Steel and Timber Structure

Compiled by Surafel Tsegaye

 Steel and Timber Structures

Table of Contents
Chapter-1 Introduction. .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1. Field of application .................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. Advantage and disadvantage of steel structures. ........................................................................................................ 3
1.3. Mechanical properties of steel.................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4. Rolled steel sections and their main use ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.5. Design Philosophies. .................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.6. Classification of cross-sections. ................................................................................................................................. 6
Chapter 2.Tension members. ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Design value of axial tension force. ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Effective area. ............................................................................................................................................................ 7
Example 1. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Example 2. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.4. Members subjected to combined tension and bending. .............................................................................................. 8
2.5. Slenderness ratio. ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
Example 3. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Example 4. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Example 5. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3.Compression Members and Stability Problem. ......................................................................................................... 11
3.1. Types of Equilibrium. .............................................................................................................................................. 11
3.2. Critical load of a pin – ended strut.(Euler formula). ................................................................................................ 11
3.3. Design of Axially loaded Columns. ......................................................................................................................... 13
3.4. Buckling length of compression members. .............................................................................................................. 14
3.5. Design step for loading compression members: ....................................................................................................... 15
Example 1. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Example 2 .......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 4. Bending Members. ................................................................................................................................................... 20
4.1. Introduction. ............................................................................................................................................................. 20
4.2. Plastic behaviour of steel beams. ............................................................................................................................. 21
4.3. Laterally restrained beam. ........................................................................................................................................ 22
4.4. Laterally unrestrained beams. (Lateral – torsional buckling). .................................................................................. 25
4.5. Resistance of web to transverse forces. .................................................................................................................... 27
Example 1. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 5 Connection ............................................................................................................................................................ 34
5.1. Bolted Connections .................................................................................................................................................. 34
5.1.1. Behaviour of bolts in joints. ................................................................................................................................. 34
5.1.2. Effective area of bolts. ......................................................................................................................................... 35
5.1.3. Shear capacity ...................................................................................................................................................... 35
5.1.4. Bearing capacity. ................................................................................................................................................. 35
5.1.5. Bolt subjected to tension. ..................................................................................................................................... 35

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5.1.6. Combined shear and tension. ............................................................................................................................... 36

5.1.7. Bolt grades. .......................................................................................................................................................... 37
Example 1. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 37
5.1.8. Bearing capacity of members and bolts. .............................................................................................................. 37
Example 2 .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38
5.2. Welded Connections. ............................................................................................................................................... 40
5.2.1. Types of weld. ..................................................................................................................................................... 40
5.2.2. Throat thickness. .................................................................................................................................................. 41
5.2.3. Design Strength. .................................................................................................................................................. 41
5.2.4. Long joints. .......................................................................................................................................................... 41
Types of elctrodes. ............................................................................................................................................................. 42
Example 1(Checking problem) .......................................................................................................................................... 43
Example 2 (Design problem) ............................................................................................................................................. 44
Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 47
Table 1 Imperfection Factors. ............................................................................................................................................... 47
Table 2 Reduction Factors. ................................................................................................................................................... 47
Table 3 Selection of Buckling Curve for a Cross-section. ................................................................................................... 48
Reference ................................................................................................................................................................................... 49

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Chapter-1 Introduction.
1.1. Field of application: Steel structural members can be used in several types of structures, as follow:
A – Framework or skeleton systems, having as their main element beams, girders, trusses and columns, such as:
1. The frameworks of industrial building and structures with their internal members such as crane, girders, platform, etc.
2. Railways, highways and urban large-span bridges.
3. Civic multistories buildings, pavilions for exhibition, domes, etc.
4. Special purpose buildings such as hangars, shipbuilding, etc.
5. Special structures like towers, mast, hydraulic engineering structures, cranes, etc.
B – Shell systems.
1. Gasholders and tanks for the storage and distribution of gases.
2. Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of liquids.
3. Bunkers for the storage of loose materials.

1.2. Advantage and disadvantage of steel structures.

Advantage
1. The ability to resist high loads, due to the high strength of steel. Because of the high strength of the material, steel
members are small in size, which makes them convenient for transportation.
2. Gas tightness and water tightness, which is due to the high density of steel.
3. Have a long service live, determined by the high and homogeneous strength and density properties of steel.
4. The possibility of industrializing construction work, attained by the use of prefabricated members with mechanized
erection thereof at the construction site.
5. The possibility of readily disassembling or replacing steel members, which makes it easier to reinforce or replace parts
of structures.
6. The possibility of sending steel members to any parts of the country no matter the bad conditions of site.

Disadvantage
The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion, which necessitates their painting or the use of
other methods for their protection, and less fire resistance.

1.3. Mechanical properties of steel.

2. Strength; is determined by the resistance of the material to external loads and forces.
3. Elasticity; is the property of the material to restore its initial shape after removal of the external loads.
4. Plasticity; is the reverse of elasticity, i.e. the property of a material not to return to its initial dimensions after removal
of the external loads or, in other words, the property of obtaining permanent sets.

Behavior of steel under tension.

The standard requires that the manufacturer shall carry out tension tests on specimens taken from each type of section rolled
from cast steel to ensure that the material has specified properties. A typical test specimen is shown below. See Fig. 1.

If a specimen of steel is subjected to tension by gradually increasing the load P, and the resulting elongation ΔL be measured,
the results can be used to plot an experimental tension diagram of elongation Vs load. For convenience we plot stress Vs unit
elongation. See Fig. 2.

Now; stress f = P/A; that is load/area. Units N/mm2.

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L
Strain  *100 where: f – Normal stress (N/mm2).
L
A – cross-sectional area of the specimen. (mm2).
ε – strain or unit elongation in percent.
L – gauge length or original length of the specimen.
ΔL – longitudinal elongation of the specimen.

The relation between the stress and strain follows the Hook’s Law; Robert Hook around 1678 stated his low by the following
equation: f = Eε.
Note that the highest stress in a material, after which the relation between stress and strain no longer remains linear, is called
yield point. After this point appears elongation without an increase in load, then, appear the yield area.
E – Modulus of elasticity.
For all types of steel E = 2.1*105Mpa is accepted.

Types of steel. (according with EBCS – 3).

Thickness t (mm)
Nominal steel
t ≤ 40 mm 40 mm < t ≤ 100 mm
grades
fy (Mpa) fu (Mpa) fy (Mpa) fu (Mpa)

Fe 360 235 360 215 340

Fe 430 275 430 255 410

Fe 510 355 510 335 490

Materials Coefficients.
1. Modulus of elasticity E = 210 Gpa.
2. Shear Modulus G = 80 Gpa.
3. Unit mass ρ = 7850 kg/m 3.
4. Poison’s ratio ν = 0.3.
5. Coefficient of linear expansion α = 12 x 10 -6 per oC.

1.4. Rolled steel sections and their main use.

These sections are designed to achieve economy of material while maximizing strength, particularly in bending. Bending
strength can be maximized by concentrating the metal at the extremities of the section, where it can sustain the tensile and
compressive stress associated with bending. The most commonly used sections are universal beams (Ubs) and universal
columns (Ucs). See Fig.3.

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a) W shapes. Wide flange sections. Are rolled with parallel flanges and are specified by their serial size and
mass in kg per meter, e.g. W 310 x 202. It nominal depth is 310 mm and the mass is 202 kg per meter. May
be used principally as columns and also may be used as beams too.
b) S shapes. Known as universal beams. It has Iy>>Iz, for this reason is recommended to be used as beams.
c) HP shapes. High Powered shape. Available on the USA codes. It has practically same depth compared with
wide to diminish the difference between Iy and Iz. Is recommended for columns exclusively.
d) Standard Channels (C shapes). The difference between Iy and Iz is very significant. Are used as purlin in the
roof of industrial buildings, as a light beam to resist bending and in built-up sections connected by batten
plates.
e) Angles. Fabricated as equal legs angles and unequal legs angles. Are described by their nominal dimensions,
first number is the large leg; second number is small dimension and third number the thickness of the section.
Are used mainly as members of trusses, for ties in steel frames, etc.
f) T shapes. Available on the USA codes, is used as member in trusses and also in built-up beams with different
types of steel.

1.5. Design Philosophies.

During the history of the design of structures activities, have been used three design philosophies namely:
1. Permissible stress design method.
2. Load factor design method.
3. Limit state design method.
In permissible stress design method, the stress in the structure at working loads are not allowed to exceed a certain portion of
the yield stress of the construction material, therefore, the working stress level is within the elastic range of the behavior of
steel. The working stress is obtained by dividing the characteristic value by a unique factor of safety.
In load factor method all safety is attached to the acting load, then the acting load is obtained by multiplying the working loads
by a load factor greater than the unity. The material supposes to work at the yield point, that is, at the characteristic value.
The limit state design method was formulated in the former Soviet Union in the 1930s and developed in Europe in the 1960s,
this approach can perhaps be seen as a compromise between the permissible and load factor methods. It is in fact a more
comprehensive approach, which take into account both methods in appropriate ways. The majorities of modern structural codes
of practice are now based on the limit state design method.

Limit state design method.

A structure or part of the structure is considered unfit for use when it exceeds a particular state, called Limit State beyond which
it infringes one of the criteria governing its performance for use. The Limit State can be placed in two categories:
1. The Ultimate Limit States are those associated with collapse, or with other forms of structural failure, which may
endanger the safety of the people. States prior to structural collapse which, for simplicity, are considered in place of
the collapse itself, are treated as ultimate limit states. Normally the ultimate limit state is concerning with the strength
of the structure.
2. The Serviceability Limit States corresponds to states beyond which specified service requirements are no longer met,
e.g. deformation or deflections which affect the appearance or effective use of the structure (including the malfunction
of machines or services) or cause damage to finishes of non structural members; vibration which cause discomfort to
people.

