Concept of Stress

CES 2206 Lecture 1

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External Forces
 External Forces – the action
of other bodies on the rigid
body under consideration .
They will either cause it to
move or ensure that it
remains at rest.

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External Forces

 The girder carries the bridge deck. The deck’s distributed

weight is considered external forces wrt the girder
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Support Reactions
 If the support prevents translation in a given direction, then a
force must be developed on the member in that direction.
 If rotation is prevented, a couple moment must be exerted on
the member

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Internal Forces
 Internal Force – the forces which hold together the
particles forming the rigid body

 Relate the external forces and resultant internal forces

using Equations of Equilibrium
 The section (called cross section) are generally taken as
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the rigid
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Internal Forces: 3D

 Normal Force: acts perpendicular to the cross section

 Shear Force: Lies in the plane of the cross sectional area
 Torsional: This effect is developed when the external loads tend to twist
one segment of the body with respect to the other about an axis
perpendicular to the area.
 Bending Moment: The bending moment is caused by the external loads that
tend to bend the body about an axis lying within the plane of the area.
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Internal Forces: 2D (Coplanar)
 If the body is subjected to a coplanar system of forces then
only normal-force, shear-force, and bending-moment
components will exist at the section

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Example 1
 Determine the resultant internal loadings acting on the
cross section at G of the beam shown. Each joint is pin
connected.

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Solution 1

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Example 2
 Determine the resultant
internal loadings acting on
the cross section at B of
the pipe shown. End A is
subjected to a vertical force
of 50 N, a horizontal force
of 30 N, and a couple
moment of 70 Nm .
Neglect the pipe’s mass.

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Solution 2

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Example 3
 A sign weighing 600 N hangs
from a pin-jointed planar truss, as
shown (a) Use the method of
joints to determine the internal
axial forces F1 and F2 in members
CD and DE, respectively. Neglect
the weight of the truss members.
(b) Use the method of sections to
determine the axial force F5 in
member FG.

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Solution 3

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Example 4
 The right-angle frame in figure has equal legs of length L and is
supported by a pin and roller as shown. If the total weight of
the frame is W, (a) determine the reactions at supports A and
B, and (b) determine the internal resultants (axial force, shear
force, and bending moment) on the cross section at point C.

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Example 5
 A frame is loaded and supported as shown. Determine
the reactions at supports A and C and all forces acting on
the member ADE.

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Review of Statics
• The structure is designed to
support a 30 kN load
• The structure consists of a
boom and rod joined by pins
(zero moment connections) at
the junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis to
determine the internal force in
each structural member and the
reaction forces at the supports

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Structure Free-Body Diagram
• Structure is detached from supports and
the loads and reaction forces are indicated
• Conditions for static equilibrium:
 M C = 0 = Ax (0.6 m ) − (30 kN )(0.8 m )
Ax = 40 kN
 Fx = 0 =Ax + C x
C x = − Ax = −40 kN
 Fy = 0 = Ay + C y − 30 kN = 0
Ay + C y = 30 kN

• Ay and Cy can not be determined from

these equations

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Component Free-Body Diagram
• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
 M B = 0 = − Ay (0.8 m )
Ay = 0
substitute into the structure
equilibrium equation
C y = 30 kN

• Results:
A = 40 kN → Cx = 40 kN  C y = 30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along

boom and rod

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Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at member ends

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to

to an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:

 B =0
F
FAB FBC 30 kN
= =
4 5 3
FAB = 40 kN FBC = 50 kN
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Normal Stresses

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Stress Analysis Can the structure safely support the 30 kN
load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• At any section through member BC, the

internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P 50 103 N
 BC = = = 159 MPa
A 314 10-6 m 2

• From the material properties for steel, the

allowable stress is
 all = 165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate
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Design • Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod from
aluminum (all= 100 MPa). What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50 103 N
 all = A= = = 500 10− 6 m 2
A  all 100 106 Pa
d2
A=
4

d=
4A
=
(
4 500 10− 6 m 2 ) = 2.52 10−2 m = 25.2 mm
 

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is

adequate
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Axial Loading: Normal Stress
• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.
• The force intensity on that section is defined as
the normal stress.
F P
 = lim  ave =
A→0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P =  ave A =  dF =   dA
A

• The detailed distribution of stress is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.
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Centric & Eccentric Loading
• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.
• A uniform distribution of stress is only
possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.

• If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,

then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a
moment.
• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded
members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
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Example 6
 A flat steel bar has axial loads (forces along the centroidal
axis of the bar) applied at points A, B, C, and D, as shown
in Figure. If the bar has a cross-sectional area of 3.00 in2,
determine the normal stress in the bar
(a) On a cross section 20 in. to the right of point A.
(b) On a cross section 20 in. to the right of point B.
(c) On a cross section 20 in. to the right of point C.

