6

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

In doing this study, the researcher realizes that needs some supporting

theories. Therefore, in this chapter the researcher reviews some theories that will

be useful in analysing the data. The theories reviewed are writing, writing recount

text, grammatical error and previous studies.

2.1 Writing
The writer divides this section into eight sections. They are definition of

writing, elements of writing, the characteristic of a good writing, purpose of

writing, the writing process, teaching writing, kinds of writing text, and testing

writing.

2.1.1 Definition of Writing

Writing is a process of delivering ideas and thinking into sentences and

paragraph that will be clear to the readers (Nunan, 2003: 88). Meanwhile, Browne

(2004: 92) defines writing is a complex activity which includes deciding what one

wants to write, how best to say it and how to put these ideas onto paper in a way

that is intelligible to others. Besides, Heaton (1988: 135) asserts that the writing

skills are complex and sometimes difficult to teach, requiring mastery not only of

grammatical and rhetorical devices but also of conceptual and judgmental

elements.

Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that, writing is a

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complex activities as a way to express ideas and opinions in text form with paying

attention on grammatical, rhetorical devices, conceptual, and judgmental

elements.

2.1.2 Purpose of Writing

In principle, the purpose of writing is expression of ideas, conveying of a

message to the reader, so the ideas themselves should arguably be seen as the

important aspect of the writing (Ur, 1991: 163). Furthermore, Greenville (2001: 1)

asserts that writers have the basic aim of getting ideas from one brain into another

as follows:

a. Writing to Entertain
Writing to entertain is a writing that may engage the readers’ feeling

through its plot or the emotion provided in the writing. It also called as

imaginative writing or creative writing. Some instances of the writing to entertain

are novels, stories, poems, song lyrics, plays, and screenplays.

b. Writing to Inform

Writing to inform is intended to inform readers about something. For

instances, newspaper, articles, scientific or business reports, instructions or

procedures, and essay for school and university.

c. Writing to Persuade
Writing to persuade includes writer’s opinion. It is aimed to convince the

readers of something through providing evidence rather than just as an expression

of writer’ feeling. For example are advertisements, articles, newspaper, magazine.

In addition, State Literacy and Numeracy Plan (1999: 12) mentions the

purpose of writing might be community purpose of academic purpose as follows:

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a. Community purposes

Community writing includes writing activities are held outside the

academic environment. The audiences of this writing are self, peers, parents,

community members, or local government. For examples are writing letters or

sign important document.

b. Academic purposes
Students are taught explicitly how to handle diverse writing tasks,

identifying the purpose of writing, and how to structure texts to achieve those

purposes. In this case, the students are helped by teachers to understand what

factors influence their choices as writers. The activities include composing a text,

structure, cohesion, grammar, vocabulary, and presentation.

Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that the academic and

non academic purpose of writing is support each other. In academic purpose, the

students have been taught by teacher to increase their writing skill and for the

implementation of what they got at the school, the students can use it as entertain,

inform, and persuade purpose.

2.1.3 The Writing Process

Writing process is the stage a writer goes through in order to produce

something its final written form (Harmer, 2004: 4). He suggests that this process

has four main elements:

1. Planning
Planning is the pre-step in the process of writing. By writing a plan,

writers are going to write and decide what they are going to say. There are three

main issues when the writers make a writing plan:

a. The purpose of the writing;
b. The audience they are writing for;
c. The content structure they use.
2. Drafting
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Drafting is the first version in writing process. It can be said as a

framework of the writing and be amended later being a text.

3. Editing (reflecting and revising)
Editing is the second version in writing process. In this version, the writers

check what they drafted before to see where it works and where it does not. The

activities include reflecting and revising which are often helped by other readers

or editors who give comment and make suggestions.

4. Final Version
Final version is produced when the writers have edited their draft. The

contents may different from the original plan and the first draft, because these

have changed in the editing process.

Besides, Hogue (2008: 28) asserts that there are four step in writing

process as follows:

1. Pre-writing

In the pre-writing section, the writers are suggested with a free writing

activities. The writers choose a topic and then write whatever sentences come into

their mind. In this step, the writers should not worry about the grammar, spelling

or punctuation.

2. Write a Draft

Write a draft is the first step in the process of writing. The writer writes the

paragraph in rough form without worrying too much about the errors.