Characteristic and design values.

Characteristic loads are normally obtained from code practices. See EBCS-1. Chapter 2.
Design loads = characteristic loads x partial safety factor for the load (γ f).
Design strength = characteristic strength / partial safety factor for strength (γ m).
In general, the ultimate limit state design method is stated as follow:

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Design action ≤ Design strength.

For partial safety factor for strength γ m see 4.1. (2). EBCS-1.
For partial load factor and combination of actions see 2.8.2.2. EBCS-1.

1.6. Classification of cross-sections.

When plastic global analysis is used, the members shall be capable of forming plastic hinges with sufficient rotation capacity
to enable the required redistribution of moments to develop. When elastic global analysis is used, any class of cross-section
may be used for the members, provided the design of members takes into account the possible limits of resistance of cross-
section due to local buckling.
Four classes of cross-section are defined, as follow:
1. Class 1 or plastic cross-sections are those in which all elements subjected to compression comply with the values
given in Table 4.1 of EBCS-3. Design of Steel Structures for plastic elements. A plastic hinge can be developed with
sufficient rotation capacity to allow redistribution of moments within the structure. Only Class 1 section may be used
for plastic design.
2. Class 2 or compact cross-sections are those in which all elements subject to compression comply with the values
given in Table 4.1 for compact elements. The full plastic moments capacity can be developed but local buckling may
prevent development of a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to permit plastic design. Class 2 sections can
be used without restriction except for plastic design.
3. Class 3 or semi-compact sections are those in which the elements subject to compression comply with the values
given in Table 4.1 for semi-compact elements. The stress at the extreme fibbers can reach the design strength but
local buckling may prevent the development of the full plastic moment. Class 3 sections are subjected to limitations
on their capacity.
4. Class 4 or thin-walled sections are those that contain thin-walled elements subjected to compression due to moment
or axial force. Local buckling may prevent the stress in a thin-walled section from reaching the design strength.
Design of Class 4 sections requires special attention.

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Chapter 2.Tension members.

2.1. Introduction.
Axially loaded tension members are used mainly as members of the roof truss, truss for bridges and as tie to take horizontal
forces on industrial buildings.

2.2. Design value of axial tension force.

The design value of the axial force is Nt , Sd  Nt , Rd
Af y
1. The design plastic resistance of the gross section is N pl , Rd 
 M1
0.9 Aeff fu
2. The design ultimate resistance of the net section at the bolt hole is N u , Rd 
M2

Where: A – gross section area (area without reduction).

Aeff – effective area.
fy – stress at the yield point of the steel.
fu – ultimate tensile stress.

2.3. Effective area.

The effective area is taken as Net Area. The net area of cross-section or element section shall be taken as it gross area less
appropriate deductions for all holes and openings. When calculating net section properties, the deduction of a single hole shall
be the gross cross sectional area of the hole in the plane of its axis. Provided that the fastener holes are not staggered, the total
area to be deducted for fastener holes shall be the maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes in any cross-section
perpendicular to the member axis.
When the fastener holes are staggered, the total area to be deducted for fastener holes shall be the greater of:
1. The deduction for non-staggered holes.
2. The sum of the sectional area of all holes in any diagonal or zigzag line extending progressively across the member
or part of member, less s2t/4p for each gauge space in the chain of holes. See Fig. 4.

Therefore the net width dn can be computed by using the following formula which is known as “the chain formula”.
as 2
d n  total width  nd 
4p
where: n – number of holes in the chain of holes
a – number of diagonal space p in the chain
s – is the pitch, the spacing of the centers of two consecutive holes in the chain measured parallel to the
member axis
p – is the spacing between the centers of the holes measured perpendicular to the ember axis
d – diameter of holes.
Finally the net area should be the net width x thickness of the plate: d x t.
Note: The diameter for holes is given in Table 6.1 of the EBCS-3.

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Example 1.
Calculate the net critical area for the bolt distribution shown below.

Solution:
Chain (1) dn = 15 – 2 x 1 = 13 cm.
2 x32
Chain (2) s = 3; p = 3 d n  15  4 x1   12.5 cm
4 x3
2 x32 2 x 42
Chain (3) s = 4; p=3 d n  15  5 x1    14.17 cm
4 x3 4 x3
Chain (4) dn = 15 – 3x1 =12 cm

Therefore the Net Critical Area = 12 x 0.5 = 6 cm2.

Example 2.
Calculate the maximum design load for the plate of the example N r 1. Steel grade Fe = 360.
Solution:
1. The design plastic resistance of the gross section.

Gross area A = 15 x 0.5 = 7.5 cm2

Yield strength fy = 23.5 kN/cm2 (Table 3.1, EBCS-3).
Partial safety factor γM1 = 1.1 (Section 4.1.1, EBCS-3).
7.5 x 23.5
N pl, Rd   160.2 kN
1.1
2. The design ultimate resistance of the section at the bolt holes.

Effective area Aeff= 6 cm2.

Ultimate resistance fu = 36.0 kN/cm2 (Table 3.1 EBCS-3)
Partial safety factor γM2 = 1.25
0.9 x6 x36
N u , Rd   155 .52 kN
1.25

Therefore, the design force is 155.52 kN.

2.4. Members subjected to combined tension and bending.

To check members under simultaneous action of tension and bending moment the following criterion may be used:

N Sd M y , Sd M z , Sd
  1
N pl , Rd M pl , y , Rd M pl , y , Rd

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2.5. Slenderness ratio.

Even if the tension members are not under the action of reversal stress, to avoid damages during the transportation and erecting
of the members, its slenderness ratio is limited to 350.

Example 3.
Determine the design strength of two angles 100 x 100 x 10 in grade F e 430 used as a welded bracing member.

Solution:

Because there is not holes (welded connection), only design plastic resistance must be checked.
The partial safety factor for the section γM1 = 1.1.
The design plastic resistance is:

Af y 2 x1920 x 275
N pl , Rd    960000 N  960 kN .
 M1 1.1

Example 4.

Determine the design strength for the two angles of the example N r 3 if now are used as a bolted bracing member with single
row of 16.5 mm holes at each leg of the angle.

The partial safety factor is γM2 = 1.25

The effective area is the net area. Anet = 3840 – 4 x 16.5 x 10 = 3180 mm2
0.9 Aeff fu 0.9 x3180 x 430
Nu , Rd    984528 N  484.528 kN  960 kN
M2 1.25
Therefore, the design strength of the bolted bracing member is controlled by the yield strength of the full section.
Thus, Npl,Rd = 960 kN.

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Example 5.
Check the section used as a main tie of the roof truss shown in the Figure below. The section is formed with 2 unequal leg
angle 100 x 75 x8 mm. Steel grade Fe 430 is used. The joint was made with 7 bolts diameter 20 mm as shown. The acting
tensile force is 630 kN.

Steel Grade Fe 430 fy = 275 Mpa = 27.5 kN/cm2

fu = 430 Mpa = 43.0 kN/cm2
Gross area for one angle 100 x 75 x 8 = 13.49 cm2
dhole = d + 2 = 20 + 2 = 22 mm (Table 6.1, EBCS-3)

Solution:
1). Plastic resistance of the gross section:

2 x13.40 x 27.5
N pl, Rd   670 kN
1.1
2). Ultimate resistance of the net section at the bolt holes.
Calculation of the Aeff. S = 3.5 cm and p = 4.1 cm.

Calculation of Nu, Rd.

0.9 x 20.88 x 43
N u , Rd   646 .44 kN
1.25
Checking for the maximum slenderness ratio.

Slenderness ratio = Leff / kmin; minimum radius of gyration kmin = 1.62 mm.

Slenderness ratio = 300 / 1.62 = 185 < 350 OK.

Answer:
The design tension resistance capacity of the cross-section is 646.44 kN, therefore, because 646.44 kN> 630 kN, the section 1-
1 used for design is adequate.

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Chapter 3.Compression Members and Stability Problem.

If a 6 mm diameter steel rod 1 m long is placed in a resting machine subjected to a pull, as shown in a Figure below, it will be
found to carry a load of about 7 kn before failure occurs. If on the other hand this same rod had been subjected to compression,
then the maximum load, which would have been carried, would be about 0.035 kN, a very big difference.

Failure in the first test occurs by the fracture of the member; in the second it is due
to bending out of the line of action of the load, as indicated.

Since the load carrying capacity of a member in compression is very different from that of a similar member in tension, requires
special treatment. It is seen that failure takes place by bending. This can not occurs unless a moment acts on a member and this
moment results from a number of effects, which make an apparently axial load acts eccentrically. The causes are:
1. The fact that no member can be made perfectly straight.
2. Imperfection in manufacturing leaving some part of the member with slightly different mechanical properties from
the remainder.
3. Inability to ensure that the load actually acts along the centre of area of the cross-section.

3.1. Types of Equilibrium.

a) Stable: The body returns to its initial position after disturbing its condition of equilibrium.
b) Neutral: The body remains in the same apparent equilibrium in its new position.
c) Unstable: The body loss its initial condition of equilibrium.
Now lets apply a disturbing force F at mid-height acting as shown in the figure.

If the strut returns to its position prior to the application of F, then it is in stable
equilibrium.
If it remains in the deflected position, it is in neutral equilibrium.
If it continues to deflect, it is in unstable equilibrium and the strut loses its load carrying
capacity and fails.

