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SSPC Protective Coatings Inspector

(PCI) Program

July 2015

40 24th Street, Sixth Floor

Pittsburgh, PA 15222 - 4656
Phone: 412-281-2331
Fax: 412-281-9993
Online: www.sspc.org
Copyright 2015 SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings

Version 1, May 2005

SSPC Protective Coatings Inspector (PCI)

Program

July 2015

40 24th Street, Sixth Floor

Pittsburgh, PA 15222 - 4656
Phone: 412-281-2331
Fax: 412-281-9993
Online: www.sspc.org
Copyright 2015 SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings
SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings
is an international association focused on the protection and preservation of steel, concrete, and
other industrial and marine structures and surfaces through the use of protective coatings. SSPC is
the leading source of information on surface preparation, coating selection, coating application, envi-
ronmental regulations, and health and safety issues — as they relate to the industrial protective coat-
ings industry.

The association’s many services include standards, training courses, certification programs, publica-
tions, conferences, and a variety of online resources. SSPC currently has over 900 company mem-
bers and more than 10,500 individual members worldwide.

SSPC offers you:

Abrasive Blasting Program (C7)

Aerospace Coating Application Specialist Certification Program (ACAS)
Applicator Train-the-Trainer Program
Applicator Training Basics (ATB) eCourse
Applicator Training Specialty Module CDs
Basics of Concrete Surface Preparation eCourse
Basics of Estimating Industrial Coatings Projects
Basics of Nonferrous eCourse
Basics of Steel Surface Preparation eCourse
Bridge Coatings Inspector Program (BCI)
Bridge Maintenance: Conducting Coating Assessments
Coating Application Specialist Certification Program (CAS)
Concrete Coating Basics
Concrete Coating Inspector Program (CCI)
CCI Supplement: Determining the Level of Moisture in Concrete
Developing an Effective Coating Specification
Evaluating Common Coating Contract Clauses
Floor Coating Basics
Fundamentals of Protective Coatings (C1)
Fundamentals of Protective Coatings (C1) eCourse
Inspecting Containment
Inspection Planning and Documentation
Lead Paint Removal (C3)
Lead Paint Removal Refresher (C5)
Lead Paint Worker Safety
Marine Coatings
Marine Coatings eCourse
Marine Plural Component Program (MPCAC, C14)
Master Coatings Inspector Certificate (MCI)
Natural and Accelerated Weathering of Coatings
Navigating Standard Item 009-32
NAVSEA Basic Paint Inspector (NBPI)
Planning and Specifying Industrial Coatings Projects (C2)
Planning and Specifying Industrial Coatings Projects (C2) eCourse
Plural Component Application for Polyureas and High-Solids Coatings
Project Management for the Industrial Painting Contractor
Protective Coatings Inspector Program (PCI)
Protective Coating Inspector--One-Day Workshop
Protective Coatings Inspector Program (PCI) Online
Protective Coatings Specialist (PCS) Program
Quality Control Supervisor (QCS)
Quality Control Supervisor (QCS) eCourse
Selecting Coatings
Spray Applicator Certification (C12)
Thermal Spray Training
Using SSPC PA 2 Effectively
Webinars
Waterjetting Program (C13)

Standards and Publications

Annual Conference

Online Services
www.sspc.org

Monthly Journal
Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings

For more information call SSPC toll-free in the U.S. at 877-281-7772; outside of the U.S. at 412-
281-2331; or visit us online at www.sspc.org.

The techniques, procedures, referenced regulations and standards, and other information
presented in this SSPC training program have been reviewed by technical experts and
every reasonable effort has been made to present accurate and up-to-date information at
the time of publication.

While every precaution has been taken to ensure that all of the information contained
herein is as accurate and complete as feasible, it must be understood that regulations,
standards and practices do change periodically in between publication dates of SSPC
training materials. Every SSPC training program is reviewed and revised regularly to
reflect these changes; however, SSPC cannot assume responsibility or obligation for any
use or misuse of this information or misinterpretation of the standards and practices
discussed.

The student is advised to always consult the latest version of a regulation or standard for
a review of current practice and correct procedures. Students are also welcome to contact
SSPC to suggest revisions for future editions of the training materials contained herein.
Table of Contents

Introduction

Welcome and Course Introduction...................................................................................................... I-1

Participation Guidelines...................................................................................................................... I-2
The Course Syllabus........................................................................................................................... I-2
An Introduction to SSPC’s Protective Coatings Inspector Training .................................................. I-3
Module One: Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of
High Performance Coatings.......................................................................................................... I-3
Module Two: The Roles of Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC)
Inspectors on a Coatings Project.................................................................................................. I-4
Module Three: Surface Preparation.................................................................................................... I-4
Module Four: Practical Arithmetic for the Coatings Inspector........................................................... I-6
Module Five: Coating Mixing, Thinning, and Application................................................................ I-6
Module Six: Industrial Protective Coatings and Coating Systems..................................................... I-8
Module Seven: Specialty Inspection Projects..................................................................................... I-8
Module Eight: Coating Failures and Methods of Prevention............................................................. I-9
Module Nine: Inspector Safety........................................................................................................... I-9
Module Ten: Coatings Specifications................................................................................................. I-9
Module Eleven: Pre-construction Conference and Inspection Procedure Development.................. I-10
Module Twelve: Project Inspection Workshop................................................................................. I-10
Module Thirteen: International Maritime Organization (IMO)........................................................ I-11
SSPC Protective Coatings Inspector Training and Certification Program........................................ I-11
Use of Materials and Textbooks........................................................................................................ I-13
An Orientation to the Coatings Industry and Key Organizations..................................................... I-13
Learning Outcomes........................................................................................................................... I-14

Module 1: Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High

Performance Coatings

Corrosion Defined...............................................................................................................................1-1
The Role of Protective Coatings in Preventing/Slowing Corrosion...................................................1-2

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The Fundamentals of Corrosion..........................................................................................................1-2
Energy Required to Convert Ores into Metals....................................................................................1-4
Dissimilar Metals................................................................................................................................1-5
Corrosion Versus Oxidation................................................................................................................1-6
What is Steel?.....................................................................................................................................1-6
Weathering Steel.................................................................................................................................1-7
How Coatings Protect the Substrate from Corrosion..........................................................................1-7
Additional Cathodic Protection...........................................................................................................1-8
Summary...........................................................................................................................................1-12

Module 2a: The Roles of QA and QC Inspection Personnel on a Coatings

Project

Quality Assurance vs. Quality Control.............................................................................................2a-1

Pre-construction (Pre-job) Conference.............................................................................................2a-7
Development of an Inspection Procedure (Plan)..............................................................................2a-9

Module 2b: Ethics (U.S. only)

Ethics.................................................................................................................................................2b-1

Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and

Inspection

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................3-1
Module 3 Learning Outcomes............................................................................................................3-2
Overview.............................................................................................................................................3-2
The Inspector’s Role...........................................................................................................................3-3
Purpose of Surface Preparation...........................................................................................................3-3
Inspection of Surface Preparation.......................................................................................................3-3
Review of Industry Standards.............................................................................................................3-4
Pre-surface Preparation Inspection.....................................................................................................3-7
Preparation of Welds in Tanks and Vessels for Immersion Service....................................................3-8
Testing for Chemical Contamination................................................................................................3-16
How Do I Test for Soluble Salt Contamination?..............................................................................3-17
How Do I Test for Specific Ions and Conductivity?.........................................................................3-17
Selecting a Field Sampling and Testing Method..............................................................................3-18
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Methods of Sample Collection

Surface Sampling Method A: Surface Swabbing (Swab SCAT Kit)................................................3-20

Surface Sampling Method B: Latex Sleeve (Chlor*TestTM SCAT Kit)............................................3-20
Surface Sampling Method C: Latex Cell (Bresle PatchTM and BresleSampler®)............................3-20

Methods of Sample Testing

Converting Between Surface Conductivity and Surface Concentration...........................................3-21

Analyzing Surface Extactions for the Sulfate Ion.............................................................................3-24
Measuring Ambient Conditions........................................................................................................3-23
Using Electronic Psychrometers to Measure Ambient Conditions...................................................3-24
Using Surface Temperature Measuring Instruments.........................................................................3-26
Calibrating Instruments for Measuring Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature..................3-27
Documenting Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature..........................................................3-27
Dehumidification...............................................................................................................................3-28
Assessing Lighting and Surface Cleanliness....................................................................................3-31
Methods of Surface Preparation........................................................................................................3-33
Selecting a Visual Standard..............................................................................................................3-39
Using SSPC-VIS 3, “Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Surfaces Prepared by
Power and Hand Tool Cleaning”................................................................................................3-41
Using SSPC-VIS 1, “Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Surfaces Prepared by
Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning”....................................................................................................3-59
Using SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9, “Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Surfaces
Prepared by Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning”................................................................................3-68
Conducting a Compressed Air Cleanliness (Blotter) Test................................................................3-76
Abrasives...........................................................................................................................................3-78
Abrasive Cleanliness.........................................................................................................................3-82
Measuring Surface Profile Depth......................................................................................................3-83
Using the Surface Profile Comparator..............................................................................................3-85
Using the Surface Profile Depth Gage..............................................................................................3-85
Using Replica Tape .........................................................................................................................3-85
Calibrating Surface Profile Measuring Instruments..........................................................................3-86
Documenting Surface Profile Measurements ...................................................................................3-87
Using Portable Stylus Instruments for Determining Peak Density...................................................3-87
Waterjetting.......................................................................................................................................3-89
SSPC/NACE Joint Surface Preparation Standards Waterjetting of Metals......................................3-90

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Using SSPC-VIS 4 /NACE VIS 7, “Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel Surfaces
Prepared by Waterjetting”...........................................................................................................3-92
Chemical Stripping...........................................................................................................................3-99
Inspection of Surfaces for Primer Application................................................................................3-100
Summary.........................................................................................................................................3-102

Instrument Use Supplement...............................................................................................3-137

Using Psychrometers to Measure Ambient Conditions......................................................................1-2

Using Electronic Psychrometers to Assess Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature...............1-8
Using Surface Temperature Measuring Instruments.........................................................................1-17
Calibrating Instruments for Measuring Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature..................1-19
Documenting Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature..........................................................1-20
Using the Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator...........................................................................2-2
Using Digital Surface Profile Gages...................................................................................................2-5
Using Replica Tape...........................................................................................................................2-10
Calibrating Surface Profile Measuring Instruments..........................................................................2-14
Documenting Surface Profile Measurements....................................................................................2-15
How to Test for Soluble Salt Contamination......................................................................................4-2
How to Test for Specific Ions and Conductivity.................................................................................4-3
Selecting a Field Sampling and Testing Method................................................................................4-4
Collecting a Sample............................................................................................................................4-6
Surface Sampling Method B.............................................................................................................4-10
Surface Samping Method C..............................................................................................................4-12
Testing the Collected Samples..........................................................................................................4-18
Sample Testing Method 5: Conductivity..........................................................................................4-31
Combination Extraction and Analysis..............................................................................................4-35

Module 4: Practical Arithmetic for the Protective Coatings Inspector

Learning Outcome..............................................................................................................................4-1
Introduction.........................................................................................................................................4-2
Averaging a Set of Values...................................................................................................................4-2
Converting Percentages to Decimal Format.......................................................................................4-4
Calculating Area..................................................................................................................................4-5
Converting Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Content Values.....................................................4-17
Converting Temperature...................................................................................................................4-18
Converting Units Used to Express Coating Thickness and Surface Profile Depth...........................4-19
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Calculating Wet Film Thickness.......................................................................................................4-20
Calculating the Target Wet Film Thickness......................................................................................4-20
Calculating Coating Coverage Rates and Estimating Material Quantities.......................................4-26
Summary...........................................................................................................................................4-31

Module 5: Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview

and Inspection Techniques

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................5-1
Learning Outcomes.............................................................................................................................5-2
The Inspector’s Role...........................................................................................................................5-2
Review of SSPC Standards for Coating Application..........................................................................5-3
Coating Manufacturer’s Technical Data Bulletins/Product Data Sheets............................................5-4
Material Receipt Inspection and Storage Conditions........................................................................5-14
Inspection of Mixing, Thinning and Application of Coatings..........................................................5-16
Measuring Coating Temperature.......................................................................................................5-19
Documentation and Reporting Procedures Relating to Inspection of Coating Mixing....................5-20
Coating Mixing Procedures..............................................................................................................5-20
Coating Thinning Procedures...........................................................................................................5-24
Inspecting Thinning Procedures.......................................................................................................5-27
Documentation and Reporting Procedures Relating to Inspection of Thinning (reducing).............5-28
Coating Application Methods...........................................................................................................5-28
Spray Technique................................................................................................................................5-35
Calculating Wet Film Thickness.......................................................................................................5-37
Calculating the Target Wet Film Thickness......................................................................................5-38
Measuring Wet Film Thickness........................................................................................................5-43
Measuring Dry Film Thickness........................................................................................................5-44
Measuring the Thickness of Individual Layers Using Destructive Means.......................................5-51
Documentation Procedures Relating to Inspection of Dry Film Thickness.....................................5-53
Assessing Intercoat Cleanliness........................................................................................................5-54
Detecting Amine Exudate (Blush) on Polyamide and Polyamide-Cured Surfaces..........................5-54
Documentation Procedures Relating to Verification of Intercoat Cleanliness and
Conformance to Recoat Intervals...............................................................................................5-55
Assessing Coating Cure....................................................................................................................5-55
Assessing Coating Film Hardness....................................................................................................5-57
Measuring Adhesion.........................................................................................................................5-60
Detecting Pinholes and Holidays .....................................................................................................5-63

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Verifying the Accuracy of High Voltage Holiday Detectors.............................................................5-65
Inspecting Fluorescent Coating Systems..........................................................................................5-66
Summary...........................................................................................................................................5-68

Instrument Use
Supplement...............................................................................................5-101

Calculating Target Wet Film Thickness..............................................................................................5-2

Measuring Wet Film Thickness..........................................................................................................5-5
Adjusting and Using the Elcometer®456 wht PINIP™ Probe.........................................................6-23
Adjusting and Using the Fischer Dualscope® MPOR.....................................................................6-27
What is a Tooke Gage?.......................................................................................................................8-1
Measuring Adhesion by the Knife Test (ASTM D6677)..................................................................9-11
Measuring Pull-Off Adhesion (ASTM D4541; ASTM D7234).......................................................9-13
Measuring Adhesion Using the Elcometer® Model 106..................................................................9-15
Measuring Adhesion Using the HATE® Adhesion Tester................................................................9-22
Measuring Adhesion Using the PATTI® Quantum Series Analog Adhesion Tester........................9-28
Measuring Adhesion Using the PosiTest® AT Adhesion Tester.......................................................9-38
Special Requirements for Tensile Adhesion Testing of Coatings on Concrete.................................9-45
Tensile Adhesion Testing: Record the Type and Location of Break.................................................9-47
What are Pinholes and Holidays?.....................................................................................................10-1
Selecting a Holiday Detector............................................................................................................10-2
Using a Low-Voltage (Wet Sponge) Holiday Detector.....................................................................10-3
Using a High-Voltage (Spark) Holiday Detector..............................................................................10-6
Verifying the Accuracy of High-Voltage Holiday Detectors..........................................................10-11

Module 6: Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................6-1
Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings Versus Paint.....................................................................6-3
Industrial/Marine Coatings: Components...........................................................................................6-3
Curing Mechanisms............................................................................................................................6-8
Identifying the Service Environment................................................................................................6-10
Characteristics by Coating/Lining Type...........................................................................................6-11
Key Inspection Concerns by Coating/Lining Type...........................................................................6-14
Coating Systems Defined..................................................................................................................6-16
Coating System Selection.................................................................................................................6-17

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Performance Evaluation of Protective Coating Systems..................................................................6-28
Summary...........................................................................................................................................6-30

Module 7: Specialty Inspection Projects

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................7-1
Coatings Inspection in the Steel Fabrication Shop.............................................................................7-3
Inspection of Thermal (Metallized) Spray Coatings (TSC)................................................................7-6
Measuring the Thickness of Thermal Spray Coatings........................................................................7-8
Inspection of Powder Coatings...........................................................................................................7-9
Inspection of Galvanized Systems....................................................................................................7-11
Inspecting Overcoating Projects ......................................................................................................7-13
Inspecting on Projects Involving Removal of Toxic Metal Coatings...............................................7-18
Summary...........................................................................................................................................7-25

Module 8: Coating Failures: Consequences and Case Studies

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................8-1
The Role of the Coatings Inspector in Failure Avoidance..................................................................8-3
The Role of the Coatings Inspector in a Failure Investigation...........................................................8-3
Case Studies of Coating Failure..........................................................................................................8-4
Summary...........................................................................................................................................8-17

Module 9: Coatings Inspector Safety

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................9-1
General Safety Responsibilities of the Coatings Inspector.................................................................9-2
Inspector Medical Surveillance...........................................................................................................9-3
Safety Monitoring...............................................................................................................................9-3
Risks....................................................................................................................................................9-4
Types of Hazards.................................................................................................................................9-5
Other Hazardous Materials Encountered by Inspectors......................................................................9-9
Hazardous Environments..................................................................................................................9-10
Personal Protective Equipment.........................................................................................................9-15
Summary...........................................................................................................................................9-18

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Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................10-1
Learning Outcomes...........................................................................................................................10-1
Purpose of a Coatings Specification.................................................................................................10-2
Inspecting Against a Poorly Prepared Specification.........................................................................10-4
Inspecting When There is No Specification......................................................................................10-4
Specifying Coating Systems.............................................................................................................10-5
Components of a Coating Specification............................................................................................10-8
Summary.........................................................................................................................................10-12

Module 11: Specification Review and Pre-Construction Conference;

Inspection Plan Development for the Inspection of a “Bottomless” Tank
Lining Installation

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................11-1
Learning Outcomes...........................................................................................................................11-1

Module 12: Simulated QA/QC Inspection of “Bottomless” Tank Lining

Installation

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................12-1
Learning Outcome............................................................................................................................12-1
Workshop Instruction........................................................................................................................12-1

Module 13: IMO Requirements

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................13-1
Learning Outcome............................................................................................................................13-2
Purpose of Standard [Paragraph 1]...................................................................................................13-2
Definitions [Paragraph 2]..................................................................................................................13-3
General Principles [Paragraph 3.1-3.333].........................................................................................13-3
Coating Technical File [Paragraph 3.4]............................................................................................13-3
Coating Standard [Paragraph 4.1-4.3]..............................................................................................13-5
Basic Coating Requirements [Paragraph 4.4]...................................................................................13-5
Coating Inspection Requirements [Paragraph 6]..............................................................................13-7

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Appendix A: Comparison of SSPC and ISO Surface Preparation Standards
for Power- and Hand-Tool Cleaned Steel and Blast Cleaned Steel

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Course Schedule

Day One

7:30-9:00 Introduction

9:00-10:00 Module 1: Protecting Steel from Corrosion- The Role of Protective Coatings

10:00-10:15 BREAK

10:15-12:00 Module 2a: The Role of Quality Assurance and Quality Control Inspection Personnel
on a Coating Project

12:00-1:00 Lunch

1:00-2:00 Module 2b: Ethics Workshop (U.S. only; other students proceed to Unit 3)

2:00-4:00 Module 3: Surface Preparation- Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

4:00-4:15 BREAK

4:15-6:00 Module 3: Surface Preparation- Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

Night Read Modules 1-5 and complete Modules 1 and 2 quizzes and
Assignment: Module 3 Case Study

Day Two

7:30-8:00 Module 3 Workshop A

8:00-10:30 Module 3 Workshop B

10:30-12:00 Module 4: Arithmetic for the Coatings Inspector

12:00-1:00 Lunch

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Schedule

Day Two (con’t.)

1:00-2:00 Module 4 Workshop

2:00-3:30 Module 5: Coating, Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and
Inspection Techniques

3:30-3:45 BREAK

3:45-5:15 Module 5: Coating, Mixing, Thinning, and Application: Equipment Overview and
Inspection Techniques

5:15-6:00 Review Modules 1 and 2 quizzes and Module 3 Case Study

Night
Assignment: Read Module 6-8 and complete Modules 3, 4, and 5 quizzes

Day Three

7:30-8:30 Module 5 Case Study

8:30-9:00 Module 5 Workshop A

9:00-9:30 Module 5 Workshop B

9:30-9:45 BREAK

9:45-12:00 Module 5 Workshop C

12:00-1:00 Lunch

1:00-2:30 Module 6: Industrial Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

2:30-2:45 BREAK

2:45-4:45 Module 7: Specialty Inspection Projects

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Schedule

Day Three (con’t.)

4:45-5:45 Module 8: Coating Failures and Methods of Prevention

5:45-6:30 Review Modules 3, 4, and 5 quizzes

Night
Assignment: Read Modules 9-12 and complete Module 6,7, and 8 quiz

Day Four

7:30-8:30 Module 9: Inspector Safety

8:30-9:30 Module 10: Coating Specifications

9:30-9:45 BREAK

9:45-10:45 Module 10 Workshop

10:45-11:15 Module 10 Workshop Review

11:15-12:30 Lunch

12:30-3:00 Module 11: Simulated Preconstruction Conference; Inspection Procedure

Development

3:00-3:15 BREAK

3:15-4:15 Module 11: Simulated Preconstruction Conference; Inspection Procedure

Development

4:15-5:00 Module 6-8 quiz review

Night
Assignment: Read ALL Modules and complete quizzes 9 and 10

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Schedule

Day Five

8:00-11:00 Module 12: Simulated Project Inspection Workshop

11:00-11:15 Review of quizzes 9 and 10

11:15-12:30 Module 13: IMO Requirements and Quiz 13, Review of quiz 13

12:30-1:30 Lunch

1:30-5:30 Final Course Exam

Day Six

8:00-2:00 Final Certification Exam

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Introduction

Introduction

I Welcome and Course Introduction

Welcome to the SSPC Protective Coatings Inspector (PCI) Training

Program. The objective of this course is to thoroughly train individuals
in the proper methods of inspecting surface preparation and installation
of industrial and marine protective coatings and lining systems to
an array of industrial structures and facilities. The course provides
participants five days of intensive training and includes multiple
workshops and problem solving exercises so that participants may
immediately apply the learning in a classroom setting, without the
pressures of production and project schedules. In order to enhance the
learning environment and illustrate the importance of teamwork, the
workshops and exercises will be done in small teams. The teams will
be formed later during this introduction module.

This course is completed with a comprehensive written examination

and a practical (instrument use) examination, which will be graded by
the instructors and SSPC staff. SSPC is an approved training provider
through the International Association for Continuing Education and
Training (IACET). Therefore, participants scoring 70% or higher
on each of the examinations (written and practical) will be eligible
to receive Continuing Education Units (CEUs) from SSPC through
IACET.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Effective Feb. 11, 2008, the SSPC PCI program received an American
Bureau of Shipping (ABS) Certificate of Conformance stating that it
is considered to be equivalent to NACE Coating Inspector Level 2 and
FROSIO Inspector Level III when taught by instructors certified to
either of these programs with at least two years relevant experience.
This complies with IACS Procedural Requirement (PR) No. 34
Rev. 1 January 2008. Effective December 1, 2009, Lloyd’s Register,
the world’s largest commercial shipping classification society, has
approved SSPC’s Protective Coatings Inspector (PCI) program as
equivalent to NACE Coating Inspector Level 2 and FROSIO Inspector
Level III.

In addition, participants can pursue certification through SSPC

depending on industry experience and other prerequisites which will
be described later in this introduction module.

Participation Guidelines

Participants are urged to actively engage in the training by asking

questions, offering relevant observations, and learning as much as
possible about and from other members of their work teams. The
instructors will encourage you to ask for clarifications whenever you
need them. If you feel an instructor is moving over significant material
too quickly, ask them to slow the pace or repeat an important point.
You will find that, whenever possible, the instructors are willing to
help you during breaks and over lunch, even at the end of a training
day.

The Course Syllabus

The following section includes a short syllabus of the thirteen

modules, a description of the hands-on workshops and problem
solving exercises.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

An Introduction to SSPC’s Protective Coatings

Inspector Training

The introduction to SSPC’s Protective Coatings Inspector Training

is an orientation to the training, and as such, provides a backdrop for
the course, including the history of industrial coatings as a protector
of steel against corrosion and deterioration. This overview also
explores other influences on the development of new industrial
coating products. The relationship of quality control practices and
successful coating projects is another focal point. Also addressed are
the problems associated with premature coating failures, including a
perspective on causes and prevention. The introductory module ends
with the course learning outcomes, training participation guidelines,
industry acronyms, common terminology, and a syllabus of each
module. This is also the module where participants are introduced to
the instructors and to each other and where housekeeping items are
addressed.

Module One: Protecting Metal Surfaces From

Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings

Module One explains how coatings protect metal surfaces from

corroding. Corrosion is a process where metals give up energy and
return to their natural state. Some metals have a stronger propensity
to corrode than others, but all metals corrode eventually. Only four
elements need to be present for corrosion to occur: an anode, a
cathode, a metallic pathway, and an electrolyte. While the corrosion
of metal surfaces cannot be completely halted, it can be slowed. The
most widely used method to prevent/slow corrosion today, particularly
on carbon steel, is the application of high performance coatings.
Module One explains how today’s high performance coatings use
barrier protection, sacrificial or cathodic protection, and inhibitive
protection to protect modern day steel structures from the inevitable
process of deterioration and decay. There is no workshop for Module
One.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Module Two: The Roles of Quality Assurance (QA)

and Quality Control (QC) Inspectors on a Coatings
Project

Module Two compares the roles of QA and QC inspectors on coatings

projects. All too often, the lines between the QC and the QA on a
coatings project get blurred. When that happens, the scope of work
and responsibility for that work can get blurred in the process. This
module is designed to clarify the common roles and responsibilities
of both the contractor’s QC inspector and the Owner’s QA inspector.
This is a textbook: the way it would work in a perfect world, but it is
helpful to know how things “could/should” work before getting caught
up in the day to day rush of a real world coatings project. Module
Two compares and contrasts the role of the QA and QC inspector on
a typical coatings project. The commonalties are explored, including
understanding the specification, reviewing the product data sheets (the
PDS) and the material safety data sheets (the MSDS), comprehending
the industry standards relevant to the specific project, documenting
hold or checkpoints, and understanding paper trails. Module Two also
explores the critical differences in the two roles, including issues of
authority, reporting, testing, and documentation (which again, depend
on the scope of work and the specification). Another issue explored by
this module is the management of nonconformities.

Module Three: Surface Preparation

Module Three explains the inspection of surface preparation.

Preparing the surface in accordance with the specification can be the
most costly phase of a coatings operation, and it is always critical to
the project’s success. Surface preparation has a major focus in this
training program, which covers in detail common standards used
throughout the industry. The initial phase of pre-surface preparation
and the inspection hold points are covered first, detailing the problems
of weld spatter, edges, and repair areas. Surface preparation, which
follows, covers the many methods used to clean and roughen
surfaces, with a special emphasis on dry abrasive blast cleaning. The
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and SSPC: The
Society for Protective Coatings have developed a series of consensus
standards to govern surface cleanliness requirements. This module will
explore the content of these standards including descriptions of what

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

must be removed from the surface and what may remain on the surface
for each standard. In addition to the surface preparation standards,
the training will also focus on means and methods, including: blast
cleaning equipment, a variety of abrasives, wet and dry abrasive blast
cleaning, centrifugal blast cleaning, vacuum blast cleaning, hand
and power tools, and water jetting. An overview of methods used to
prepare concrete surfaces and the inspection processes involved with
the preparation of concrete are included in this module. Methods for
controlling the environment during surface preparation are described.
The final focal points for Module Three are the common inspection
checkpoints for surface preparation and the methods used to verify
adherence to the specification.

