise dimensions the task area is assumed to be
especially on the direction of the incident light and its a 0.5 m square, which is placed within a 1 m square sur-
spectral distribution. The value is always less than unity round. See also working plane.
and is expressed as either a decimal or as a percentage.

Reflection factor Task lighting

Placing luminaires in such a way as to throw most of their

See reflectance.
light output onto the task or area where the task is per-
formed.
Scalloping
Transmission
A regular pattern of light and shade caused by luminaires
with a narrow light distribution mounted close to vertical
room surfaces. The passing of radiation through a medium.

Sky component of the daylight factor (D') Transmittance (t)

The illuminance received directly at a point indoors from The ratio of luminous flux transmitted by a material to the
a sky of known or assumed luminance distribution expres- incident luminous flux.
sed as a percentage of the horizontal illuminance outdoors
from an unobstructed hemisphere of the same sky. Direct
sunlight is excluded from both values of illuminance. Unified glare rating (uGR) system

A proposed CIE system which, at the time of publication,

Solid angle (unit: sr) is not finalised. It is intended to provide and internation-
ally agreed numerical rating. This value of UGR will enable
The angle subtended by an area at a point and equal to the the discomfort glare from lighting installations to be
quotient of the projected area on a sphere, centred on the ranked in order of severity and the permissible limit of
point, by the square of the radius of the sphere; expressed discomfort glare from an installation to be prescribed
in steradians. quantitatively in the form of a limiting unified glare rat-
ing. See also glare index system.

Specular reflection
Uniform diffuser
Reflection without diffusion in accordance with the laws
of optical reflection, as in a mirror. A surface that emits a cosine intensity distribution.

58
 GLOSSARY

Uniformity (illuminance (UE) luminance (U1)) Visual display unit (vDu)

The ratio of the minimum illuminance (or luminance) to
As visual display terminal.
the average illuminance (or luminance) over a specified
surface. The ratio usually applies to values on the task area
over the working plane. See also CIE publication 17.4,
845-09-58. Visual environment

The environment either indoors or outdoors as seen by an

Uplighter observer.
A luminaire which directs most of the light upwards onto
the ceiling or upper walls in order to illuminate the
working plane by reflection. See also indirect lighting. Visual field

Upward light output ratio (uLoR) The full extent in space of what can be seen when looking
in a given direction.
The ratio of the total light output of a luminaire above the
horizontal under stated practical conditions to that of the
lamp or lamps under reference conditions. Visual impairment

Utilance (U) An impairment is any loss or abnormality of psycho-

logical, physiological, or anatomical structure or function.
The proportion of luminous flux leaving the luminaires
which reaches the working plane.
Visual task
Utilisation factor (uF)
The visual element of the work being done.
The proportion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps
which reaches the working plane.
Working plane
Visual display terminal (vDT)
The horizontal, vertical, or inclined plane in which the
Usually describes the terminal of a computer or a self- visual task lies. If no information is available, the working
contained system, consisting of a keyboard for input and a plane may be considered to be horizontal and at 0.8 m
display screen. See also display screen equipment. above the floor. See also task area.