We can see that for low value of P the equilibrium is stable, but that as P is increased a load value is obtained which causes the
strut to be in a state of neutral equilibrium. This load value is known as the critical or buckling load of a strut.

3.2. Critical load of a pin – ended strut.(Euler formula).

Lets consider the strut AB with length l as shown in the following figure.

The maximum deflection is a at mid span, and at distance x from the origin, the deflection is (a – y).
The differential equation of bending gives
d2y P
EI  M  P(a  y ) ; writing  2  ;
dx 2 EI

d2y d2y d2y

  2
( a  y )    2 (a  y )  0 or   2 ( y  a)  0 differenti al equation of
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
sec ond deg ree.

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The solution for this equation is: y  Asin x  B cos x  a ; where A and B are constants of integration. To evaluate A
and B it is as follows:
1. When x = 0; y = 0  0  Asin 0  B cos0  a  B cos0  a  0  B  a  0 and B  a
dy
2. When x = 0;  0 ; (angle of rotation).
dx
dy
 A cos x.  B sin x.x  0 , therefore A cos 0o  a sin 0o  0 ; is possible only if A = 0;
dx
Finally the solution is: y  a cos x  a  a(1  cos x)
l l l
Now, when x = ± l/2; y = a, and then a  a (1  cos  ) , from which 1  1  cos   cos   0 ,
2 2 2
2
P Pl
Therefore l   , and l   ; now squaring   2 , and finally we obtain the formula to calculate the critical
EI EI
load, known as Euler Formula.
 2 EI
PE  ; where le = effective length.
le2
Value for Ratio le / l for different end conditions.(Theoretically).

To write the Euler formula in terms of stress, divide the critical load over the area.
PE  2 EI I I
E   2 ; but r  therefore ; r 2  ; is the least radius of gyration.
A le A A A
 2 Er 2  2E l  2E
E   . The relation e   is the Slenderness ratio. And  E 
le2  le 
2
r 2
 
r
Limitation of the Euler Formula.
The formula show that  E depends only on the elastic modulus of the material and on the slenderness ratio, this value is true
only for a constant modulus of elasticity; i.e. within elastic limits of the steel.
The steel behaves elastic only up to Proportional Limit σp. The Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) of the USA accept
for σp = 0.5 σy, that is 0.5 the value for the yield limit to ensure perfectly elastic behaviour. Then for mild steel like A – 36, σy
= 24.82 kN/cm2 and E = 2 x 104kN/cm2:
 2E  le   E
2
 2 x 2 x10 4  le 
E   0 . 5          126 . Therefore, for values of the slenderness ratio
 r  0.5 y 0.5 x 24.82  r 
2 y
 le 
 
r

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less than 126, Euler’s formula is not valid, as shown in the following figure.

As we see, the Euler’s buckling load can only represents column behaviour at higher values of the slenderness ratio. For lower
values of the le / r, empirical formulae are used.
The SSRC of the USA recommended the following formula, which is accepted by the AISC (American Institute for Steel
Construction) code.
  l 2 
  e 
2 2 E
 1   2  y . In which Cc 
r
 crit , and for mild steel like A – 36 Cc = 126.
 2Cc  y
 
 

3.3. Design of Axially loaded Columns.

According with EBCS – 3. Design of Steel Structures, section 4.5.4,1; the compression resistance of cross section is as follows:
1. For member in axial compression, the design value of the compressive force Ncom,Sdat each cross-section shall satisfy:

Ncom, Sd  Ncom, Rd .
Where Ncom,Rd is the design compression resistance of the cross-section, taken as the smaller of:
Af y
a) The design plastic resistance of the gross section, N pl , Rd  , (for classes 1 – 3 cross-sections)
 Mo
Aeff f y
b) The design local buckling resistance of the gross section, N o , Rd  where Aeff is the effective
 M1
area of the cross section (for class 4 section).

2. Buckling Resistance of Axially Loaded Compression Members (N b,Rd).

 A  1 for Class 1, 2 or 3 cross  sec tions
 A Af y Aeff
N b, Rd  ; Where A  for Class 4 cross  sec tions
 M1 A
 is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mod e.

For the constant axial compression in members of constant cross-sections, the value of χ for the appropriate non-
dimensional slenderness  , may be determined from:
1
 but   1.

0. 5
   2   
2
 

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Where:



  0.51     0.2   
2

 
 is an imperfecti on factor.
0 .5
  A Af y  
    A 
0 .5

 N cr   1 
 is the slendernes s ratio for the relevant buckling mod e.
0 .5
E
1      93.9
 f y 
0 .5
 235 
   f y in MPa 
 f y 
N cr is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mod e.
Notes:
- The imperfection factor α corresponding to the appropriate buckling curve shall be obtained fromTable 4.8,
page 21 of EBCS-3.
- The selections for a buckling curve for a cross-section shall be obtained from Table 4.11, page 24 of EBCS-3.
- Values for the reduction factor χ for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness  may be obtained from Table 4.9,
page 21 of EBCS-3.

3.4. Buckling length of compression members.

For the basis about buckling length read 4.5.2.1, EBCS-3. When the column belong to a building frame, the procedure is as
follow.

The frames are divided into 2 types, as shown in the figure above. The coefficient for buckling length ratio (k) depends of the
type of frames; as shown, if sway is not allowed, k < 1, other case if sway occur then k > 1.
According to Appendix A of EBCS-3,
1 The buckling length l of a column in non-sway mode may be obtained from Fig. A.2.1.
2 The buckling length l of a column in a sway mode may be obtained from Fig. A.2.2.
The distribution factors at the ends of the member η1 and η2 are obtained from:
K columns

K columns  K beams

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The symbol Σ includes only those members rigidly connected to the joint. For example:

The distribution factors are:

Kc Kc  K2
1  and 2 
K c  K11  K 22 K c  K 2  K 21  K 22
K c is the column stiffness coefficient  I colum n L
K ij is the effective beam stiffness coefficient  I beam L
Finally, the slenderness ratio shall be taken as follows:
l
  ; Where r is the radius of gyration about relevant axis, determined using the properties of the gross
r
cross-section.
The values of the slenderness ratio λ shall not exceed the following:
1 For members resisting loads other than wind loads 180
2 For members resisting self weight and wind loads only 250
3 For any member normally acting as a tie but subject to
reversal of stress resulting from the action of wind 350

3.5. Design step for loading compression members:

1. Determine the axial load, Nsd.
2. Determine the buckling length, l, which is a function of the column length, L, and the statical system of the column.
3. Select a trial section (take into consideration economy, i.e. least weight per unit length).
4. Determine the Class of the section according to Section 4.3.2 and Table 4.1. If the cross-section is classified as Class
4, determine Aeff according to Section 4.3.4 and Table 4.4.
5. Determine the non-dimensional slenderness ratio  (Section 4.5.4.3).
6. Using Table 4.11 determine the appropriate buckling curve.
7. Using Table 4.9 find the value of χ. Interpolation must be used to determine more exact values.
8. Calculate the design buckling resistance Nb,Rd of the member. Buckling about both principal axes must be checked.
9. Check the computed buckling resistance against the applied load. If the calculate value is inadequate or is too high,
select another section and go back to Step 4.

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Example 1.
The column B – E on the Figure shown below is under the action of N Sd = 2800 kN. Both sides are pinned. Check the resistance
of the column. Steel grade Fe 430 is used.

Solution:
Step 1: Axial load NSd = 2800 kN.
Step 2: Buckling length L = 4000 mm (pinned end both sides. Frame non-sway mode).
Step 3: The section is given.
Step 4: Determine the class of the cross-section and check for a local buckling. The section is subjected to uniform compression.
For the section to be classified as at least class 3, in order to avoid any modification to the full cross sectional area due to local
buckling, the limiting width to thickness ratio for class 3 section are (See Table 4.1 EBCS-3).
Outstand element of compression flange: c / tf ≤ 15 ε.
Web subject to compression only: d / tw ≤ 39 ε.
For Fe 430 steel grade fy = 275 N / mm2. Thus   235 275  0.92
This gives the following limiting values:
Outstand element of compression flange: c / tf = (254/2) / 16.3 = 7.78 < 15 x 0.92 = 13.8 OK.
Web subject to compression only: d / tw = (310-2 (33)) / 9.1 = 26.8 < 39 x 0.92 = 35.88 OK.
Therefore, the section belongs to at least Class 3. Thus, β A = 1.0

Step 5: Determine the non-dimensional slenderness ratio.

For Fe 430 steel grade, λ1 = 93.9 ε = 93.9 x 0.92 = 86.39
Slenderness ratio about y-axis: λy = L / iy = 4000 / 135 = 29.63
Slenderness ratio about z-axis: λz = L / iz = 4000/63.6 = 62.89
Hence, the non-dimensional slenderness ratio is determined as:

y  
 y 
1   A 
29.63
86.39
 
1  0.34


 1
 
 z   z    A  62.89 86.39 1  0.73
Step 6: Determine the appropriate column curves (Table 4.11 EBCS-3).
h  310  1.22 and t f  16.3 mm  40
b 254
Use curve a for buckling about y-axis and curve b for buckling about z-axis.
Step 7: Determine value of χ. Using Table 4.9 and interpolating:
For y-axis: curve a for  y  0.34   y  0.97
For z-axis: curve b for  z  0.73   z  0.77
Therefore, buckling about the z-axis becomes critical.

Step 8: Calculate the design buckling resistance.

 A Af y 0.77 x1x11000 x 275
Nb, Rd    2117500 N  2117 .5 kN
 M1 1.1
Step 9: Because 2800 kN> 2117.5 kN, the column do not resist.