Module Three Inspection Case Study: Surface Preparation

of the Interior and Exterior of an Elevated Potable Water
Storage Tank

Participants are provided with a project description that presents

quality issues associated with surface preparation activities on an
elevated water storage tank. Participants work in teams to address the
issues from an inspector’s perspective.

Module Three Workshop A: Comprehension of SSPC

Surface Cleanliness Standards

Participants are provided with a matrix containing various components

to the written SSPC surface cleanliness standards and 14 of the 15
SSPC surface cleanliness codes. Participants complete the matrix
on their own, then compare and defend answers as a team prior to
revealing the team answers to the class using a team spokesperson.

Module Three Workshop B: Use of Instruments, Standards

and Test Kits for Surface Preparation Inspection

Participants work in teams using SSPC surface cleanliness visual

guides, instruments for measuring surface profile depth, light meters,
and kits for assessing the cleanliness of abrasive and for assessing
surface concentrations of chloride. The use of conductivity meters,
and equipment for assessing dust on prepared surfaces is also included
in the workshop. Participants transfer the workshop answers from the
worksheets to SSPC inspection documentation forms. Data generated

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during the workshop is compared to specification requirements.

Participants record whether the results of their inspections indicate
conformance to the specification.

Module Four: Practical Arithmetic for the Coatings

Inspector

Module Four reviews practical arithmetic skills used by the coatings

inspector. Coatings inspectors frequently need to apply basic
arithmetic skills to everyday inspections. This module provides a
review of common arithmetic associated with coatings inspection,
including: converting percentages to decimal format; calculating area;
calculating volume, converting from specific weight to percentage of
thinner addition; converting VOC values; converting temperatures, and
converting units of measurement for surface profile depth and paint
thickness (mils to microns and back). A special session on calculating
coating material quantities based on theoretical and practical coverage
rates is also included in this module.

Module Four Workshop:

Participants are challenged with sample problems (based on life-like

inspection scenarios) that require application of the arithmetic skills
acquired in Module 4. A calculator is required for this workshop.

Module Five: Coating Mixing, Thinning, and

Application

Module Five explains the inspection of coating mixing, thinning

and application. Experts claim that poor application, along with
inadequate surface preparation, cause the majority of all industrial
coating failures. This module will overview the various methods used
to apply coatings, including conventional (air) spray, airless spray,
HVLP, air-assisted airless spray, plural component spray and brush
& roller. The advantages and limitations of each method, along with
proper technique will be emphasized. Module Five will continue with
the inspection of mixing, thinning, and coating application processes,
including measuring ambient conditions, witnessing and documenting

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

mixing and thinning procedures, wet and dry film measurements, use
of the destructive gages to determine the thickness of individual layers
in a coating system, pinhole/holiday detection, adhesion, and coating
hardness and curing tests. The unique aspects associated with coating
of concrete complete Module Five.

Module Five Inspection Case Study: Application of

Coatings to the Interior and Exterior of an Elevated Potable
Water Storage Tank

Participants are provided with a project description that presents

quality issues associated with coating application activities on an
elevated water storage tank. Participants work in teams to address the
issues from an inspector’s perspective.

Module Five Workshop A: Navigating a Coating Product

Data Sheet (PDS)

Participants are provided with a coating manufacturer’s PDS and a

list of inquiries. Teams of participants navigate through the PDS and
answer each of the inquiries. The workshop teaches where the most
useful information is on a data sheet, and enforces the importance of
the document and the importance of reviewing the document before a
project begins.

Module Five Workshop B: Use of Instruments for Coating

Application Inspection

Participants work in teams using instruments for: assessing ambient

conditions and surface temperature; calculating wet film thickness
(with and without thinner addition); measuring dry film thickness
using Type 1 and Type 2 coating thickness gages; determining
conformance to SSPC-PA2; measuring dry film thickness using
destructive gages; detecting pinholes and holidays using low voltage
holiday detectors; and measuring adhesion. Participants transfer
the workshop answers from the worksheets to SSPC inspection
documentation forms. Data generated during the workshop is
compared to specification requirements. Participants record
whether the results of their inspections indicate conformance to the
specification.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Module Five Workshop C: Identification of Coating Film

Defects

Color photographs of various coating defects are provided. Participants

work in teams to identify the defects and their likely causes.

Module Six: Industrial Protective Coatings and

Coating Systems

Module Six introduces the basic components in an industrial coating:

non-volatiles and volatiles. Subsequently, VOC (volatile organic
compound) regulations will be explored in the context of what a
QC or QA inspector should know about monitoring and reporting
the addition of thinner to coating products and the actual quantity of
VOC emitted into the atmosphere during application. In Module Six,
participants will also learn how coatings cure. An overview of coating
types and coating characteristics will be followed by key inspection
concerns by specific coating type. Module Six includes an overview
of common coating systems used in a number of industries including:
water storage/tanks; power generation (both coal and nuclear); waste
water treatment; pulp and paper; lock and dam; chemical plants;
buried pipeline; food and beverage; ships/marine vessels and highway/
bridges. The unit concludes with an explanation of how coating
systems are evaluated for performance.

Module Seven: Specialty Inspection Projects

Module Seven describes non-routine inspection projects that can

pose special challenges to the coatings inspector. Inspecting in
the fabrication shop, powder coating applications, thermal spray
coating (metallizing) applications, and application of liquid coatings
to galvanizing (duplex system) present a different set of challenges
for a coatings inspector, as does maintenance painting in the field
when overcoating becomes the maintenance strategy. The unique
aspects of these types of inspections are described in Module Seven.
Additionally, many existing industrial structures contain coatings
with toxic metal ingredients. The hazards associated with removal,

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

handling and disposal when these coatings are “disturbed” during

maintenance painting operations must be controlled. The inspector
may have responsibility for verifying proper set-up and maintenance
of containment and ventilation systems, assuring proper worker
protection, monitoring air, soil and water quality, and assuring proper
handling and disposal of hazardous waste streams.

Module Eight: Coating Failures and Methods of

Prevention

Module Eight explains how knowledgeable coatings inspectors can

help avoid coating failure. The role of the coatings inspector and the
types of inspection activities that can play a role in preventing the
failures are described. Case histories of actual coating failures are
presented to the training group. The cause, fault and repair procedures
are explored, and avoidance methods are discussed.

Module Nine: Inspector Safety

Module Nine describes basic inspector safety. Fabrication shops

and construction sites often pose significant safety concerns for a
coatings inspector. While Module nine is not designed to provide
comprehensive safety training, it makes the coatings inspector
aware of potential hazards and methods of prevention. Safety
issues described in Module Nine include fall prevention/protection,
respiratory protection, sight and hearing protection, protection from
toxic metals, and confined space entry hazards. Module Nine also
describes the purpose of site-specific environmental, safety and health
hazards planning and the inspector’s responsibility for personal safety.

Module Ten: Coatings Specifications

Module Ten explains the purpose and content of coatings

specifications. The coatings specification is the inspector’s “rule
book” for a coatings project. It describes the scope of work and the
requirements of the contract, as well as lists the inspection checkpoints
that the inspector will be responsible for. The importance of a properly

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

prepared coatings specification and the general layout and components

in a specification are described in Module Ten. A sample specification
is provided, which will be used for the Module Ten workshop, and in
Modules Eleven and Twelve.

Module Ten Workshop:

The sample coating specification provided to the participants in

Module Ten is supplemented with a series of inquiries. Teams of
participants work together to navigate through the specification and
locate the answers to each of the inquiries, then note the section of the
specification where the information was found.

Module Eleven: Pre-construction Conference and

Inspection Procedure Development

Module Eleven describes the purpose and content of a pre-construction

conference and explains how to prepare an inspection plan. After
a careful review of the project specification during the Module
Ten workshop, a preconstruction conference will be conducted.
Participants are provided with an agenda of discussion items, and
Product Data and MSDS for the coatings selected for the project.
The course instructors represent the facility owner and the coating
manufacturer, while the participants represent the inspector (QA or
QC).

After the pre-construction conference is completed and actions

documented, the participants each develop an inspection procedure
based on the project specification and any outcomes of the conference.
The inspection procedure is used during the simulated coatings
inspection project (Module Twelve).

Module Twelve: Project Inspection Workshop

Module Twelve includes an inspection workshop which enables the

participants to apply learned skills from the previous eleven modules.
Inspection stations are equipped with instruments, visual guides and
miscellaneous equipment and test plates. Participants work in small

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

groups to perform inspections at each station, document the results

of the inspections and compare the results to the project specification
provided in Module Ten and the inspection procedures developed in
Module Eleven. After all groups have completed all of the stations,
the participants reconvene and discuss any problems and non-
conformities observed.

Module Thirteen: International Maritime

Organization (IMO)

Module thirteen provides training to the coating inspector on the major

requirement of the IMO PSPC (Performance Standard for Protective
Coatings) MSC.215(82), “Performance Standard for Protective
Coatings for Dedicated Seawater Ballast Tanks in All Types of Ships
and Double-Side Skin Spaces of Bulk Carriers”.

SSPC Protective Coatings Inspector Training and

Certification Program

A candidate can choose one of three processes to achieve certification.

Process A – Achieving Certification After Completing the

PCI Course and Passing the PCI Course Exam

In order to qualify for the Certification Exam under Process “A,”

the candidate must successfully complete the PCI course, pass the
Course Exam, have documented a minimum of 3,000 hours of coating
inspection or related work experience, and possess 40 hours of SSPC
or approved formal coatings training.

Process B – Achieving Certification with Alternate

Inspection Training

The candidate seeking PCI Certification through Process “B” may take
the certification exam without taking the PCI training course as long
as the applicant passes the PCI Course Exam, possesses 80 hours of
formal industry training approved by SSPC, of which 40 hours must be

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formal inspection training equivalent to the body of knowledge of the

SSPC PCI inspection course.

Candidates who have already achieved NACE III Certification or

Frosio Certification can request an exemption from taking the PCI
Course Exam prior to sitting for the PCI Certification Exam.

In addition to possessing 80 hours of formal training, the candidate

must document a minimum of 3000 hours of coating inspection or
related work experience.

Process C – Achieving Certification Without Formal

Inspection Training

The process “C” candidate is eligible to take the Certification Exam by

documenting at least 7,500 hours of coating inspection or related work
experience. Even though a total of 7,500 hours of documented work
experience is required to sit for the PCI certification exam, a candidate
seeking PCI Certification under Process “C” must document at least
5,000 hours of experience before sitting for the PCI Course Exam.

Note – Examples of accepted work experience and approved training

can be found at www.sspc.org.

Passing Criteria

This course is completed with a comprehensive written examination

and a practical (instrument use) examination. Students passing both
components of the PCI Course Exam at 70% or higher can take the
written and practical certification exams. A passing grade of 80% or
higher on the written and practical certification exam is required to
become an SSPC Certified Protective Coatings Inspector.

If you fail the exam or component the second time, you must wait at
least six months before retaking the PCI training course and exams.

Anyone who is unable to pass the written course exam, the written
certification exam or the certification practical exam a third time
will be considered ineligible to participate in the PCI program for a
minimum of two years from the date of the last failed exam and will be
required to take the PCI course again to reenter the process.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

PCI Renewal

The PCI Basic Inspector level renewal term is four years from the
initial exam date. To renew at the PCI Basic Inspector Level, the
candidate must within four years take the PCI refresher course and
exam and document a minimum of 750 hours of coatings inspection
(or related) experience as it occurs during the four-year certification
period.

To renew certification for the SSPC Certified Protective Coatings

Inspector the candidate must, within four years take the PCI refresher
course and exam and document a minimum of 2,000 hours of coatings
inspection (or related) experience as it occurs during their four years
certification term.

The PCI recertification exam is available online at http://www.

sspcelearning.org.

Use of Materials and Textbooks

All manuals given to you are yours to keep and therefore to write
in. The participant workbook is written in narrative form and is
augmented with PowerPoint® slides. The agenda follows this
text from beginning to end. There’s space allotted to take notes in
the margins. You can also use highlighters to highlight significant
information. If you get lost at any point, simply ask the instructor to
refer to the workbook page number that matches the information he
or she is covering. You will also be given an agenda, which provides
a day by day outline of the training sessions. Workshops and Quizzes
are provided in a separate workbook.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

An Orientation to the Coatings Industry and Key

Organizations

As part of this introduction, we’d like to review several key

organizations that work to organize and guide the industry toward safe,
efficient, and successful coating practices:

AISC ___________________________________________________
ANSI ___________________________________________________
API _____________________________________________________
ASTM __________________________________________________
AWS ____________________________________________________
AWWA __________________________________________________
CE _____________________________________________________
CSI _____________________________________________________
EPA _____________________________________________________
ICRI ____________________________________________________
ISO _____________________________________________________
NACE ___________________________________________________
NIST ____________________________________________________
NSF ____________________________________________________
OSHA ___________________________________________________
SSPC ___________________________________________________
UL _____________________________________________________

Common Industry Acronyms

CFM ____________________________________________________
DFT ____________________________________________________
IAW ____________________________________________________
MSDS ___________________________________________________
MIL ____________________________________________________
NCR ____________________________________________________
PDS ____________________________________________________
POA ____________________________________________________
PSI _____________________________________________________
QA _____________________________________________________
QC _____________________________________________________
RFI _____________________________________________________
TSC ____________________________________________________

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

VOC ____________________________________________________
WFT____________________________________________________

Other common terms:

Micrometer (Micron) _______________________________________

Mil _____________________________________________________
Mill Scale________________________________________________
Hold point/checkpoint_______________________________________

Learning Outcomes

There are sixty (60) learning outcomes associated with this training
course. They are listed below. The learning outcomes pertaining
to each of the thirteen modules are repeated prior to instructing the
respective module. Successful completion of this course will enable
participants to:

1. Describe the common duties, responsibilities and the role of an

industrial coatings inspector
2. Describe the authority of a coatings inspector
3. Explain the importance of thorough documentation
4. Identify the elements of a corrosion cell
5. Describe the corrosion of metal surfaces
6. Explain how industrial coatings control corrosion
7. Describe alternative methods used to protect carbon steel from
corrosion
8. Describe the differences between quality assurance and quality
control
9. Describe the common duties of quality assurance and quality
control personnel
10. Describe the purpose and content of a pre-job or preconstruction
conference
11. Explain the purpose of an inspection procedure/plan
12. Explain the importance of inspection personnel
13. Describe the importance of proper surface preparation
14. Explain the dual objective of surface preparation
15. Define the SSPC standards for surface preparation
16. Describe common methods used to prepare surfaces for coating
17. Describe methods used to control an environment during surface
preparation activities
18. Measure and record surface profile
19. Evaluate surface cleanliness

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

20. Apply practical arithmetic to coatings inspection

21. Describe the procedures associated with proper mixing, thinning,
and application of industrial coatings
22. Define the SSPC standards for coating application
23. Describe the role of the coating manufacturer on a coatings
project
24. Use MSDS and product data sheets to verify safe and proper
mixing, thinning and application of coatings
25. Describe the inspector’s role regarding coating material receipt
and storage
26. Measure and record ambient conditions and surface temperature
27. Calculate wet film thickness
28. Measure wet film thickness
29. Verify the currency of calibration and assess the accuracy of
nondestructive coating thickness gages
30. Measure coating thickness using nondestructive gages
31. Describe the SSPC standard for measurement of coating
thickness (SSPC-PA2)
32. Measure coating thickness using destructive methods
33. Detect pinholes and holidays
34. Measure coating adhesion
35. Evaluate coating cure
36. Measure coating hardness
37. Identify common coating defects
38. Describe methods used to verify intercoat cleanliness
39. Identify basic differences between house paint and industrial
protective coatings
40. List volatile and non-volatile components of a coating
41. Describe the functions of the resin, additives, pigments and
solvents in a coating
42. Describe methods by which coatings cure
43. Describe the procedures used to identify service environments
44. List advantages and limitations of various generic types of
industrial coatings
45. Describe functions of the primer, mid-coat and finish coat
46. Identify common coating systems used by various industries
47. Describe methods used to evaluate coating performance prior to
full scale installation
48. Describe the special inspection procedures associated with shop
painting, powder coatings, thermal spray coatings, and duplex
coating systems
49. Describe the unique aspects of performing coatings inspection on
an overcoating project
50. Describe the inspector’s role on projects involving disturbance of
coatings containing toxic metals
51. Describe how coatings inspection can help prevent premature
coating failure

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

52. Describe the function of a coating specification

53. List the basic components of a coating specification
54. List potential safety hazards associated with coatings inspection
55. Describe the personal protective equipment used by a coatings
inspector
56. Prepare an inspection plan/procedure
57. Perform coatings inspection on industrial projects
58. Compare inspection results to specification requirements
59. Apply requirements of the IMO PSPC (Performance Standard for
Protective Coatings) MSC.215(82), “Performance Standard for
Protective Coatings for Dedicated Seawater Ballast Tanks in All
Types of Ships and Double-Side Skin Spaces of Bulk Carriers”

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

1
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC I-18
Introduction
Introduction

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

2
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC I-19
Introduction
Introduction

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

3
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC I-20
Module 1 – Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings

Protecting Metal Surfaces From

Corrosion: The Role of High

1
Performance Coatings

Corrosion Defined

Corrosion can be defined as the deterioration of metallic surfaces,

such as carbon steel. Corrosion is a natural process, the propensity
or tendency of materials to “give up” energy and return to their
natural state. While it takes tremendous amounts of energy to convert
materials found in nature into usable materials for construction (like
carbon steel), these materials will release that energy and convert back
to their original state unless the process is stopped or slowed down.

Corrosion in Process

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

The Role of Protective Coatings in Preventing/

Slowing Corrosion

The most widely used method to prevent corrosion today, particularly

on carbon steel, is the application of high performance, protective
coatings. High performance coatings protect thousands of structures,
including: off-shore drilling rigs, ships,
storage tanks, sewage systems, power
plants, shipping containers, pipelines,
railway cars, refineries, and commercial
buildings.

Industrial protective coatings have been

around since the 1930s, but the industry
was given a boost during World War
II. The need to keep ships out to sea
longer and in dry dock less, led first to
the development of the epoxy resin, and
next to the polyamide epoxy, which had
better adhesion, some flexibility, and an increased resistance to water.
As the demand for the materials of war increased, the demand for
improvements to industrial coatings grew with it. Better adhesion,
faster cures, and better resistance to abrasion were some of the driving
forces, but the need to keep materials from corroding remained the
primary motivation for improvements to coatings.

The Fundamentals of Corrosion

This discussion about corrosion fundamentals will focus on metals.

Corrosion of metals is a natural process involving a chemical reaction
– actually an electrochemical reaction, meaning that electric current is
produced during the process. Corrosion will occur when four required
elements are all present (note that it is assumed that oxygen is always
present). If any one of the elements is missing, the corrosion process
will not proceed. The required elements, which compose a “corrosion
cell,” are:

1. Anode
2. Cathode
3. Metallic pathway (connecting the anode and cathode)
4. Electrolyte

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

The surface of carbon steel already contains three of the four elements:
the anode, cathode, and metallic pathway; only the electrolyte is
missing. An electrolyte is a liquid that contains ions or “charged
particles.” All salts (e.g., sodium or calcium chloride) form ions when
dissolved in water. Once the electrolyte is present, the process of
corrosion will proceed.

To analyze how the four elements of a corrosion cell work together

to produce the process of corrosion, we can use the example of a
common household battery.

Dry Cell Battery - Example of Galvanic

(Electrochemical) Corrosion

A corrosion cell is essentially a natural battery. The anode and its

counterpart, the cathode, represent negative and positive terminals of
the “battery.” During the chemical reaction process, electrical current
(or electrons) flows from the anode to the cathode via the metallic
pathway or connection. The electrolyte carries ions from the cathode
to the anode to complete the electrical circuit. The anode (negative
terminal) decays during this process while the cathode (positive
terminal) remains intact or “protected.” The only difference between
a corrosion cell and a manufactured battery is that the reaction process
is designed to produce an electrical current for a productive use in the
manufactured battery. A natural corrosion cell, however, is generally
destructive since the reaction process depletes or decays the anode.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

When the anode is depleted in a manufactured battery, the reaction

will stop and the battery will “die” since it can’t produce more energy.
When a corrosion cell is formed on a metal surface, some areas of
the metal act as the anode and other adjacent areas the cathode. The
corrosion reaction will not stop so easily since the anode may have a
near endless supply as corrosion (and the anode) spreads across the
surface of the steel.

Illustration of Corrosion Cell - Current Flows from

Anode to Cathode, Anode Decays in Electrolyte
Solution

Energy Required to Convert Ores into Metals

Most metals are not found in their pure state in nature, but rather as
ores where they are combined with oxygen and other elements. The
relative reactivity of metals is directly proportional to the amount
of energy required for their conversion from ore. The chart below
indicates how much energy is required to convert common metals to
their pure form. Note that there are some metals that do exist in their
pure form in nature such as gold, silver and copper; these metals are at
the stable end of the chart.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Most Energy to Convert

Common Metals
(Less Stable)
Zinc
Aluminum
Cast Iron
Carbon Steel
Stainless Steel, Type 430, active
Stainless Steel, Type 304, active
Stainless Steel, Type 410, active
Copper
Brass
Bronze
Stainless Steel, Type 430, passive
Nickel
Stainless Steel, Type 410, passive
Silver
Titanium
Stainless Steel, Type 304, passive
Stainless Steel, Type 316, passive
Zirconium
Platinum
Gold
Least Energy to Convert
(More Stable)

Dissimilar Metals

A corrosion cell can also be formed when two dissimilar metals

are in contact with one another. When two dissimilar metals are
connected, the metal that is higher in the chart – i.e., requires more
energy to convert to a pure metal – is the one that becomes the anode
and corrodes, while the other metal acts as the cathode. The physical
connection between the metals serves as a metallic pathway and water
or moisture typically serves as the electrolyte needed to complete
the cell. The metal that acts as the anode will decay while the other
“cathodic” metal remains intact. The anodic metal thereby provides
“cathodic protection” to the other metal.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Corrosion Versus Oxidation

The corrosion of some metals does not necessarily create a problem.

For example, aluminum will quickly oxidize (corrode) forming a
layer of aluminum oxide on the metal surface. But the aluminum
oxide layer essentially seals the metal surface and becomes protective
because it stays tightly adhered and is not porous. Copper is another
example of a metal the forms a protective oxide layer – in this case
the characteristic green color that forms as copper weathers (known as
“Patina”).

For many metals, however,

corrosion is a problem
because the oxidation of
the metal surface does not
stop after an initial layer is
formed. In the case of iron
(and steel), a porous layer of
Oxidation
iron oxide is formed which
is loosely held to the surface.
The porosity allows corrosion
to continue into the iron.

What is Steel?

When considering the corrosion of common carbon steel, we can look

at iron since it is the primary component of the steel that corrodes.
Steel is primarily composed of iron at concentrations from 95 to 99
percent by weight. The difference between ordinary steel and pure
iron is the addition of carbon (typically up to 2 percent) and other
elements. The carbon increases strength and adds other desirable
properties to the metal. A variety of steel alloys can be produced by
adding elements such as copper, chromium, nickel, or phosphorus (and
others). Some of these additions can produce a significant reduction in
the corrosion rate for particular steel alloys. One such alloy is known
as “weathering steel.”

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Weathering Steel

Weathering steels, also called high-strength, low-alloy steels (or

CORTEN, a US Steel trademark), provide greater resistance to
atmospheric corrosion than conventional carbon steels. In the
corrosion of weathering steel, the iron oxide layer becomes protective,
similar to other metals like aluminum or copper. The oxide layer
of weathering steel forms differently than for ordinary steel and its
appearance changes from the typical red-orange color of rust to a
dark purple as the weathering process proceeds. Weathering steel
is designed to remain uncoated but can be coated for additional
protection. Weathering steel is not recommended for certain
environments including severe industrial exposures, locations
subjected to salt-water spray, or continuous submergence in water.

How Coatings Protect the Substrate from

Corrosion

Corrosion of metals really cannot be completely stopped. Slowing

down the process as much as possible is the only option to preserve
the metal and this is where protective coatings play a crucial
role. Coatings are considered to function as a protective layer in
three different ways: by providing barrier, sacrificial or inhibitive
protection.

Barrier Protection

Barrier protection is the simplest way a coating functions as a

protective layer and refers to the physical barrier that is formed on
the substrate surface by any coating. This physical barrier prevents
air and water, which are necessary for corrosion, from reaching the
substrate. All coatings provide barrier protection, although some
coatings have characteristics that enhance the barrier function of the
coating. For example, coatings that contain micaceous iron oxide
(MIO) or aluminum flakes in their formulation form plate-like layers
(called lamellar pigments) in the coating film. Water or air cannot
penetrate the “plates” and must take a longer path to eventually reach
the substrate.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Sacrificial or Cathodic Protection

Coatings also may protect a substrate by providing sacrificial or

cathodic protection. This occurs when the coating layer contains
a metal that will act as the anode in the corrosion process, thereby
protecting the metal substrate (or cathode). Sacrificial coatings are
generally used as primers since the sacrificial metal must be in direct
contact with the metal substrate. Zinc is the most common sacrificial
metal used to protect iron-based steel materials. The best example
of this is with zinc-rich primers where zinc dust is added to the
coating formulation in amounts up to 90% by weight. A zinc layer
can also be formed on a steel substrate by metallizing or galvanizing
– both of which essentially deposit a solid zinc layer on the substrate.
Metallizing is accomplished by melting the zinc (and/or aluminum)
and spraying it onto the substrate surface using flame spray, electric arc
or plasma arc processes. Metallizing can be performed in the shop or
field at a project site. Galvanizing is completed by dipping steel parts
in a molten zinc bath. The galvanizing process generally provides
superior protection to metallizing for comparable zinc thicknesses,
with the obvious limitation that it can only be done in a factory or shop
setting for new steel before erection.

Inhibitive Protection

Some coatings also provide protection by containing inhibitive

pigments that disrupt or prevent typical corrosion reactions from
occurring. The mechanism by which inhibitors work is not always
clear, but the common theory is that the inhibitive materials react
or bind with water to prevent it from further penetrating the coating
film, or produce compounds that inhibit corrosion reactions. A good
example of an inhibitor is lead, which is no longer widely used in
coatings since it is a health and environmental hazard. Other inhibitive
pigments may include borates, chromates (which are restricted like
lead), phosphates or molybdates.

Additional Cathodic Protection

As previously described, coatings provide cathodic protection when

a component of the coating acts as a sacrificial metal to the substrate
(e.g., zinc coatings on steel). But additional cathodic protection can
be provided by passive or active means. Passive cathodic protection

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

(as with coatings) can be accomplished by attaching a dissimilar metal

directly to a metal substrate to act as a sacrificial anode. Of course the
other metal must be more reactive than the substrate to act as the anode
and become sacrificial. To protect steel substrates or structures, zinc
or aluminum are often the other (dissimilar) metals used. An example
of passive cathodic protection is when sections of zinc or aluminum
are attached to the underwater hull of a ship. The sections (anodes)
will corrode instead of the steel thereby protecting the ship’s hull in
the vicinity of the attachment points – note that multiple sacrificial
anodes are typically attached over the hull’s surface. This protection
is considered passive since corrosion (and cathodic protection) occurs
spontaneously via the natural process.