59
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Index viewing distance

Designing
40 Filters
Fixed screen installations
12, 17
29
for graphics workstations 38 Flaps 13
Accessto lighting equipment 49 with direct lighting 27 Flatter, squarer tube (F5T) display 50
Adaptation 5,54 with direct/indirect lighting 35 Flicker 12, 18, 50—51, 55
Ambient lighting 48 with indirect lighting 31 Floor mounted indirect lights 31, 33
Angle of incidence 40 Desk Floor standing indirect lights 35
Average illuminance 54 light 37 Flux fraction ratio 55
working plane 33—34 task lighting 26, 31,48 Free-standing indirect lights 23, 33,46
Average luminance 32 Diffuse Fringing 12, 17
ceiling 46 lighting 55 Fritted glass 22
reflection 55 Furniture mounted indirect lighting 31
Background lighting 24 Dimming control 31, 36—38 Furniture mounted screens 12
Blinds 6,11,19,20—21,48 Direct/indirect lighting 24
Body posture ii designing with 35 General lighting 31, 34
Brightness 54 Direct light luminance limit calculation 44 General surround lighting 55
constancy 54 Direct lighting 24, 35, 55 Geometry, eye—screen—luminaire 40
reduction 20 designing with 27 Glare 4,6, 8—10, 19, 27, 36, 38, 48, 55
wall 31 Direct ratio (DR) 55 avoidance of 3
surface 48 Directional lighting 48, 55 disability 5,7, 19,55
workstation Disability glare 5,7, 19,55 discomfort 5—7, 11,55
Discomfort glare 5—7, 11,55 disturbing 9
Calculation index system 55
Display
light luminance limit calculation 44 cathode ray tube (CRT) so, 54 Glazing
surface luminance 46—47 contrast 12 fritted 22
Candela electroluminescent 50 reflective 22
Category 1 luminaires 29—30, 43—44 high resolution 12 tinted 19,22
Category 2 luminaires 29—30, 42,44 Graphics workstation 38
image 18,27—28,45,51
Category 3 luminaires 29—30, 44
liquid crystal 50—51,56
Cathode ray tube (CRT) display 50, 54 50 Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment)
plasma
Ceiling Display screen equipment (nsu) Regulations 7,9—10, 38, Si, 53
coffered 26 based tasks 3 Health and Safety Regulations 7—13, 37—38, 48,
illuminance definition 55 51,53
inclined 13 High resolution displays 12
flaps
luminance 34,46 Hoods 13, 17
flatter, squarer tube
luminous 26, 32, 34 hoods 13 Horizontal blinds 21
mounted direct lights
portable 51
mounted luminaires 38 Illuminance 56
statutory requirements for
reflectance 46 average 54
technology
surface finishes 31
48 working plane 33—34
Distracting reflectances
Checklist ceiling 33
Distracting reflections 2,7, 10—11, 15,49,52
assessment of visual environment 10 controlling 5
from keyboards 52
Colour initial 56
Disturbing glare 9
rendering 8 24 54 maintained 57
Disturbing reflectances 48
rendering index (CR1) minimum 57
Disturbing reflections 49
room surfaces 15, 26—27, 32, 36 standard maintained 58
Document-based tasks 24
temperature 54 surface 6
Downligbters 27, 55
Column mounted indirect task 49
Downward light output ratio (DLOR) 55
lighting 23, 31,47 Image, display screen 4—5, 12, 27, 48, 51
22 Drawing board 38
Combined indirect/direct lights quality of 5, Si
Computer aided design (cAD) 54 stability of 12
Effective reflectance 55 25
Computer-based tasks Indirect/direct lighting
Constancy Electric lighting 4, 18 combined 22
Contrast design options 22 luminaire 23, 35, 56
text 18 Electrical system 23 Indirect lighting 22, 24—25, 31—34, 38, 46, 56
Electroluminescent display (ELD) 50 column mounted 23, 31,47
Controlling
illuminance Emergency lighting 8, 55 designing with
luminance
Correlated colour temperature (CCT)
, Energy
efficiency 18,34
floor mounted
free-standing
31
31, 33
23, 33, 46
Cove lighting 26, 32 limits 24 furniture mounted 31
Curtains 20 Ergonomic suspended 22—23
aspects 4 wall mounted 22, 31, 47
Daylight 4,8—9, ii, 18—19 criteria 40 Indirect 'spill' light 35
design options is limits 40 Initial illuminance 56
factor 54 recommendations 41 Initial light output 56
Decor 2, 15, 22, 32 standards 52 Isolux diagram 56
Design Ergonomics 4, 38
maintained illuminance 24, 54 Escape lighting 55 Jitter 12, 18, 50—51
options for daylighting 18 Eye—screen—luminaire geometry 40
options for electric lighting 22 Eye strain 6 Keyboard 4, 13, 15, 25, 51—52
process 14 Eyesight test 12 operating position 51