3. Edit the Draft

In this section, the writer check the paragraph as whole. The writer checks

the paragraph for good form, organization, grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

4. Write the Final Copy

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Final copy is the last step in the process of writing. The writers write a

neat final copy of the paragraph to hand into the teacher.

Based on the explanation above, the writing process is not as simple as

write some sentences. It is started by make a pre-writing activities that can be

form as a planning and free writing. Second, writer writes a draft from the

previous step. In the third section, the writer should edit the draft and check the

language features of the text. Last, write the final version as the result of the

writing process. The writer should pay attention in their language feature.

2.1.4 Teaching Writing

The aim of all the teaching and learning process is making students to

become independent writers. Teachers give support continuously until students

can compose texts for particular purposes independently. According to Setiyadi

(2006: 69-71), there are four types of writing as follows:

1. Imitative writing

Writing may begin with imitative writing as the simple writing skill. In

this writing beginning, students write by copying materials that they have already

mastered by hearing, speaking, and reading. The materials may be the text that

they memorized. In this section, the students imitate and write groups of words,

sentences or phrases than singe words.

2. Dictation

After language learners get the sufficient practice in imitative writing, they

may begin with dictation. The materials can be dialogues that they have

memorized. By having dictation, students practice having aural comprehension

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and spelling correctly. The procedure of dictation can be followed by: the teacher

reads the text three time. During the first reading, the teacher read the text at

normal speed and the students listen carefully and make no attempt to write. The

second reading, which is done more slowly, the students write it. In the third

reading, the teacher reads the text at normal speed again and the student make

some necessary corrections.

3. Guided writing

Guided writing is the third step for increasing writing ability after the

students have practiced imitative writing and dictation. In this step, the teacher

guides the students to write short responses. The procedure of guided writing may

take various form as follows:

a. The teacher reads a passage twice and he/she makes incomplete statements

based on the passage, then the students complete the statement.

b. The teacher reads a passage twice and asks a number of questions to the

students.

c. The teacher reads a passage twice and asks the students to rephrase the passage

in their own words.

d. The teacher reads a passage twice and asks the students to change the tense. For

instance from simple present tense to simple past tense.

e. The teacher reads some questions and the students write their answer in a

paragraph.

4. Controlled writing (Intensive)

If sufficient practice in guided writing has been given, the students can
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begin with controlled writing. Like a previous steps of writing, controlled wriring

is also developed form a dialogue. This steps may be given to more advanced to

the students after they have been given a considerable practice in controlled

writing. The practice in controlled writing can guide the students to have

composition in the target language.

Furthermore, according to Brown (2001: 343), there are five types of

writing performance:

1. Imitative of writing down

At the beginning level of the learning to write, students will simply “write

down” English letters, words, and possibly sentences in order to learn the

conventions of the orthographic code. Some forms of this section is dictations.

Although dictations can serve to teach and test higher-order processing as well.

Dictations typically involve the following steps:

a. Teacher reads a short paragraph once and twice at normal speed.

b. Teacher reads the paragraph in short phrase units of three or four words each,

and each unit is followed by a pause.

c. During the pause, students write exactly what they hear.

d. Teacher then read the whole paragraph once more at normal speed to students

can check their writing.

e. Scoring of students’ written work can utilize a number of rubrics for assigning

points. Usually spelling and punctuation errors are not considered as severe as

grammatical errors.

2. Intensive or controlled
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Intensive writing typically appears in written grammar exercises. This type

of writing does not allow much, if any, creativity on the part of the writer. Besides,

a common form of controlled writing is to present a paragraph to students in

which they have to alter a given structure throughout. For example, students may

be asked to change all present tense verbs to past tense; in such a case, students

may need to alter other time reference in the paragraph.

3. Self-writing

Writing with only the self in mind as an audience. The most salient

instance of this category in classrooms in note-taking, where students take notes

during a lecture for the purpose of later recall. Other note-taking may be done in

the margins of books and on odd scraps of paper. For instances are diary and

journal.

4. Display writing

Display writing for all language consist of short answer exercises, essay

examinations, and even research reports.

5. Real writing

Real writing is a combination of display and real writing. There are three

subcategories illustrate how reality can be injected as follows academic, vocation

or technical, and personal writing.