For some structures, however, the potential for corrosion can be

so great that passive cathodic protection may not provide adequate
protection. Such environments might included offshore platforms
or buried pipeline. In these cases, active cathodic protection can be
provided by applying or “impressing” an electrical current to the
structure (while also using a dissimilar metal to act as the anode). In
effect, the impressed current prevents the spontaneous reaction that
would normally take place in a natural corrosion cell from occurring
in the first place. An impressed current system requires an external
power source and must be specifically designed for the structure and
environment if it is to function properly. Maintenance and monitoring
of the system is required.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Summary

One definition of corrosion is the deterioration of metal surfaces.

Corrosion is a natural process, the tendency of materials to “give-up”
energy and return to their natural state. While it takes tremendous
amounts of energy to convert materials found in nature into usable
materials for construction, those same materials will readily release
that energy and convert back to their original state unless the process is
stopped or slowed down.

Corrosion is a natural process, which involves an electrochemical

reaction. In addition to oxygen, only four elements are needed for
corrosion to occur: an anode, a cathode, a metallic pathway, and an
electrolyte. These four elements in combination are referred to as a
corrosion cell. The surface of carbon steel contains three out of the
four elements; only the electrolyte is missing. Once the electrolyte
connects with the surface of carbon steel, the process of corrosion will
proceed.

When all four elements are present, corrosion occurs at the anode,
while the cathode remains intact or protected. This principle is used
to create products that can protect the steel substrate (cathodic or
sacrificial protection).

Most metals used in construction are not found in their pure state in
nature. They exist first as ores where they are combined with oxygen
and other elements. The more energy used to convert these metals to
usable materials, the greater the tendency to give that “energy up” and
return to a natural state (ore). Carbon steel has a strong tendency to
corrode, since it is “less stable” than metals like gold, platinum, and
silver. The addition of certain elements during the process of creating
steel can produce steel alloys with a significantly lower corrosion rate.
One such steel alloy is called weathering steel or CORTEN.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

The most widely used method to prevent corrosion, particularly

on carbon steel, is the application of high performance, protective
coatings. Coatings protect metal surfaces from corrosion using
three methods: barrier protection, sacrificial or cathodic protection,
and inhibitive protection. All coatings provide some type of barrier
protection, forming a physical barrier that prevents air and water from
reaching the substrate. Sacrificial or cathodic protection is provided
when a coating contains a metal which will become the anode in the
corrosion process, thereby protecting the metal substrate (or cathode).
Zinc is the most common sacrificial metal and is often added to
primers, where the zinc can come into direct contact with the steel
substrate. Pure zinc can also be melted and used to coat steel parts.
The metallizing process melts zinc and uses flame spray, electric arc,
or plasma arc to spray the zinc onto the substrate. Galvanizing is
completed by dipping steel parts into a molten zinc bath.

An additional method to provide passive cathodic protection (which is

also provided by sacrificial coatings) can be accomplished by attaching
a dissimilar metal directly to a metal substrate to act as a sacrificial
anode (usually pieces of zinc or aluminum). The sacrificial anode will
corrode instead of the steel.

For some structures, including offshore platforms and buried pipeline,

passive cathodic protection may not provide adequate protection.
By applying (impressing) an electric current to the structure, while
using a dissimilar metal to act as the anode, the current prevents the
spontaneous reaction (corrosion) from occurring in the first place.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC 1-13
Module 1 – Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings
Module 1 - Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2010 SSPC
©2013 SSPC 1-14
Module 1 – Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings
Module 1 - Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2010 SSPC
©2013 SSPC 1-15
Module 1 – Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings
Module 1 - Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2010 SSPC
©2013 SSPC 1-16
Module 1 – Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings
Module 1 - Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2010 SSPC
©2013 SSPC 1-17
Module 1 – Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings
Module 1 - Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

5
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2010 SSPC
©2013 SSPC 1-18
Module 2a - The Roles of QA and QC Personnel on a Coatings Project

The Roles of QA and QC Inspection

Personnel on a Coatings Project

2a Quality Assurance vs. Quality Control

Defining the Difference

It is more and more common to encounter specification requirements

for quality control (QC) and/or quality assurance (QA) on coatings
projects. Unfortunately, it is less common for specifications to define
the respective responsibilities of QC and QA personnel. All too often,
the lines between QC and QA get blurred.

This module is designed to clarify

the roles and responsibilities of the
contractor’s QC and the Owner’s QA
(sometimes called a third party inspector).

Quality Control (QC) is performing

necessary observations, testing and
documentation that verifies the work
performed meets or exceeds some
minimum standard as required by the
project specification (also known as “in-
process” inspection). Quality control is
the contractor’s responsibility. Quality
control involves the routine and systematic inspection and tests that

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

are conducted to verify that each phase of the work (hold point) is in
compliance with the specification.

Quality Assurance (QA) is defined as the process to verify that the

quality of work performed is actually what was reported by quality
control. Quality assurance is typically performed by the Owner (e.g.
facility project engineer) or a third party on behalf of the Owner.
Quality assurance is more of an audit function, used to verify that
the quality control is being performed, but may include conducting
actual testing on a spot or
periodic basis.

In simple terms, quality

assurance by the Owner
is meant to verify that
the quality control
implemented by the
contractor meets the
requirements of the
specification. Inspection of Dry Film Thickness

A coatings inspector can represent a variety of entities, and can serve

different roles based on the contractual relationships listed below.

1. The coatings inspector can perform quality control for the

painting contractor (hired as a consultant on a contract basis, or
as an SSPC QP5 certified inspection agency hired on a contract
basis). The QC inspector may not have the authority to direct
the contractor employees, but may report nonconformities to the
appropriate personnel for action.

2. The coatings inspector can perform quality control for the

painting contractor, as a member of the contractor’s staff.

3. The coatings inspector can perform quality assurance for the

prime contractor who is subcontracting the painting work to one
or more painting contractors.

4. The coatings inspector can perform independent, third party

quality assurance for a facility owner.

5. The coatings inspector can perform independent, third party

quality assurance for the coating supplier (e.g., single source
responsibility projects or warranty work).
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 2a-2
Module 2a - The Roles of QA and QC Personnel on a Coatings Project

Authority Roles

The distinction between Owner QA and third party QA is critical.

When the Owner performs his own QA (with direct staff), he has a
contractual relationship with the contractor, and therefore can exert
control through the contract (or by withholding payment) when
the operations are out of compliance. However, when an Owner
subcontracts third party QA, the third party QA does not have a
contractual relationship with the contractor; therefore, third party
QA typically can only advise and document the non-conformities
of the contractor’s operations and advise the contractor’s QC, other
contractor management staff, or the Owner. Both the Owner and the
third party QA representatives must be careful not to unduly interrupt
contractor operations due to potential legal liability or contract issues
regarding control of the work and costs related to work stoppages
(often referred to as delay or disruption).

Both QC and QA are necessary components to verifying specification

compliance. Most specifications and contract law make it clear that
the Owner (or third party) performing QA on a project does not relieve
the contractor of the responsibility of performing QC and meeting
contract requirements.

The International Standards Organization (ISO) advocates the use of

both QC and QA to achieve a total quality system.

Hold Point Inspection

The specific duties of the QC and the QA will vary from project to
project. The coating inspection process typically dictates that after
certain activities (e.g. surface preparation), work should be halted,
inspected, rework performed as necessary and accepted by the QC and
QA, before the contractor can move on to the next step of the painting
process. These specific inspection items are typically referred to as
“hold points.” Hold point inspections can involve visual observations
or tests and the results must be documented. In broad terms, hold
point inspections are typically performed during:
1. pre-cleaning
2. surface preparation
3. primer application
4. intermediate coat application
5. top coat application
6. cure
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 2a-3
Module 2a - The Roles of QA and QC Personnel on a Coatings Project

Hold point inspections will be discussed in more detail later.

A rule of thumb is that the QC inspection should occur first and any
non-conforming items identified by the QC should be corrected, re-
inspected and accepted by the QC. The QA observations should only
occur after the work (hold point) has been accepted by the QC. The
QA should then verify that the work that the QC accepted meets the
requirements of the specification. If the QA identifies non-conforming
items, they should be repaired and re-inspected before the QA accepts
the work and the contractor proceeds to the next step of the painting
process. It is often helpful, if not necessary, to have the QC or
foreman present during the QA observations, so that any deficiencies
can be identified and confirmed by both parties. This also allows the
contractor to clearly identify areas requiring rework to his workers.

The QA process typically includes both a review of tests or

documentation provided by the QC and duplicate QA testing of certain
hold points (e.g. dry film thickness measurements) as an audit function
to verify that the results reported by the QC are accurately reflecting
the conditions of the work. When results of QC and QA differ, the
QA observations typically supersede those of the QC. The actual
resolution of differing QC and QA observations should be discussed
and agreed upon in the pre-construction conference.

Roles of QA and QC

Historically, when the coating inspection concept began to evolve in

the 1970s, there was little distinction between the roles of QC and
QA. Most early coating inspection was performed as a response

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to the inspection parameters established in the nuclear power plant

construction industry and ANSI/ASME N45.2.6, Qualification of
Inspection, Examination and Testing Personnel for Construction
Phase of Nuclear Power Plants. ANSI N45.2.6 defined the coating
inspection tasks that were required during installation or maintenance
of nuclear facilities. They specifically applied to third party inspectors
retained by the Owner, performing hold point inspection of contractor
activities. As coating inspection expanded beyond the nuclear arena
and into other industry segments like transportation and water storage,
most Owners continued to rely on a third party inspector to verify that
contractor activities were performed according to the specification.
That is, the Owner’s representative performed all testing of the coating
inspection hold points.

In the 1990s and 2000s, Owners began to recognize that while third
party inspection was still desirable, it was not intended to replace QC
by the contractor. With the increased recognition of ISO, SSPC QP1
and other certifications, more and more companies are moving to the
concept of a total quality system involving a clear division between
QC and QA responsibilities.

In many cases, although it is intended that Contractor’s QC conduct

first line inspections, Owners are not specifically establishing the
QC requirements in the specifications, or are not enforcing the
requirements when they do exist. As a result, QA is frequently faced
with taking on the responsibility for inspecting and accepting the
work. When the roles of QC and QA are not defined, this results in the
loss of a critical component of a total quality system and often creates
a confrontational position between the QA and the contractor. On the
other hand, when the QC and QA both perform their respective roles
during the painting process, the process results in a quality coatings
project. Due to the improving understanding of quality systems, more
and more organizations and end users are attempting to better define
their expectations for both the QC and QA.

Organizations Defining QC and QA Responsibilities

There are several organizations that have established standards,

minimum training and experience requirements, and certification for
individuals and companies associated with the inspection (QC or QA)
of coatings projects.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

The Society for Protective Coatings (SSPC) Painting Contractor

Certification Program (PCCP), specifically QP-1, establishes specific
requirements for the qualifications and duties of the contractor’s QC.
While the specific duties of the QC are not specifically defined in the
SSPC QP-1 standard, the supporting documentation required by the
program (i.e., QC program, audit criterion) provides a framework for
the required QC inspections.

The SSPC QP-1 program states that hold point inspections should be
performed during six primary stages of the coatings project. That is
pre-cleaning, surface preparation, primer application, intermediate
application, top coat application and cure.

The SSPC QP-1 Annual Internal Audit Report / Checklist for SSPC
Certified Contractors (Rev 02/04), specifically requires that the
QC representative prepare daily reports that include the following
information (at minimum):

1. compressed air cleanliness

2. dry film thickness
3. air temperature
4. humidity
5. dew point temperature
6. surface temperature
7. abrasive cleanliness
8. degree of cleanliness achieved
9. surface profile
10. batch numbers of paint used
11. batch numbers of thinner used
12. mixing according to specification

The SSPC Publication, “The Inspection of Coatings and Linings, A

Handbook of Basic Practice for Inspectors, Owners, and Specifiers,”
2nd Edition (SSPC 03-14), Chapter 3, Quality Control for Protective
Coatings Projects, features a series of coating inspection forms.
These help establish the inspections that should be performed and
documented by the contractor’s QC.

The SSPC QP-5 program, “Standard Procedure for Evaluating

the Qualifications of Coating and Lining Inspection Companies,”
establishes a certification for inspection companies whose focus is

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the industrial coating and lining industry. It evaluates an inspection

company’s ability to provide consistent quality inspection of
coatings & linings for its clients (typically QA). While it establishes
the minimum training and experience requirements of third party
inspectors, it does not delineate the specific duties of a QA inspector
or inspection company providing third party inspection. Under this
certification, the duties of the third party QA inspector are defined as
those specified or contracted by the Owner.

ANSI/ASME N45 2.6 establishes criteria for companies to internally

certify individual coatings inspectors through experience, education
and testing as Level I, II, or III nuclear coating inspectors. The SSPC
QP-5 program relies on similar levels of experience and training for
confirming qualifications of third party inspectors.

Pre-construction (Pre-job) Conference

The pre-job conference typically occurs prior to project start-up and

should be attended by representatives of the contractor, coatings
suppliers, Owner’s representatives and third party inspectors. If you
are the QC or QA you should attend this meeting. Too often the pre-
job conference is attended by management and the on-site QC and
QA do not participate. If this is the case, make sure you identify any
questions, unclear items or discrepancies with the person who will
be attending the meeting. Obtain and review a copy of the pre-job
conference meeting minutes to determine what, if any, clarification
was agreed upon.

Prior to the pre-job conference, both the QC and QA should critically

review the specification and be prepared to discuss any discrepancies,
missing, incomplete, unclear or ambiguous
items in the specifications. When both
QC and QA will be used on the project,
the duties, responsibilities and reporting
requirements should be clearly discussed and
agreed upon by all parties.

The pre-job conference should provide a

review for all parties on the organizational
structure and representatives of each
stakeholder (i.e., owner, contractor, third

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party inspector, coating manufacturer’s representatives). This should

include the title and responsibilities of each person as well as their
reporting relationship within the company or organization.

The pre-job conference should summarize the contractor’s approach

to the project including: schedule, location(s) of equipment, and
manpower estimates.

The pre-job conference should review the specification and sequence

of work, address any specification discrepancies, and discuss how QC
and QA inspections will be coordinated and implemented. It should
include discussion of preparation of test sections (i.e. job reference
standards), if required; adequate lighting; inspector safe access;
inaccessible areas; and other project-specific considerations.

The final phase of the pre-job conference should include a discussion

of all required QC and QA documentation and submission schedules.
The Owner should also address the procedure that should be followed
if there are discrepancies in the QC and QA documentation.

A sample agenda for a pre-job conference is shown below.

1. Contractor’s Proposed Operation, Including Equipment and

Personnel

A. Compliance programs
i. QC program
ii. Worker Protection Program
iii. Environmental Protection Program
iv. Containment Program
v. Waste Management Program
B. Location of Equipment
i. Dust collector
ii. Hygiene facilities
iii. Recycling equipment (on or off site)
iv. Waste storage
C. Work schedule

2. Inspector Safety & Proper Access

A. Safety lines, lifts, ladders

B. Use of hygiene facilities
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 2a-8
Module 2a - The Roles of QA and QC Personnel on a Coatings Project

C. Protective clothing & HEPA vacuum

3. Inspection & Measurement

A. Discuss inspection holdpoints

B. QC inspections
C. QA inspections
D. Procedures for resolving discrepancies

4. Inaccessible areas (identified and addressed)

5. Lighting

6. Product Information

A. Verify availability of PDS/MSDS

B. Review abrasive, coatings systems, mixing & thinning
requirements

7. Visual Standard

A. Pre-blast standard (if specified)

B. Review SSPC VIS Standards and definitions for specified
surface preparation

Attendees should be listed on a sign-in sheet circulated at the start of

the meeting. All items discussed at the pre-job conference should be
recorded in the form of minutes and distributed to all attendees of the
meeting. Any specification clarifications should be transmitted to all
affected parties. A pre-construction conference will be conducted later
in this course.

Development of an Inspection Procedure (Plan)

Project specifications can often be complex and contain many details

unrelated to surface preparation and painting. As a result, locating
the inspection check points can be cumbersome and time consuming.
More consequential, key inspection checkpoints may be overlooked.
The development of an inspection procedure before the project begins
can aid the inspector in identifying the inspection checkpoints and the
associated acceptance criteria.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 2a-9
Module 2a - The Roles of QA and QC Personnel on a Coatings Project

There is no standard format for an inspection procedure. A table or

chart format is often the most effective and easiest to complete. A
chart containing three columns is usually adequate. The header of
the first column is “Inspection Checkpoint. The column is populated
by copying each inspection checkpoint associated with surface
preparation and coating application listed in the project specification.
The header of the middle column is “Inspection Method” and lists the
inspection instruments, visual standards or other equipment needed
to perform the inspection. Note that in some cases the word “visual”
is used, since some coatings inspection is only done visually, with no
specific instrumentation (for example, verifying proper installation
of protective coverings). The final column header is “Acceptance
Criteria” which is established by the project specification. An example
of an inspection procedure chart is shown below, along with two
sample entries. A complete inspection procedure will have many
entries and may consume several pages. You will be developing a
complete inspection procedure in Module 11 of this course.

Sample Inspection Procedure

Inspection Checkpoint Inspection Method Acceptance Criteria
Surface Profile Testex Replica Tape 2.0-3.5 mils
Surface Cleanliness SSPC VIS 1 SSPC-SP10

Forms containing additional columns to record the ASTM or SSPC

standard or method employed to conduct the inspection check
point, the method used to verify instrument accuracy, the number of
measurements required and the report form where the information
should be recorded may be required on certain projects.

Work Plans and Process Control Procedures

Many specifications require the contractor to prepare project-specific

work plans or process control procedures (PCPs) and submit them to
the facility owner for review and approval prior to commencing work.

Work plans may be contract-specific or may be more general and

used by the contractor to both plan and control the work process. A
Work Plan covers all of the individual phases of a project, including
both production and inspection. Ideally separate work plans should be
developed for each phase of a project, if the scope of work differs. A
Work Plan is merely a compilation of all of the individual processes

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

that make up the specified work. There is no prescribed format, as long

as the plan is complete, accurate and useable. The work plan should
include a description of the processes that will be employed, including
any of the critical factors that have a direct bearing on quality and
safety. They should reference the project specification and include
acceptance/rejection criteria and the authority required for approval of
non-conformities. The plan includes a project schedule based on major
phases of the work scope, and lists the equipment, mobilization plans,
work area layout, and the receipt, storage and control of materials.
It should also describe the frequency and content of personnel
meetings to be conducted throughout the project. A sample pipe line
specification listing the content of a coating work plan (specifically
section 1.4.2.1) is appended to this module.

Process Control Procedures or PCPs are contract-specific and require

formal approval before work can begin. In some cases, the PCPs are
required to be submitted in a pre-approved format. PCP’s typically
include the following items:

1. Date, Procedure No., Revision No. and Description of the

Contract Work Item
2. List of contractors, subcontractors and attached documents/
references
3. Descriptions of qualifications and certificates to perform the
work scope
4. Process descriptions and list of equipment required to conduct
the work scope
5. Inspection plan, including instruments, calibration requirements,
references to standards and acceptance criteria
6. Copies of forms/records to prove conformance
7. Authority required for approval of non-conformities
8. Worker safety requirements
9. Environmental protection controls and waste management
procedures

The QA inspector may be asked to review the contractor’s work plans

or PCPs for completeness and conformance to the requirements of the
project specification. Work Plans or PCPs should be submitted well
in advance of the intended project start date, as they must typically
be reviewed, approved (or revised, reviewed and approved) prior to
commencement of any production activities. The PCP content for
Navy/military contracts is appended to this module.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 2a-11
Module 2a - The Roles of QA and QC Personnel on a Coatings Project

Documenting and Reporting Procedures

One of the most important responsibilities of a coatings inspector

is to document the results of the inspections in a clear, concise, and
timely manner. Oftentimes measurements and readings are recorded
in an inspector logbook, then transferred onto inspection forms.
Without timely, formal documentation, many of the key results may
be lost or forgotten. It is acknowledged that few individuals enjoy
paperwork. However, it is a necessary evil in today’s litigious culture.
Documentation of specific, key items as the work progresses may do
nothing more than fill a file cabinet once the project is completed.
However, in the event of a problem, it can provide key information for
resolution of the problem. Documentation of the results of inspections
can also be a key element in the event that the coating failure results
in litigation against the coating contractor or the coating supplier. Just
like homeowner or car insurance, you may never use it, but when you
need it, you’re glad you have it.

There is no “standard inspection form” that every inspector uses. The

design and content of the documentation forms can vary, and may be
customized to a project. It is important that the form ultimately used
by the inspector address all of the inspection checkpoints included in
the project specification and the precise location of the area inspected,
and that the form allow ample space for commentary. Chapter 3,
“Quality Control” of the SSPC Handbook: The Inspection of Coatings
and Linings contains seven forms that may be adopted by inspection
personnel. Copies of these forms are included at the end of this
module; some will be used in the workshops later on in this training
course.

Form 1: Documentation Acknowledgement

Documents an individual’s acknowledged receipt of specifications,

revisions to the specification, project correspondence, reports, test
results, drawings and other written documents.

Form 2: Inspection Equipment Calibration Record

Documents that the calibration of inspection equipment was performed

and is current.

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Form 3: Inspection Equipment Issuance Record

Documents an inspector’s receipt of inspection instruments and

standards and acknowledges responsibility for maintenance and care of
the equipment.

Form 4: Daily Coating Inspection Report

Documents the results of any QA and QC inspection checkpoints

after a pre-surface preparation inspection, during and after surface
preparation, ambient conditions, and during and after coating
application. Dry film thickness values are recorded on Form 5.

Form 5: Dry Film Thickness (DFT) Measurement Worksheet

Documents the spot and area coating thickness measurements.

Form 6: Corrective Actions Report

Documents any nonconforming items and addresses proposed and

required corrective actions for each nonconformance.

Form 7: Photographic Record

Documents the location and area of any photographs acquired during

inspection of surface preparation and coating application. Note that the
form currently reflects the use of print film. With the widespread use of
digital photography, the form may be obsolete or even unnecessary.

In addition to inspection records, the inspector should maintain

a project logbook or “diary” that contains narrative, daily entries
regarding what operations were performed, progress, and any other
project-related “events” that occurred.

Each entry should contain the date and start with, “The writer arrived
on-site at (time)....” Note that the diary is “discoverable” during the
litigation process.

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Paint Inspection
Documentation Acknowledgement
Project: Project #: Copy to:
Location: Office Estimating
QC Sup HSO
Company Name: Start Date: Proj Mgr Inspector
Contact: Finish Date: Other
This is to acknowledge receipt of one or more of the following documents:
Specifications Revisions Correspondence Reports
Drawings Test Results Other
Receipt of all documentation is to be recorded in the project documentation log
Date Documentation, Specifications, Prints, and Revisions Description and Title

Update all specifications and procedures and record in appropriate revision logs
Issued to: Company:
Receipt Acknowledge by: Signature: Date:
Return this form with signature to:

SSPC QCS 2-01 Revision 1 09/2005

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Inspection Equipment
Calibration Record
Project: Case #: Copy to:
Location: Office
Issued to: Inspector
Issue Date: Return Date: Other
Document all equipment requiring calibration Other

Date of Calibration Calibration Calibration

Type/Model Serial # Calibration Requirements Performed by Due Date

SSPC QCS 2-12 Revision 1 09/2005

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Inspection Equipment
Issuance Sheet
Copy to:
Office

Inspector
Project: Case #:
Location:
Attachments:
Issued to: Issued Date: Calibration Certificates

Issued by: Returned Date: Calibration Records

Inspection Equipment
Operation Date of Calibration
Item Model # Serial # Procedure Calibration Verification
Environmental Conditions

Surface Preparation

Application

Standards and Specifications

The following desginated inspector has been issued the above listed inspection equipment, certifications, and calibration standards required to perform the intended
inspection as required by contract. The inspector is required to keep all issued equipment in a safe place and in good working order. The inspector will document
required calibrations and maintain all records per job specifications. Upon completion of the project, the inspector will return all equipment to the QC manager. The
inspector is responsible for negligence and understands and accepts to replace damaged or stolen equipment.
Issued by: Issued to:
QC Manager Signature: Inspector Signature:
Date: Date:
SSPC QCS 2-13 Revision 1 09/2005

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #:
Daily Coating Inspection Report
Copy to:
Inspector: QC Super Owner

Project/Client: Contr

Location: Attachments:
Description: DFT Sheet NCR/CAR

Requirements:
Contractor: Spec #: Revision #:
Description of Areas and Work Performed Hold Point Inspections Performed
1. Pre Surface Preparation/Condition and Cleanliness
2. Surface Preparation Monitoring
3. Post Surface Preparation/Cleanliness and Profile
4. Pre Application Prep/Surface Cleanliness
5. Application Monitoring/Wet Film Thickness (WFT)
6. Post Application/Application Defects
7. Post Cure/Dry Film Thickness (DFT)
8. Nonconformance/Corrective Actions Follow-Up
9. Final Inspection
Approved by:
Surface Conditions Ambient Conditions
: : : :
New Maint Primer/Paint Age/Dry/Cure Time (Indiciate AM or PM)
Steel Galvanize Concrete Other Dry Bulb Tempº (C/F) º º º º
Hazard Sample Report # Wet Bulb Tempº (C/F) º º º º
Degree of contamination: % Relative Humidity % % % %
Test: Cl µg/cm2 (µs/cm) Fe ppm pH Surface Tempº (C/F) Min/Max / º / º / º / º
Degree of Corrosion: Dew Point Tempº (C/F) º º º º
Scale Pitting/Holes Crevices Sharp Edges Wind Direction/Speed
Weld Moisture Oils Other Weather Conditions
Painted Surface Condition: Application
Dry to: Touch Handle Recoat Start Time: Finish Time: Est Sq Ft:
Dry/Over Spray Runs/Sags Pinholes Holidays Primer Intermediate Topcoat Touch-Up
Abrasion Fall Out Other Generic Type: Qty Mixed:
Surface Preparation Mfr: Mix Ratio:
Start Time: Finish Time: Est Sq Ft: Prod Name: Mix Method:
Solvent Clean Hand Tool Power Tool Prod #: Strain/Screen:
ºF
HP Wash PSI Other Color: Material Temp:
Min/Hrs
Abrasive Blast Abrasive Type Sample Kit Sz/Cond: Sweat-In Time:
Min/Hrs
Blast Hose Size Nozzle Size/PSI Shelf Life: Pot Life:
Air Supply CFM Air Supply Cleanliness Batch #s Reducer #:
Pt/Qt/Gal
Water/Oil Trap Check Equipment Condition Check (A) Qty Added:
%
Surface Cleanliness and Profile Measurement (B) % by Vol:
Mils
Job Specification SSPC/NACE SP (C) Specified WFT Avg:
Mils
SSPC/NACE Spec/Visual Stds Reducer: Achieved WFT Avg:
Profile Check Disc Tape Gage Airless/Conv Spray Brush Roller Other
Specified mils avg/Achieved mils Pump Pot: Hose Diameter: Air Check:
Surface Effect on DFT Gage/BMR mils Ratio/Size: Hose Length: SEP/Trap:
Dry Film Thickness (DFT) Gage Calibration Record GPM/CFM: Spray Gun: Filter:
Gage Type/
Model
Gage
Serial #
Plate/Shim
Mils/µm
Gage Adj
+/–
Spec Avg
DFT
DFT Last
Coat
DFT This
Coat
PSI: Tip Size: Agitator:
Inspector Signature: Date:
SSPC QCS 2-06 Revision 1 09/2005

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #:
DFT Measurement Worksheet
Copy to:
QC Super Owner
Inspector:
Contr
Project/Client:
Location: Spec #:
Description: Revision #:
Item: Item:
Location Area Spot Readings Location Area Spot Readings
1 2 3 Total % Avg 1 2 3 Total % Avg
Min/Max Min/Max
A A
B B
C C
D D
E E
Approx Approx
Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm
Reference Inspection Report # for application record Reference Inspection Report # for application record
Item: Item:
Location Area Spot Readings Location Area Spot Readings
1 2 3 Total % Avg 1 2 3 Total % Avg
Min/Max Min/Max
A A
B B
C C
D D
E E
Approx Approx
Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm
Reference Inspection Report # for application record Reference Inspection Report # for application record
Item: Item:
Location Area Spot Readings Location Area Spot Readings
1 2 3 Total % Avg 1 2 3 Total % Avg
Min/Max Min/Max
A A
B B
C C
D D
E E
Approx Approx
Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm
Reference Inspection Report # for application record Reference Inspection Report # for application record
DFT Gage Calibration Record Comments:
Gage Type/ Gage Plate/Shim Gage Adj Spec Avg DFT Last DFT This
Model Serial # Mils/µm +/– DFT Coat Coat
Inspector Signature: Date:

SSPC QCS 2-07 Revision 1 09/2005

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #:
Corrective Actions Report
Copy to:
QC Super Owner
Inspector:
Contr
Project/Client:
Location: Attachments:
Stop Work Order
Description:
Requirements:
Contractor: Spec #: Revision #:
Time and Location Name/Company/Title

Description of Nonconformance Item Description of Nonconformance

Referenced Spec/Procedure/Standard Action Level

Discussion and Recommendations

Approval and Corrective Actions

Corrective Actions Follow-Up

Final Approval
Authorized Contractor Signature: Inspector Signature:
Title: Date: Date:
SSPC QCS 2-08 Revision 1 09/2005

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #:
Photograph Record
Copy to:
Inspector: QC Super Client

Project/Client: Proj Mgr

Location: Camera:
Camera Time/Date Verified: Yes No N/A Permission Req: Yes No Exposures:
Film Developer: # Date: Roll/Disc #:
# Location Area Comment

Inspector Signature:
Date:
SSPC QCS 2-10 Revision 1 09/2005

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Ethics

2b Ethics

The ethics of the coating inspector has come under increasing

awareness in the wake of the more widespread investigations into
painting programs. Recent statewide investigations of several
Transportation Agencies, contractors and third party inspection
agencies have led to the highest level of scrutiny of the ethics of all
of the parties. Ethics is defined as “motivation defined by the ideas
of right and wrong.” The legal definition of ethics is “of or relating
to moral action and conduct; professionally right; conforming to
professional standards.”