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Solution of Example 6

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Example 7
 The round bar shown has steel, brass, and aluminum sections.
Axial loads are applied at cross sections A, B, C, and D. If the
allowable axial stresses are 125 MPa in the steel, 70 MPa in the
brass, and 85 MPa in the aluminum, determine the diameters
required for each of the sections. Assume that the allowable
stresses are the same for tension (T) and compression (C).

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Solution to Example 7

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Example 8
 A shop crane consists of a boom
AC that is supported by a pin at A
and by a rectangular tension bar
BD, as shown in figure. Details of
the pin joints at A and B are
shown in views a–a and b–b,
respectively. The tension bar BD
has a width w =1.5 in. and a
thickness t = 0.5 in. If the vertical
load at C is P=5 kips, what is the
average tensile stress in the bar
BD?

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Solution to Example 8

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Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave =
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
be uniform.
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Shearing Stress
 Shear stress at point

 Resultant shear force

 Average shear stress

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Shearing Stress Examples
Single Shear Double Shear

P F P F
 ave = =  ave = =
A A A 2A
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Shearing Stress

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Example 9
 A steel bar serving as a vertical hanger
to support heavy machinery in a
factory is attached to a support by the
bolted connection shown. The main
part of the hanger has a rectangular
cross section with width b1=1.5 in.
and thickness t = 0.5 in. At the
connection the hanger is enlarged to a
width b2=3.0 in. The bolt, which
transfers the load from the hanger to
the two gussets, has diameter d=1.0 in.
Determine the value of P based on (a)
allowable tensile stress in the main
part of the hanger is 16ksi (b) the
allowable tensile stress at its cross
section thru the bolt is 11ksi (c) the
allowable shear stress in the bolt is
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6.5 ksi.
Example 10
 A brass tube with an outside diameter of 2.00 in. and a
wall thickness of 0.375 in. is connected to a steel tube
with an inside diameter of 2.00 in. and a wall thickness of
0.250 in. by using a 0.750-indiameter pin as shown.
Determine: (a) shearing stress in the pin when the joint is
carrying an axial load P=10kip (b) the length of joint
required if the pin is replaced by a glued joint and the
shearing stress in the glue must be limited to 250 psi.

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Solution to Example 10

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Example 11
 For the pin-connected structure, determine the minimum
diameter for the pin at joint D if the average shearing
stress in the pin must be limited to 7500 psi.

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 Example 12
 The steel plane truss shown in the
figure is loaded by three forces P,
each of which is 490 kN. The truss
members each have a cross-sectional
area of 3900 mm2 and are
connected by pins each with a
diameter of d=18 mm. Members AC
and BC each consist of one bar with
thickness of tAC=tBC=19 mm. Member
AB is composed of two bars each
having thickness tAB/2= 10 mm and
length L=3 m. The roller support at
B, is made up of two support plates,
each having thickness tsp/2 =12 mm.
(a) Find supports (b) calculate
largest shear stress in point B
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Bearing Stress in Connections

• Bolts, rivets, and pins create

stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.

• The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b = =
A td

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Stress Analysis & Design Example

• Would like to determine the

stresses in the members and
connections of the structure
shown.

• From a statics analysis:

FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• Must consider maximum

normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection

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Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.

• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the

circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is BC = +159
MPa.

• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional

area occurs at the pin centerline,
A = (20 mm )(40 mm − 25 mm ) = 300 10− 6 m 2

P 50 103 N
 BC ,end = = = 167 MPa
A 300 10− 6 m 2

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40

kN and average normal stress of –26.7 MPa.

• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

unstressed since the boom is in compression.

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Pin Shearing Stresses
• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
 25 mm  −6 2
A =r = 
2
 = 49110 m
 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 103 N
 C , ave = = = 102 MPa
A 49110− 6 m 2

• The pin at A is in double shear with a

total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
P 20 kN
 A, ave = = = 40.7 MPa
A 49110−6 m 2
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Pin Shearing Stresses
• Divide the pin at B into sections to determine
the section with the largest shear force,
PE = 15 kN
PG = 25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding average

shearing stress,
PG 25 kN
 B, ave = = − 6 2
= 50.9 MPa
A 49110 m

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Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,

we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b = = = 53.3 MPa
td (30 mm )(25 mm )

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b = = = 32.0 MPa
td (50 mm )(25 mm )

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Example 13
 The steel pipe column shown has an
outside diameter of 150 mm and a wall
thickness of 15 mm. The load imposed
on the column by the timber beam is
150 kN. Determine:
(a)the average bearing stress at
the surface between the column and the
steel bearing plate.
(b) The diameter of a circular
bearing plate if the average bearing stress
between the steel plate and the wood
beam is not to exceed 3.25 MPa.