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Solution 1. Add an additional hinged support at mid-height to increase the resistance about the minor axis.

Go to Step 5.
Slenderness ratio about z-axis = 29.63 (don’t varies)
Slenderness ratio about z-axis = 2000 / 63.6 = 31.45
Non dimensional slenderness ratio  y  o.34 don’t varies
31.45
z  1  0.36
86.39
Values of χ:
y-axis: χy = 0.97 don’t varies
z-axis: Curve b for  z  0.36   z  0.94

Hence buckling about the z-axis becomes critical

0.94 x11000 x 275

N b,Rd   2585 kN  2800 kN. don ' t resist
1.1
Solution 2: Add 2 plates 200 x 10 mm to reinforce the weak axis.

10 x 200 3
Now: I z  I zW  2  44.5 x10 6  13.3 x10 6  5.78 x10 7 mm 4
12
Iz 5.78 x10 7 4000 64.52
iz   4
 62 mm ; then z   64.52 and z   0.72
A 1.5 x10 62 86.39

For column curve b; χz = 0.77

0.77 x1.0 x15000 x 275

And N b , Rd   2887 .5 kN  2800 kN OK
1.1

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Example 2
Determine the design buckling resistance of a 457 x 152 x 52 UB used as a pin-ended column. The column is 3.00 m long and
its steel grade is Fe 360.

Step 2: Buckling length = 3000 mm.

Step 3: The section is given.
Step 4: Determine the class of the cross-section and check for local buckling.
For Fe steel grade fy = 235 N / mm2. Thus,   235 f  1
y
These limiting values are:
Outstand element of compression flange: c / tf ≤ 15 ε = 15
Web subject to compression only: d / tw ≤ 39 ε = 39

For the 457 x 152 x 52 UB profile, the actual values are:

Outstand element of compression flange: c / tf = (152.4 / 2) / 10.9 = 7 < 15 OK.
Web subject to compression only: d / tw = (449.8 – 2 x 10.9 – 2 x 10.2) / 7.6 = 53.60 > 39
Therefore, the flange satisfies the Class 3 requirement, but the web is Class 4 section. Consequently, there must be a reduction
in the strength of the section to allow for the load buckling which will take place in the web. Therefore, the effective area, Aeff
must be determined for the web.
Explanation for the effect.

The effective width is beff = reduction factor x b = ρ x b.

The method to calculate the effective area (Aeff) is explained in section 4.3.4 of EBCS-3.
To calculate the reduction factor ρ is as follow.
a). ρ = 1; if  p  0.673
b).

   p  0.22  if  p  0.673
 p2
Where
 

 p   b t  28.4 k 
In which : t is the relevant thickness.
kσ is the buckling factor corresponding to the stress ratio ψ from Table 4.3 or 4.4 as appropriate.
b  d for webs.
In our example, since the column is axially loaded the stress distribution is uniform, i.e. σ1 = σ2. Table 4.3 is used to calculate
the effective width.
Thus, σ1/ σ2 = 1, and kσ = 4.0 (see lower part of table 4.3)

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b  d  407 .6 mm
b  407 .6  53.6
tw 7 .6
 p  53.6
28.4 x1x 4   0.944  0.673
     0.22   0.944  0.22 
p
2  0.812
p 0.944 2
And b eff   b  0.812 x 407 .6  331 .2 mm
Therefore the area that should be ignored at the center of the web is: A  407.7  331.2x7.6  581.4 mm
2

 6650  581.4
Aeff
And then A  6650
 0.913
A
Step 5: Determine the non-dimensional slenderness ratio (axis-z govern).
3000
z   96.5
31.1
1  93.9  93.9
Hence the non dimensional slenderness ratio  z   z    A  96.5 93.9 0.913  0.98
 1
Step 6: Appropriate column curve.
For h / b = 449.8 / 152.4 = 2.95 > 1.2; and t f = 10.9 < 40 mm; use curve b for buckling about z-axis.
Step 7: Determine the value of χ.
Using Table 4.9 and interpolating, z-axis: curve b for  z  0.98   z  0.6034
Step 8: Calculate the design buckling resistance.
 A Af y0.6034 x0.913 x6650 x 235
Nb, Rd    782660 N
 M1 1.1
Answer: The design buckling resistance Nb, Rd  782.66 kN.

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Chapter 4. Bending Members.

4.1. Introduction.
Beams work principally under the action of the vertical loads, which rise to bending of the beam. The principal dimensions are
the length and the depth. There are 3 types of length as shown in the figure.

The minimum d recommended to avoid excessive deformation is as follows.

δ/L=1/r0 1/1000 1/750 1/600 1/500 1/400 1/250 1/200

dmin/L 1/6 1/8 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/25 1/30

Beam arrangement.

Tributary area.
Secondary beam a x b
Main beam bxL
For column bxL
Secondary beams should be continuous for better structural behaviour as shown in the figure below.

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4.2. Plastic behaviour of steel beams.

Let study a beam of any cross-section.

In stage (1) the beam behaves elastically, the extreme fibbers rich the yield point.
M Inertia
For elastic behaviour f   fy where W  is the elastic sec tion mod ulus . And the
W c
maximum value for f is the yield limit fy.
Stage (2) is partially plastic, yield stress go deep into the cross-section.
Stage (3) is fully plastic, the section rotate and plastic hinge is formed. The section is under the action of the Plastic Moment
MP

1 2 1

M p  A f y dA  y  A f y ydA  A f y ydA  f y A ydA  A ydA
2

but  ydA  S is the First Moment of Area.
Therefore M p  f y S1  S2  and for symmetric section S1  S 2  S .
Hence M p  f y 2S ; doing W p  2S -- Plastic Modulus. S is the first moment of area for the half section.
Finally we can write (by similarity) M p  f yW p .
Then;
Elastic behaviour Plastic behaviour
M = fy W MP = f y W P
To compare M with MPlet evaluate We and WP for rectangular section.

bh 2 h h bh 2
W  and WP  2 S  2b  
6 2 4 4

Now the ratio between Plastic Moment and Elastic one is MP / Me

MP f yWP bh 2 4 6
    1.5
Me f yWe bh 2 / 6 4
MP
For the general cases  C ; Where C is the Shape Coefficient of the section.
Me
The most common values of the shape coefficient are as follow.

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4.3. Laterally restrained beam.

A beam is prevented from moving side ways, by a floor resistance due to the use of bracing or insitu or precast floor
construction.

Resistance to bending moment.

According to EBCS-3, for bending about one axis in the absence of shearing force, the design value of bending moment
M Sd  M c, Rd . The design moment resistance of a cross-section without holes for fasteners may be determined as follows:
W pl f y
a) Class 1 or 2 cross-sections: M c , Rd 
M0
Wel f y
b) Class 3 cross-sections: M c , Rd 
M0
Weff f y
c) Class 4 cross-sections: M c , Rd 
M 1
 0.9 A f , net   f y   M 2 
Fastener holes in the tension flange need not be allowed for, provide that for the tension flange:      
 Af   f u   M 1 
    

Resistance to shear.
The design value of the shear force VSd at each cross-section shall satisfy: VSd  V pl, Rd

Where V pl , Rd 

Av f y 3  is the plastic shear resistance. A is the shear area.
v
M0

For simplicity, a rectangular distribution of shear stress is accepted and Av = 1.04 h tW for a rolled I, H or channel section, load
parallel to web.

Resistance for bending and shear.

The theoretical plastic resistance moment of a cross-section is reduced by the presence of the shear. For small values of the
shear force this reduction is not significant and may be neglected. However, when the shear force exceeds half of the plastic
shear resistance, allowance shall be made for its effect on plastic resistance moment.
Hence, if the value of the shear force VSd does not exceed 50% of the design plastic shear resistance no reduction need be made
in the resistance moments. When VSd exceeds 50% the design resistance moment of the cross-section should be reduced to
Mv,Rd obtained as follows:

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a) For cross-sections with equal flanges, bending about the mayor axis
2
 Av2  f y  2V 
M v , Rd  W pl   but M v , Rd  M c , Rd ;    Sd  1
4t w   M 0  V pl, Rd 
  
b) For other cases Mv,Rd should be taken as the design plastic resistance moment of the cross-section, calculated using a
reduced strength (1 – ρ) fy for the shear area, but not more than Mc,Rd.

Deflections.
Deflection belongs to serviceability limit states; the loads used to calculate deflections are characteristic loads that are
unfactored loads. For vertical deflection the value for the maximum deflection is calculated as follows:

 max  1   2   0
Where: δmax – is the sagging in the final state relative to the straight line joining the supports
δ0 – is the pre-camber of the beam in unloaded state, (state 0)
δ1 – is the variation of the deflection of the beam due to the permanent loads immediately after load, (state 1)
δ2 – is the variation of the deflection of the beam due to the variable loading plus any time dependent
deformation due to the permanent load, (state 2).
Limiting values.
For buildings, the recommended limits values for vertical deflections are given in Table 5.1 of EBCS-3, in which L is the span
of the beam. For cantilever beams, the length L to be considered is twice the projecting length of the cantilever. The vertical
deflection to be considered is illustrated in the following Figure.