2.1.5 Kinds of Writing Text

Genre of writing can be defined into some of kinds. According to Gerot

and Wignell (1994: 192) there are 13 kinds of writing text as follows:
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a. Spoof/recount

Spoof/recount text has social function to retell an event with a humorous twist.

b. Recount

Recount text has social function to retell events for the purpose of informing or

entertaining.

c. Report

Report text has social function to describe the way things are, with reference

to a range of natural and social phenomenal in the environment.

d. Analytical exposition

Analytical exposition has social function to persuade the reader that something

is the case.

e. News item

News item has social function to inform readers about events of the day which

are considered newsworthy of important.

f. Anecdote

Anecdote has social function to share with readers an account of an anusual or

amusing incident.

g. Narrative

Narrative has social function to amuse, entertain, and to deal with actual or

vicarious experience in different ways.

h. Procedure

Procedure text has social function to describe how something is accomplished

through a sequence of actions of steps.

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i. Description

Descriptive text has social function to describe a particular person, place, or

thing.

j. Hortatory exposition

Hortatory exposition has social function to persuade the readers that something

should or should not be the case.

k. Explanation

Explanation text has social function to explain the processes involved in the

formation or workings of natural or sociocultural phenomena.

l. Discussion

Discussion has social function to present at least two points of view about an

issue.

m. Reviews

Reviews have social function to critique an art work or event for a public

audience. Such as movies, TV, shows, books, plays, operas, recordings,

exhibitions, concerts, and ballets.

There are many kinds of writing text have been taught in school. Based on

syllabus in School Based Curriculum (KTSP), there are 11 kinds of texts are

taught by the senior high school students as follows recount, narrative, procedure,

news item, report, analytical exposition, spoof, hortatory exposition, explanation,

discussion, and review.

2.1.6 Testing Writing

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In the teaching and learning process of writing, it is important to know

what skills involved and how to evaluate the students’ writing skill. Heaton (1988:

135) writes that the following analysis attempts to group the variation skills

necessary for writing good prose into five general components or main areas

which are as follows:

1. Language use. It is the correct and appropriate sentences in writing ability;
2. Mechanical skills. It is the ability to use correctly conventions peculiar to the

written language, e.g. punctuation and spelling;

3. Treatment of content. It is including the creative thinking and developing

thoughts, except all irrelevant information;

4. Stylistic skills. That is the ability to manipulate sentences and paragraphs,

and the use language effectively;

5. Judgment skill. It is including ability to appropriate manner for a particular

purpose with particular audience in mind to select, organize, and order relevant

information.

Besides, the scoring of the authentic assessment should always be defined

before the exercise and assessment procedures are developed. Two types of

assessment generally used in scoring writing are holistic scoring and analytic

scoring (Linse, 2005: 153). Holistic scoring uses a variety of criteria to produce a

single score. The specific criteria selected depend on local instructional programs

and language arts objective. This type of scoring focuses on whether or not each

paper shows evidence of the particular trait or feature teacher want students to

demonstrate in writing. Analytic scoring separate the features of a composition

into components that are each scored separately.

In this research, the researcher uses analytic scoring. According to Heaton

(1988: 146), the scoring rubric of writing as presented below:

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Tabel 2.1 Scoring rubric for writing by Heaton

Component of
Rating Level Indicators
writing
Content 4 Excellent The students can present the information
perfectly.
3 Good The students can present the information detail
throw in part of sentences.
2 Fair The students present it with some detail.
1 Poor The student does not show knowledge of the
subject.
Organization 4 Excellent Well organized with strong transition.
3 Good Clearly organized but not continuity.
2 Fair Unevenly organized.
1 Poor Much disorganized.
Grammar 4 Excellent Good in grammar.
3 Good Errors in grammar few and simple construction.
2 Fair Major problems in simple/complex
constructions.
1 Poor Many errors grammar, it seems that no mastery
of sentence construction rules.
Vocabulary 4 Excellent Rich and appropriate vocabularies use.
3 Good Adequate range, occasional errors of word/idiom
form, choice, usage but meaning not obscured.
2 Fair Limited range, frequent errors of word/idiom
form, choice, usage.
1 Poor Little knowledge of English vocabulary.
Mechanic 4 Excellent Good spelling, punctuation and capitalization.
3 Good Occasional error of spelling, punctuation, etc.
2 Fair Frequent errors of spelling, punctuation, etc.
1 Poor No mastery of convention, dominated by errors
of spelling, punctuation, capitalization,
paragraphing, etc

Furthermore, Glencoe (2000: 14) asserts that the scoring rubric of writing

as presented below:

Tabel 2.2 : General Rubric for Analytic Writing Assessment by Glencoe

Focus/Organization Comments
 The main idea or story sequence is clear.
 The piece fulfills its purpose and is appropriate to its
intended audience.
 Ideas or events are presented in an effective order.
 The writing has unity and coherence. Score___ /35
Elaboration/Support/Style Comments
 The opening engages the reader’s attention.
 All details are clearly related to the topic.
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 Details are sufficient and appropriate.