Regardless of whether the coating inspector is functioning as QC

or QA, the inspector must have a high level of personal integrity
and a strong work ethic to provide quality monitoring of the project
and a fair accounting to all involved parties. The inspector should
not impose personal standards of quality or work, and must remain
constantly aware that the criteria for work acceptance are the
specification requirements.

While some obvious examples of ethical breaches would include

blatant fraud, falsification of documentation, acceptance of bribes or
gratuities, etc., there are also several ethical breaches that are not as
clear.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Documentation

Completion of inspection reports documenting activities that are not

true is an ethical breach. For example, if an inspector records on the
report that “SP-10 (near-white blast) was achieved,” but subsequent
inspection of the surface indicates the level of surface preparation is a
SP-6 (commercial blast), the report could be treated as fraudulent.

Signatures on inspection reports that contain incorrect information or

indicate that tests were performed that were not actually performed by
the report signer, can be treated as fraudulent.

Recording inspections or tests performed by someone else as testing

performed by the inspector, can be considered fraudulent.

Recording observations, tests or conditions as “acceptable” when they

do not meet the specification is considered unethical.

Time and Expense Reports

Charging time to a project that was not actually spent performing work
activities on the project is unethical. Padding (i.e. adding additional
expenses such as increased mileage or time) on time or expenses
reports, is considered fraudulent and unethical.

Gifts

If you work for an owner or engineering firm, your company probably

has a policy on accepting “gifts.” Many companies do not permit
their staff to accept any form of gift or gratuity. Cash, loans, airline
tickets should never be accepted from any party. Additionally, loans of
equipment for personal use, work performed for the inspector at his or
her home by the contractor, or any other exchanges of goods, services
or materials between the contractor and inspector are all likely ethical
breaches.

In some recent investigations, discussion of personal finances (e.g.,

“I’m really having trouble making ends meet…”) have been construed
as a solicitation for a bribe.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Surface Preparation: Methods,

Industry Standards

3
and Inspection

Introduction

Preparing the surface according to the specification can be the most

costly phase of a coatings operation, and it is always critical to the
project’s success. Surface preparation has a major focus in this
training program, which covers in detail common standards used
throughout the industry. The initial phase of pre-surface preparation
and the inspection are covered first, detailing the importance of
a concrete condition survey, the problems associated with voids,
surface irregularities, surface protusions, excessive surface profile
and cracking. Surface preparation, which follows, covers the many
methods used to clean and roughen surfaces. ISO Standard 8502,
“Preparation of Steel Substrates before Application of Paints and
Related Products -- Tests for the Assessments of Surface Cleanliness”
describes all of the ISO standards associated with surface preparation.
SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings has developed a series
of consensus standards to govern surface cleanliness requirements.
Currently, there are thirteen consensus SSPC standards for surface
preparation. ISO and SSPC standards will be explored, including
descriptions of what must be removed from the surface and what may
remain on the surface for each standard. In addition to the surface
preparation standards, the training will also focus on means and
methods, including: blast cleaning equipment, a variety of abrasives,
wet and dry abrasive blast cleaning, centrifugal blast cleaning, vacuum
blast cleaning, hand- and power-tools, and water jetting. The final

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

focal points for Module 3 are the common inspection checkpoints for
surface preparation and the methods used to verify adherence to the
specification.

Module 3 Learning Outcomes

Successful completion of Module 3 on Surface Preparation: Methods,

Industry Standards and Inspection will enable the participant to:

1. Describe the importance of proper surface preparation

2. Explain the dual objective of surface preparation
3. Define the standards for surface preparation
4. Describe methods used to control an environment during
surface preparation activities
5. Describe common methods used to prepare surfaces for coating
6. Measure and record surface profile
7. Evaluate surface cleanliness

Overview

Preparing the surface for subsequent application of the coating system

is the most critical (and typically the most expensive) step in an
industrial coatings project. Whether the surface is plastic, glass, wood,
concrete, masonry, aluminum, carbon steel or stainless steel, surface
preparation (cleaning and roughening the surface) remains a key factor
in determining the ultimate service life of the applied system. In
general terms, the better the surface preparation, the longer the life of
the coating system. However, not all surfaces or
service environments (the environment that the
coating system must perform in; for example
immersion, atmospheric, chemical, etc.) and
not all coating systems demand the same
degree of surface preparation. That is, a facility
owner may be able to economize his
maintenance painting program by specifying a
lower degree of cleaning AND choosing a
coating system that is designed to perform over
a lesser degree of surface preparation while still
Worker Abrasive Blast Cleaning providing long-term protection in the service
environment. For example, potable water
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 3-2
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

storage tank owners often specify a higher degree of cleaning for the
interior liner compared to the exterior surfaces, since the interior
environment (immersion) is more severe. While a higher degree of
cleaning on the exterior may lengthen the life of the coating system,
the increased cost associated with the higher degree of cleaning may
not justify a moderate increase in service life.

The Inspector’s Role

The inspector’s role related to pre-surface preparation is multi-fold,

and may vary from project to project. For example, on most projects,
the inspector is typically responsible for verifying that structural
deficiencies have been repaired and that the contractor’s equipment is
operating properly and productively, so that the project remains on or
ahead of schedule.

Purpose of Surface Preparation

The purpose of surface preparation is two-fold: to clean and to roughen

the substrate according to the requirements of the specification.
Sometimes the methods used to prepare surfaces for coating
application achieve these criteria simultaneously (as with abrasive
blast cleaning), while other times these steps must be performed
separately (as with chemical stripping). In either case, the inspector
must treat these as two distinct “acceptance criteria,” as the level of
cleaning may be adequate, but the roughness may be insufficient or
excessive. Alternatively, the surface roughness may be on target, but
the level of cleaning may be inadequate.

Inspection of Surface Preparation

As we discussed earlier in this module, surface preparation is perhaps

the most important factor in determining the success (or failure) of
a protective coating/lining system. It stands to reason then that the
inspection processes associated with surface preparation are also very
critical. Once the primer is applied to the prepared surfaces, it is nearly
impossible to determine the level of surface cleanliness and surface
profile depth that was achieved. Therefore, the inspector must observe

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

the surfaces before the primer is applied. Otherwise, the coating

will need to be removed, adversely impacting the project costs and
schedule.

There are several “inspection checkpoints” associated with surface

preparation. Not all of these checkpoints are invoked by every project
specification. For example, if the specification requires power tool
cleaning (SSPC-SP 3), then measurement of surface profile depth, an
abrasive cleanliness check and a compressed air cleanliness check are
not necessary. The most common inspection checkpoints associated
with surface preparation include:

1. Measuring ambient conditions prior to final surface preparation

2. Conducting a compressed air cleanliness (blotter) test
3. Measuring blast nozzle air pressure and nozzle orifice size
(described earlier)
4. Conducting an abrasive cleanliness test
5. Assessing surface cleanliness
6. Measuring surface profile depth
7. Verifying surfaces are ready for primer application

Each of these seven can involve multiple checkpoints. The procedures

used to perform the various checkpoints (including the proper
instruments/visual guides and reference photographs) are described
below.

Review of Industry Standards

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE International)
both have standards for measurement of surface roughness (profile)
after abrasive blast cleaning. ISO, SSPC (The Society for Protective
Coatings), and NACE International have standards for surface
cleanliness.

Industry Standards for Measuring Surface Profile Depth

The ASTM standard for measurement of surface profile (ASTM

D4417, “Test Methods for Field Measurement of Surface Profile
of Blast Cleaned Steel”) prescribes three methods of measurement,
while NACE SP0287 describes only one method. These methods of

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

measurement will be described later in the module. It is important to

recognize that these standards simply describe how to procedurally
conduct a test; they do not provide an acceptance criterion. Therefore,
the specification writer must state the acceptable surface profile range.

SSPC PA 17, Procedure for Determining Conformance to Steel Profile/

Surface Roughness/Peak Count Requirements describes a procedure
suitable for shop or field use for determining compliance with
specified profile ranges on a steel substrate using Methods A (visual
comparator), B (depth micrometer) and C (replica tape) as described
in ASTM D 4417, and the portable stylus instrument method used to
determine surface roughness and peak count as described in ASTM D
7127.

In many cases, the coating manufacturer will recommend/specify

the range of the surface profile depth for a given coating system on
their product data sheet (PDS). If this information is not listed on the
PDS, a technical representative of the coating manufacturer should be
contacted. They should be informed of the target dry film thicknesses
of the total system to be applied, not just the primer thickness, as
the surface profile depth must be compatible with the entire coating
system. It is advisable to receive written confirmation of their
recommendation, rather than relying solely on verbal communication.

Industry Standards for Assessing Surface Cleanliness

The ISO, SSPC, and NACE surface cleanliness standards prescribe a

minimum acceptable level of cleaning, depending upon the specified
degree of cleanliness required. The standards are known as “consensus
documents” that are created by industry experts for inclusion in
coating specifications. They are not laws or regulations, but they
become “contract law” once they are invoked in a specification for
a coatings project. The seven ISO surface preparation standards are
described in ISO Standard 8502. These standards define the level of
cleaning required, and many of them are accompanied by visual guides
that an inspector can use to verify that the minimum level of cleaning
has been achieved. There are currently seventeen SSPC surface
cleanliness standards. NACE and SSPC have jointly published ten of
them; SSPC is the sole publisher of the remaining seven. The written
standards for surface cleanliness are contained in Volume 2 of the
SSPC Painting Manual, “Systems and Specifications” and are available
for individual download from www.sspc.org. The surface cleanliness

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

standards, their designations and definitions will be described later in

this module, along with the proper use of the visual guides.

SSPC Visual Guides and Reference Photographs

In addition, there are currently four SSPC visual reference guides

that have been developed for industry use. To select the correct visual
guides and reference photographs, simply ask yourself, “What does
the project specification require regarding the method of surface
preparation?” Then select from one of the four visual guides and
reference photographs currently available.

SSPC visual standards for surface preparation

• SSPC-VIS 1, “Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel

Surfaces Prepared by Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning,”
• SSPC-VIS 3, “Guide and Reference Photographs for Steel
Surfaces Prepared by Power and Hand Tool Cleaning,”
• SSPC-VIS 4/NACE VIS 7, “Guide and Reference Photographs
for Steel Surfaces Prepared by Waterjetting,” or
• SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9, “Guide and Reference Photographs
for Steel Surfaces Prepared by Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning.”

Note: SSPC-VIS 2 is not used for surface preparation. It is not

included in this module.

These visual guides and reference photographs are designed for use as
guides. In the event of a dispute, it is the written surface cleanliness
definitions that prevail. Also, the photographs in the guides will

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

likely not provide an exact match to the surfaces prepared on your

project, because the initial condition of the surface, the abrasive or
tool employed, the surface profile, lighting and other factors can
affect the appearance of the surface. Therefore the visual guides and
reference photographs are truly designed as guides. In fact, many
specifications now require the contractor to prepare a project-specific
cleanliness standard on the actual structure to be cleaned and coated.
The project-specific standard represents the actual initial condition, the
actual abrasive or tool employed, the surface profile depth and other
jobsite conditions. The SSPC visual guides and reference photographs
can be used during this process to establish the minimum acceptable
cleanliness level for the specific project. Once established, this area
can be preserved until the surface preparation portion of the project is
completed.

Pre-Surface Preparation Inspection

Prior to beginning surface preparation operations, many specifications

will be required to verify that fabrication defects (that may adversely
affect coating system performance) are corrected, and that surface
contamination (such as grease, oil, cutting compounds, lubricants and
chemical contaminants) are sufficiently removed.

Some common fabrication defects will be discussed next. It is

important to realize however, that unless the governing specification
requires these areas to be addressed, the contractor should not be
required or expected to perform corrective action.

Weld Spatter

Weld spatter may be present on steel sections or pipe sections that

were welded together using stick, flux core, gas metal arc (MIG) or
gas tungsten arc (TIG) methods. Weld spatter is typically not present
when submerged arc welding is performed. Welders are expected to
remove weld spatter as it occurs.

Spatters of weld rod material deposited on the steel surface from

welding operations can result in spot corrosion if it is not removed
from the surface prior to coating application. Weld spatter is a
protrusion from the surface.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

While coating may be deposited onto the

spatter, surface tension that is created between
the protrusion and the coating causes the
coating to draw thin on the spatter. The spatter
may eventually remove itself from the steel,
creating a void in the coating system and
a pathway for corrosion of the underlying
steel. For these reasons, many specifications
will require the contractor to remove weld
spatter (using chisels or grinding wheels) prior
to surface preparation and coating system
Weld Spatter installation. If required by the specification, the
inspector must visually inspect the weld areas
for spatter and identify areas where weld spatter remains.

Preparation of Welds in Tanks and Vessels for

Immersion Service

Appendix C of NACE Standard SP0178, “Standard Recommended

Practice – Fabrication Details, Surface Finish Requirements, and
Proper Design Considerations for Tanks and Vessels to be Lined
for Immersion Service” contains written and graphic descriptions
of five degrees of surface finishing of welds that can be specified
prior to lining tanks or vessels for immersion service. The appendix
is supplemented with a molded plastic weld replica comparator
illustrating the weld condition prior to finishing and the various
degrees of preparation for butt welds, fillet welded tee joints and lap
welds. The degree of preparation (grinding) ranges from “minimal”
(designation “E”) to smooth & blended (“D”), smooth and free of
defects (“C”), smooth (“B”) and flush and smooth, free of all defects
(“A”). Designations A & B are only applicable to butt welds. A
coatings inspector may be responsible for verifying that the degree
of weld grinding meets the requirements of the contract documents
(specification) prior to surface preparation and lining installation.

Condition of Edges/Corners

“Sharp” edges and corners, such as those generated by torch cutting

operations are difficult to coat, as the coating tends to pull away (draw
thin) on the corners during application because of the surface tension
that is created on the sharp edge. Some coatings have characteristically
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 3-8
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

good “edge retention” properties, while others that shrink a lot during
the drying and curing processes may have relatively poor edge
retention properties. However, the inspector does not have to know
how well or how poorly a coating will protect edges. The inspector is
only responsible for verifying that edge preparation is performed and
performed properly (according to the specification requirement) prior
to surface preparation and coating installation.

Specification requirements for edge/corner preparation vary widely.

Common examples include: 1.6 mm (1/16") radius or chamfer,
3.2 mm (1/8") radius or chamfer, and even “break all edges,” while
some specifications do not address edge preparation at all. A tactile
Grinding Edges and/or visual assessment is typically all that is required, along with
documentation that edge/corner preparation was satisfactory.

Treatment and inspection of flame cut

edges is particularly important. Flame
cut or torch cut edges are typically very
sharp, and the heat generated by the
torch hardens the surface of the steel in
these areas. Subsequent abrasive blast
cleaning may not generate an adequate
surface roughness on these edges, which
can lead to coating adhesion problems,
especially when a metallized coating is
being applied. Oftentimes, these areas
must be ground to remove the hardened Flame Cut Edges
surface. The inspector should obtain
surface profile measurements in these areas to ensure that the specified
profile has been achieved.

Some project specifications will require the application

of a “stripe coat” to edges and corners (as well as
other “difficult to coat” areas) to help ensure that
these surfaces are adequately protected, even if edge
preparation is specified. Striping will be discussed in
more detail in Module 5. Briefly, striping is a single
or multi-layer application of coating to edges, corners,
bolt/nut assemblies, rivets, weld seams, bolt holes and
Striping or Stripe Coat
other surfaces that are traditionally hard to protect from
corrosion. The stripe coat can be brush or spray applied,
however spray application to edges and corners is often
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 3-9
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

preferred, as brushing can actually pull wet coating off of the edge,
rather than deposit it onto the edge or corner.

SSPC-PA Guide 11 Protecting Edges, Crevices, and Irregular Steel

Surfaces by Stripe Coating discusses“striping” as a way of providing
extra corrosion protection measures on edges, outside corners,
crevices, bolt heads, welds, and other irregular steel surfaces, including
optional surface preparation techniques for sharp edges to improve
coating performance. Some details, including the advantages and
limitations of specific methods of obtaining additional coating
thickness, are described to assist the specification writer in assuring
that the project specification will address adequate corrosion
protection.

Laminations

Laminations occur during the rolling process in the steel mill. These
laminations may be visible prior to blast cleaning, or may be raised
during abrasive blast cleaning operations in the shop, creating a
sliver that projects from the
surface. These steel defects
must be removed, typically by
grinding; otherwise they may
project above the coating film
and subsequently corrode. The
inspector should visually assess
the prepared surfaces for slivers
and laminations before and Lamination Sliver
after abrasive blast cleaning. If
discovered after blast cleaning,
the affected area may have to be re-abrasive blast cleaned after
grinding is completed.

Substrate Replacement

Older structures that have extensive corrosion may exhibit severe

section loss, requiring replacement or patching of a portion of the
structure. Examples include the “belly” of an elevated storage tank that
has severe pitting (or even perforations), or structural steel beneath the
roadway deck of a bridge structure that has been subjected to years of
deicing materials. A structural engineer may ultimately determine that

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

substrate replacement is required, which can involve removal of the

effected areas by torch cutting and installation of replacement steel by
welding, or simply welding a new section of steel over the deficient
sections (patching). In any case, these operations must be performed
prior to final surface preparation and coating system installation. If
substrate replacement is required, the inspector must verify that all
work is complete and is acceptable to the structural engineer prior to
surface preparation operations. Subsequent rework of these areas after
surface preparation will require rework by the painting contractor,
which can adversely impact project cost and schedule.

Removal of Grease, Oil, Cutting Compounds and/or

Lubricants

SSPC-SP 1, Solvent Cleaning

SSPC-SP 1, “Solvent Cleaning” requires the removal of all visible

grease, oil, lubricants, cutting compounds and other non-visible
contaminants from the surface by cleaning with solvent, vapor,
alkali, emulsion or steam (described earlier in this module). SP1
is a prerequisite to nearly all of the remaining twelve SSPC surface
cleanliness standards, as mechanical methods of cleaning cannot
remove this type of surface contaminant and may spread the
contamination across the surface. Therefore, the inspector should
recognize that solvent cleaning to remove surface contamination is an
indirect requirement of the contract, even if the project specification is
not explicit, as long as the specification references an SSPC or NACE
surface cleanliness standard. There is no surface profile requirement
for solvent cleaning.

Grease, oil, cutting compounds or lubricants used in the steel

fabrication process, or that have become deposited onto existing
surfaces while in service can adversely affect the performance of
the newly-installed coating system unless they are detected and
adequately removed prior to surface preparation. In addition to
potentially interfering with adhesion of the installed coating system
and interfering with proper wetting of the substrate by the coating
during application (causing a defect known as “fisheyes”), these
contaminants can be driven into the surface during surface preparation
and/or can contaminate the abrasive media used for surface preparation
(power tool cleaning and abrasive blast cleaning). This is particularly
problematic when the abrasive will be recycled and reused. If the

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

abrasive becomes contaminated and is reused, it too can deposit the

contamination onto cleaned surfaces.

For these reasons, it is important that the surfaces be visually inspected

for grease and oil contamination prior to surface preparation. If these
contaminants are present, the contractor is responsible for properly
removing them as most of the SSPC surface cleanliness standards
invoke solvent cleaning (according to SSPC-SP1, discussed later in
this module) if these types of contaminants (and any water-soluble
contaminants) are visibly evident. Organic contaminants such as
grease, oil, cutting compounds or lubricants can be removed using
solvents such as methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), xylene, or proprietary
cleaners sold by coating manufacturers. Other cleaning methods
include steam (with or without a cleaning compound or detergent) or
pressure washing with a cleaning compound or detergent capable of
dissolving the contamination.

Many solvents are toxic and care must be taken during handling.
Petroleum solvents and turpentine are effective degreasers. Aromatic
solvents are more effective, but are generally more toxic. The flash
point of these solvents (the temperature at which there is sufficient
vapor to ignite if a spark is generated) is relatively low and can pose
a jobsite hazard. Safety precautions include proper ventilation, no
smoking or open flames, proper equipment grounding and personal
protective equipment. The solvents must also be disposed of properly.
Chlorinated solvents (i.e., methylene chloride) are very effective
degreasers; however they should not be used for general cleaning, as
they are carcinogenic (cancer causing agents). Special training and
proper personal protective equipment must be employed when using
chlorinated solvents. These types of solvents should never be used to
prepare stainless steel, as they can cause substrate deterioration.

Water cleaning with detergent is much less toxic and can be effective
in removing light deposits of grease and oil. Alkaline cleaners are also
effective degreasers. The most common is trisodium phosphate (TSP),
which can be added to hot tap water (15 grams per liter of water). It
is common for a soapy film to remain on the surface when employing
alkaline cleaners. It is important that the surfaces are thoroughly
rinsed, then tested for residual alkalinity. Otherwise the coating may
adversely react with the surface, resulting in a failure. Emulsion type
cleaners often contain oil soluble soaps or emulsifying agents and

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©2015 SSPC 3-12
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection
are diluted with Kerosene or mineral spirits. They may be sprayed
onto the surface, then rinsed by pressure washing. Similar to alkaline
cleaners, a residue is often left on the surface, which must be removed
prior to coating application. The residue can be removed by steam, hot
water with detergent, solvents or alkaline cleaners.

Steam cleaning employs steam, or a combination of steam and

pressurized hot water. An alkaline cleaner can also be added to the hot
water to help remove grease and oil. If an alkaline agent is added to
the water, the surfaces must be thoroughly flushed with hot water, then
tested for residual alkalinity.

Inspection of these surfaces

after cleaning is typically
done visually or by wiping
with a clean rag. Note that
surface oil can be detected
forensically in a laboratory
using infrared spectroscopic
analysis. However, it is not
practical for an inspector to Inspection of Surface Using a Clean Rag
sample a surface (typically
by rinsing the surface with a laboratory solvent and collecting the
rinsings) and forward the sample to a laboratory, as this can be costly
and will result in project delays while waiting for the results of the
analysis. Rather, detection of oil needs to be performed and the results
known within a few minutes. This is why surface oil detection is
typically a visual inspection. The visual inspection can be enhanced
through the use of a black light, which will cause many “hydrocarbon”
oils to fluoresce. (Note that some synthetic oils will not fluoresce
under black light exposure, which may result in a false negative for the
presence of contamination.)

To detect surface oils using a black light, shine a short or long

wavelength black light onto the surface. In daylight or conditions of
sun, a black sheet or drape may be required to shield the area from
atmospheric light. Note that lint on the cloth or small cloth fibers
on the steel surfaces may fluoresce, but is not an indication of oil
contamination. A bright yellow/green fluorescence of the surface
indicates the presence of grease or oil contamination.

Another way to detect oil or grease on a surface is by performing a

water break test. In this case, atomize clean water onto the surface
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 3-13
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

using a spray atomizer. Observe the reaction of the water on the

surface. That is, if the water forms “lenses” that remain for 25 seconds
or so before flowing together, the surface is free of oil. However, if
the water forms into droplets (forms a “water break”) within the 25
seconds, it is likely that the surface contains grease, oil or another
contaminant that is not soluble in water.

Removing Stratified Rust, Pack Rust and Rust Scale

Stratified rust, pack rust and rust scale occur when the iron oxides
form in a defined shape, rather than in grains or powder. Pack rust
often occurs between mating surfaces (crevices), whereas rust scale
and stratified rust form on the surface of the steel. Stratified rust,
pack rust and rust scale can be dislodged from the surface in pieces
or layers. Some of the rust can adhere so tightly to the base metal
that even a power wire brush will not remove it. Even though this
may be considered “tightly adhering,” it is a very poor surface over
which to apply coatings. The rust will eventually dislodge from the
surface, taking the coating with it and leaving unprotected substrate.
Oftentimes, stratified rust, pack rust and rust scale must be removed
using hammers, impact tools such as pneumatic chipping hammers,
scabblers, needle scalers or rotary impact flap tools. Many of these
tools are described later in this module.

Sampling, Detecting, and Removing Chemical

Contamination

Chemical contaminants on a surface can include chloride, ferrous ions,

sulfates and nitrates, among others. These chemicals are deposited
onto surfaces while the structure is in service, or during transportation
of new steel to the fabrication shop. These chemicals are soluble in
water, which is both good and bad news. The good news is that since
the contaminants are water-soluble, they can typically be removed
from surfaces by pressure washing or water jetting using clean water
or water with the addition of a proprietary salt removal-enhancing
solution. The effectiveness of the washing step is dependent on the
condition of the surface. That is, contamination is relatively easy to
remove from smooth surfaces, but may be more challenging if the
surfaces are pitted or are configured with difficult-access areas, as
contamination will tend to concentrate in these areas. The bad news
is that if the salts are not detected or are not adequately dissolved and

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©2015 SSPC 3-14
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection
rinsed from the surfaces, they can become trapped beneath a newly-
installed coating system. Provided that there is a sufficient quantity
of water in the service environment, the water-soluble contaminant
trapped beneath the coating system will draw the water through the
coating film by a process known as “osmosis.” This drawing force can
be quite powerful, and will continue until the concentration of salt in
water is the same on both sides of the coating film (the concentration
reaches equilibrium). This process creates a build-up of water
and pressure beneath the coating film, oftentimes enough to cause
blistering of the coating (known as osmotic blistering), underfilm
corrosion and premature coating failure.