60
 INDEX

surround 13 flux 57 based tasks 24,48

Lamp maintenance 23,33,49 intensity 44, 57 colours 51
Light output ratio (LOR) 56 intensity distribution 32, 57 curvature 41, 50
downward 55 plan area 44 drift 12
upward 32,59 filters 12, 17
Light shelves 8,20—21 Maintained illuminance 57 finish 17
Light source colour 15, 32 Maintenance 23, 33,49 fixed installation 29
Lighting factor 57 flicker 12, 18, 50—51,55
ambient 48 Management of Health and Safety at Work height 16, 42
background 24 Regulations 7, 53 hoods 17
checklist 48 Maximum ceiling luminance 33 image 4—5, 12,27,48,51
controls 20, 39 calculation 32 inclination 41—42
diffuse jitter
Maximum luminance 32 12, 18, 50—5 1
direct 24, 27, 35,55 Maximum spacing-to-height ratio 57 luminance 6, 51
direct/indirect 24—25, 35
Minimum illuminance 57 maintenance 17
directional 48, 55 orientation
Modelling 8,32 9, 11,29
emergency 8,55 57 position 29, 51
31, 34 Mounting height
general reflections 9, 16—18, 24-25, 29, 31,
Mouse 4, 38
health and safety assessment 7
37, 41, 50—51
indirect 22, 24-25, 3 1—34, 38, 46-47, 56 refresh rate 12
local Natural light 8
22, 37, 56 self-luminous 6, 50
localised 31,34,56 Negative polarity display 27—28, 45, 51
Nominal spacing-to-height ratio 58 surface treatment 45
quality assessment 48 surround colour 13
supplementary 38 Nomogram
tilt 11—12,24,28,40,42,51
task 24,26,31,36,48 luminance limit angle 41—42
to eye relationship 11,41
Limiting glare visibility 19
index 24 Office layout 14
13
Screening bright sources
rating 56 Operator Solar gain 11
Liquid crystal display (LcD) 50—5 1, 56 discomfort 40
Spacing-to-height ratio 30, 57—58
Local lighting 22, 37,56 posture 11—13,51
Specular reflection 58
wall mounted, suspended 37 Overhangs 21
Speculative office space 14
Local task lighting 48 Overlighting 8, 23 Standard maintained illuminance 58
Localised lighting 31, 34, 56 Supplementary lighting 38
Louvre blinds 11, 20—2 1 Paper-based tasks 3, 48 local 37
Luminaire 56 Patch test 45
36
task lighting design
Category 1 29—30,43-44 Plasma displays 50 Surface
Category 2 29—30, 42, 44 Portable display screen equipment 51 illuminance 6
Category 3 29—30,44 Positive polarity display 18, 27—28, 45, 51 luminance 15, 39, 46—47
ceiling mounted 3 Posture, operator 11—13,51 calculation 46—47
control 36 Prismatic refractors 20, 22 reflectance 14—15, 34, 36,48
direct/indirect 23, 35, 56 Provision and Use of Work Equipment Suspended luminaires 36
intensity distribution 29 Regulations 7, fluorescent direct 35
layout 30 indirect 22—23, 31
louvres 31, 36,44 Reflectance 58 indirect/direct 35
perimeter spacing 31 ceiling 46
reflector 44 distracting 48 Task
switching 36 disturbing 48 /ambient lighting 26, 36
Luminance 39,56 effective 55 area 24,48,58
above indirect lights 46 surface 14—15, 34, 36,48 computer-based 3
adaptation 15, 19 Reflections display screen equipment-based 3, 24,48
average 32 distracting 2,7, 10—11, 15,49,52 document-based 24
ceiling 46 disturbing 49 illuminance 49
balance 8 screen 9, 16—18,24-25,29,31, illumination 37
ceiling 34 37, 41, 5051 lighting 24, 26, 31, 36,38,48,58
contrast 4 specular 58 paper-based 3,48
control 3,5, 30 veiling 7, 19,25 visibility 6
factor 57 Reflective glass 22 visual 59
limit 27—29, 44 Refresh rate, screen 12 Text
angle 30, 41—42, 44, 57 Regulations, Health and Safety 7—13, 37—38, contrast 18
calculations for Category 1, 2 and 3 48,51,53 visibility 51
luminaires Roller blinds 21,48 Thermal gain 20
maximum luminance 32—33 Room decor 2, 15, 22, 32 Tinted glass 19, 20, 22
ratio 13 Room surface
screen 6,51 characteristics 32 Uniform diffuser 58
selection 41 luminance 15,39 Uniformity 11,24,31,36,59
surface 15, 46—47 reflectance 14—15, 34, 36, 48 Uplighter 46, 59
veil 7 Upward light output ratio 32, 59
wall 47 Safe access to lighting equipment 49 User posture 11—13,51
Luminous Scalloping 31, 58 Utilisation factor (UF) 59
area 57 Screen
ceilings 26, 32, 34 angle 16, 19 Veiling reflections 7, 19, 25