 Word choice enhances the writing.
 Effective transition words are used. Score___ /35
Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics Comments
 The writing is free of misspellings, and words are
capitalized correctly.
 Sentences are punctuated correctly, and the
 piece is free of fragments and run-ons.
 Standard English usage is employed.
 The paper is neat, legible, and presented in an appropriate
format. Score___ /30

2.2 Recount Text

In this section, the explanation about recount text is divided into two

sections as follows:

2.2.1 Definition of Recount

A recount is a piece of text that retells past events, usually in the order in

which they happened (Andersen: 1997). Besides, Knapp and Watkins (2005:

225) states that recounts are sequential texts that do little more than

sequence a series of events. It can be said that a recount is stated by the

writer to explain about events that were happened before. Furthermore,

Andersen (1997) asserts that there are several examples of recount. Such as

eyewitness account, newspaper reports, letters, conversations, television

interviews, and speeches.

2.2.2 Generic Structure of Recount
Knapp and Watkins (2005: 223) state that there are some orientation and

structure in recount. Such as:

a. Simple Recount
Simple recount only provides some sentences that describe an event. For

example:
On Sunday we visited grandma in a countryside. We went by bus. We

arrived at 9 in the morning. Grandma welcomed us with a happy face.

b. Orientation – sequence of events Recount
The writer writes more details of the event. The story is more complex
 19

than the previous one. In this stage, the writer records all the important

activities that happened in the event.

Yesterday Year 5/6 went on an excursion to the Power Orientation

House Museum.
When everyone arrived at school we walked to
Marrickville station. Our class caught the 9.30 train to
Central station.
When we got off at Central we walked through the
Devonshire St tunnel to Harris St. We walked in the Sequence
museum and we saw some slides and a movie. The of events
movie was about communication and it was called Get
The Message. We then looked at some games and
equipment. After lunch we walked up to the Sydney
Morning Herald and saw how they make papers. After
that we caught the train back to Marrickville.
Knapp and Watkins (2005: 224)
c. Orientation – Sequence of events – Resolution Recount
In the stage of writing recount, the writer has about writing simple

narrative.

Once there was an old man. His wife had died and he Orientation
had married again. The man had one son and his
stepmother had a daughter.
One day the man and his son went collecting fire-wood.
They saw a golden tree. They went slowly over to the
tree. When they got closer to the tree they heard a voice Sequence
coming from the tree. This is what the tree said. Go of events
north for one and a half miles. Ther you will find a fairy
wearing a gold ring. You must take the ring and make a
wish.
They dun just as the fairy had said and they lived happy Resolution
every after.
Knapp and Watkins (2005: 225)
d. Orientation – Problem – Solution Recount
In this stage of writing recount, the writer writes the complex text that

contains of problem and its solution. The text is no longer only about

some details of an events but more complex.

A long time ago there was a barn with owners named

Mr and Mrs Smith. They were poor and they only had a
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horse for riding, 2 sheep for wool,1 pig and a bull and a Orientation
cow for milk.
They were poor because their pig ate them out of house
and home and he didn’t share with the other animals.
His name was Bob. ‘You should go on a diet’ said
Clarabelle the horse. ‘Oh be quiet, I’m not fat I’ve got
big bones’. A few minutes later Bob was rolling around
on the ground. ‘I’m sick, I’m sick’, he shouted. ‘Help
me, help me’. Mr and Mrs Smith ran down and called
the vet. The vet came quickly and said quietly, ‘If he
eats like he has been eating he’ll surely die’.
‘Oh’, groaned the pig.
Clarabelle overheard and said to the other animals, ‘Our
friend is dying, we’ve got to help him’. ‘Yeh’ said the
other animals ‘lets go’. They went up to Bob and said,
‘We are going to get you in shape’. First they told him Solution
to eat only half of the food in the trof. Then they made
him run up and down the hill and made him swim
in the duck pond.
He did this every day for three long weeks and he got
better and he thanked Clarabelle and Bob was never Resolution
greedy again.
Knapp and Watkins (2005: 226)
Knapp and Watkins (2005: 228) conclude that grammatical features of

recount text are:

a. Introduction characters,
b. Use of action verbs,
c. Use of temporal connectives,
d. Use of adverbs of time and place,
e. Syntactical language (use of preposition, articles, etc.)
Besides, Dody, et.al (2008: 24) states there are three generic structure of

recount. Those are:

a) Orientation that is included setting and introduce the participants. In

this part, the writer write the detail information about the text about who,

when, where, why, what, and how.