Limits
Conditions δ max δ2
Roof generally L/200 L/250
Roof frequently carrying personnel other than
for maintenance. L/250 L/300
Floor generally L/250 L/300
Floors and roofs supporting plaster or other
brittle finish or non-flexible partitions. L/250 L/350
Floors supporting columns (unless the
deflection has been included in the global
analysis for the ultimate limit state). L/400 L/500

Where δ max can impair the appearance of the

building L/250

For horizontal deflection the recommended limits at the tops of the columns are:
1. Portal frames without gantry cranes: h/150
2. Other single storey building: h/300
3. In multi-storey building:
(i) in each storey h/300
(ii) on the structure as a whole h 0/500

Where h is the height of the column or of the storey

h0 is the overall height of the structure.
Lost of Stability

General Stability (Lateral – torsional buckling)

Stability Due by skear on the web.

Local Stability

Due by compressive stress on the flange.

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During bending, part of the web and one flange at least is under compressive stress, therefore can be subjected to the loss of
stability.

Let study first the problem of local stability.

1). Shear buckling resistance. Near the support, where there is a considerable acting shear force, the web of the beam can lost
its stability as follows:

Because the action of the shearing stress, appear on the web

folds of buckles.

This problem is prevented by putting in place transverse stiffness as shown in the figure belows.

The shear buckling resistance of the web depends on the depth – to thickness ratio d/tw and the spacing of any intermediate
web stiffeners. All webs with d/tw greater than 69ε shall be provided with transverse stiffeners at the supports. Webs with d/t w
greater than 69ε for an unstiffened web, or 30 k for stiffened web, shall be checked for resistance to shear buckling.
Normally, a/d > 3 is used, for these beams the simple post critical method is recommended.
According with this method, the design shear buckling resistance V be,Rd should be obtained from:
Vba, Rd  dt w ba /  M 1 , Where τba is the simple post-critical shear strength and should be determined as follows:

 ba  f yw / 3  if   0.8
 ba  1  0.625  0.8 f / 3  if
yw 0.8    1.2
 ba  0.9 /   f / 3  if   1.2
yw
d / tw
in which  is the web slenderness.
37.4 k

kτ is the buckling factor for shear, is given by the following:

a). for webs with transverse stiffeners at the supports but no intermediate transverse stiffeners k  5.34
b). for webs with tranverse stiffenerss at the supports and intermediate transverse stiffeners
k  4  5.34 / a / d  a/d 1
2
if
k  5.34  4 / a / d  a/d 1
2
if

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2). Flange induced buckling.

As we can see in the figure below, the upper flange is under the action of the compressive stress and may lose it local stability.

To prevent the possibility of the compression flange buckling in a plane of the web, the ratio d/tw of the web shall satisfy the
following criterion:


d / tw  k E / f yf  Aw / Afc  Where Aw is the area of the web.
Afc is the area of the compression flange
and fyf is the yield strength of the compression flange.
The values of k shuold be taken as follows:
Class 1 flanges = 0.3
Class 2 flanges = 0.4
Class 3 or Class 4 flanges = 0.55

4.4. Laterally unrestrained beams. (Lateral – torsional buckling).

Lateral – torsional buckling should be present on laterally unrestrained beams. When the beam has a higher bending stiffness
in the vertical plane compared with the horizontal plane, the beam can twist sideways under the action of the load as shown in
the Figure belows:

Design Buckling Resistance Moment.

The design buckling resistance moment of laterally unrestrained bean shall be taken as:

M b, Rd   LT  wWpl, y f y /  M 1

Where w  1 for Class 1 or Class 2 cross-sections

 w  Wel Wpl, y for Class 3 cross-sections

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 w  Weff , y Wpl, y for Class 4 cross-sections.

And the value of χLT is the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling, is calculated as follows for appropriate non-
dimensional slenderness  LT .
1
 LT  0 .5
but  LT  1
 2 
 LT   LT   LT
2
 



Where  LT  0.51   LT  LT  0.2   LT 
2


The value of the imperfection factor  LT for lateral-torsional buckling should be taken as follows:
 LT  0.21 for rolled sections.
 LT  0.49 for welded sections.
Values of the reduction factor χLT for the appropriate non-dimensional slenderness  LT may be obtained from Table 4.9 with
   LT and    LT using:
1. for rolled sections curve a (α = 0.21)
2. for welded sections curve c (α = o.49)
1  93
 LT 
 LT    w 
0 .5
where 235
 1   and f y in MPa
f y

The geometrical slenderness ratio λLT for lateral-torsional buckling is given for all cases by:
0 .5
  2 EW pl , y 
LT  
 M cr 

Mcr is the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling and for beam of uniform symmetrical cross-section with equal
flanges, under standards conditions of restraint at each end, loaded trough its shear centre and subjected to uniform moment is
calculated as follows:
0 .5
 2 EI z  I w L2GI t 
M cr  C1   
kL2  I z  EI z 
2

Factor C1 depends on the loading conditions (See table 4.12 and 4.13 of EBCS-3)
The most common values for C1 are as follows:

The rest of the terms are:

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E
G  80 GPa
21   
It is the torsion constant.
Iw is the warping constant.
Iz is the second moment of area about the minor axis.
kL is the length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint.
k = 0.5 for full fixity.
k = 1.0 for no fixity.
k = 0.7 for one end fixed and one end free.

Notes:
1. A beam with full restraint does not need to be checked for lateral-torsional buckling.
2. Where the non-dimensional slenderness   0.4 no allowance for lateral-torsional buckling is necessary.
3. The standard conditions of restraint at each end are:
- Restrained against lateral movement.
- Restrained against rotation about the longitudinal axis
- Free to ratate in plan.

4.5. Resistance of web to transverse forces.

Due to high vertical stresses directly over a support or under concentrated load, the beam web may actually crush, or buckle as
a result of these stresses, as illustrated in a figure below.

The resistance of an unstiffened web to transverse forces applied through a flange, is governed by one of the following modes
of failure:
a) Crushing of the web close to the flange, accompanied by plastic deformation of the flange. See (a).
b) Crippling of the web in the form of localized buckling and crushing of the web close to the flange, accompanied
by deformation of the flange. See (b).
c) Buckling of the web over most of the member. See (c).

A distinction is made between two types of load application, as follows:

1. Forces applied through one flange and resisted by shear in the web, See Fig (a). in this case the resistance of the web
to transverse fosces should be taken as the smaller of:
I) The crushing resistance.
II) The crippling resistance.

2. Forces applied to one flange and transferred through the web directly to the other flange. See Fig (b). In this
case the resistance of the web to transverse forces should be taken as the amaller of:
I) The crushing resistance.
II) The buckling resistance.

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(I). Crushing Resistance.

The design crushing resistance Ry,Rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:

Ry , Rd 
Ss  S y tw f yw , in which S is given by:
y
 M1
S y  2t f b f tw  f yf  
f yw 1   f , Ed f yf 2  but b should not be taken as more than 25 t and σ
f f f,Ed is the
longitudinal stress in the flange.
Sy represents the length over which the applied force is effectively distributed. At the end of the member Sy should
be halved.
SS is the length of the stiff bearing. See Fig. 4,28 and 4.29 of EBCS-3.

For wheel loads from cranes, transmitted through a crane rail bearing on a flange but not welded to it, the design crushing
resistance of the web Ry,Rd should be taken as:
Ry , Rd  S ytw f yw /  M 1 , in which:
1
 I f  IR 
1   2  or more approximately S y  2hR  t f  1   2 
3
S y  k R   f , Ed / f yf f , Ed f yf
 t w 
Where: hR is the height of the crane rail.
If is the second moment of area of the flange about its horizontal centroidal axis.
IR is the second moment of area of the crane rail about its horizontal centroidal axis.
kR is a constant taken as follows:
a). When the crane rail is mounted directly on the flange, kR = 3.25
b). When a suitable resilient pad not less than 5 mm thick is interposed between the crane rail and the
beam flange. KR = 4.0

II).Crippling Resistance.

The design crippling resistence Ra,Rd of the web of an I, H or U section should be obtained from:

Ra, Rd  0.5tw2 Ef yw t f   
tw  3 tw t f S s d  /  M 1 , but Ss/d should not be taken as more than 0.2

Where the member is also subjected to bending moments, the following criteria should be satisfied;
FSd M Sd
  1 .5
Ra , Rd M c , Rd

III). Buckling Resistance.

For the web the design buckling resistance should be obtained by considering the web as a virtual compression member with
an effective breath beff..

The buckling resistance should be determuned from Chapter 3 using buckling

curve c and  = 1. The buckling length of the virtual compression member should
be determined from the conditions of lateral and rotational restraint at the flanges
at the point of load application, but not less than 0.75d

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Transverse stiffeners.
End stiffeners and intermediate stiffeners at internal support normally be double sided and symmetric about the centerline of
the web.
When checking the buckling resistance, the effective cross-section of a stiffener should be taken as including a width of the
web plate equal to 30tw, arranged with 15tw each side of the stiffener, as shown in Fig. 4.30. At the ends of the member (or
openings in the web) the dimension of 15tw should be limited to the actual dimension available.
In addition to checking the buckling resistance, the cross-section resistance of a load bearing stiffeners should also be checked
adjacent to the loaded flange. The width of web plate included in the effective cross-section should be limited to Sy and
allowance should be made for any opening cut in the stiffener to clear the web-to-flange welds. For intermediate transverse
stiffeners it is only necessary to check the buckling resistance, provided that they are not subjected to external loads.

Built-up beams.
Dimensions of the section.

Wreq M SD
h  1.2 where Wreq  and t w, Min  8 mm
tw fy
 Mo
h
Try that  69
tw
Wreq ht w
b fl   use t w  t fl  3t w ; t fl , Max  40 mm . Try that c/tfl satisfies Class 1 or 2 conditions.
ht fl 6t fl
Now, with all the dimensions defined:
twd 3
Iy   2b fl t fl d12
12
t fl b 3fl
Iz  2
12
2I y
Wel , y  and W pl, y  1.12Wel , y
h
I z h 2f
Warping Constant I w 
4
bi ti3 dhw3 b fl t 3fl
Torsion Constant I t    2
3 3 3
Thickness of the plates multiples of 2 mm.
Width of the plates multiples of 20 mm.