61
VISUAL ENVIRONMENT FOR DISPLAY SCREEN USE

Vertical louvre 20—21 Wall Working plane 3 3—34, 59

Video conferencing 6 brightness 31 average illuminance 54
Viewing luminance calculation 47 inclined 7
angle 17,51 mounted indirect lighting 22, 31 vertical 7
distance 40, 51 mounted indirect lights 47 Working posture 11—13,51
Visual surface brightness 48 Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)
comfort 51 Window 2,3,6,8—11, 15, 19,22,39,49 Regulations 7—8, 10, 18, 37, 53
display terminal (vDT) 59 blinds 6,11,19, 20—21,48 Workplace lighting assessment 49
environment 59 screening 2, 11, 14—15, 20,48 Workstation
field 59 shading 39, 48—49 brightness 11
task 59 tinting 19, 20, 22 geometry 40
Voltage spikes 23 unshaded 12 shadowing 11

62
Society of Light and Lighting
Lighting Guide 3: Addendum 2001
The visual environment for display screen use The Society of
A new standard of performance Light and Lighting

LG3:2001 is the latest development in a design guide that has been in use by the lighting industry for 12
years. It has evolved over the years to take into account increasing familiarity with the lighting
techniques available for use in areas where display screens are in use. It has also been updated to take
into account new screen types, new technology and changing national and international standards.

This latest update is to be read in conjunction with the existing version of LG3 The visual environment
for display screen use, published in 1996. This update makes changes to the use of the failback
'category' system of downlights and revises the recommendations given in LG3 relating to the
maximum luminance of luminaires to align with new European standards.

A Withdrawal of the Category rating system

In LG3: 1996 there is a small part of the guidance on the use of downlights that allows the designer or
supplier to fall back on the use of a standard range of downlight types where there is no information on
the types or disposition of the screens in a space or the designer or supplier lacks sufficient expertise to
make the correct choice of luminance limit and limit angle.

Because of the high tendency amongst some in the industry to always specify 'Cat' fittings without any
thought to the actual working environment into which they are to be installed the Category system is
withdrawn from the LG3 guidance. In future, any specification for downlights for use in display
screen areas will have to be specifically specified by the designer or selected by the supplier based on
the data supplied to them by the client/user.

Specifically sub-section 8.3.2 of LG3 dealing with 'Unknown screen geometries' is modified to read as
follows:

If we know that display screens are to be used in a space but we know little about them, then we
can not tell at what angle of tilt or heights they will be used in. We have to assume that they
will be used within the standard ergonomic limits as described in appendix 1. The designer
needs to select luminaires with an appropriate luminance limit based on the type(s) of screens
likely to be used in that space. This luminance limit will be applied at a standard 65° limit angle
unless it is known that the likely screen tilts would require a lower limit angle.