ISO 4628-2 and ASTM D714 describe blister assessment. Additionally,

if soluble salts on the surface are not sufficiently removed prior to
abrasive blast cleaning, recycled abrasive media can become
contaminated, which can lead to contamination of surfaces that
were not originally contaminated.

It is for these reasons that many specifications are now

requiring inspection of surfaces for chemical contaminants
after surface preparation operations are complete, but before
Sampling for chemical
contamination
primer application. Because this type of contamination cannot
be detected visually, the surface must be sampled and the “surface
extraction” tested for the contaminant(s) of concern.

The International Standardization Organization (ISO) has developed

testing methods for sampling and analysis of soluble salts. These
methods are similar to those described in SSPC-Guide 15. The ISO
standards for surface soluble salt detection are listed below. These
methods (known as “Parts”) are housed in ISO 8502, “Preparation of
Steel Substrates before Application of Paints and Related Products –
Tests for the Assessment of Surface Cleanliness:”

Part 5 Measurement of Chloride on Steel Surfaces prepared for
Painting–Ion Detection Tube Method (ISO 8502-5)
Part 6 Extraction of Soluble Contaminants for Analysis – The
Bresle Method (ISO 8502-6)
Part 9 Field Method for Conductometric Determination of Water-
soluble Salts (ISO 8502-9)
Part 10 Field Method for the Titrimetric Determination of Water-
soluble Chloride (ISO 8502-10)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

The step-by-step instructions for extracting a sample from a surface

and analyzing the collected sample for chloride, ferrous ion,
conductivity and pH are described later in this module. A proprietary
kit for testing the extracted sample for sulfates and nitrates is also
described. SSPC-Guide 15, “Field Methods for Retrieval and Analysis
of Soluble Salts on Substrates” describes methods for sampling
and analysis of soluble salt contamination. Guide 15 is contained in
Volume 2 of the SSPC Painting Manual, “Systems and Specifications,”
and can be downloaded from www.sspc.org.

In general, the methods of extracting soluble salts from surfaces

include:
1. Surface swabbing
2. Latex patch/cell with injection syringe
3. Latex sleeve

The methods of analysis of the extracted soluble salts include:

1. Chloride ion titration strips
2. Drop titration (chloride)
3. Chloride ion detection tubes
4. Ferrous ion strips
5. Nitrate ion strips
6. Conductivity meter (all soluble salts)
7. Turbidity meter (sulfate ion)

Since there is no “industry standard” for tolerable levels of chemical

contaminants, the project specification must indicate the maximum
quantity of soluble salts that can remain on the surface and be
safely coated over. For example, the specification of the coating
of the interior of a water storage tank may specify a relatively low
surface concentration of soluble salt, since the service environment
is “immersion,” while the exterior of the same tank may not be as
restrictive, since the service environment (the environment that the
coating system must perform in) is not as aggressive.

Testing for Chemical Contamination

If required by the specification, a final test is performed to determine

whether surface chemical contamination (e.g., chloride, ferrous ions,
sulfates and/or nitrates) has been reduced to tolerable levels. If the
levels remain too high, then additional surface preparation may be
required prior to application of the primer.
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©2015 SSPC 3-16
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

How Do I Test for Soluble Salt Contamination?

There are two widely accepted techniques for testing salt

contamination. The technique that you select is based on whether
you want to know both the quantity and the type of water-soluble
salt that is on the surface or whether you just want to know if water-
soluble salts are present. The first technique is known as “specific ion
detection;” the second technique is called “conductivity.”

What is Specific Ion Detection?

Specific ion detection will tell you whether a specific type of water-
soluble salt is on the surface (for example, chlorides, sulfates, ferrous
ions, etc.) and how much of each one is there (as long as you test for
them). If you select this testing technique you will need to sample the
surface, then test the sample for each of the water-soluble salts that
you are concerned may be on the surface.

What is Conductivity?

Water-soluble salts will increase the electrical conductivity of pure

water. For example, salt water will conduct electricity a lot better
than distilled water. Therefore, if you sample the surface with pure
water and test the water sample, an increase in electrical conductivity
indicates that the water has extracted salts from the surface. However,
conductivity testing will not be able to tell you what type of salt is on
the surface, only that there is some type of water-soluble salt that is
causing the electrical conductivity of the water to increase.

Some individuals will assume that an increase in conductivity is an

indication that chloride is on the surface, and they will “convert”
the conductivity to a chloride concentration. These individuals are
assuming a worst-case scenario (i.e., being conservative), since
chloride is considered the most detrimental of all water-soluble salt
contamination.

How Do I Test for Specific Ions and Conductivity?

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Methods for Retrieval and Analysis of Soluble Salts on Steel and Other
Non-Porous Substrates” describes the most commonly used extraction
and testing methods. You will be learning about several of them. But
first, you will need to decide if you want to test for specific ions or test
for conductivity.

Select a technique for testing the surface for water-soluble salt

contamination:

Technique for Testing Salt

Select One (ü)
Contamination
Specific Ion Detection
Conductivity

Selecting a Field Sampling and Testing Method

If you select “conductivity” there are several field sampling techniques

to choose from, but only one field testing method that can be used.
To select a test method first ask yourself, “What does the project
specification require?” If the specification does not require a specific
method, then you can select from any of the methods available. This
module describes several Surface Contamination Analysis Test (SCAT)
kits.

The sampling and testing methods, and the possible combinations of

SCAT kits are shown in the charts on the next page.

Chart 1 lists three methods of collecting a sample from the surface,

and Chart 2 contains five methods for testing the collected sample.
Unfortunately, not all of the sample collection methods and sample
testing methods are compatible. Chart 3 lists the possible combinations
of sampling and testing methods. SCAT kits are available in any of the
combinations shown in Chart 3.

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Section 1 describes the step-by-step procedures for each of the three

sample collection procedures (A-C) listed in Chart 1, while Section
2 describes the step-by-step procedures for each of the five sample
testing procedures (1-5) listed in Chart 2.

Chart 1 Chart 2

Methods of Sample Collection Methods of Sample Testing

A. Surface Swabbing 1. Quantab® Chloride Titrator Strip

B. Latex Sleeve (Chlor-Test® Kit) 2. Kitagawa® Chloride Titrator Tube

C. Latex Cell (Bresle Patch™ and 3. Bresle® Kit Drop Titration for Chloride
BresleSampler®)
4. EM Quant® Iron Strip (ferrous ion)

5. Conductivity

6. Turbidity (sulfate)

Chart 3 – Combination of Sample Collection

and Testing Methods

Method of Sample Collection Method of Sample Testing

(from chart 1) (from Chart 2)
A. Surface Swabbing 1. Quantab® Chloride Titrator Strip
2. Kitagawa® Chloride Titrator Tube
4. EM Quant® Iron Strip (ferrous ion)
5. Conductivity
B. Latex Sleeve (Chlor-Test® Kit) 2. Kitagawa® Chloride Titrator Tube
4. EM Quant® Iron Strip (ferrous ion)
5. Conductivity
6. Turbidity (sulfate)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Methods of Sample Collection

Before you test a sample for soluble salt contamination, you will need
to collect a sample or set of samples from the surface. There are three
methods of collecting samples from a surface for testing. The step-by-
step instructions are found in the supplement to this module.
___________________________________________
Surface Sampling Method A: Surface Swabbing
Swab SCAT (Surface Contamination Analysis Test)
Kit

The surface swabbing technique was one of the first sample collection
methods available. The amount of soluble salt contamination actually
sampled using the surface swabbing technique (better known as
extraction efficiency) is relatively low, compared to some of the
Swab SCAT kit
other methods we will be discussing. Despite its limitations, surface
swabbing is still a viable technique for sample collection. The KTA-
Swab SCAT kit contains all of the necessary equipment you will need
to collect a sample from the surface, then test the sample for chloride,
ferrous ion and pH.

Surface Sampling Method B: Latex Sleeve

(Chlor*TestTM SCAT Kit)

The Chlor*TestTM SCAT Kit contains five latex sleeves and five bottles
of Chlor*ExtractTM solution that are used for collecting a sample from
the surface. The extraction efficiency of this method is better than the
Chlor* TesttmSCAT kit swabbing method.

Surface Sampling Method C: Latex Cell (Bresle

PatchTM and BresleSampler®)

There are two latex cells that can be used to collect a sample from
the surface. They are both named “Bresle.” The Bresle PatchTM is an
adhesive latex cell. The sampling area of the latex cell is 12.25cm2 and
is square in shape. The BresleSampler® is also an adhesive latex cell.
Bresle Patchtm, Bresle Sampler ®, The sampling area of this latex cell is 12.5cm2 and is round in shape.
and Extraction Syringe Since the procedure for collecting a sample from the surface using
these two latex cells is essentially the same, only the Bresle Patch™ is
illustrated in the supplement.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Methods of Sample Testing

Now that you have collected a set of samples using one or more of the
sample collection methods described in Section 1, you are ready to test
the collected sample(s) for chlorides, ferrous ion, and/or conductivity.
There are five methods for testing the collected samples for soluble
salt contamination: (1) Quantab chloride titrator strips; (2) Kitagawa
Chloride Titrator Tube; (3) Bresle SCAT Kit (Drop Titration for
Chloride); EM Quant Iron Strip (Ferrous Ion); 5. Conductivity.

The step-by-step instructions on how to perform the five methods for

testing are described in the supplement at the end of this module. To
determine conductivity, the inspector may be required to convert the
value to surface concentration as described here.

Converting Between Surface Conductivity and Surface

Concentration
You can estimate the surface concentration from the conductivity value
you obtained using Sample Test Method 5 if the identity of the soluble
salt is known or assumed to be sodium chloride. For example if it is
known or assumed that the salt causing the increase in conductivity is
sodium chloride only, the surface concentration can be estimated using
the following formula (solving for “E”):
E = 0.5 x S x V/A

E = surface concentration of chloride in micrograms/square centimeter

(µg/cm2)
S = conductivity in microsiemen per centimeter (µS/cm) from Sample
Testing Method 5
V = volume of water used to collect a sample from the surface, in
milliliters (mL)
A = area of sample collection, in square centimeters (cm2)

Example:

S = 70 µS/cm
V = 2 mL (volume of water used in Latex Cell)
A = 12.25 cm2 (area of Latex Cell)

E = 0.5 x 70 x 2/12.25 = 5.7 µg/cm2 of chloride

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Note: This formula only works when it is known (or assumed) that
sodium chloride is the only soluble salt in the test solution and when it
is present at low concentrations.

You can use a similar formula to convert surface concentrations to

conductivity. In this case, you are solving for “S” rather than “E.”
The same assumptions apply when using this formula.

S = 2 x E x A/V

Example:

S = Conductivity in µS/cm
E = 3.4 µg/cm2 of chloride
A = 12.25 cm2 (area of Latex Cell)
V = 2 mL (volume of water used in Latex Cell)

S = 2 x 3.4 x 12.25/2 = 41.65 µS/cm (~70)

Analyzing Surface Extractions for the Sulfate Ion

Unlike chloride, ferrous ion and nitrate (which can be analyzed simply
using test strips or indicator tubes), the analysis of sulfate is more
complex and requires the use of an instrument known as a turbidity
meter. Once the sample is collected from the surface (a minimum
of 7 mL of solution is required), it is filtered through a Whatman
Autovial, placed in a clear glass vial, inserted into the meter and the
meter is “zeroed.” The clear glass vial containing the test solution is
removed from the meter and a pre-measured amount (0.1 gram) of
Barium Chloride is added to the test solution. The solution containing
the Barium Chloride is vigorously shaken for 2 minutes, the glass
vial is wiped to remove fingerprints and the vial is again placed in the
meter and the “Read” button is depressed. The relative “cloudiness”
or turbidity of the solution is converted to a sulfate concentration in
parts per million (by the meter). By knowing the amount of solution
used for the extraction (in milliliters) and the area sampled (in square
centimeters), the concentration of sulfate per unit area (micrograms per
square centimeter) can be calculated.

The methods employed to collect a sample for sulfate measurements

(swabbing, latex patches/cells, latex sleeves) have already been
described. Remember that if an extraction method other than the latex
sleeve is employed, a minimum of 7 mL of solution is required for

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©2015 SSPC 3-22
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection
the test. If the area extracted and the amount of extraction solution
used are not the same values (e.g., 10), then the PPM reading from
the meter must be multiplied by the amount of solution used for the
extraction (in mL), then divided by the area extracted (in cm2) to arrive
at μg/cm2.

Measuring Ambient Conditions Prior to Final Surface

Preparation

The measurement of air temperature, relative humidity, dew point

temperature and surface temperature is usually associated with coating
application. However, if the air temperature and relative humidity
are such that moisture from the air condenses on the surface during
final surface preparation, the surface may flash rust. Therefore, it is
recommended to verify that the temperature of the surfaces is at least
3°C (5°F) higher than the temperature of the dew point, to preclude
airborne moisture from condensing on the surfaces.

These values (surface temperature and dew point temperature)

can be obtained using sling or battery-powered psychrometers in
conjunction with US Weather Bureau Psychrometric Tables and
surface temperature thermometers, or can be obtained using direct
read-out electronic psychrometers equipped with surface temperature
probes. The step-by-step use of this instrumentation is described
in the supplement at the end of this module. It is important that the
inspector not rely on prevailing weather conditions from a local
service (e.g., airport weather station) as conditions at the project site
and the specific work area can vary considerably. Ambient conditions
should be measured and recorded prior to initiating final surface
preparation and at 4-hour intervals thereafter, unless conditions appear
to be declining. In this case, more frequent checks may be required.
If surface preparation work will be done inside a facility, tank or
inside of a containment, then the prevailing ambient conditions inside
of the areas (at the actual location of the work) should be assessed.
The location, date, time of day and the conditions of air temperature,
relative humidity, dew point temperature and surface temperature
should be recorded. However, since the only operation being
monitored is surface preparation, the dew point – surface temperature
relationship is the most critical. Typically there is no specified range
for air temperature and relative humidity during surface preparation
operations.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

There are many instruments used to measure ambient conditions, and

the industry continues to develop newer versions that will allow us to
gather information faster and easier. We will focus on the instruments
that are most commonly used at the time of this writing.

This module details the use and calibration of the following

instruments and charts:

Sling psychrometer
Battery-powered psychrometer
Electronic psychrometers
US Weather Bureau Psychrometric Tables
Dial surface temperature thermometers
Digital surface temperature thermometers and non-contact
infrared thermometers

Using Psychrometers to Measure Ambient

Conditions

The most common (and most economical) method of measuring the

ambient conditions on a project site is by using either a sling or
battery-powered psychrometer, in conjunction with the US Weather
Bureau Psychrometric Tables. The psychrometer is used to measure
Sling Psychrometer and the US
Weather Bureau Psychrometric the air temperature and to assess the latent heat loss caused by water
Tables evaporation from a wetted sock on the end of a bulb thermometer. The
psychrometric tables are used to look-up the relative humidity and dew
point temperature (based upon temperature readings from the
psychrometer and the barometric pressure). For now, it is more
important that we know how to obtain the information. We will discuss
what the information means later in the module.

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Using Electronic Psychrometers to Assess

Ambient Conditions

An alternative to sling and battery-powered psychrometers are the

electronic psychrometers. There are several models on the market.
However, some of these psychrometers are affected by outdoor
conditions and are not recommended for exterior use. It is important to
inquire about outdoor use prior to purchasing one of these electronic
psychrometers. Any of these psychrometers can be used for shop
painting, provided the work is done in an enclosed facility.

Elcometer 319 PosiTector® Dew Point Extech RH 401

Meter

The most common and versatile electronic psychrometers consist of

a wand or probe that is exposed to the environment (and touched to/
pointed at the surface). A digital display indicates a dataset, including
the air temperature, the relative humidity, the dew point temperature,
the surface temperature and the numerical spread between the surface
temperature and the dew point temperature.

Since the electronic psychrometers automatically measure and display

the ambient conditions and surface temperature, their use is fairly
straightforward. Basic step-by-step instructions are provided in the
supplement at the end of this module. The instruction manuals provided
with the gages should be consulted to understand their full capabilities.

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Using Surface Temperature Measuring Instruments

There are a variety of instruments for measurement of surface

temperature, including dial type and digital contact thermometers as
well as non-contact infrared thermometers. As discussed earlier, some
electronic psychrometers also have surface temperature measurement
capability.

Temperature-sensing spring Dial type surface temperature

thermometers contain a bi-metallic,
temperature-sensing spring on the back
of the thermometer that expands and
contracts with the temperature of the
surface. Since the spring is attached to
the indicator needle on the front side of
the thermometer, the needle increases
and decreases on the temperature scale,
indicating the surface temperature.
Dial type surface temperature thermometer
(left is backside; right is frontside Magnets attached to the back of the
thermometer enable
self-attachment to
vertical steel surfaces, although this thermometer
can be used on almost any surface.

Thermocouple digital surface temperature

gages are quicker and more accurate than the
dial type, but are typically more expensive.
Thermocouple digital
Non-contact infrared thermometers can also be surface thermometer
used to measure surface temperature. These gages
are often equipped with laser sightings, so that you can target the
location on the surface to be measured. However, the further away
from the surface that the “gun” is held, the larger the area of
measurement is, causing potential error.
Also, there is a maximum distance,
depending on the make and model of the
thermometer. You should carefully read the
manufacturer’s instructions prior to use.
Non-contact IR thermometer
Measuring surface temperatures with
infrared lasers can produce erroneous
temperatures when the steel is roughened or abrasive blast cleaned.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Calibrating Instruments for Measuring Ambient

Conditions and Surface Temperature

Verifying the accuracy of any coating inspection instrument is

paramount to the reliability of the data it produces. This section
describes the verification procedures for instruments used to assess
ambient conditions and surface temperature.

Verification of Accuracy – Psychrometers

The bulb thermometers in sling and battery-powered psychrometers

cannot be “calibrated” per se. However, their accuracy should be
routinely verified.

Verification of Accuracy – Dial Type Surface Temperature

Gages

Dial type surface temperature gages also cannot be calibrated, but they
should be verified for accuracy routinely. A calibration curve can be
generated by comparing the readings to a certified thermometer.

Calibrating Digital Psychrometers, Digital Surface

Temperature Thermometers and Non-contact Infrared
Thermometers

Digital psychrometers, digital surface temperature thermometers and

the non-contact thermometers can be calibrated by the manufacturer,
and their accuracy can sometimes be verified by the operator. Always
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for calibration verification
method(s) and frequency, as the specific method varies depending on
the manufacturer and model of the instrument.

Documenting Ambient Conditions and Surface

Temperature

Independent of the instrumentation used to assess the prevailing

ambient conditions and surface temperature, it is important to
document the measurements, including the date and time of day that
the measurements were obtained. The location where the readings
were obtained is also important; and some projects will require
documentation on the instrument type and serial numbers of the gages.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

The table illustrates a typical data set for ambient conditions and
surface temperature.

Condition Data
Date 5/13/02
Time 1300
Dry Bulb Temperature (t) 16°C (60°F)
Wet Bulb Temperature (t') 13°C (55°F)
Depression (t-t') 3°C (5°F)
Relative Humidity 73%
Dew Point Temperature 11°C (51°F)
Surface Temperature 15°C (59°F)
Measurement Location West side of tank, ground level

Dehumidification

In some cases, the ambient conditions and surface temperature

on a project site are such that work should not proceed, as there
is a chance that moisture may condense on a surface during final
surface preparation. In most instances, final surface preparation
work is postponed until conditions improve. While this approach is
quite common, it can adversely impact the project schedule. If the
area in which surface preparation is taking place is contained, the
contractor or facility owner may elect to control the environment using
dehumidification (DH) equipment, so that work can proceed. This
type of equipment effectively removes moisture from the air, thereby
reducing the chance of condensing moisture on a surface. While
dehumidification seems like a straightforward process, the equipment
must be appropriately sized to dehumidify the area, and must be
properly set-up and maintained. Mobilization and operation of DH
equipment can also escalate project costs. Therefore, the inspector
should not require the use of DH equipment unless stipulated by
the project specification. The contractor may elect to mobilize the
equipment on his own, in order to maintain the project schedule.
Ultimately, the inspector verifies that the ambient conditions and
surface temperatures conform to the project specification. The means
and methods of achieving these conditions are up to the contractor.
It is beyond the scope of this training to provide comprehensive
instruction on the set-up and operation of DH equipment. However,
it is important that an inspector have a background in DH principles

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2015 SSPC 3-28
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection
and equipment. For more detailed information on dehumidification,
the inspector should read SSPC Technical Report TR 3/NACE
6A192, “Dehumidification and Temperature Control During Surface
Preparation, Application, and Curing for Coatings/Linings of Steel
Tanks, Vessels, and Other Enclosed Spaces.” The information provided
below was extracted from the report.

Dehumidification can be accomplished by compression, refrigeration,

desiccation (liquid sorption, solid sorption), or a combination of these
systems. While compression and liquid sorption are common methods
of dehumidification, their use is not generally applicable to field
conditions. Therefore, only the refrigerant-based and desiccant solid-
sorption techniques are described.

Refrigeration

The cooling of air to below its dew point is an economical method

of dehumidification. This method is commonly used at ambient
temperatures of approximately 29°C (85°F) and high humidity.
Ambient air is circulated over a system of refrigeration coils. The
surface temperature of the coils is set at temperatures considerably
lower than the temperature of the incoming ambient air. As the
air cools, it reaches saturation, and condensation forms. This
condensation is collected and removed from the system. The air exits
the cooling-coil section of the dehumidifier at a reduced temperature,
dew point, and absolute humidity. The refrigeration-based dehumidifi-
cation system is illustrated in Figure 1. The cooler air, which has a
lower dew point, can then be reheated to lower the relative humidity.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Refrigeration is often used to pre-cool and dehumidify inbound air

before it reaches a desiccant system in order to obtain lower dew
points after desiccation. The air can be re-cooled, if necessary, by
refrigeration.

Desiccant

Solid-sorption dehumidification systems utilize either granular beds

or fixed desiccant structures. These structures are contained within
machines through which an air stream is passed. The desiccant used
is in an active, dehydrated state and has a vapor pressure below that of
the air to be dehumidified. The most commonly used desiccants are
silica gel and lithium chloride. Air is passed through beds or layers of
the desiccant, which absorb moisture from the air stream, producing
a hydrated salt. Regeneration of the hydrated salt is accomplished
with heated air, which drives off the water of hydration, returning the
sorbent to its dehydrated state. The previously sorbed moisture is
diverted to a separate air stream.

The exothermic hydration reaction typically raises the temperature

of the exiting air stream by 6 to 8°C (10 to 15°F). Therefore, in hot
climates, refrigeration-type dehumidifiers are frequently used in
combination with desiccant equipment to cool the air entering the
space. A typical desiccant dehumidification system is illustrated in
Figure 2. Because this type of system absorbs moisture as vapor, it is
commonly used at all temperatures and levels of humidity.

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The size of dehumidification equipment is typically determined by

considering the balance between air extraction from the space and
the dehumidification desired to accomplish the specified dew point
depression from the surface temperature. If the capacity of the
dehumidification equipment becomes marginal through unexpected
weather changes, its efficiency can be improved by reducing the
amount of air being extracted for dust control.

The appropriate air-change rate for maintaining a prepared surface

during blast cleaning and between shifts while maintaining a large
differential between dew point and surface temperature for an
extended period of time is dependent on air-space volume, equipment,
geographical location, climate, and season. The number of openings
in the enclosure, the airtightness of the structure, the distance of
equipment from the space, and the amount of air to be extracted or
exhausted by means other than DH equipment also influence the DH
capacity. Relatively airtight enclosures generally require less DH
volume because little or no additional air or moisture is introduced into
the space. Relatively large spaces usually require fewer air exchanges.
Equipment contractors usually have guides that give volume data for
their equipment.

Assessing Lighting and Surface Cleanliness

There is one key element to inspection on every project: Adequate

lighting. You can’t inspect what you can’t see. If you can’t see, you
can’t inspect! Lighting is particularly critical when assessing surface
cleanliness, as it is a visual inspection check point. Therefore, before
describing the ISO and SSPC/NACE visual guides for surface
cleanliness and the inspection procedures employed to assess surface
cleanliness, it is important to understand how light is measured and
what is considered “adequate.”

SSPC Guide 12, “Guide for Illumination of Industrial Painting

Projects” describes the minimum and recommended lighting
requirements for various operations on a painting project. These are
listed below in the chart. In addition, the instrumentation used to
assess the adequacy of the lighting is also described in the Guide. The
term “Foot Candle” indicates the amount of light emitted by a candle
12 inches away (and perpendicular to) from the light source; the term

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“Lux” or “Meter Candle” indicates the amount of light emitted by a

candle 1 meter away (and perpendicular to) from the light source.

A standard light meter is used to assess the prevailing amount of

lighting in an area. There are several models available and their use is
straightforward. Simply power-up the light meter and select the output
units (Lux or Foot Candle). The instrument display will indicate the
amount of light reaching the photocell. Compare the readout on the
display to the requirements of the project specification (or SSPC Guide
12) for the type of operation being performed. You should obtain at
least five measurements to ensure that the lighting is uniform across
the entire area.

SSPC Guide 12 Lighting Requirements

Lighting Lighting
Operation (Lux or Meter Cande) (Foot Candle)
Minimum Recommended Minimum Recommended
General Area 108 215 10 20
Surface Preparation 215 538 20 50
Coating Application 215 538 20 50
Inspection 538 2153 50 200

Even with adequate lighting, determining visually whether the degree

of cleanliness achieved by the contractor meets/exceeds the minimum
level required by the project specification is perhaps the most difficult
inspection check point. That is, there is no instrument that can be
placed onto the surface to indicate the level of surface cleanliness
attained. The instrument used is the inspector’s eyes.

To assist in the visual assessment of surface cleanliness, SSPC: The

Society for Protective Coatings has developed four sets of reference
photographs (known as “Visual Guides and Reference Photographs”).
Each visual guide contains several “before” and “after” photographs.
These visual guides and reference photographs can help you assess
whether surfaces have been prepared according to the project
specification before painting begins. The visual guides and reference
photographs we will be learning about in this module use the same
surface preparation designations as the written specifications.

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Power switch and

read-out selector

Light meter Light meter in use

Methods of Surface Preparation

Surface preparation methods employed by a painting contractor or

facility owner can range from simple solvent cleaning to hand and
power tool cleaning, dry and wet abrasive blast cleaning, chemical
stripping, water jetting and other more non-traditional methods such
as sponge jetting and cryogenic blast cleaning using dry ice pellets. As
we discussed earlier in this module, the degree of cleaning required by
a given project specification is dependent on the service environment
(the environment that the coating system must perform in), the coating
system and the intended service life of the coating once installed.