Values for Mcr.

For beams with doubly symmetric cross-sections and with no end fixity.

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 2 EI z  I w L2GI t 
M cr  C1   2 
L2  I z  EI z 
Factor C1 depends on the loading conditions (see table 4.12 and 4.13 of EBCS-3)

C1  1.88  1.44  0.52 2  2.7 , But the most commons values for C1 are as follows:

Example 1.
Design a simple supported beam of Fe 430 steel grade. The span of the beam is 5.00 m. The top flange is embedded in a
reinforced concrete floor providing sufficient restraint against lateral-torsional buckling. The beam carries a uniformly
distributed load of 20 kN/m permanent load and 20 kN/m imposed load.
Solution:
The factored loads are: Imposed load: 1.6 x 20 = 32 kN/m
Permanent load: 1.3 x 20 = 26 kN/m.
Step 1: Maximum bending moment.

Step 2.Required plastic modulus.

M 181 .3 x10 6 N  mm
W pl    7.25 x105 mm3  725 cm 3
fy 275 / 1.1
 Mo

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Step3: Selection of the profile: Try 310 x 52 W Shape.

h = 317 Mass = 0.52 kN/m

b = 167 Wy,el = 747 cm3
tfl = 13.2 mm Wy,pl= 837 cm3
tw = 7.6 mm Iy = 11800 cm4
d = 257 mm

167
235 2  6.33  9.5 257
Class of the section:   0.92 and  33.82  83 OK
275 13.2 7.6
Satisfies conditions for Class 2.

Step 4.Resistance moment.

W pl f y 837 x103 x 275
M pl, Rd    209 .25 kN  m  181 .3 kN  m OK .
 Mo 1 .1
Check of the self-weight of the beam.
w = 0.52 kN/m; additional factored dead weight moment = 1.3 x 0.52 x 5 2 / 8 = 2.11 kN-m
Total moment: MSd= 181.3 + 2.11 = 183.41 <Mpl,Rd OK.

Step 5: Check for shear.

Maximum shear force is 145 kn + 1.3 x 5/2 = 146.69 kN.
Shear resistance of section. Un stiffened web: shear buckling resistance must not be verified if d/t w ≤ 69ε.
d/tw = 257/7.6 = 33.82 < 69 x 0.92

 fy 3 
Therefore: V pl , Rd  Av   Av  1.04 hwt w
  Mo  where
 

Av  1.04 x317 x7.6  2506 mm2 then V pl , Rd 


2506 275 3   361.7 kN
1.1
Effect of shear force on the resistance moment.
VSd 146 .69
  0.41  0.5 Therefore no reduction of design resistance moment required.
V pl , Rd 1.1

Step 6.Check for deflection.

5 wL4
For a simple span uniformly loaded beam  
384 EI
0.52
Deflection due to un factored load w  20  20   40.10
5
5 x 40.10 x103 x5000 4
   13.17 mm
384 x118 x10 6 x 2.1x105
Assumption: - beam is not pre-cambered.
-beam is carrying a reinforced concrete floor.
Limiting values for vertical deflections (see Table 5:1 EBCS-3)
1. Total deflection of the span:  max  L 250  5000 250  20 mm  13.17
2. Live load deflection at span (δ2):  max  L 300  5000 350  14.3  12 mm

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Step 7.Check for lateral-torsional buckling.

Since the reinforced concrete floor provides sufficient restraint against lateral movement, the beam is not checked for lateral-
torsional buckling.

Step 8.Check for resistance of web to transverse forces.

The beam must be checked at the support. Suppose the support as follows:

8.1 Check for web crushing: Ry , Rd 

Ss  S y tw f y, w where Ss = 70 mm (length of stiff bearing) and
 M1
 2
1  bf  f yf   f , Ed  
Sy     
2
2t f t  f 1  f  
at the end Ss is half .
  w  yw  yf  

bf = 167 mm < 25 x 13.2 = 330 mm OK
tw = 7.6 mm
fyf = fyw = 275 N/mm2
σf,Ed = 0 (at the support there is no moment)
1  167   70  62 x7.6 x275  250 kN  146.69 OK
Sy  2 x13.2  11  62 mm  then R y , Rd 
2   7.6   1.1
8.2 Check for web crippling.
 tf  t  S 
Ra , Rd  0.5tw2 Ef yw   3 w  s  /  M 1 but Ss / d = 70 / 257 = 0.27 therefore take Ss / d = 0.2
 tw  t f  d 
  
 13.2  7 .6  
Ra , Rd  0.5 x7.62 2.1x105 x 275   3 0.2  / 1.1  332 kN  146 .69 OK
 7.6  13.2  
8.3 Check the web buckling: Un stiffened web at the point where concentrated load (reaction acts).

 h 2  S 2  70   317 2  70 2  70 
a s
   127 .32
 2   2 
 
beff  70  127 .32  197 .32 mm.
Therefore; the virtual compression member for the web is:

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Assumptions: Web is partially fixed at top and bottom; thus the effective length is taken no less than 0.75 d
l = 0.75 x 257 mm = 193 mm.

I beff tw3 t2 t 7.6

Radius of gyration of the web is i   w  w   2.19 mm
A 12beff tw 12 12 12
Web slenderness ratio = 193/2.19 = 88.19 and λ1 = 93.9 ε = 93.9 x 0.92 = 86.39
Relative slenderness ratio   88.19 86.39  1.02
Using curve c of table 4.9 of EBCS-3; the reduction factor χ = 0.48

Hence; the buckling resistance of the web is:

 A Af y
Rb, Rd  ;  A  1; A  beff tw  197.32 x7.6  1499 .6 mm2 ; f y  275 N mm2 and  M 1  1.1
 M1
0.48 x1x1499 .6 x 275
Rb, Rd   180.2 kN  146.69 kN OK
1.1
Step 9: Check for flange induced buckling.

  Aw
The ratio d  k E 
tw
 f yf  A fc
167
Since c  2  6.33  8.5  8.5 x0.92  7.82 , the flange is Class 1; therefore, k = 0.3
tf 13.2

d 
257
 33.81 ? 0.3 2.1x10
5
 257 x7.6
tw 7.6  275  167 x13.2
33.81  215.6 OK

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Chapter 5 Connection
5.1. Bolted Connections
Bolted connections are employed mainly in structures subjected under reversed and vibration loads, over all in members with
heavy conditions.
The black hexagon bolt shown in the Figure below with nut and washer is the most commonly used structural fastener.

5.1.1. Behaviour of bolts in joints.

Three types of behaviour appear for bolted connection as follows:

1. Shear due to shearing of their shank.

If the force P is large enough, the bolt could fail in shear; breaking by sliding of its fibres along the shear planes. The area
of the steel bolt resisting the failure is the circular area of the bolt shank. The resisting force depends upon the number of
shear planes.

2. Bearing due to bearing of steel plates or bolt material.

3. Tension in the direction of the acting force along the shank of the bolt.

Shear and bearing should be present at the same time in the joint. It will be seen that bolt may be designed on the basis of their
strength in shear or their strength in bearing.
In actual design the lesser of these two values will have to use.
When designing of this type of connection, the following questions should be asked:
1. Is the connection in single or double shear?
2. What is the safe appropriate shear load on one bolt?
3. What is the safe bearing load on one bolt?

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5.1.2. Effective area of bolts.

Since threads can occur in the shear plane, the area As for resisting shear should normally be taken at the bottom of the threads.
When threads do not occur in the plane As may be taken as the shank area.
Tensile stress area for bolts as determined by ISO Standards shank and tensile areas area tabulated below.

Bolt diameter Tensile area Shank area

(mm) (mm2) (mm2)
12 84 113
16 157 201
20 245 314
22 303 380
24 353 452
27 459 572
30 561 707

5.1.3. Shear capacity

Provided that no reductions are required for long joints the shear capacity for shear plane F v,Rd of a bolt shall be taken as:
0.6 fub 0.87 f yb
Fv, Rd  fv, d As Where the design shear strength f v, d  but 
M M

5.1.4. Bearing capacity.

The effective capacity of a bolt in bearing on any ply shall be taken as the lesser of the bearing capacity of the bolt and the
bearing capacity of the connected ply.

The bearing capacity of the bolt. Fbb, Rd  dtfbb, d

Where d is the nominal diameter of the bolt
t is the thickness of the ply (the minimum thickness on one part of the joint)
fbb,d is the design bearing strength of the bolt.

The bearing capacity of the connected ply. Fbp, Rd  dtfbp, d but  1 2e1 tfbp, d
Where fbp,d is the design bearing strength of the connected parts.
e1 is the edge distance.

fbb, d 

0.9 fub  f yb  and fbp, d 

0.8 fu  f y 
M M2
Where fyb is the specified minimum yield strength of the fastener
fub is the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the fastener
γM is the partial safety factor γMr or γMb; as the case may be
fy is the specified minimum yield strength
fu is the specified minimum ultimate strength.

5.1.5. Bolt subjected to tension.

The tension capacity of a bolt Ft , Rd  ft , d As

0.7 fub 1.0 f yb

Where the design tension capacity strength f t , d  but 
M M
The partial safety factor for all the cases are γM = 1.25

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5.1.6. Combined shear and tension.