Considering only the tuminaire's light distribution, however, does not guarantee a
successful lighting installation. The designer needs to consider all aspects of the guidance
in order to design an installation that complies with Lighting Guide 3. The key to success is
the avoidance of any very high luminance patches in a space and any abrupt change in
luminance across a surface or between adjacent surfaces. It is therefore necessary for the
designer to have some influence over the control of daylighting and the specification of the
reflectance of ceiling, wall and other surfaces.

In addition the existing Appendix 2 of Lighting Guide 3 is withdrawn and the following text is
substituted as a guide to selecting an appropriate lighting distribution for downlights.

Appendix 2 Direct light luminance limit calculation

Where the lighting designers are unable to obtain information about the display screens in use in
an area, they will need to select a luminaire with a luminance limit of 200 cd/rn2 at 65° elevation, or
55° in special circumstances. This is referred to as the luminance limit angle. Section 2.1 below
defines how the luminance has to be measured and quoted for a given luminaire. These
Addendum to CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 issued 23 October 2001

Al
 calculations will normally be carried out by the luminaire manufacturer and will be quoted in their
catalogues. There may however be circumstances when a designer or user wishes to assess or
check the luminance limit of a particular luminaire.

Where the designer is working with a known client and the parameters of the screen to be used in
the space are known, then the lurninaires selected can have luminance limits of 500 cd/rn2, 1000
cd/rn2 or 1500 cd/rn2, with the limit angle defined by the designer.

A2.1 Luminance limit calculations

Photometric compliance is achieved by establishing that the calculated average luminance at any
point above the specified luminance limit angle does not exceed the required luminance limit. The
luminance limit is 200 cd/m2 for areas where screens with no surface treatment are in use with
software using a negative polarity presentation (light characters on a dark background). Higher
limits are possible where screens with an anti-reflective surface treatment and/or use software with
a positive poiarity presentation (dark characters on a light background).

The manufacturers should check for compliance at each 15° angles of azimuth around the
luminaire and at each 5° angle of elevation above the limit angle up to 85°. The information
required for this calculation is the louvre/reflector luminous plan area, the luminous intensity above
the limiting angle in elevation, for azimuth planes 0, 15, 30,...330 and 345°, and the lamp/ballast
data (see Figure A2.l).

For preliminary manual check purposes QflIY the luminance can be quickly checked by designers
using the figures for the axial, transverse, 30° and 60° azimuth planes to see how close to
compliance a particular luminaire is.

For recessed luminaires, or those with little or no emission of light from the sides of the luminaire,
the following equation should be used to calculate the luminance of the luminaire at the luminance
limit angle, and at every 5° angle of elevation above that to 85°, in each specified azimuth plane:

I.N.F.K
B =________
l.w.cos y. 1000
where:
B = Luminance in azimuth plane C (cd/rn2)
C = Azimuth plane angle 0°, 15°, 30° ... 345°
y= Angle of elevation from the downward vertical
I = Intensity at angle yin azimuth plane C (cd/i 000 im)
N = Number of lamps
F = Initial lumen output of lamp (lumens)
1 = Sum of bottom plan length of louvre elements (meters)
w = Sum of bottom plan width of louvre elements (meters)
K= Factor to account for any fixed turn down ratio when regulated or dimmed ballasts are used,
or factor to account for higher output from standard high frequency ballasts

For luminaires with significant emission of light from the sides of the luminaire the more complex
equation within CIBSE TM1O should be used (this will be superseded by a section on the
calculation of glare in the Society of Lighting Code for Lighting 2002)..

The calculations for luminance limit should normally be carried out with the lamp (or lamps)
normally used in the luminaire and with the standard luminaire ballast and taking the initial lumen
output value. If the luminaire only meets a certain limit with a lower output lamp or different
ballast then this must be stated in the luminaire data. If certain luminaire lengths, normally the
longer lengths, do not meet the limit achieved for the rest of the range then this must also be stated
in the luminaire data.