Hand Tool Cleaning

Hand tool cleaning is typically performed with wire brushes,

scrapers and other tools that do not depend on electric or
pneumatic power to operate. These hand tools are only
intended to remove loosely adhering corrosion products, old
paint and flaking mill scale, and are not intended to produce
an anchor pattern in the steel. Hand tools are frequently used
to prepare surfaces for spot touch-up during maintenance
painting activities.
Hand Tool
Since hand tool cleaning operations may leave unlimited
amounts of intact coating, it is important that the edges of the intact
coating be tapered or “feathered” to provide a smooth transition of the
newly applied coating. Unfeathered edges can result in lifting of the

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coating at those edges, in addition to a poor appearance of the finished

project. Feathering of edges can be accomplished using abrasive paper
(sand paper) or various power tool attachments.

Power Tool Cleaning

Power tool cleaning is typically performed with grinders, pneumatic

chisels, needle scalers, rotopeen tools and other tools that require an
electric or pneumatic power source to operate. Most of these tools can
remove both loosely and tightly adhering corrosion products, paint and
mill scale from the steel surfaces. Stratified rust, pack rust and rust
scale (described earlier in this module) are removed using these types
of tools. Some of these tools can also produce an anchor pattern into
the steel by “peening” the surface. Additionally, these
tools can be purchased with vacuum ports and hoses
for attachment to HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate
Air) filtered vacuums so that the fine, airborne particles
that are generated during surface preparation activities
are collected at the point of generation.

Similar to hand tool cleaning, power tool cleaning

operations may leave unlimited amounts of intact
coating. Therefore it is important that the edges of the
intact coating be tapered or “feathered” to provide a
smooth transition of the newly applied coating. As described earlier
in this module, unfeathered edges can result in lifting of the coating at
those edges, in addition to a poor appearance of the finished project.
Feathering of edges can be accomplished using sanders, right angle
grinders equipped with non-woven fiber wheels containing abrasive
particles, or other less aggressive power tool attachments.

Power Tool Cleaning – General

The three power tool cleaning specifications all require the removal
of visible grease, oil and other contaminants from the surfaces (as
specified in SSPC-SP1 “Solvent Cleaning”) prior to initiating power
tool cleaning. That is, SSPC-SP1 is an “indirect requirement” of
SSPC-SP3 “Power Tool Cleaning,” SSPC-SP11, Power Tool Cleaning
to Bare Metal,” and SSPC-SP15, “Commercial Grade Power Tool
Cleaning.” When welded surfaces are encountered, the weld slag,

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flux and fume deposits should be removed to the extent possible (and
as required by the contract documents), as coatings may not perform
on welded areas containing these types of deposits. After cleaning
and prior to painting, residual dirt, dust and other debris generated by
the power tool cleaning operations should be removed by blow down
using compressed air, or by brushing or vacuuming. If compressed air
is used to remove surface debris, it must be both clean and dry, which
can be verified by performing a compressed air cleanliness test (blotter
test) described later in this module. Compressed air cleanliness is an
“indirect” requirement of SSPC-SP3, SSPC-SP11 and SSPC-SP15.

Selection of the power tool and cleaning media is dependent on

many factors, including the amount of surface area to be cleaned,
the configuration of the surface, and the level of control required for
worker and environmental protection. Selection is also dependent on
whether surface roughness is a direct requirement of the referenced
SSPC surface cleanliness standard (e.g., SSPC-SP11 and SP15), or if
a surface roughness is required by the contract documents. Needle
scalers can both clean and roughen, and are useful for cleaning areas
in tight configuration, but are too slow for cleaning large areas. Non-
woven fiber wheels clean well, but tend to polish the surfaces, leaving
little to no surface profile. Rotary impact-type power tools both clean
and roughen, and are more productive than needle scalers. Most
power tools can be vacuum shrouded to reduce the volume of airborne
dust generated by the cleaning process. The vacuum units are often
equipped with High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filtration. Note
however, that environmental protection is often still required, as the
larger particles and debris dislodged from the surfaces are not always
collected by the vacuum system, especially when uneven surfaces or
protrusions are encountered.

Determining whether the remaining rust, paint or mill scale is intact on

surfaces prepared to SSPC-SP3 cannot be evaluated visually. Rather,
a “dull putty knife” is used as the inspection tool to assess whether
the remaining materials can be lifted. Even so, this evaluation can
be subjective, and the term “dull” is relative and currently not well-
defined.

Determining the maximum amount of staining present after cleaning

according to SSPC-SP15 is evaluated visually; however the process
is no less subjective. And both SSPC-SP11 and SP15 allow trace

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amounts of rust, paint or mill scale to remain in the pits, provided

the original surfaces were pitted. Establishing a project-specific
cleanliness standard may help to better define the level of cleanliness
required on a given structure. The area should be representative of
the structure, and should be preserved as a reference in the event of a
dispute later during the cleaning operations. Many contracts require
the establishment of a project-specific cleanliness test area. This is
described in more detail later in this module.

When mutually agreed upon or when invoked by the contract

documents, ISO 8501-1 or SSPC VIS 3 photographic references can
be used to help evaluate the cleanliness of surfaces prepared by power
tool cleaning. While the photographic references in ISO 8501-1 or
SSPC VIS 3 will rarely match the actual surfaces prepared by the
contractor, they serve as an excellent tool to help those evaluating the
degree of cleanliness achieved to “calibrate” their eyes, and they are
invaluable for establishing a jobsite cleanliness standard. The use of
these visual guides is described later in this module.

ISO Standard 8502, “Preparation of Steel Substrates before

Application of Paints and Related Products – Tests for the
Assessment of Surface Cleanliness.”

The International Standards Organization has published written surface

cleanliness standards for preparation of steel surfaces. These standards
are housed in ISO Standard 8502, “Preparation of Steel Substrates
before Application of Paints and Related Products – Tests for the
Assessment of Surface Cleanliness.” The identification system and the
definitions vary considerably from that of SSPC and NACE. Therefore
these standards are described separately in this training.

ISO St 2: Thorough Hand and Power Tool Cleaning

“When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free from

visible oil, grease and dirt, and from poorly adhering mill scale, rust,
paint coatings and foreign matter.”

ISO St 3: Very Thorough Hand and Power Tool Cleaning

“(Same) As for St2, but the surface shall be treated much more
thoroughly to give a metallic sheen arising from the metallic
substrate.”

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SSPC-SP 2, Hand Tool Cleaning

SSPC-SP 2, “Hand Tool Cleaning” requires the removal of all loosely

adhering rust, mill scale and paint. The remaining materials are
considered tightly-adhering if they cannot be lifted using the blade
of a dull putty knife. The project specification may require the edges
of intact paint to be feathered to facilitate a smooth transition, and to
prevent lifting of the edge by the application of subsequent coating
layers. There is no surface profile requirement for hand tool cleaning.
The hand tool cleaning specification requires the removal of all visible
grease, oil and other contaminants from the surfaces (as specified in
SSPC-SP 1 “Solvent Cleaning”) prior to initiating hand tool cleaning.
That is, SSPC-SP 1 is an “indirect requirement” of SSPC-SP 2 “Hand
Tool Cleaning.” When welded surfaces are encountered, the weld slag,
flux and fume deposits should be removed to the extent possible (and
as required by the contract documents), as coatings may not perform
on welded areas containing these types of deposits. After cleaning
and prior to painting, residual dirt, dust and other debris generated by
the hand tool cleaning operations should be removed by blow down
using compressed air, or by brushing or vacuuming. If compressed air
is used to remove surface debris, it must be both clean and dry, which
can be verified by performing a compressed air cleanliness test (blotter
test) described later in this module. Compressed air cleanliness is also
an “indirect” requirement of SSPC-SP 2.

Determining whether the remaining rust, paint or mill scale is intact

cannot be evaluated visually. Rather, a “dull putty knife” is used as the
inspection tool to assess whether the remaining materials can be lifted.
Even so, this evaluation can be subjective, and the term “dull” is
relative and currently not well-defined. Establishing a project-specific
cleanliness standard may help to better define the level of cleanliness
required on a given structure. The area should be representative of
the structure, and should be preserved as a reference in the event of a
dispute later during the cleaning operations. Many contracts require
the establishment of a project-specific cleanliness test area. This is
described in more detail later in this module.

When mutually agreed upon or when invoked by the contract

documents, ISO 8501-1 or SSPC VIS 3 photographic references can
be used to help evaluate the cleanliness of surfaces prepared by hand
tool cleaning. While the photographic references in ISO 8501-1 or
SSPC VIS 3 or in will rarely match the actual surfaces prepared by the

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contractor, they serve as an excellent tool to help those evaluating the

degree of cleanliness achieved to “calibrate” their eyes, and they are
invaluable when establishing a jobsite cleanliness standard. The use of
these visual guides is described later in this module.

Power Tool Cleaning

SSPC has published three power tool cleaning standards. They vary
in the level of surface cleanliness required and surface roughness
requirements.

SSPC-SP 3, Power Tool Cleaning

SSPC-SP 3, “Power Tool Cleaning” is similar to SSPC-SP 2, “Hand

Tool Cleaning” in that the standard requires the removal of all loosely
adhering rust, mill scale and paint. The remaining materials are
considered tightly-adhering if they cannot be lifted using the blade of
a dull putty knife. The project specification may require that the edges
of intact paint to be feathered to facilitate a smooth transition, and to
prevent lifting of the edge by the application of subsequent coating
layers. There is no surface profile requirement for power tool cleaning.

SSPC-SP 11, Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal

SSPC-SP 11, Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal” requires the

removal of all loosely and all tightly adhering mill scale, rust and paint
to expose the bare metal surface. If the existing surfaces are pitted,
trace quantities of paint, rust and mill scale can remain in the bottom
of the pits. The standard also requires that a minimum 25 µm (1 mil)
anchor pattern or profile be etched into the bare steel surface, in order
to enhance the mechanical bond of the newly-applied coating system
to the prepared surfaces.

Surfaces prepared according to SSPC-SP 11 are not to be compared

to surfaces prepared by abrasive blast cleaning. While this level
of cleaning may generate surfaces that resemble a near white or
commercial blast (described later in this module), they are not
equivalent to those surfaces due to the characteristics of the surface
roughness (profile).

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SSPC-SP 15, Commercial Grade Power Tool Cleaning

Similar to SSPC-SP 11, SSPC-SP 15, “Commercial Grade Power Tool

Cleaning requires the removal of all loosely and all tightly adhering
mill scale, rust and paint from the surface. Staining from rust, paint
and mill scale is permitted, provided it does not exceed 33% (one-
third) of each 58 cm2 (9 square inches) of prepared surface. If the
existing surfaces are pitted, trace quantities of paint, rust and mill
scale can remain in the bottom of the pits. SP 15 also requires that a
minimum 25 µm (1 mil) anchor pattern or profile be etched into the
surface, in order to enhance the mechanical bond of the newly applied
coating system to the prepared surfaces.

Selecting a Visual Standard

ISO 8501 is used for visual assessment of surface cleanliness. Similar

to the SSPC Visual Guides and Reference Photographs, it contains
color photographs of four rust grades of steel:

A: “Steel surface largely covered with adhering mill scale but

little, if any, rust.”
B: “Steel surface which has begun to rust and from which the mill
scale has begun to flake.”
C: “Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from
which it can be scraped, but with slight pitting visible under
normal vision.”
D: “Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away and on
which general pitting is visible under normal vision.”

Each of the four levels of abrasive blast cleaning (Sa 1, Sa 2, Sa 2 ½

and Sa 3) is depicted for each of the four rust grades. In addition the
two hand & power tool cleaning levels are depicted for Rust Grades
B, C and D, and flame cleaning is illustrated for each of the four Rust
Grades. Three examples illustrating the proper use of the ISO surface
cleanliness standards are provided below.

Example 1:

The surface contains no mill scale and is completely rusted. No pitting

is visible.

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Rust Grade C

The project specification requires “Very Thorough Blast Cleaning.”

Sa 2 ½

The inspector uses the photographic standard labeled “C Sa 2 ½” to

inspect the surfaces to assess whether the minimum cleanliness level
has been achieved.

Example 2:

The surface contains rust and the mill scale has begun to flake.

Rust Grade B

The project specification requires “Thorough Hand or Power tool

Cleaning.”

St 2

The inspector uses the photographic standard labeled “B St 2” to

inspect the surfaces to assess whether the minimum cleanliness level
has been achieved.

Example 3:

The surface contains no mill scale and is completely rusted. General

pitting is visible.

Rust Grade D

The project specification requires “Flame Cleaning.”

The inspector uses the photographic standard labeled “D F1” to inspect

the surfaces to assess whether the minimum cleanliness level has been
achieved.

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Using SSPC-VIS 3, “Guide and Reference

Photographs for Steel Surfaces Prepared by
Power and Hand Tool Cleaning”

SSPC-VIS 3 is a collection
of color reference
photographs depicting
seven initial conditions
and four degrees of hand
or power tool cleaning
for each condition. Each
color photograph is
approximately 9 square
inches.

To use the SSPC VIS 3

visual guide and reference
photographs follow these
five basic steps.

Step 1: Ask, “What does the steel look like (prior to surface
preparation)?”
The answer will yield an “Initial Condition”
Step 2: Ask, “What level of surface cleanliness does the specification
require?”
The answer will yield a “Surface Cleanliness Code”
Step 3: If the answer in Step 2 is “SP3,” ask, “What type of power
tool was used to prepare the surface?”
The answer will yield a “Power Tool Code”
Step 4: Locate the reference photograph in the visual guide
illustrating the initial condition (the “answer” to Step 1) and
the reference photograph that represents the hand- or power
tool-cleaned surfaces prepared to the specified degree of
surface cleanliness (the “answer” to Step 2) using a specific
type of power tool (the “answer” to Step 3, if appropriate).
Step 5: Use the reference photograph selected in Step 4 to assess
whether the prepared steel meets or exceeds the requirements
of the specification.

Let’s take a closer look at each of these five steps.

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Step 1: Ask, “What does the steel look like (prior to surface
preparation)?”

In order to use the visual guides and reference photographs properly,

it is important that you determine what the existing steel looks like
before it is prepared by hand- or power-tool cleaning. To do this,
locate the reference photographs in the visual guide illustrating the
seven possible initial conditions of the steel. We’ll call these “before
photographs,” as they depict the condition of the steel “before” it was
hand- or power-tool cleaned. The SSPC-VIS 3 guide and reference
photographs illustrates seven such Initial Conditions, including:

Condition A: Steel surface

completely covered
with adherent mill
scale; little or no
visible rust.

Condition B: Steel surface covered

with both mill scale
and rust.

Condition C: Steel surface

completely covered
with rust; little or no
pitting visible.

Condition D: Steel surface

completely covered
with rust; pitting
visible.

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Condition E: Previously painted

steel surface; mostly
intact, light-colored
paint applied to a blast
cleaned surface.

Condition F: Previously painted

steel surface; mostly
intact, zinc-rich paint
applied to a blast
cleaned surface.

Condition G: Paint system applied

to mill scale bearing
steel; system
thoroughly weathered,
blistered or stained.

Select one of these “before” reference photographs that best illustrates

the condition of the steel and write down the letter (A, B, C, D, E, F or
G) before you proceed to Step 2. If the steel is represented by more
than one condition, then write down the specific area of the structure
and the corresponding condition letter for each area.

Step 2: Ask, “What level of surface cleanliness does the

specification require?”

After you select a reference photograph that depicts the existing

condition of the steel surfaces, you’ll need to look at the project
specification to determine the degree of surface cleanliness required.
This will appear in the project specification as one of four possible
“levels:” SSPC-SP 2, SSPC-SP 3, SSPC-SP 11, or SSPC-SP 15. If
the specification does not require one or more of these levels of
surface cleanliness then the SSPC-VIS 3 visual guide and reference
photographs cannot be used. Chart 1 provides the surface cleanliness
codes and the corresponding levels of surface cleanliness depicted.

Write down the surface cleanliness level required by the project

specification using the code (e.g., if the specification requires hand

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Chart 1 – SSPC-VIS 3 Surface Cleanliness Guide

Surface Cleanliness Level Depicted in Reference Color
Surface Cleanlinss Code
Photographs
SP2 Hand Tool Cleaning
SP3 Power Tool Cleaning
SP11 Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal
SP15 Commercial Grade Power Tool Cleaning

tool cleaning, write down SP2). At this point, you should have both a
code for the initial condition (A, B, C, D, E, F or G) and a code for the
surface cleanliness (SP2, SP3, SP11, or SP15).

Step 3: If the answer to Step 2 was “SP3,” ask, “What type

of power tool was used to prepare the surface?”

After you select a reference photograph that depicts the existing

condition of the steel surfaces (the “before photograph”), and
determine the degree of surface cleanliness required by the project
specification, you will need to determine the type of power tool used to
prepare the surfaces. Note that this step is only necessary if the project
specification requires SSPC-SP3, “Power Tool Cleaning.” That is, if
hand tool cleaning (SSPC-SP2), power tool cleaning to bare metal
(SSPC-SP11), or commercial grade power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP15)
is specified, this step is not necessary. Chart 2 provides the power tool
codes and the corresponding descriptions.

Photos depicting 2 power tool codes (SD & PWB)

Chart 2 – SSPC-VIS 3 Surface Cleanliness Guide

Power Tool Code Power Tool Description

PWB Power Wire Brush

SD Sanding Disc

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Write down the power tool code that most closely approximates the
tool being used (e.g., if a power wire brush was used, write down
PWB). At this point, you should have a code for the initial condition
(A, B, C, D, E, F or G), a code for the surface cleanliness (SP2, SP3,
SP11, or SP15) and a third code for the type of power tool used, if
SSPC-SP3 is specified.

Step 4: Locate the reference photograph in the visual guide

The SSPC-VIS 3 visual guide and reference photographs illustrates

various levels of surface cleanliness (after hand- or power-tool
cleaning is completed) for each of the conditions in Step 1. We’ll call
these “after photographs.” Select the “after” reference photograph
using the code put together in Step 3. Here are three examples:

Example 1:
If the steel surface contains both mill scale and rust, select
Condition B. If the specification requires Power Tool Cleaning
(SSPC-SP3), select level SP3. If a sanding disc is used, select
power tool code SD. Now locate photograph B SP3 SD in the
visual guide and reference photographs.

Condition B selected

SSPC-SP3 using a sanding disc

selected

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Example 2:
If the steel surface contains a mostly intact light-colored paint that
was originally applied to a blast cleaned surface, select Condition
E. If the specification requires Hand Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP2),
select level SP2. Now locate photograph E SP2 in the visual guide
and reference photographs.

SSPC-SP2 hand tool

cleaning selected

Condition E selected

Example 3:
If the steel surface is rusted and pitted, select Condition D. If the
specification requires Commercial Grade Power Tool Cleaning
(SSPC-SP15), select level SP15. Now locate photograph D SP15
in the visual guide and reference photographs.

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SSPC-SP15
selected

Condition D selected

Note: Two additional photographs are found at the back of the guide
and reference photographs. Two of the seven initial conditions
(“E” and “F”) originally contained a surface profile. Both of these
conditions were power tool cleaned to bare metal (SSPC-SP11)
using non-woven discs to remove the coating to expose (restore)
the original profile without creating a new one. These reference
photographs contain an additional code (“R” designation, indicating
Restored). For example, the reference photograph depicting Condition
“E” that has been power tool cleaned to bare metal to expose (restore)
the original surface profile contains the Code “E SP11/R.” Note that
this is very difficult to achieve in practice.

Step 5: Assess the prepared surfaces

Use the reference photograph selected in Step 4 to determine whether

the prepared surface(s) meet or exceed the specified level of surface
Using SSPC-VIS 3
cleanliness. If the prepared surfaces do not meet the specified level
of cleanliness, then additional cleaning should be performed and the
surfaces re-examined.

Remember: Ambient lighting and the type of tool employed, as well

as variations in the initial condition and the quality of the steel will

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Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

TABLE 4A
COMPARISON OF SSPC AND ISO SURFACE PREPARATION STANDARDS
FOR POWER- AND HAND-TOOL CLEANED STEEL

Surface Preparation
Standard Initial Condition of Steel Reference Photographs

Rust
SSPC ISO Condition Description SSPC-VIS 31 ISO 8501-12
A intact mill scale A SP 11 *
B partially rusted mill scale B SP 11 *
SP 11 C 100% rusted, no pits C SP 11 *
Power Tool D rusted and pitted D SP 11 *
Cleaning to Bare E paint mostly intact E SP 11, E SP 11/R *
Metal
F zinc-rich paint F SP 11, F SP 11/R *
deteriorated paint over mill
G G SP 11 *
scale
A intact mill scale * *
B partially rusted mill scale B SP 15 *
SP 15 C 100% rusted, no pits C SP 15 *
Commercial D rusted and pitted D SP 15 *
Grade Power E paint mostly intact E SP 15 *
Tool Cleaning
F zinc-rich paint F SP 15 *
deteriorated paint over mill
G G SP 15 *
scale
A intact mill scale A SP 3/PWB, A SP 3/SD *
B partially rusted mill scale B SP 3/PWB, B SP 3/SD B St 3
C 100% rusted, no pits C SP 3/PWB, C SP 3/SD C St 3
SP 3
D rusted and pitted D SP 3/PWB, D SP 3/SD D St 3
Power Tool St 3
Cleaning E paint mostly intact E SP 3/PWB, E SP 3/SD *
F zinc-rich paint F SP 3/PWB, F SP 3/SD *
deteriorated paint over mill
G G SP 3/PWB, G SP 3/SD *
scale
A intact mill scale A SP 2 *
B partially rusted mill scale B SP 2 B St 2
C 100% rusted, no pits C SP 2 C St 2
SP 2
Hand Tool D rusted and pitted D SP 2 D St 2
St 2
Cleaning E paint mostly intact E SP 2 *
F zinc-rich paint F SP 2 *
deteriorated paint over mill
G G SP 2 *
scale

**==no
nophotograph
photograph
11
SSPC-VIS
SSPC VIS 3 contains
3 containsphotographs
photographsforforSP
SP11,
11,SPSP
15, 15,SP
SP3,3,and
andSPSP2.2.
22
The United
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StandardBSBS7079
7079Part A1A1is isequivalent
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cleanlinessofofunpainted steel. BS
7079 Part A2steel.
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BS 7079toPart
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is equivalent to ISOthe8501-2
same degrees of cleanliness
and depicts of previously
the same degrees painted steel.
of cleanliness of previously
painted steel.

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impact the appearance of the prepared surface and the perceived level
of cleanliness. The SSPC visual guides and reference photographs
were designed as a guide, and the written standards prevail in the
event of a dispute. Note that because of the subjectivity involved
in cleanliness assessments, it may be worthwhile to establishing a
project-specific cleanliness standard (using the visual guides and
reference photographs for guidance) before the job begins. This can
help all parties involved gain a mutual understanding of the desired
level of cleanliness.

Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning

Blast cleaning using dry abrasive media is perhaps the most common
method of preparing a surface for coating. Abrasive blast cleaning can
be used to roughen an existing coating for subsequent overcoating or
to completely remove the existing corrosion products, coating, and
mill scale. Abrasive blast cleaning is the most productive of all surface
preparation methods. Thousands of square feet/meters of surface can
be prepared for coating in a single work shift. The hardness and mass
of the abrasive media combined with the velocity of the abrasive as
it exits a nozzle at speeds exceeding 805 kilometers per hour (500
miles per hour) using air pressures up to 862 KPa (125 psi) generates
high levels of energy. As the abrasive media impacts the surface with
this energy, it can remove existing coating layers, corrosion and mill
scale, while simultaneously increasing the surface area of the steel by
generating a surface profile or anchor pattern. The level of cleanliness
that is achieved is ultimately determined by the distance that the
nozzle is held from the surface and the “dwell time” that the operator
employs. The depth and shape of the surface profile is determined
by the type and size of the abrasive media employed, as well as the
hardness of the surface being prepared. Therefore, selecting the correct
type and size of abrasive is critical. Selecting too small of an abrasive
size will generate a surface profile that is too shallow, and selecting too
large of an abrasive will create a surface profile that is too deep. The
abrasive type and size ultimately selected should be demonstrated prior
to production to verify that the specified surface profile depth and
shape can be achieved.

A traditional dry abrasive blast cleaning set-up is illustrated in Blast-

Off 2, published by Clemco Industries (reproduced below). This more
traditional set-up consists of a source of compressed air (of sufficient

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capacity to provide an adequate volume of air to support the nozzle

size, hose length, air pressure and number of operators), an ASME-
coded abrasive hopper equipped with an air moisture and oil separator,
a metering valve (located at the base of the hopper to meter abrasive
from the hopper into the blast hose), a blast hose to carry the metered
abrasive and compressed air to the nozzle (equipped with external
hose couplings, safety wires and/or cables [whip checks]) and a blast
nozzle. Safety is paramount to the blast cleaning process. In the U.S.,
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has
specific regulations governing abrasive blast cleaning that include
hand, foot and skin protection from abrasive ricochet, respiratory
protection (Type CE blast helmet under positive pressure, with tested
and certified Grade D breathing air), and a pneumatic or electrically
operated “deadman,” which automatically stops the flow of air
pressure and abrasive in the event that the operator loses control of the
blast nozzle. Projects employing “recycled” abrasives will typically
use blast pots in conjunction with vacuum equipment for collecting
spent abrasive and recycling equipment for separatioin the smaller
particles and debris from the reusable abrasive.

Blast Cleaning Productivity

There are many factors that can impact the productivity of abrasive
blast cleaning operations. First, the compressor must be adequately
sized to provide the volume of air (measured in cubic feet per
Hypodermic Needle Pressure Gage
minute or CFM) necessary to maintain the desired nozzle pressure.
Optimum blast nozzle pressure is 620-690 KPa (90-100 psi), but can
be increased to 827-861 KPa (120-125 psi) if a recyclable abrasive
like steel grit is being used. According to Clemco, a 69 KPa (10
psi) reduction in blast nozzle pressure equates to a 15% reduction
in productivity, so maintaining nozzle pressure is paramount to

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blast cleaning productivity. Blast nozzle pressure can be measured

using a hypodermic needle pressure gage. The needle of the gage is
inserted into the blast hose at a 45o angle (in the direction of air and
abrasive flow) as close as feasible to the blast nozzle. The deadman
valve (automatic system shutdown safety lever) is closed so that both
abrasive and air begin to flow. The operational pressure is read from
the gage dial. If multiple operators will be using the same source of
compressed air, it is important that all deadman controls be closed
simultaneously, in order to obtain a representative pressure reading.
Blast pressure can be increased by reducing the size of the blast
nozzle or better yet, increasing the capacity of the compressed air
source. Blast-Off 2 by Clemco contains several charts on the size of
the compressor required to maintain pressure for a given nozzle size.
These charts are shown on the following pages.

Blast cleaning productivity is also affected by:

• The condition of the surface (number and relative brittleness of

coating layers, stratified or pack rust verses surface rusting, etc.),
• The abrasive type and size selected,
• The distance from the nozzle to the surface,
• The angle at which the operator holds the nozzle to the surface,
and
• The flow of the abrasive from the hopper into the blast hose.

In general, brittle coatings are easier to remove than softer coatings or

coatings with elasticity, as the abrasive tends to bounce off, rather than
fracture soft/elastomeric coatings. Harder abrasives tend to remove
coatings faster than softer ones, and smaller abrasives are generally
more productive than larger abrasives, as smaller abrasives produce a
higher number of impacts per area and in turn clean faster. However
the abrasive must have sufficient mass to remove the existing coating
system and produce the required profile depth, which is primarily
dictated by the size of the abrasive.