When bolts are subjected to both shear and tension then in addition to the conditions studied before the following relationship
shall be satisfied:
Fv , Sd Ft , Sd
  1 .4
Fv.Rd Ft , Rd
Where Fv,Sd is the design shear force per bolt for the ultimate limit state
Ft,Sd is the design tensile force per bolt for the ultimate limit state
Fv,Rd is the shear capacity per bolt
Ft,Rd is the tension capacity per bolt.
Notes:
1. The size of the holes are given in Table 6.1
2. The edge distances and spacing of holes for fasteners are given in Table 6.2

Table 6.1 Maximum dimensions of holes

Clearance
Oversize
Bolt shank hole Short slotted hole Long slotted hole
hole
diameter diameter dimensions dimensions
diameter
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm)

≤14 d+1 d+4 d+1 d+4 d+1 2.5d

14≤d≤22 d+2 d+5 d+2 d+6 d+2 2.5d
24 d+2 d+6 d+2 d+8 d+2 2.5d
≥27 d+3 d+8 d+3 d + 10 d+3 2.5d

Table 6.2 Edge distances and spacing of holes for fasteners.

1 2 3 4 5
1 Edge distances Hole distances
2 For a rolled, machine e1
Flame cut, sawn or 1.25 do
Minimum Planned edge e2 Minimum
edge hole 2.5 d0
3 For sheared or hand
distance distance p1
flame cut e1 1.4 do
edge and any end e2

4 Maximum
Hole
Maximum 12 t 14 t
e1 distance p1
Edge or or 200
e2 in
distance 150 mm mm
unstiffeded
plates
t is the thickness of the thinner outside ply
do is the diameter of hole

Where the members are exposed to corrosive influences the maximum distances shall not exceed:
(a) for edge distances: 40 mm + 4t
(b) for hole distances: 16t or 200 mm.

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5.1.7. Bolt grades.

The grade of the bolt is given by two figures separated by a point. The first figure is 1% of the minimum ultimate strength in
N/mm2 and the second is 1/10th of the percentage ratio of the minimum yield strength. Thus 5.6 grade means that the minimum
ultimate strength is 500 N/mm2 and the yield strength is 60% of this strength which is 300 N/Mm2. the nominal values of the
yield strength fyb and the ultimate strength fub to be adopted as characteristic values in calculations are given below.

Bolt grade 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

fyb (N/mm2) 240 320 300 400 480 640 900
fu (N/mm2) 400 400 500 500 600 800 1000

Bolted connections.

Example 1. The connection shown in the Figure below is subjected to a design tensile force of 240 kN. The steel Grade is Fe
430, the bolt Grade 8.8 and its diameter is 20 mm. Check that the connection is adequate.

Check for the geometry.

Bolts M 20; Grade 8.8 fyb = 640 N/mm2 ,fub = 800 N/mm2
Diameter of the holes: (see Table 6.1). The hole diameter shall be d0 = d + 2 mm = 20 + 2 = 22 mm.
Minimum edge dis tan ce e1  1.25d 0  1.25 x 22  27.5 mm  30 ok
Minimum hole dis tan ce p1  2.5d 0  2.5 x 22  55 mm  50 ok
Maximum edge dis tan ce e1  12t  12 x7  84 mm  50 ok
Maximum hole dis tan ce p1  14t  14 x7  98 mm  80 ok
Shear capacity of bolts.
Assumptions: - There are two shear planes per bolts.
- Threads are in the shear plane i.e; As = 245 mm2
Shear capacity of bolt.
2 x0.6 f ub As 2 x0.87 f yb As
Fv , Rd  f vd As  
 Mb  Mb
2 x0.6 x800 x 245 x10  3
  188 kN (Governs the design )
1.25
2 x0.87 x640 x 45 x10  3
and   218 kN
1.25
240
Therefore, because there are 2 bolts: 188  is OK
2
5.1.8. Bearing capacity of members and bolts.

The bearing capacity of the bolts is:

Fbb, Rd  d t fbb, d ; where t = 14 mm (the gusset plate is not the critical member since t = 15 mm > 2 x 7 = 14 mm)

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Fbb, Rd 
 
dt 0.9 fub  f yb   20 x14 x0.9800  640 x103  290.3 kN ( per bolt )  240 OK
 Mb 1.25 2

The bearing capacity of the gusset plate is:

1
Fbp, Rd  d t f bp, d  e1 t f bb, d ( per bolt )
2

Fbp, Rd 
 
dt 0.8 f u  f y 
M2
20 x15 x 0.8430  275 x10  3 240
Fbp, Rd   135 .36   120 kN . Ok ( governs design )
1.25 2
1 50 x15 x 0.8430  275 x10  3
and x  169 .2  135 .36 OK
2 1.25
The bearing capacity of one angle is:
d t 0.8 f u  f t  1
Fbp, Rd   e1t f bp, d
M 2
20 x70.8430  275 x10  3 240
  63.2 kN   60 kN ( per angle )
1.25 2 x2
1 50 x 7 x0.8430  275 x10  3
and x 79.0  63.2 OK
2 1.25
Example 2
Check that the secondary girder to primary girder connection by means of angles shown in the figure below is adequate. All
data required are provided in the figure.

Main girder, Secondary girder and Angles L 90 x 9 with Steel Grade F e 430, fu = 275 N/mm2.
Bolts Grade 8.8, fyb = 640 N/mm2, fub = 800 N/mm2; Diameter 22 mm.
Bolt area at the bottom of the thread: As = 303 mm2.
Applied load: Shear force V = 890 kN (at the centreline of the web of the main girder).

Solution:
Diameter of holes d0 = d + 2 = 22 + 2 = 24 mm.
Minimum edge distance, e1 = 1.25 d0 = 1.25 x 24 = 30 mm < 40 mm. OK.
Minimum hole distance, p1 = 2.50 d0 = 2.50 x 24 = 60 mm = 60 mm OK.
Maximum edge distance, e1 = 12 t = 12 x 9 = 108 mm > 40 mm OK.
Maximum hole distance, p1 = 14 t = 14 x 9 = 126 mm > 60 mm OK.

Shear Capacity of bolts.

Assumptions: - one shear area per bolt.
- threads area in the shear plane.

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Shear capacity of a bolt:

0.6 f ub As 0.87 f yb As
Fv , Rd  f vd  
 Mb  Mb
0.6 x800 x303 x10  3 890
  116 .4   49.4 kN
1.25 2 x9
0.87 x640 x303 x10  3
and  135  116 .4 kN OK
1.25
Capacity of connection main girder and connection angle.
Bearing capacity of bolts.
Since the web thickness of the beam tw = 18.5 mm is grater than the angle leg thickness ta = 9 mm, the angle is the critical
member.

Fbb, Rd  d t fbb, d 
 
dt 0.9 fub  f yb   22 x9 x0.9 x800  640 x103  205.3 kN  49.4 kN OK
 Mb 1.25
Bearing Capacity of angle.

Fbp, Rd 
 
dt 0.8 f u  f y   1 e t f
 Mb
1 bp, d
2
22 x9 x0.8430  275 x10  3
  89.3 kN  49.4 OK
1.25
1 40 x9 x0.8430  275 x10  3
and  x  81.2  89.3 but  49.4 kN OK .
2 1.25
Capacity of connection Secondary Girder and connection Angle (welded).

Design Moment Msd = V * e = 890 x 9 = 8010 kN-cm.

f ye fu
Resistance condition: f R , w  f vw, d  0.63 but  0.65
 Mw  Mw
2
Area of welded section = 2 x 0.566 cm x 56 cm = 63.9 cm
890 kN
 fv, w  2
 14.04 kN / cm 2
63.9 cm

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2 x0.566 x56 2
Section modulus of the weld section Wweld   591 .66 cm 3
6
8010 kN  cm
 fb, w  3
 13.54 kN / cm 2
591 .66 cm
Finally, for point B.

f R, w  f b2,w  f v2,w
43
 f R , w  13.54 2  14.04 2  19.51  0.65  22.36 kN / cm 2
1.25

5.2. Welded Connections.

Electric welding is the most widespread method of connecting the elements of steel members. The welding process is shown
in the following figure.

5.2.1. Types of weld.

The commom types of weld are illustrated in Table 6.3. To study the behaviour of the joints they are divided mainly into 2
types, Butt weld and Fillet ones.

Butt welds. This type is used mostly to weld steel plates of same or similar thickness. You can use it also in welding of beams
with sections I or C. Their disadvantage consists in to achieve complete penetration. For foils thickness bigger than 10 mm it
is necessary to prepare the borders appropriately, that wich requires of special cares and appropriate facilities. This work is
carried out in shops where the welding process can be controlled with quality.

Behaviour of the butt joint.

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P P
Then, the tensile stress due to the axial force P on the welding section 1 – 1 is: f st   f t  , it is similar to the
Lst bt
tension that take place in a section 2 – 2 for the base metal. Usually if the resistance of the material of contribution of the
electrode is bigger than that of the base netal, the resistance of the joint is guaranteed and it is not necessary further calculation.

Fillet welds.
Fillet welds may be used for connecting parts where the fusion faces form an angle of between 60 0 and 1200. Smaller angles
are also permitted. However, in such a cases the weld shall be considered to be partial penetratrion butt weld.
Fillet welds terminating at the ends or sides of parts should be returned continuously around the corners for a distance of not
less than twice the length s of the weld unless access or the configuration renders this impracticable. This detail is particularly
important for filled welds on the tension side of parts carrying a bending load.
In lap joints the minimum lap shall be no less than 4t where t is the thickness of the thinner part joined. Single fillet welds
should only be used where the parts are restrained to prevent opening of the joint.