Addendum to CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 issued 23 October 2001

A2
 A2.2 Use of materials
Manufacturers may use whatever materials and construction methods that they wish to achieve the
criteria set out above in sections 2.1. However, other standards, relating to electrical, mechanical
and fire safety, will limit the range of materials and construction techniques that can be employed.

B Aligning luminance limits with new European standards

The luminance limits defined in LG3 are being revised to bring them in line with a new European
Standard. This will avoid possible confusion and help in standardizing luminaire production in Europe.

Within the UK the old six part DSE ergonomics standard BS 7179 has now been replaced by the
seventeen part BS EN ISO 29241, 'Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display
terminals'. The new Standard is referred to in guidance to the 1992 Health and Safety (Display Screen
Equipment) Regulations.

When discussing compliance with this standard it should be remembered that the Health and Safety
Executive's guidance to the 1992 Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations states:
'There is no requirement in the Display Screen Regulations to comply with this or any other standard'.
However, it does then go on to say '...employers may find standards helpful as workplaces satisfying
[BS EN ISO 29241] would meet and in most cases go beyond the minimum requirements in the
Schedule to the Regulations'.

Within the guidance to the Health and safety (display screen equipment) Regulations 1992, there is
reference to BS EN ISO 29241.

'While the CEN standard is not formally linked to the Display Screen Equipment directive, one
of its aims is to establish appropriate levels of user health and safety and comfort'.

The 17 parts of the standard cover all ergonomic aspects of working with display screens from the way
keyboards are laid-out to the way input dialogues spring-up on Windows®. This update covers the
implications for LG3 of just part 6 of the standard, 'Guidance on the work environment', and part 7
'Display requirements with reflections'. Part 6 provides the standards required of luminaires to be used
in an area where screens of a particular type are to be used. Part 7 provides a method of selecting
display screens based on the amount of anti-reflective treatment needed to cope with the existing
lighting within an area.

It should also be remembered that the Health & Safety Executive's guidance document to the Health
and safety (display screen equipment) Regulations 1992 refers readers onto LG3 for specific guidance
on lighting issues.

(It is also likely within the next year to 18 months that prEN 12464 Light and lighting. Lighting of
indoor workplaces will become a full European standard. The present final draft of this standard aligns
with the luminance limits given here and stated in part 6 of BS EN ISO 29241.)

At the time the current edition of Lighting Guide 3 was being written in 1995/6, the work on parts 6 and
7 of the BS EN ISO 2924 iwas running in parallel. Although the standard was in draft, it was decided to
adopt the standard's criteria for different luminaire luminance limits for screens with different types of
anti-reflectance properties. As noted in section 5.6 of LG3, at the time of publication only two classes
of screen anti-reflectance were proposed. Now that the standard is published there are three.

This means that the international standard has three classes of screen quality whereas LG3 has only two.
The three ISO monitor classes are Class I for screens with good anti-reflective properties, Class II for
moderate anti-reflective properties and Class III for screens with little or no anti-reflective properties.
The two existing LG3 screen types are screens with 'poor surface treatment' and screens 'with anti-
reflective treatment'. LG3 refers to the standard for the final definitions of these screen types.

Addendum to CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 issued 23 October 2001

A3
BI The part 6 recommendations
The ISO recommends that the average luminance of luminaires and bright room surfaces should not
exceed 1000 cd/rn2 for class I and class II screens and not exceed 200 cdlm2 for class III screens. For
this reason the recommended LG3 luminance limits have been adjusted in line with this.

The standard also notes that 'When dark symbols are represented on a brighter background, the
reflection of bright surfaces is found to have a less disturbing effect. . . '.Whilst no specific luminance
recommendations are given in the standard, it has been decided that SLL should give specific
recommendations for this mode of screen presentation. So for areas where only screens using dark
symbols on a brighter background (positive polarity) are being used we have shown higher luminance
limit recommendations.