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Solution of Example 13

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Example 14

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Solution to Example 14

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Example 16

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Example 17

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Example 16
 The upper deck of a football stadium is supported by braces each of which
transfers a load P =160 kips to the base of a column. A cap plate at the
bottom of the brace distributes the load P to four flange plates (tf =1 in.)
through a pin (dp = 2 in.) to two gusset plates (tg = 1.5 in). Determine the
following quantities. (a) The average shear stress in the pin. (b) The average
bearing stress between the flange plates and the pin, and also between the
gusset plates and the pin.

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Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force

member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.
• Will show that either axial or
transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

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Stress on an Oblique Plane
• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle q with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F = P cos q V = P sin q

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cos q P
= = = cos 2 q
Aq A0 A0
cos q
V P sin q P
= = = sin q cos q
Aq A0 A0
cos q
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Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
= cos 2 q = sin q cos q
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m =  = 0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m = sin 45 cos 45 = =
A0 2 A0

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Stress Under General Loadings
• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q

• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x = lim
A→0 A

V yx Vzx
 xy = lim  xz = lim
A→0 A A→0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.
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State of Stress • Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx =  Fy =  Fz = 0
Mx = My = Mz = 0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z = 0 = ( xy A)a − ( yx A)a
 xy =  yx
similarly,  yz =  zy and  yz =  zy

• It follows that only 6 components of stress are

required to define the complete state of stress
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Example 17
 The single-V butt joint transmits the force of 5 kN from
one plate to the other. Determine the resultant normal
and shear force components that this force creates on
the face of the weld, section AB.

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Example 18
 Determine the largest load P that can be applied to the
frame without causing either the average normal stress or
the average shear stress at section a – a to exceed s =
150 MPa and t = 60 MPa , respectively. Member CB has a
square cross section of 25 mm on each side.

Ans: P=62.5kN
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Example 19
 The block shown has a 200 x 100-mm rectangular cross
section. The normal stress on plane a-a is 12.00 MPa (C)
when the load P is applied. If angle 36°, determine: (a) load
P (b) shearing stress on plane a-a (c) magnitudes of
maximum normal and shearing stress in the block.

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Solution to Example 19

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Allowable Stress Design
 To ensure the safety of a structural member or
mechanical element, it is necessary to restrict the applied
load to one that is less than the load the member (or
element) can fully support.
 In order to account for uncertainty in:
 Dimensions of structure
 Magnitude of applied loads
 Variability of mechanical properties of the structure
 etc

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Allowable Stress Design


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Allowable Stress Design


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Limit State Design
 The term limit state is used to describe a condition at
which a structure or some part of a structure ceases to
perform its intended function.
 Strength limit states are based on the safety or load-
carrying capacity of structures and include buckling,
fracture, fatigue, overturning, and so on.
 Serviceability limit states refer to the performance of
structures under normal service loads and are concerned
with the uses and/or occupancy of structures.
Serviceability is measured by considering the magnitudes
of deflections, cracks, and vibrations of structures.

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Limit State Design
 Since uncertainty can be considered using statistics and
probability theory, in structural engineering there has
been an increasing trend to separate load uncertainty
from material uncertainty.
 Limit State design is also called Load and Resistance Factor
Design.

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Limit State Design


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Example
 The control arm is subjected to the loading shown.
Determine to the nearest 14 in the required diameters of
the steel pins at A and C if the allowable shear stress for
the steel is tallow = 8 ksi.

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Solution

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Example
 The 400-kg uniform bar AB shown in Fig. 1–28a is
supported by a steel rod AC and a roller at B. If it
supports a live distributed loading of 3 kNm, determine
the required diameter of the rod. The failure stress for
the steel is σfail = 345 MPa. Use the LRFD method, where
the resistance factor for tension is φ = 0.9 and the load
factors for the dead and live loads are γD = 1.2 and γL =
1.6, respectively.

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Solution

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Example
 The joint is fastened together using two bolts. Determine
the required diameter of the bolts if the failure shear
stress for the bolts is τfail = 350 MPa. Use a factor of
safety for shear of F.S. = 2.5.

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Example
 The aluminum bracket A is used to support the centrally
applied load of 8 kip. If it has a constant thickness of 0.5
in., determine the smallest height h in order to prevent a
shear failure. The failure shear stress is τfail = 23 ksi. Use a
factor of safety for shear of F.S. = 2.5.

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Example
 The rods AB and CD are made of steel. Determine their
smallest diameter so that they can support the dead loads
shown. The beam is assumed to be pin connected at A
and C . Use the LRFD method, where the resistance
factor for steel in tension is φ = 0.9, and the dead load
factor is γD = 1.4. The failure stress is σfail = 345 MPa

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