b) Events that tell about the detail how the events happened.
c) Reorientation that retell or conclude about the closure of events.
2.3 Grammar
Grammar is actually very important in learning language. Ur (2006) states

that grammar is one of the basic knowledge that is needed to mastered by

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language learners.
2.3.1 Definition of Grammar
Ur (2006: 4) says that grammar is sometimes defined as the way words are put

together to make correct sentences. Besides, Thornburry (1999:1) states that

grammar is the study of what forms or structure in a language. So it can be said

that grammar is the study of structure that constructs words become

understandable groups of sentences in a language.

2.3.2 The Place of Grammar in Teaching
According to Ur (2006: 4), these are opinions about the teaching grammar:
a) Grammatical rules is essential for mastering a language. It is

important to know how some words can be ordered to be a sentence.

Without mastering it, someone must be hard to learning a language.

b) Providing a natural learning is important for language

learners. Motivation and anxiety influence how language learners take the

lesson. The most important is how to make an environment that support

language learners to learn as a kid learns their first language.

c) Preparing an organized, balanced plan of a classroom. By

preparing a classroom for language learners, the teachers must make a

syllabus that contains some element such as vocabulary, pronunciation and

grammar itself.
d) Set the classroom as a temporary learning objective. The

learning of grammar should be long term learning that support language

learners to use the rules and pattern in their daily activity.

2.4 Grammar errors in Writing
Mistakes and errors are commonly done by language users in first or

second language. Even doing mistake and error are commonly done but it

would better if language user avoid doing the mistakes and errors.
2.4.1 Errors and Mistakes
In order to understand the definition of error, it is important to make a
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clear explanation about the differences between error and mistake. Brown

(2006: 257) states that mistake refers to a performance error that is either a

random guess or a ‘slip’ in that it is a failure to utilize a known system

correctly. Native speakers do mistake in use their first language and it is not the

result of a deficiency in competence but the result of imperfection in the

process of producing speech. Furthermore, Brown (2006: 258) asserts that error

is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker. It reflects

the competence of the learners.

2.4.2 Error Analysis
Corder (1982: 45) states that error analysis is part of methodology of

investigating the language learning process in order to find out the nature of

these psychological processes. Besides, Brown (2007: 166) asserts that errors

analysis is the process to observe, analyse and classify the deviations of the

rules of the second language and then to reveal the systems operated by

learner.
From the explanation above, it can be said that error analysis is the process

of investigating and analysing language learners’ deviations of the language

learning process.
2.5 Previous Studies
There are some studies related with an analysis on students’ grammatical
errors in recount text writing.
The first study was held by Evayani (2013) entitled An Analysis on

Grammatical Errors in Students’ Recount Text writing. The study was held in

MAN 10 Jakarta. The result of study was the students had difficulty in some

points such as verb tense, capitalization and word form. The causes of errors were

made by the students of MAN 10 Jakarta were intralingual transfer, interlingual

transfer, communication strategies and context of learning.

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The second study was held by Sari (2019) entitled An Analysis of

Grammatical Error in Writing Recount Text at the Eleventh Grade of Students’

SMK Negeri 1 Abung Selatan, Kotabumi In The Academic Year Of 2018 / 2019.

The researcher found four types of error in the data. There are omission, addition,

misordering, misformation. The result of study was the number of misformation

were 117 items (82%). The number of omission were 16 items (11%). The number

of misordering were 8 items (5,6%). The number of addition were 2 items (1,4%).

The similarities of researcher’s study and previous studies is the studies

focus on students’ grammatical error in writing recount text. Besides, the

differences is the data are taken in different school with different culture and

behavior.

Based on the previous studies, researcher wants to conduct the research

entitled An Analysis of Students’ Grammatical Errors in Writing Recount Text at

the Eleventh Grade Students of SMAN 1 Rejotangan in Academic Year

2019/2020.