B2 Changes to LG3 recommendations

The following section outline the changes now implemented in the Society of Light and Lighting's
(CIBSE) LG3. All specification issued after 1 January 2002 should comply with the following
amendments.

B21 Recommendations for direct lighting

The International Standard acknowledges that the measurement of peak luminance on complex
luminaires is difficult. For this reason the 'Patch Test' requirements are withdrawn. Specifically, table
8.2 on page 28 and the accompanying paragraph above it are withdrawn. Section A2.2.2 on page 45 is
withdrawn. However, manufacturers should still design the optics of their luminaires to avoid, as far as
is practicable, obvious bright patches.

However, part 6 of BS EN ISO 29241 does state that 'It is ... important that the luminance peaks
diverge as little as possible from the average values'. Manufacturers should take this into account when
designing optical systems for luminaires. It is particularly important to avoid any rapid 'cut-off' in
luminous output. Such sharp 'cut-offs' can lead to sharp shadows on walls and cause annoyance to
users sitting at a point where, if they move their head slightly, the luminaire above them goes from
appearing bright to appearing dark.

To bring the screen types described in LG3 in line with the Standard the following changes are to be
made:

The luminance limits laid-out in Table 8.1 on page 28 of LG3 and as discussed in section 8, are
to be replaced by the values given in the table below. The limits for areas where some negative
polarity software is in use align with the BS EN ISO 29241 values. Where only screens using
positive polarity software will be affected by the lighting then the specifier can increase the
luminaire's luminance limit to the figures indicated below the table.

Replacement for table 8.1 of LG3:

Screen type Maximum Luminance (cd/rn2) where
some Negative polarity software used
Type I and II 1000 cd/rn2
Good or moderate screen treatment
Type III 200 cd/rn2
No screen treatment

Where positive polarity software only is being used on Type I and II screens the luminance limit can be
increased to 1500 cd/rn2.
Where positive polarity software only is being used on Type III screens the luminance limit can be
increased to 500 cd/rn2.
The notes and other conditions to the original table remain.

Addendum to CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 issued 23 October 2001

A4
The present draft prEN 12464 'Light and Lighting, Lighting of indoor work places' recommends that
the luminance limits are normally applied at a 65° angle of elevation where the screens in the area are
not tilted back beyond 15° from the vertical. In special circumstances, where screens may be unusually
sensitive to reflections, a 55° luminance limit angle is recommended. As it is likely that these
recommendations will be contained in the final approved version of EN 12464 we are also
recommending that the luminance values listed above in table 8.1 are applied at 65° for areas where
screens are not tilted back beyond 150 to the vertical (or 55° where necessary).

An additional recommendation is introduced into LG3 as below.

The wall illuminance needs to be considered to ensure that the walls do not appear dark in
relation to the working plane. With pure downlighting, there is a danger of the upper walls,
especially, appearing dark. In certain spaces wall washing may be needed. To achieve a good
luminance balance in a space, the average wall illuminance above the working plane, from both
the direct and reflected components, should be at least 50% of the average horizontal
illuminance on the working plane. Where these walls may be seen reflected in any display
screens, then care must be taken to avoid bright scallops or patches appearing on the walls, i.e.
gradual changes in illuminance will be necessary on these walls.

To avoid the ceiling appearing dark, the ceiling average illuminance from both the direct and
reflected component should be at least 30% of the average horizontal illuminance. This could
be from the sides of surface mounted downlights; from uplighting elements of suspended
luminaires; from dropped elements of recessed downlights or from supplementary uplights. In
large spaces with unusually low ceilings this may be difficult to achieve and in such
circumstances the proportion of light on the ceiling should be as high as is practicable.

The following figure, reprinted from Fig 2.1 of the 1994 edition of the CIBSE Code for interior
lighting (as amended in the reprint) indicates recommended surface characteristics.
Ceiling cavity reflectance 0.6 minimum
Relative ceiling Illuminance 0.3 to 0.9

Effective floor cavity

reflectance = 0.2 to 0.4 reflectance
0.6 mInimum

B2.2 Designing with indirect lighting

The recommendations contained in Lighting Guide 3 remain, i.e.