As it is observed in the figure, the tensions that appear in the welding chord are of shear, being the points of the ends (A and
B) the most loaded for what reach the yiend point first. Then the interior points go reaching the yield point gradually and in the
moment of the failure, all the points of the welding chord will be working contributing the maximum resistance evenly.
Numerous researsh works show that the failure really happens for the half plane of the cord, that which defines the efective
area as the product of multiplying the effective with of the throat of the cord (a) for the longitude of the chord.

5.2.2. Throat thickness.

The effective throat size a of a fillet weld shall be taken as the perpendicular distance from the root of the weld to a straight
line joining the fusion faces wich lies within the cross-section of the weld. It is not, however, be taken as greater than 0.707
times the effective leg with s.
The throat thickness of a fillet weld should not be less than 3 mm.

5.2.3. Design Strength.

The codes usually use they calculate the maximum force that resists the unit of longitude.
The design strength Fw,Rd of a fillet weld per unit of length shall be obtained from:

Fw, Rd  fvw, d a ; where f vw, d is the design shear strength of the weld and shall be determined from:
0.63 f ye 0.65 fu
f vw, d  but f v, w 
 Mw  Mw
where fye is the minimum tensile strength of the electrodes.
fu is the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of the weaker part joined.
γMw = 1.25.

5.2.4. Long joints.

In lap joints the design resistance of a fillet weld shall be reduced by multipliying it by a reduction factor β Lw to allow for the
effects of non-uniform distribution of the stresses along its length.
This provision is not apply when the stress distribution along the weld corresponds to the stress distribution in the adjacent
base metal, as for esample, in the case of weld connecting the flange and the web of a plate girder.
Generally in lap joints longer than 150a reduction factor βLw should be taken as βLw,1 given by:
 Lw,1  1.2  0.2L j /(150a) but  Lw.1  1.0 ; where Lj is the overall length of the lap in the direction of
the force transfer.

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For fillet welds longer than 1.7 meters connecting transverse stiffeners in plated members, the reduction factor β Lw may be
taken as βLw.2 given by:

 Lw,2  1.1  Lw / 17 but 0.6   Lw,2  1.0 ; where Lw is the length of the weld in meter.

Types of elctrodes.
For a common structural steel, the AWS (American Welding Society) recommends electrodes types E 60 XX and E 70 XX. E
– denotes electrode, the first 2 numbers represent the tensile strength of the electrode in Ksi (kilopound per square inches); then
for the electrodes abobe the tensile strength are 60 Ksi (414 Mpa) and 70 Ksi ( 483 Mpa) respectively.

Table 6.3 Common types of welded joints.

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Example 1(Checking problem)

In the beam to column connection shown in the figure, the steel plate is supporting a support factored reaction of 525 kN from
the beam. If the size of the weld is 8 mm and steel Grade Fe 360, check if the connection is adequate.

Geometry, materials and loading.

Plate t = 16 mm. Fe 360, fy = 235 N/mm2 and fu = 360 N/mm2.

Size of the welds s = 8 mm.
Throat thickness: a = 0.707 s = 0.707 x 8 = 5.66 mm.
Length of the weld l = 2 x 295 + 260 – 4 x 8 = 818 mm.

1). Check the dimension of the chords:

Minimum weld length l = 40 mm or 6 x a = 6 x 5.66 = 34 mm < 260 mm. OK.
Maximum weld length l = 150 a = 150 x 5.66 = 849 mm > 295 OK.

2). The design strength per unit length is Fw, Rd  f vw, d a

0.63 f ye 0.65 fu
where f vw, d  
Mw  Mw
In most practical cases, the quality of the electrodes are greater than that of the base metal and then the ultimate tensile strength
of the weaker part joined, that is, the base metal govern the design. Therefore the second statement of the equation is checked.
0.65 x360
Fw, Rd  x5.66  1059 .55 N / mm
1.25
3
And the total resistance force F  1059 .55 N / mmx818 mmx10  866 kN  525 kN OK .

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Example 2 (Design problem)

Special case (Eccentrically loaded joint. Unsymmetrical section).
When securing an unsymmetrical section, for example two angles to a plate, attention is paid to uneven distribution of the load
between the welds transmitting the force field from the angles to the plate.

The Force F is discomposed into F1 and F2

Taken moment with respect to point o.
2 2 F
F b  F1b  F1  F ; Thus F2 
3 3 3
therefore; F1 is taken by two chord (filled weld) length L1each and F2 is taken by the lower two fillet weld length L2 each.

Example: Compute the welds required for connecting two angles 75x75x8 mm to a gusset plate with a thickness 10 mm. The
factored tensile force in the angle is 450 kN. The material is steel Grade 430.

Geometry, Materials.
Plate and angles Grade 430 steel, fy = 275 N/mm2 ;fu = 430 N/mm2
Size of the welds ≤ 8 mm; take s = 6 mm.
Throat thickness a = 0.707 x 6 = 4.24 mm.

1). Acting Force F1 and F2.

2 2
F1  F1  x 450 kN  300 kN
3 3
450
F2   150 kN
3
2). Design strength per unit length. (Suppose the weaker part is the base steel).
0.65 x 430
Fw, Rd  x 4.24  948 N / mm.
1.25
3). Length of fillets:
F1 300 x10 3 N
L1    158 .2 mm
2 ( fillet welds ) Fw, Rd 2 x948 N / mm
L1  158.2 mm  2s  158.2  2 x6  170 mm each side .
Actual length if no round a corner
And L2  158.2  2 x6  91.1 mm (take 92 mm)

4). Check the dimension of the fillets.

6 x4.24  92 and 170  150x4.24 OK

- Joints in beams under the action of bending moment and shear force.
Suppose a beam such that:

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Principle: The flanges take the acting bending moment and the web takes shear force.

M is discomposed into a couple of forces F.

F = M/h acting on the flange levels.

284 kN  m
Then F   532 kN.
0.533 m

Design of cover plates.

Af y
The design plastic resistance of the gross section N pl , Rd   532 kN
 Mo

 Mo x532 x103 1.1x532 x103

A  180tc , p    2128 mm 2
fy 275
2128 mm 2
tc , p   11.82 mm take 12 mm.
180 mm
- suppose size of the weld 8 mm < 12 mm.
- throat thickness a  0.707x8 mm  5.66 mm
0.65 x 430
- strength per unit length Fw, Rd  x5.66  1266 N / mm
1.25
F 532 x10 3 N
The length of the filled weld L1    210 mm each sides  ( round 2 x 6 mm)
2 Fw, Rd 2 x1266 N / mm

Design of the central plate for shear.

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0.65 x 430
Strength per unit length Fw, Rd  x 4.24  948 N / mm
1.25
3
The total resistance force  948 N / mm x 350 mm x 10  331.8 kN  142 kN OK .

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Tables

Table 1 Imperfection Factors.

Buckling Curve a b c d
Imperfection factor α 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

Table 2 Reduction Factors.

Buckling curve
 a b c d
0.2 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
0.3 0.9795 0.9641 0.9491 0.9235
0.4 0.9258 0.9261 0.8973 0.8504
0.5 0.9243 0.8842 0.8430 0.7793
0.6 0.8900 0.8371 0.7854 0.7100
0.7 0.8477 0.7837 0.7247 0.6431
0.8 0.7957 0.7245 0.6622 0.5797
0.9 0.7339 0.6612 0.5998 0.5208
1.0 0.6656 0.5970 0.5399 0.4671
1.1 0.5960 0.5352 0.4842 0.4189
1.2 0.5300 0.4781 0.4338 0.3762
1.3 0.4703 0.4269 0.3888 0.3385
1.4 0.4179 0.3817 0.3492 0.3055
1.5 0.3724 0.3422 0.3145 0.2766
1.6 0.3332 0.3079 0.2842 0.2512
1.7 0.2994 0.2781 0.2577 0.2289
1.8 0.2702 0.2521 0.2345 0.2093
1.9 0.2449 0.2294 0.2141 0.1920
2.0 0.2229 0.2095 0.1962 0.1766
2.1 0.2036 0.1920 0.1803 0.1630
2.2 0.1867 0.1765 0.1662 0.1508
2.3 0.1717 0.1628 0.1537 0.1399
2.4 0.1585 0.1506 0.1425 0.1302
2.5 0.1467 0.1397 0.1325 0.1214
2.6 0.1362 0.1299 0.1234 0.1134
2.7 0.1267 0.1211 0.1153 0.1062
2.8 0.1182 0.1132 0.1079 0.0997
2.9 0.1105 0.1060 0.1012 0.0937
3.0 0.1036 0.0994 0.0951 0.0882

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Table 3 Selection of Buckling Curve for a Cross-section.

Buckling
about axis
Cross-section Limits Buckling curve

h/b > 1.2: y–y a

Rolled I – sections tf ≤ 40 mm z–z b

y–y b
40 mm <tf ≤ 100 mm z–z c

h/b ≤ 1.2: y–y b

tf ≤ 100 mm z–z c

y–y d
tf> 100 mm z–z d

Welded I – sections y–y b

tf ≤ 40 mm z–z c

y–y c
tf> 40 mm z–z d

Hot rolled any a

Hollow section
Cold formed
any b
-using fyb

Cold formed
any c
-using fya

Generally
Welded box sections any b
(except as below)

Thick welds and c

y–y
b/tf< 30 c
z-z
h/tw< 30

U, L, and Solid Sections

any c

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Reference
 EBCS-3, Design of steel structures – 1995
 NegusseTebadge, “Design aid to EBCS-3”
 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
 Any other books on steel structures

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