• The average luminance on the ceiling or other surfaces lit directly should not exceed 500 cd/rn2
• The peak luminance should not exceed 1500 cd/rn2
• The luminance should vary gradually across the surfaces being directly lit.

B2.3 Designing with combined lighting

The recommendations contained in LG3 remain, i.e.

• The luminance of downlight elements in areas where Type III screens are in use can be allowed to
rise to match the average ceiling luminance, i.e. up to 500 cd/rn2.
Addendum to CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 issued 23 October 2001

A5
C Certificate of conformity
To ensure that designers and installers comply with all the criteria set out in LG3 and do not assume
that the specification of a particular luminaire type will mean they comply we will be introducing a
Certificate of Conformity to LG3.

The designers of an installation will complete this to demonstrate to the client/user of the space that all
known ergonomic and visual criteria were considered in the formulation of the lighting design.

The installer also signs to confirm that they have installed the specified products, including lamp and
control gear type, in the specified locations. Where the installation has had to deviate from that
specified then the installer has to state this on the certificate.

The Society of Light and Lighting's Technical and Publications Committee is working on the new
Certificate at present and this will be issued at a later date.

Addendum to CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 issued 23 October 2001

A6
D Important points for consideration by designers and specifiers
The introduction to LG3 states the following:

'There has been a worrying emphasis amongst some designers and users of the previous guide on
selecting lun-iinaires purely on their ability to reduce screen reflections, without paying due
attention to potential problems that this may cause to the general visual environment in the area.
Because of this, greater emphasis has been given in this new guide to the overall visual
environment. To highlight this and the widened scope to include all display screens the title of the
guide has been changed from 'Areas with Visual Display Terminals' to 'The Visual Environment
for Display Screen Use'.

2 The key points list from LG3 included a number of requirements that are still not being applied
by some designers and specifiers leading to possible failure of lighting projects to meet the 'good visual
environment' requirement contained in the Health and Safety (Display Screen) Regulations.

These points were:

(a) This guidance constitutes an assessment and design process. Compliance with this Lighting
Guide can only be ensured by the application of the guidance as a whole and not just by the use
of the sections on luminaire specification.

(b) Providing a suitable visual environment is key to the efficient use of DSE in an area, see
section 3.

(c) The lighting for DSE tasks should not compromise the lighting for other tasks performed in
that space nor degrade the overall visual environment of the space, see sections 2, 3 and 4.2.

(d) A full assessment of the risks to the users should be carried out before expensive, and
possibly unnecessary, alterations to the existing lighting are carried out, see section 4.

(e) Reflections are always present in glass-fronted display screens. It is the elimination of
distracting reflections that is important, see sections 4.3, 5.4 and Appendix 1.

(I) Disturbing reflections at a workstation can often be eliminated by suitable re-orientation of

the screen and/or the workstation rather than by relighting the entire space, see sections 4.3, 5.4,
5.5 and Appendix 1.

(g) Windows and sunlit translucent window screening are likely to cause more problems with
glare and screen reflections than electric lighting, see sections 4.3 and 6.

(h) The room decor and colours of furniture are very important in determining the overall
appearance of the working space. Light in a space is inter-reflected and coloured by the
surfaces in that space, see sections 5 and 7.7.

(i) Simple replacement of lighting equipment without the consideration of the decor and
workstation use and orientation rarely leads to satisfactory interiors or compliance with LG3,
see sections 4.3, 5 and Appendix 1.

This update to LG3 was produced by Paul Ruffles on behalf of the Society of Light & Lighting's Technical & Publications
Committee.
© 2001: Society of Light and Lighting.
The Society ofLight and Lighting is part of C'JBSE.

Addendum to CIBSE Lighting Guide 3 issued 23 October 2001

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