Nozzle distance will vary, and is dependent upon the difficulty

in coating/rust removal. In general, the blast nozzle distance is
maintained between 30-46 cm (12 and 18 inches) from the surface
(closer for tenacious coatings and further away if coatings are easily
removed). Distances greater than 60 cm (24”) are generally not
recommended. The angle that the blast nozzle is held to the surface

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will also vary and is operator dependent. In general, mill scale and rust
are best removed when the nozzle is maintained at an 80-90° angle,
while old coatings are removed more easily if the nozzle is held 45-60°
to the surface. Finally, the flow of abrasive from the hopper into the
blast hose can impact productivity. If the metering valve is set too lean,
there will be an insufficient quantity of abrasive exiting the nozzle,
reducing productivity. Conversely, if the valve is set too rich, the blast
hose and nozzle will become flooded with abrasive, also decreasing
productivity. The metering valve should be set by the operator to
achieve the optimum abrasive flow.

U.S. Standard Compressed Air and Abrasive Consumption

Nozzle Pressure at the Nozzle (psi) Air (in cfm) Abrasive
Orifice 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 140 & HP requirements
11 13 15 17 18.5 20 25 28 Air (cfm)
No. 2 .67 .77 .88 1.01 1.12 1.23 1.52 1.70 Abrasive (cu.ft./hr. &
(1/8”) 67 77 88 101 112 123 152 170 lbs./hr.)
2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6.2 Compressor hp
26 30 33 38 41 45 55 62 Air (cfm)
No. 3 1.50 1.71 1.96 2.16 2.38 2.64 3.19 3.57 Abrasive (cu.ft./hr. &
(3/16”) 150 171 196 216 238 264 319 357 lbs./hr.)
6 7 8 9 10 10 12 13 Compressor hp
47 54 61 68 74 81 98 110 Air (cfm)
No. 4 2.68 3.12 3.54 4.08 4.48 4.94 6.08 6.81 Abrasive (cu.ft./hr. &
(1/4”) 268 312 354 408 448 494 608 681 lbs./hr.)
11 12 14 16 17 18 22 25 Compressor hp
77 89 101 113 126 137 168 188 Air (cfm)
No. 5 4.68 5.34 6.04 6.72 7.40 8.12 9.82 11.0 Abrasive (cu.ft./hr. &
(5/16”) 468 534 604 672 740 812 982 1100 lbs./hr.)
18 20 23 26 28 31 37 41 Compressor hp
108 126 143 161 173 196 237 265 Air (cfm)
No. 6 6.68 7.64 8.64 9.60 10.52 11.52 13.93 15.60 Abrasive (cu.ft./hr. &
(3/8”) 668 764 864 960 1052 1152 1393 1560 lbs./hr.)
24 28 32 36 39 44 52 58 Compressor hp
147 170 194 217 240 254 314 352 Air (cfm)
No. 7 8.96 10.32 11.76 13.12 14.48 15.84 19.13 21.63 Abrasive (cu.ft./hr. &
(7/16”) 896 1032 1176 1312 1148 1584 1913 2163 lbs./hr.)
33 38 44 49 54 57 69 77 Compressor hp
195 224 252 280 309 338 409 458 Air (cfm)
No. 8 11.60 13.36 15.12 16.80 18.56 20.24 24.59 27.54 Abrasive (cu.ft./hr. &
(1/2”) 1160 1336 1512 1680 1856 2024 2459 2754 lbs./hr.)
44 50 56 63 69 75 90 101 Compressor hp
(Based on abrasive with a density of 100 pounds per cubic foot.)

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Metric Compressed Air and Abrasive Consumption

Requirements:
Nozzle Pressure at the Nozle (bar & kPa) Air (m3/min)
Orifice 3.5 4.2 4.9 5.6 6.3 7.0 8.6 10.3 Abrasive (kg/h) *
350 420 490 560 630 700 860 1035 & kW
0.73 0.84 0.92 1.06 1.15 1.26 1.54 1.82 Air (m3/min)
5mm
68 78 89 98 108 120 145 174 Abrasive (kg/h)
(3/16”)
4.5 5.3 5.6 6.4 7.1 7.5 9.0 10.8 kW
1.31 1.51 1.71 1.90 2.08 2.27 2.75 3.22 Air (m3/min)
6.5mm
122 142 161 185 203 224 276 325 Abrasive (kg/h)
(1/4”)
7.9 9.0 10.1 11.6 12.4 13.5 16.2 19.4 kW
2.16 2.50 2.83 3.16 3.53 3.84 4.71 5.57 Air (m3/min)
8mm
212 242 274 305 336 368 445 534 Abrasive (kg/h)
(5/16”)
13.1 15.0 19.1 20.2 21.0 22.9 27.5 33.0 kW
3.02 3.53 4.00 4.50 4.85 5.50 6.64 7.79 Air (m3/min)
9.5mm
303 347 392 435 477 573 632 758 Abrasive (kg/h)
(3/8”)
18.0 21.0 24.0 27.0 28.9 33.0 39.6 47.5 kW
4.12 4.76 5.44 6.09 6.73 7.11 8.80 10.48 Air (m3/min)
11mm
406 468 533 595 657 719 876 1040 Abrasive (kg/h)
(7/16”)
24.8 28.5 32.6 36.4 40.1 42.4 50.9 61.1 kW
5.46 6.28 7.06 7.85 8.65 9.46 11.46 13.45 Air (m3/min)
12.5mm
526 606 686 762 842 918 1115 1333 Abrasive (kg/h)
(1/5)
32.6 37.5 42.0 46.9 51.8 56.3 67.6 81.1 kW
* Based on abrasive with a density of 1.5 kg per liter.

ISO Sa 1: Light Blast Cleaning

“When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free from

visible oil, grease and dirt, and from poorly adhering mill scale, rust,
paint coatings and foreign matter.”

ISO Sa 2: Thorough Blast Cleaning

“When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free from

visible oil, grease and dirt, and from most of the mill scale, rust, paint
coatings and foreign matter. Any residual contamination shall be firmly
adhering.”

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ISO Sa 2 ½: Very Thorough Blast Cleaning

“When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free from

visible oil, grease and dirt, and from mill scale, rust, paint coatings and
foreign matter. Any remaining traces of contamination shall show only
as stains in the form of spots or stripes.”

ISO Sa 3: Blast Cleaning to Visually Clean Steel

“When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free from

visible oil, grease and dirt, and shall be free from mill scale, rust, paint
coatings and foreign matter. It shall have a uniform metallic colour.”

SSPC Abrasive Blast Cleaning Standards

SSPC has published five abrasive blast cleaning standards. They vary
in the level of surface cleanliness required, and are described below
from the lowest degree of cleaning to the highest. There is no surface
profile requirement for any of the abrasive blast cleaning standards.
Therefore, the project specification must stipulate the required depth of
the surface profile.

Each of the five abrasive blast surface cleanliness standards contains

both direct and indirect requirements. The “direct” requirements vary
depending on the degree of cleanliness described by each standard.
These requirements are detailed in each of the five sections that
follow. However, the “indirect” requirements are common to all five
of the standards. The indirect requirements invoked by the abrasive
blast cleaning standards include removal of visible grease, oil and
other contaminants (per SSPC-SP1) prior to abrasive blast cleaning
(described earlier); compressed air cleanliness (per ASTM D4285) and
cleanliness of the abrasive employed. The compressed air cleanliness
test and the abrasive cleanliness tests are described later in this
module. These requirements are invoked by each of the abrasive blast
cleanliness standards, independent of whether the contract documents
invoke the SSPC abrasive specifications or the ASTM air cleanliness
test method.

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The appearance of steel surfaces prepared by abrasive blast cleaning

is influenced by many factors, including: the amount and direction of
available lighting during inspection; the type of abrasive used by the
contractor and the amount of embedment left in the surface profile
by the abrasive; the shape and depth of the surface profile; and the
cleaning mechanism (open nozzle verses automated [centrifugal] or
deck blast units). In addition, deck blast units can leave streaks on
the surface from the machine itself, which is not considered staining,
since it was not on the surface originally. Steel can also contain
“manufacturing stains” which cannot be removed by abrasive blast
cleaning. The inspector must not confuse manufacturing stains with
stains from existing mill scale, rust or paint.

Flash rusting (rust back) of the prepared surfaces is not permitted by

the SSPC abrasive blast cleaning standards. Flash rust represents
a loosely adhering layer, which can interfere with coating adhesion
and may propagate under film corrosion. Flash rust can be detected
visually or by wiping the surface with a clean white rag. Any flash
rust must be removed from the surface prior to coating application.

The amount of staining permitted by each of four abrasive blast

surface cleanliness standards described below (all except SSPC-SP7/
NACE No. 4) is based on each 58 cm2 (9 in2) of prepared surface. This
size area was selected by SSPC and NACE based on the approximate
size of the photographs in the SSPC VIS 1 Guide and Reference
Photographs (each photograph is approximately 8 cm x 8 cm [3” x
3”]).

Two of the five abrasive blast surface cleanliness standards described

below (SSPC-SP6/NACE No. 3 and SSPC-SP10/NACE No. 2)
invoke a maximum staining criterion. Determining whether the
amount of staining remaining does or does not exceed the maximum
amount allowed by SSPC-SP6 and SP10 is done visually, which can
be subjective. Establishing a project-specific cleanliness standard
may help to better define the level of cleanliness required on a given
structure. The area should be representative of the structure, and
should be preserved as a reference in the event of a dispute later during
the cleaning operations. Many contracts require the establishment of a
project-specific cleanliness test area. This is described in more detail
later in this module.

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When mutually agreed upon or when invoked by the contract

documents, ISO 8501-1 or SSPC VIS 1 photographic references can be
used to help evaluate the cleanliness of surfaces prepared by abrasive
blast cleaning. While the photographic references in ISO 8501-1 or
SSPC VIS 1 or in will rarely match the actual surfaces prepared by the
contractor, they serve as an excellent tool to help those evaluating the
degree of cleanliness achieved to “calibrate” their eyes, and they are
invaluable for establishing a jobsite cleanliness standard. The proper
use of these visual guides is described later in this module.

SSPC-SP 7/NACE No. 4, Brush-off Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP 7/NACE No. 4, “Brush-off Blast Cleaning” requires the

removal of all loosely adhering rust, mill scale and paint by “lightly
sweeping” the surface with the abrasive media. The remaining
materials are considered tightly-adhering if they cannot be lifted
using the blade of a dull putty knife. The project specification may
require that the edges of intact paint to be feathered to facilitate a
smooth transition, and to prevent lifting of the edge by the application
of subsequent coating layers. While there is no surface profile
requirement for brush-off blast cleaning, some surface roughening
will be created by the abrasive impacting the surface. Brush-off blast
cleaning may fracture but not necessarily loosen aged, brittle coatings.
Subsequent application of coating layers to this “damaged” surface
may result in disbonding of the coating film from the substrate. Use
of SSPC-SP 7/NACE No. 4 to roughen existing surfaces must be done
with great care, and may not be the optimal choice if the existing
coating is old or has become embrittled.

SSPC-SP 14/NACE No. 8, Industrial Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP 14/NACE No. 8, “Industrial Blast Cleaning” requires the

removal of all loosely adhering rust, mill scale and paint from the
surface. A minimum of 90% of all tightly adhering materials must also
be removed. Up to 10% of each 58 cm2 (9 square inches) of prepared
surface can contain evenly distributed islands of intact mill scale, rust
or paint. The remaining materials are considered intact if they cannot
be lifted using the blade of a dull putty knife. Staining from existing
materials is unlimited. The project specification may require that the
edges of intact paint to be feathered to facilitate a smooth transition,

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and to prevent lifting of the edge by the application of subsequent

coating layers.

SSPC-SP 6/NACE No. 3, Commercial Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP 6/NACE No. 3, “Commercial Blast Cleaning” requires the

removal of all loosely and all tightly adhering mill scale, rust and paint
from the surface. Evenly distributed staining from rust, paint and mill
scale is permitted, provided it does not exceed 33% (one-third) of each
58 cm2 (9 square inches) of prepared surface. The difference between
a “stain” from rust, paint or mill scale can be hard to differentiate from
actual rust paint or mill scale left behind. While guides are available,
they too are visual and can be difficult to use to determine the
presence of actual materials left on the surface verses staining. Some
specifications reference the use of a small knife blade that is used to
lightly scratch the surface. If the surface is lightly scratched and a
powder or flakes are created, then the surface does not meet the SP6/
NACE No. 3 definition. If, on the other hand, the light scraping does
not produce a powder of small flakes, then the surface is considered
stained and is acceptable, as long as the staining does not exceed 33%
of each 58 cm2 (9 square inches) of prepared surface area.

SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2, Near-White Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2, “Near-White Blast Cleaning” requires

the removal of all loosely and all tightly adhering mill scale, rust and
paint from the surface. Evenly distributed staining from rust, paint
and mill scale is permitted, provided it does not exceed 5% of each 58
cm2 (9 square inches) of prepared surface. The difference between a
“stain” from rust, paint or mill scale can be hard to differentiate from
actual rust paint or mill scale left behind. While guides are available,
they too are visual and can be difficult to use to determine the
presence of actual materials left on the surface verses staining. Some
specifications reference the use of a small knife blade that is used to
lightly scratch the surface. If the surface is lightly scratched and a
powder or flakes is created, then the surface does not meet the SP10/
NACE No. 2 definition. If on the other hand the light scraping does
not produce a powder of small flakes, then the surface is considered

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Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

TABLE 4B
COMPARISON OF SSPC AND ISO SURFACE PREPARATION STANDARDS
FOR BLAST CLEANED STEEL

Surface Preparation
Standard Initial Condition of Steel Reference Photographs
Rust
SSPC/NACE ISO1 Condition Description SSPC-VIS 12/SSPC-VIS 5 ISO 8501-1
A SP 5, A SP 5-N1, A SP 5-N2,
A SP 5-N3
A intact mill scale A Sa 34
A SP 5-M1,
A SP 5-M2,A SP 5-M33
SP 5/NACE No. 1 B partially rusted mill scale B SP-5 B Sa 34
White Metal Blast Sa 3 C 100% rusted, no pits C SP-5 C Sa 34
Cleaning D rusted and pitted D SP-5 D Sa 3
G1 SP 5, G2 SP 5, G3 SP 5,
deteriorated paint over mill G1 SP 5 P, G1 SP 5 H, G1 SP 5 L,
G *
scale G1 SP 5 D, G3 SP 5 P, G3 SP 5 H,
G3 SP 5 L, G3 SP 5 D
A intact mill scale A SP 10 A Sa 2 1/2
B partially rusted mill scale B SP-10 B Sa 2 1/2
SP 10/NACE No. 2
Sa 2 C 100% rusted, no pits C SP-10, C WAB-105 C Sa 2 1/2
Near-White Blast
1/2
Cleaning D rusted and pitted D SP-10, D WAB-10 D Sa 2 1/2
deteriorated paint over mill
G G1 SP 10, G2 SP 10, G3 SP 10 *
scale
A intact mill scale * *
B partially rusted mill scale B SP-6 B Sa 2
SP 6/NACE No. 3
C 100% rusted, no pits C SP-6, C WAB-6 C Sa 2
Commercial Blast Sa 2
Cleaning D rusted and pitted D SP-6, D WAB-6 D Sa 2
deteriorated paint over mill
G G1 SP 6, G2 SP 6, G3 SP 6 *
scale
A intact mill scale * *
B partially rusted mill scale * *
SP 14/NACE No. 8
C 100% rusted, no pits * *
Industrial Blast
Cleaning D rusted and pitted * *
deteriorated paint over mill
G G1 SP 14, G2 SP 14, G3 SP 14 *
scale
A intact mill scale * *
B partially rusted mill scale B SP-7 B Sa 1
SP 7/NACE No. 4
C 100% rusted, no pits C SP-7 C Sa 1
Brush-Off Blast Sa 1
Cleaning D rusted and pitted D SP-7 D Sa 1
deteriorated paint over mill
G G1 SP 7, G2 SP 7, G3 SP 7 *
scale
* no photograph
* = no2 photograph
1
ISO standards Sa 3, Sa 2 1/2, Sa 2, Sa 1, St 2 and St 3 approximate the corresponding SSPC standards.
1
ISO3 standards
SSPC-VIS Sa13,contains
Sa 2 1/2, Sa 2, Sa 1,for
photographs St SP
2 and St 36,approximate
5, SP SP 7, SP 10,theandcorresponding
SP 14. SSPC standards.
2
SSPC-VIS 1 contains
Alternate photographs
non-metallic for SP
abrasives: 5, SP
A SP 6, SP
5-N1, A SP7, SP 10,Aand
5-N2, SP SP 14.
5-N3
3
Alternate non-metallic
Alternate abrasives:
metallic abrasives: AASPSP5-N1,
5-M1,A SP
A SP 5-N2, A SP
5-M2, 5-N3
A SP 5-M3
Alternate
ISOmetallic
8501-1abrasives: A SP 5-M1, A SP 1989
5-M2,printing)
A SP 5-M3
4
photographs (1978 through may not adequately illustrate the corresponding SSPC surface preparation
4
ISO 8501-1 photographsillustrating
ISO photograph (1978 through
B Sa 21989
showsprinting) may not
dark areas thatadequately illustrate the
could be interpreted corresponding
as mill SSPC surface
scale and, therefore, preparation
represents SSPC-SP 14
ISO photograph illustrating
and does not represent B Sa 2 shows6.dark areas that could be interpreted as mill scale and, therefore, represents SSPC-SP 14 and
SSPC-SP
does not
ISOrepresent SSPC-SP
photographs 6. A Sa 3, B Sa 3 and C Sa 3 do not adequately illustrate the surface texture of typically blast cleaned steel.
illustrating
ISO photographs
The United illustrating A Sa 3, BBS
Kingdom Standard Sa7079
3 andPart
C SaA13isdo not adequately
equivalent to ISO illustrate
8501-1 andthe depicts
surfacethe
texture of typically
degrees blast cleaned
of cleanliness steel.The
of unpainted steel.
UnitedBSKingdom Standard
7079 Part BS 7079 Part
A2 is equivalent A1 is
to ISO equivalent
8501-2 to ISOthe
and depicts 8501-1
sameand depicts
degrees ofthe degrees of
cleanliness of previously
cleanlinesspainted
of unpainted
steel. steel. BS 7079
Part A2SSPC-VIS
is equivalent to ISO 8501-2 andabrasive
depicts the
blastsame degrees of cleanliness of previously painted steel.
5
5 photographs of wet cleaning are indicated by WAB.
5
SSPC-VIS 5 photographs of wet abrasive blast cleaning are indicated by WAB.

14
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©2015 SSPC 3-58
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

stained and is acceptable, as long as the staining does not exceed 5%

of each 58 cm2 (9 square inches) of prepared surface area.

SSPC-SP 5/NACE No. 1, White Metal Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP 5/NACE No. 1, “White Metal Blast Cleaning” requires the

removal of all loosely and all tightly adhering mill scale, rust and
paint from the surface. Staining from rust, paint or mill scale is not
permitted by the SSPC-SP 5/NACE No. 1 surface cleanliness standard.

Using SSPC-VIS 1, “Guide and Reference

Photographs for Steel Surfaces Prepared by Dry
Abrasive Blast Cleaning”

SSPC-VIS 1 is a collection of
color reference photographs
depicting various initial
conditions and different levels
of dry abrasive blast cleaning.
Silica sand was used to prepare
the steel for the visual guides.
Most of the color reference
photographs are approximately
9 square inches. Some
photographs are slightly smaller
in size.

To use the SSPC VIS 1 Guide

and Reference Photographs, follow these four basic steps:

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Step 3: Locate the reference photograph in the visual guide

illustrating the initial condition (the “answer” to Step 1)
and the reference photograph that represents the specified
degree of surface cleanliness (the “answer” to Step 2).
Step 4: Use the reference photograph selected in Step 3 to
assess whether the prepared steel meets or exceeds the
requirements of the specification.

Let’s take a closer look at each of these four steps.

Step 1: Ask, “What does the steel look like (prior to surface
preparation)?”

In order to use the visual guide properly, it is important that you

determine what the existing steel looks like before it is prepared by
abrasive blast cleaning. To do this, locate the reference photographs
in the visual guide illustrating the seven possible initial conditions of
the steel. We’ll call these “before photographs,” since they depict the
condition of the steel “before” it was abrasive blast cleaned.

The SSPC-VIS 1 Guide and Reference Photographs illustrates seven

such Initial Conditions, including:

Condition A: Steel surface completely

covered with adherent
mill scale; little or no
visible rust (a.k.a. Rust
Grade A).

Condition B: Steel surface covered

with both mill scale and
rust (a.k.a. Rust Grade
B).

Condition C: Steel surface completely

covered with rust; little
or no pitting visible
(a.k.a. Rust Grade C).

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Condition D: Steel surface

completely covered
with rust; pitting visible
(a.k.a. Rust Grade D).

Condition G : Weathered coating

system over mill scale

with extensive pinpoint
rusting.

Condition G : Weathered coating system

over mill scale with

moderate pitting.

Condition G : Weathered coating

system over mill scale

with severe pitting.

Select one of these “before” reference

photographs that best illustrates
the condition of the steel and write down the letter (A, B, C, D for
unpainted steel and G , G , G for previously painted steel) before
1 2 3

you proceed to Step 2. If the steel is represented by more than one

condition, then write down the specific area of the structure and the
corresponding condition letter for each area.

Step 2: Ask, “What level of surface cleanliness does the

specification require?”

After you select a reference photograph that depicts the existing

condition of the steel surfaces (the “before photograph”), you’ll need
to look at the project specification to determine the degree of surface
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©2015 SSPC 3-61
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

cleanliness required. The degree of surface cleanliness will appear

in the project specification as one of five possible “levels,” including
SSPC-SP 7, Brush-off Blast; SSPC-SP 14, Industrial Blast; SSPC-
SP 6, Commercial Blast; SSPC-SP 10, Near-White Metal Blast; or
SSPC-SP 5, White Metal Blast. If the specification does not require
one or more of these four levels of surface cleanliness (or the NACE
counterpart), then the SSPC-VIS 1 Guide and Reference Photographs
cannot be used. Write down the surface cleanliness level required
by the project specification using the code (e.g., if the specification
requires a Near-White blast, write down SP 10). You should have both
a code for the initial condition (A, B, C, D, G , G or G ) and a code for
1 2 3

the surface cleanliness (SP 7, SP 14, SP 6, SP 10 or SP 5).

Step 3: Locate the reference photograph in the visual guide.

SSPC-VIS 1 illustrates various levels of surface cleanliness (after

abrasive blast cleaning is completed) for each of the “before
photographs” in Step 1. Chart 1 provides the combinations of initial
conditions (before photographs) and surface cleanliness levels (after
photographs). Select the reference photograph in the visual guide by
putting together the code for the initial condition (from column 1 of
Chart 3) and the code for the specified surface cleanliness level (from
column 2 of Chart 3).

Chart 3 - SSPC-VIS 1 Surface Cleanliness Guide

Surface Cleanliness Levels Depicted in the Reference

Rust Grade
Color Photographs

A Near-White Metal Blast (SP10) and White Metal Blast (SP5)

Brush-off Blast (SP7); Commercial blast (SP6); Near-White Metal
B
Blast (SP10); and White Metal Blast (SP5)
Brush-off Blast (SP7); Commercial Blast (SP6); Near-White Metal
C
Blast (SP10); and White Metal Blast (SP5)
Brush-off Blast (SP7); Commercial Blast (SP6); Near-White Metal
D
Blast (SP10); and White Metal Blast (SP5)
Brush-off Blast (SP7); Industrial Blast (SP14); Commercial Blast
G1
(SP6); Near-White Metal Blast (SP10); and White Metal Blast (SP5)

Brush-off Blast (SP7); Industrial Blast (SP14); Commercial Blast

G2
(SP6); Near-White Metal Blast (SP10); and White Metal Blast (SP5)

Brush-off Blast (SP7); Industrial Blast (SP14); Commercial Blast

G3
(SP6); Near-White Metal Blast (SP10); and White Metal Blast (SP5)

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Here are two examples:

Example 1: If the steel surface is completely rusted but no pitting is

visible, select Condition C. If the specification requires a Commercial
Blast, select level SP6. Put the two codes together to arrive at the
complete code (C SP6). Now locate the section of the SSPC-VIS 1
guide that contains the “before” photograph C and the four “after”
photographs of the four levels of surface cleanliness. Select the “after”
photograph that contains the complete code (e.g., C SP6). Use this
reference photograph in Step 4 below.
Rust Grade C
selected

Commercial
Blast (SSPC-
SP 6) selected

Example 2: If the steel contains a weathered coating system over mill

scale with moderate pitting, select Condition G2. If the specification
requires an Industrial Blast, select level SP14. Put the two codes
together to arrive at the complete code (G2 SP14). Now locate the
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©2015 SSPC 3-63
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

section of the SSPC-VIS 1 guide that contains the “before” photograph

G2 and the “after” photographs of the five levels of surface cleanliness.
Select the “after” photograph that contains the complete code (e.g. G2
SP14). Use this reference photograph in Step 4 below.

Condition G2
selected

Industrial Blast
(SSPC-SP 14)
selected

Step 4: Assess the prepared surfaces

Use the reference photograph selected in Step 3 to determine whether

the prepared surface(s) meet or exceed the specified level of surface
cleanliness. If the prepared surfaces do not meet the specified level
of cleanliness, then additional abrasive blast cleaning should be
performed and the surfaces re-examined.

Remember: Ambient lighting, the abrasive employed and tendency

for embedment, as well as variations in the rust grade and the quality
of the steel will impact the appearance of the prepared surface and the
Using SSPC-VIS 1
perceived level of cleanliness. The SSPC visual guides and reference
photographss were designed as a guide, but the written standards
prevail in the event of a dispute. Note that because of the subjectivity
involved in cleanliness assessments, it may be worthwhile to establish
a project-specific cleanliness standard (using the visual guides and
reference photographs for guidance) before the job begins. This can
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©2015 SSPC 3-64
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

help all parties involved gain a mutual understanding of the desired

level of cleanliness.

Note: There are two Appendices to the Visual Guide and Reference
Photographs.

Appendix A contains six color reference photographs. All of these

photographs represent a Condition A surface (steel surface completely
covered with adherent mill scale; little or no visible rust) dry abrasive
blast cleaned to SSPC-SP5 (White Metal Blast). Six abrasive types
were employed to create the images for the photographs: three non-
metallic abrasives (denoted N1, N2, and N3) and three metallic
abrasives (denoted M1, M2, and M3). While these photographs are not
part of the visual guide, they illustrate the variation in color, texture
and general appearance of a “White Metal Blast” that can result from
the abrasive selected for a project.

Appendix B contains ten color reference photographs. Five reference

photographs represent a Condition G1 surface (weathered coating
system over mill scale with extensive pinpoint rusting) and five
represent a Condition G2 surface (weathered coating system over mill
scale with moderate pitting). All ten reference photographs depict
dry abrasive blast cleaned to SSPC-SP5 (White Metal Blast). Two
reference photographs (one of each condition) depict a 1 mil surface
profile, and two reference photographs depict a 4 mil surface profile.
Additional photographs illustrate the effect of the light angle (“H” for
high and “L” for low) and diffused (“D”).

Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning

Wet abrasive blast cleaning may be used

when airborne dust control is required by the
specification or by local air quality regulations.
Some facility owners specify the use of wet
abrasive blast cleaning in order to reduce the
complexity of the containment and ventilation
system required on a given project. In addition,
wet abrasive blast cleaning is an engineering
control that can reduce airborne worker exposures
Wet Abrasive Blast Nozzle to toxic metals during the coating removal
processes. Three variations of this surface

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preparation method exist: waterjetting with abrasive induction,

abrasive blasting with water induction and the use of a water collar.
All three methods employ a mineral or slag type abrasive media. The
latter two methods (abrasive blasting with water induction and the use
of a water collar) rely on the abrasive to perform the majority of the
surface preparation work. The water is used to suppress the dust and
to remove some chemical contamination from the surfaces, if present.
The former method (waterjetting with abrasive induction) uses high
pressure water as the removal media, while the abrasive inducted
into the water stream etches the surfaces and accelerates the removal
process. Naturally, the water used in this method will also suppress any
airborne dust that is generated.

Any surface preparation method that incorporates water is going to

cause carbon steel surfaces to flash rust. Therefore, the specifier may
require the use of a rust inhibitor (that is compatible with the coating
system to be applied to the prepared surfaces), or simply accept the
flash rusting that occurs and select a coating system that is tolerant
in the given environment. The SSPC visual guides and reference
photographs (discussed later in this module) for wet abrasive blast
cleaning illustrate three levels of flash rusting (light, medium and
heavy), so that the degree of tolerable surface rust can be judged by the
inspector.

In addition to flash rusting, wet abrasive tends to attach itself to the

prepared surfaces, which requires the operator to thoroughly rinse
the surfaces with clean (perhaps rust-inhibited) water to ensure that
abrasive debris is not coated over.

The standards that cover wet abrasive blast cleaning are:

SSPC-SP 5 (WAB)/NACE WAB-1, White Metal Wet Abrasive

Blast Cleaning
White Metal WAB Surface: A white metal WAB surface, when
viewed without magnification, shall be free of all visible oil, grease,
dust, dirt, mill scale, rust, coating, corrosion products, and other
foreign matter.

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SSPC-SP 10 (WAB)/NACE WAB-2, Near-White Metal Wet

Abrasive Blast Cleaning
Near-White Metal WAB Surface: A near-white metal WAB-cleaned
surface, when viewed without magnification, shall be free of all visible
oil, grease, dust, dirt, mill scale, rust, coating, corrosion products, and
other foreign matter. Random staining shall be limited to no more
than 5% of each unit area of the surface (approximately 5,800 mm2
[9.0 in2]; i.e., a square 76 mm x 76 mm [3.0 in x 3.0 in]), and may
consist of light shadows, slight streaks, or minor discolorations caused
by stains of rust, stains of mill scale, or stains of previously applied
coating.

SSPC-SP 6 (WAB)/NACE WAB-3, Commercial Wet Abrasive Blast

Cleaning
Commercial WAB Surface: A commercial WAB-cleaned surface,
when viewed without magnification, shall be free of all visible oil,
grease, dust, dirt, mill scale, rust, coating, corrosion products, and
other foreign matter. Random staining shall be limited to no more than
33% of each unit area of surface (approximately 5,800 mm2 [9.0 in2]
(i.e., a square 76 mm x 76 mm [3.0 in x 3.0 in]), and may consist of
light shadows, slight streaks, or minor discolorations caused by stains
of rust, stains of mill scale, or stains of previously applied coating.

SSPC-SP 14 (WAB)/NACE WAB-8, Industrial Wet Abrasive Blast

Cleaning
Industrial WAB Cleaned Surface: An Industrial WAB cleaned
surface, when viewed without magnification, shall be free of all visible
oil, grease, dirt, dust, loose mill scale, loose rust, and loose coating.
Traces of tightly adherent mill scale, rust, and coating residues are
permitted to remain on up to 10% of each unit area of the surface.
Mill scale, rust, and coating are considered tightly adherent if they
cannot be removed by lifting with a dull putty knife after abrasive blast
cleaning has been performed. Shadows, streaks, and discolorations
caused by stains of rust, stains of mill scale, and stains of previously
applied coating may be present on the remainder of the surface.

SSPC-SP 7 (WAB)/NACE WAB-4, Brush-Off Wet Abrasive Blast

Cleaning
Brush-Off WAB Surface: A brush-off WAB cleaned surface, when
viewed without magnification, shall be free of all visible oil, grease,
dirt, dust, loose mill scale, loose rust, and loose coating. Tightly

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adherent mill scale, rust, and coating may remain on the surface. Mill
scale, rust, and coating are considered tightly adherent if they cannot
be removed by lifting with a dull putty knife after abrasive blast
cleaning has been performed. The entire surface shall be subjected to
the wet abrasive blast. The remaining mill scale, rust, or coating shall
be tight. Flecks of the underlying steel need not be exposed whenever
the original substrate consists of intact coating.

Using SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9, “Guide and

Reference Photographs for Steel Surfaces
Prepared by Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning”

SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9 is a collection of color reference

photographs depicting two initial conditions and two degrees of
wet abrasive blast cleaning for each initial condition. Each color
photograph is approximately 4 square inches.

To use the SSPC VIS 5/NACE VIS 9 Guide and Reference

Photosgraphs follow these five basic steps.
Step 1: Ask, “What does the surface look like prior to surface
preparation?”
The answer will yield an “Initial Condition”
Step 2: Ask, “What level of surface cleanliness does the specification
require?”
The answer will yield a “Surface Cleanliness Code”
Step 3: Ask “How much flash rusting is allowed to remain on the
prepared surface?”
The answer will yield a “Flash Rust Code”
Step 4: Locate the reference photograph in the visual guide
illustrating the initial condition (the “answer” to Step 1)
and the reference photograph representing the surface wet
abrasive blast cleaned to the specified degree of cleanliness
(“the “answer” to Step 2) with the specified maximum level
of flash rusting permitted, if appropriate (the “answer” to
Step 3).
Step 5: Use the reference photograph selected in Step 4 to assess
whether the prepared steel meets or exceeds the requirements
of the specification.

Let’s take a closer look at each of these five steps.

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Step 1: Ask, “What does the steel look like (prior to surface
preparation)?”

In order to use the visual guide and reference photographs properly,

it is important that you determine what the existing steel looks like
before it is prepared by wet abrasive blast cleaning. To do this,
locate the reference photographs in the visual guide illustrating the
two possible initial conditions of the steel. We’ll call these “before
photographs,” since they depict the condition of the steel “before” it
was wet abrasive blast cleaned. SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9 depicts only
two Initial Conditions, including:
Condition C: Steel surface completely covered with rust; little or no
pitting visible.
Condition D: Steel surface completely covered with rust; pitting
visible

Step 2: Ask, “What level of surface cleanliness does the

specification require?”

After you select a reference photograph that depicts the existing

condition of the steel surfaces (the “before photograph”), you’ll need
to look at the project specification to determine the degree of surface
cleanliness required. The degree of surface cleanliness will appear
in the project specification as one of two possible “levels,” including
Commercial Blast Cleaning or Near-White Blast Cleaning. If the
specification does not require one of these levels of surface cleanliness,
an appropriate photograph in the SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9 Guide and
Reference Photographs is not available. Chart 4 provides the surface
cleanliness codes and the corresponding levels of surface cleanliness
depicted.

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Chart 4 – SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9

Surface Cleanliness Guide
Surface Cleanliness Level
Surface Cleanliness
Depicted in Reference Color
Code
Photographs
WAB-6 Commercial Blast Cleaning
WAB-10 Near-White Blast Cleaning

Write down the surface cleanliness level required by the project

specification using the code (e.g., if the specification requires a
Commercial Blast using wet abrasive, write down WAB-6). At this
point, you should have both a code for the initial condition (C or D)
and a code for the surface cleanliness (WAB-6 or WAB-10).

Two initial conditions and two degrees of cleaning for each

Step 3: Ask, “How much flash rusting is allowed to remain

on the prepared surface?”

After you select a reference photograph that depicts the existing

condition of the steel surfaces (the “before photograph”), and
determine the degree of surface cleanliness required by the project

specification, you will need to determine the amount of flash rusting

allowed by the specification. Chart 5 provides the flash rusting codes

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and the corresponding descriptions. Examples of the appearance of

flash rusting are only provided for C WAB-10 and D WAB-6. For other
initial conditions and degrees of cleaning, you can use these examples
for guidance and make a judgement.

Chart 5 - SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9

Surface Cleanliness Guide
Flash Rusting Code Degree of Flash Rusting
L Light
M Medium
H Heavy

Flash rusting is shown for two initial conditions and

two degrees of cleaning

Write down the flash rust code (e.g., if light flash rusting is permitted
by the project specification, write down L). At this point, you should
have a code for the initial condition (C or D), a code for the surface
cleanliness (WAB-6 or WAB-10) and a code for the amount of flash
rusting, if permitted (L, M, or H).

Step 4: Locate the reference photograph in the visual guide

The SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9 Guide and Reference Photographs

illustrates two levels of surface cleanliness (after wet abrasive blast

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cleaning is completed) for each of the conditions in Step 1. We’ll call

these “after photographs.” Select the “after” reference photograph
using the code put together in Step 3. Chart 6 contains all of the
possible combinations depicted in SSPC VIS 5/NACE VIS 9.

Chart 6 – SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9 Surface

Cleanliness Guide
Initial Level of
Flash Rusting Code
Condition Cleanliness

C Commercial None C WAB-6

C Near-White None C WAB-10

C Near-White Light C WAB-10 L

C Near-White Medium C WAB-10 M

C Near-White Heavy C WAB-10 H

D Commercial None D WAB-6

D Near-White None D WAB-10

Example 1:
If the steel is rusted but little or no pitting is visible, select
Condition C. If the specification requires a Near-White Blast
using wet abrasive blast cleaning, select WAB-10. Now locate
photograph C WAB-10 in the visual guide.

Example 1: WAB-10

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Example 2:
If the steel is rusted and pitted, select Condition D. If the
specification requires a Commercial Blast using wet abrasive blast
cleaning, select WAB-6. If medium flash rusting is permitted,
select M. Now locate photograph D WAB-6 M in the visual guide.

Example 2: WAB-6
Step 5: Assess the prepared surfaces

Use the reference photograph selected in Step 4 to determine whether

the prepared surface(s) meet or exceed the specified level of surface
cleanliness. If the prepared surfaces do not meet the specified level
of cleanliness, then additional cleaning should be performed and the
surfaces re-examined.

Document the final surface cleanliness, including the date of the

assessment, the visual guide and reference photographs employed,
and the area(s) assessed. Also, document whether a project-specific
standard was developed and used to help determine specification
compliance.

All surface cleanliness inspection is done with the naked eye or

Using SSPC VIS 5/ corrected vision. Use of magnification is prohibited by the SSPC
NACE VIS 9 surface cleanliness standards. Additionally, some abrasives will embed
into steel surfaces. Embedded abrasive is tolerated by the SSPC
surface cleanliness standards if they are not water or solvent soluble

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©2015 SSPC 3-73
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection
and are tightly adherent. If the embedded abrasive particles cannot be
removed by blow down or vacuuming, then they are coated over.

If the level of cleaning performed by the contractor is unacceptable,

then the deficient areas should be clearly marked and the surfaces re-
prepared until the specified level of cleaning is achieved. The primer
should not be applied until the surfaces are prepared and have been
accepted by the inspector.

Establishing a Project-Specific Surface Cleanliness

Standard/Test Section

The images depicted in the SSPC visual guides (both

initial condition and after surface preparation) are
representative photographs and rarely match the
actual conditions before and after surface preparation.
Therefore, it is more and more common for specifications
to require the contractor to establish a project-specific
cleanliness standard (test section, illustrated at left),
which is generated by preparing a small, representative
section of the structure to the desired level of cleaning.
The visual guides are an invaluable tool to help
“calibrate” the inspector’s and contractor’s eyes, to help establish the
degree of cleaning required by the specification. Once established,
this area becomes the visual guide for that project. The agreed-upon
condition can be preserved by applying a clear sealer to the surface,
or representative 35mm or digital photographs can be taken and
used throughout the project. Note that if the existing condition of
the structure varies, then more than one test section may need to be
generated. Even if the project specification does not require a test
section, the inspector may want to ask the contractor to prepare one (or
more), so that all parties are on the same page regarding the level of
cleanliness required.

Centrifugal Blast Cleaning

Centrifugal or automated abrasive blast cleaning can be performed

using portable or stationary equipment. Portable centrifugal blast
machines can be used to prepare floors in warehouse facilities, ship
decks and other large, flat surfaces. They can also be mounted to
vertical surfaces like the exterior of storage tanks. Stationary
equipment is typically located in steel fabrication shops that perform

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blast cleaning and coating work. In either case, these machines throw
or hurl abrasive at the surfaces to be prepared using high-speed
centrifugal wheels. The abrasive is automatically loaded onto the
wheel vanes through a center hub. Stationary machines are multi-
wheel, while portable machines generally only have a single wheel.

Like open nozzle abrasive blast cleaning, the degree of surface

roughness (depth of the surface profile) is based on the abrasive size
employed by the shop. Larger abrasives generate a deeper surface
profile than smaller abrasives. The type and size of abrasive may be
specified, or the specification may simply indicate the required surface
Centrifugal Blast Cleaning
profile depth and the abrasive type and size are left up to the shop
performing the work. If a recyclable abrasive is used, the abrasive size
may be monitored by performing a sieve analysis. However, it is
oftentimes more practical to monitor the surface profile depth
generated by the abrasive in use. That is, if the resulting surface
profile depth decreases, then
the abrasive supply should be
augmented with new material,
in order to increase the surface
profile depth to the specified
range. Most centrifugal blast
machines were designed to
propel steel shot. Many project Centrifugal Blast Cleaning Equipment
specifications require an
“angular” surface profile to be
generated, which is not possible with steel shot. To resolve this issue,
fabrication shops oftentimes elect to use an operating blend or mix of
steel shot and steel grit to blast clean the steel. The inspector may be
required to verify that the mix of abrasive shapes is producing the
angular surface profile required by the specification. This is typically
a visual inspection. Alternatively, a peak count measurement can be
obtained, as a surface with an angular profile will have a higher peak
count than a surface prepared with steel shot. Note that the contract
must indicate the specified peak count range, otherwise the shop can
not be held responsible for conformance to a specific peak density.

In addition, the operator and inspector will typically monitor the

abrasive supply in the machine for contamination by oil using the “vial
test.”

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Vacuum Blast Cleaning

Vacuum blast cleaning is similar to dry abrasive blast cleaning, except

that the blast nozzle is equipped with a Neoprene rubber & bristle
brush shroud (collar) that is held tightly against the surface rather
than 46-60 cm (18-24 inches) away. In this manner, the abrasive
impacts the surface and is immediately vacuumed
off, together with the materials removed from
the surface. The debris is separated from the
abrasive and the abrasive is reused. Vacuum
abrasive blast cleaning is used when a high
degree of cleanliness and a surface roughness are
required, but airborne abrasive and dust cannot
be tolerated. Surface irregularities can cause the
vacuum shroud to lose contact with the surface
and result in releases to the environment. Also,
Vacuum Blast Cleaning
vacuum blast cleaning is slow, so it is often
limited to preparing small areas.

Conducting a Compressed Air Cleanliness (blotter) Test

As we discussed earlier in this module, compressed air is used to

propel abrasive through a blast hose and out the end of a blast nozzle.
It is this compressed air volume and pressure that gives velocity to
the abrasive and cleans and roughens the surfaces. However, if the
air being generated by the compressor contains oil or water, then
the abrasive and the surface can become contaminated. It is not
unusual for compressed air to contain water and/or oil. As a result, the
compressed air must be filtered and/or dried before it comes in contact
with the abrasive. Oil and water separators, desiccant air driers or air
coolers are very effective at cleaning and/or drying the compressed
air provided that they are both operational and properly maintained.
From the perspective of the inspector, it is not
enough to ensure operation and maintenance of
this equipment. Rather the inspector must verify
that the air is clean and dry. ASTM D4285,
“Test Method for Indicating Oil or Water in
Compressed Air” describes a standard practice for
verifying the cleanliness of compressed air. It is
perhaps better known as a “blotter test.” Briefly,
clean white absorbent cloth or white blotter paper
Compressed Air Blotter Test is attached to a rigid frame and the compressed

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air is exhausted on to the cloth or paper (down stream of compressed

air drying/filtration equipment) at a distance of approximately 18” for
approximately one minute. For large volumes of air, the blotter paper
or cloth may be replaced with thick, rigid Plexiglas. After the test is
complete, the cloth, blotter paper or Plexiglas is visually examined
for oil or water. Any visible amount is cause for rejection. It is the
responsibility of the contractor to maintain or replace equipment until
a satisfactory air supply is achieved. The date, time of day and test
result (pass/fail) is documented. Compressed air cleanliness is an
indirect requirement of the SSPC surface cleanliness standards for
abrasive blast cleaning.

Blast Nozzles

Blast nozzles range in both type and size (length and inside diameter).
Some blast nozzles are designed such that the abrasive exits through
the side rather than the front, enabling the operator to clean even very
tightly configured areas, like the backside of angles, etc. In general,
there are two basic designs: straight-bore and venturi. Straight bore
nozzles are generally less productive than the
venturi design. The venturi shape increases the
velocity of the abrasive, so that as it exits the
nozzle it is traveling at a higher speed. However,
both nozzle designs can produce the desired degree
of cleanliness and surface profile depth. Shorter
venturi nozzles are generally less productive than
longer venturi nozzles, as the abrasive speed does
not increase dramatically. However, a shorter blast
nozzle may afford the operator better access to
Blast Nozzles hard-to-reach or tightly configured areas. The
lining of a blast nozzle can be manufactured from
boron carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, even ceramic. While
these lining materials are very resilient to wear, they are very brittle
and can crack if the nozzle is handled improperly. All blast nozzles are
sized in 1.6 mm (1/16 inch), which represents the inside
diameter of the nozzle. For example, a No. 7 blast nozzle has
an inside orifice diameter of 11 mm (7/16”) when it is new. As
abrasive passes through the nozzle, the lining will wear,
enlarging the orifice and opening the venturi, making it less
productive over time. Nozzle wear can be monitored using a
pressure blast analyzer gage (nozzle orifice gage). Briefly, the
Nozzle Orifice Gage

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conical-shaped gage is first marked using a black china marker, then

inserted into the threaded end of the blast nozzle as far as it will go,
twisted and withdrawn. The nozzle opening will etch the black china
marking, which coincides with a demarcation on the gage face
(increments of 1/16” or
1.5 mm). According to
SSPC’s abrasive blast
cleaning training
program (C7), blast
nozzles should be
replaced when the
opening increases by
one size (e.g., a No. 6
blast nozzle measures
Straight and Venturi Nozzles
8/16” [13mm] on the
nozzle orifice gage).

Abrasives

There are a variety of abrasives that can be used in the blast

cleaning process. They fall into two broad categories: expendable
and recyclable. Expendable abrasives are typically used once then
discarded, since the “breakdown rate” is relatively high. Conversely,
the breakdown rate of recyclable abrasives is relatively low, allowing
them to be used multiple times, before they are discarded. For
example, a recyclable steel grit abrasive can be reused over 100 times
with minimal breakdown. However, even the recyclable abrasive
supply is routinely augmented with fresh media, in order to maintain
the abrasive quantity required for operation of the system (the smaller
particles are typically drawn off by the ventilation system) and to
maintain the specified surface profile depth.

Expendable Abrasives

Expendable abrasives fall into two general categories: Mineral and

Slag. Mineral abrasives are naturally occurring and include silica sand,
garnet, and staurolite sand (StarBlast®). Note that garnet can be reused
a couple of times, provided that nozzle pressures are maintained
below optimum i.e., 517-552 KPa (75-80 psi). Slag abrasives are not
naturally generated, but rather represent byproducts of other industries,

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which are processed into abrasives. These include copper, coal and
nickel slag. Corncobs and walnut shells are also naturally occurring
and can be used as polishing abrasives. However these abrasives are
not aggressive enough to remove industrial protective coatings and are
not hard enough to generate a surface profile into steel. SSPC Abrasive
Specification No. 1 (AB 1), “Mineral and Slag Abrasives” defines the
requirements for selecting and evaluating mineral and by-product and
manufactured abrasives used for blast cleaning.

SSPC-AB 1 categorizes expendable abrasives by “Type, Class and

Grade,” depending on the general type, the crystalline silica content
and surface profile that the abrasive will yield. The two Types, three
Classes and five Grades are listed below:

Type I: Natural Mineral Abrasives

Type II: By-Product and Manufactured Abrasives

Class A: < 1% Crystalline Silica

Class B: < 5% Crystalline Silica
Class C: Unrestricted Crystalline Silica

Grade 1: Surface profile yield of 13-38 µm (0.5-1.5 mil)

Grade 2: Surface profile yield of 25-64 µm (1.0-2.5 mils)
Grade 3: Surface profile yield of 51-89 µm (2.0-3.5 mils)
Grade 4: Surface profile yield of 75-127 µm (3.0-5.0 mils)
Grade 5: Surface profile yield of 102-150 µm (4.0-6.0 mils)

SSPC-AB 1 contains a list of tests that the abrasive manufacturer must

conduct and report on prior to publishing that the abrasive meets the
standard. Some of these tests can be performed by the inspector in the
field (on a lot basis), while some can only be performed in a testing
facility. If the project specification requires the abrasive to meet
SSPC-AB 1, then the inspector should require a copy of the test report
from the abrasive supplier and may conduct some field testing to verify
conformance to AB 1. Following is a list of tests required in order to
categorize an abrasive as meeting SSPC-AB 1. An * indicates that the
inspector can also perform this test in the field to verify that the lot of
abrasive delivered to the site meets the requirements of SSPC-AB 1.
Note that the abrasive cleanliness requirements listed in SSPC-AB 1
are indirect requirements of the SSPC abrasive blast cleaning standards
when an expendable abrasive is used. This is explained in greater
detail later.

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Specific Gravity Hardness

Weight change on ignition Water soluble contaminants*
Moisture content Oil content*
Crystalline Silica content Surface profile yield*
Particle size distribution (sieve analysis)*

Recyclable Abrasives

Recyclable abrasives generally include steel grit, steel shot and

aluminum oxide. Steel grit and aluminum oxide (as well as all of the
expendable media listed above) are considered “angular,” which
means they contain sharp points that in turn produce sharp peaks and
valleys in the surface. This equates to an increase in the surface area of
the steel, due to the density of the peak pattern (peaks are close
together and there are many of them). Conversely, steel shot is
considered a round or spherical abrasive that produces a rounded
profile or a “peened” surface texture. This results in a comparatively
lower peak density pattern, because the peaks are round, further apart
and there are less of them. Some coating systems (like thermal spray
coatings) rely heavily on a mechanical bond to the surface. They
cannot tolerate a peened surface texture, and can disbond independent
of the surface profile depth. However, most liquid-
applied coatings adhere sufficiently to both angular
and rounded surface profile patterns. SSPC Abrasive
Specification No. 3 (AB 3), “Newly Manufactured or
Re-Manufactured Steel Abrasives” defines the
requirements for steel abrasives used for blast
cleaning, and SSPC Abrasive Specification No. 2 (AB
2), “Cleanliness of Recycled Ferrous Metallic
Abrasives” defines the cleanliness requirements for
Steel Grit recycled blast cleaning abrasive. The abrasive
cleanliness requirements referenced in both abrasive
specifications are indirect requirements of the SSPC
abrasive blast cleaning standards.

Similar to SSPC-AB 1, SSPC-AB 3 (Ferrous Metallic

Abrasive) contains a list of tests that the abrasive
manufacturer must conduct and report on prior to
publishing that the abrasive meets the standard. Some
of these tests can be performed by the inspector
Steel Shot in the field (on a lot basis), while some can only
be performed in a testing facility. If the project
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©2015 SSPC 3-80
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

specification requires the abrasive to meet SSPC-AB 3, then the

inspector should require a copy of the test report from the abrasive
supplier and may conduct some field testing to verify conformance
to AB 3. Following is a list of tests required in order to categorize
an abrasive as meeting SSPC AB 3. An * indicates that the inspector
can also perform this test in the field to verify that the lot of abrasive
delivered to the site meets the requirements of SSPC-AB 3.

Class (Class 1 is steel abrasive and Class 2 is iron abrasive)

Abrasive size*
Specific Gravity
Chemical composition
Hardness
Durability
Cleanliness*
Conductivity*

SSPC-AB 2 (Cleanliness of Recycled Ferrous Metallic Abrasive)

is different than either of the two abrasive specifications described
previously. While SSPC-AB 2 governs steel and other “recyclable”
abrasives, it specifies the cleanliness of used or recycled abrasive (not
new abrasive). Therefore the abrasive manufacturer does not test the
abrasive nor prepare a test report for conformance to AB 2. Rather,
the abrasive is tested in the field and/or in a laboratory. A list of the
tests required by SSPC-AB 2 is provided below. The testing requires
specific supplies and test equipment. Therefore, as an inspector, if you
are required to perform testing (or oversee testing performed by the
contractor’s quality control personnel) to determine conformance of
the recycled abrasive to AB 2 in the field (denoted by an *), then you
should carefully read the procedures described in SSPC-AB 2.
Angular Abrasive Measuring
Sieves
Non-abrasive residue*
Lead content (laboratory only)
Water soluble contaminants*
Oil content*

SSPC-AB 4 (Recycled Encapsulated Abrasive Media) defines

performance requirements for recyclable encapsulated abrasive media
consisting of steel grit or aluminum oxide in a compressible open-cell
matrix (i.e., “sponge”). It requires specialized equipment and is used
when dust control is a priority.

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Abrasive Size

Round abrasives (like steel shot) are sized based on the diameter of the
shot. For example an S330 shot is 0.33mm in diameter and an S230
shot is 0.23mm in diameter. Therefore, the larger the shot number, the
larger the abrasive size. Angular abrasives are sized differently than
shot. These abrasives are sized according to sieve number. Each sieve
contains a fine mesh screen containing square openings. The sieves are
identified according to the number of openings in the mesh, per linear
inch of screen. For example, a Tyler No. 20 sieve has 20 openings per
linear inch of screen, while a No. 60 sieve has 60 openings per linear
inch of screen. Naturally, these openings must be considerably smaller
in order to fit three times the number of openings into the same area.
Therefore, with angular abrasives the larger the number is, the smaller
the abrasive size. For example, a No. 12 abrasive is larger than a No.
40. Sometimes abrasives are “pre-blended” by the manufacturer into
two sizes. For example, Black Beauty® 1240 is a blend of particle size
12 and particle size 40 in a single bag or lot. The larger-sized particles
fracture the rust and old coating and generate the surface profile depth,
while the smaller particles “scour” the surface to the desired level of
cleaning.

Abrasive Cleanliness

The contractor and the inspector may be required to monitor the

abrasive supply for contamination by oil per ASTM D7393 Standard
Practice for Indicating Oil in Abrasives or soluble salts. This is
commonly referred to as a “vial test.”

To conduct a vial test for oil, place a sample of the abrasive in a clean
container to about half of its height. Add water to a level at least 2.5
cm (1 in.) above the top of the abrasive. The water temperature shall
be between 20 and 30oC (68 and 95oF). Cover the container and shake
vigourously for one min. Remove the cover from the container and let
it sit for 5 min. Examine the surface of the water for oil droplets or oil
sheen. If oil is detected, retest after cleaning abrasive.

If the project specification requires an abrasive test for conductivity

(soluble salt contamination), then the procedure prescribed in
ASTM D4940, “Standard Test Method for Conductimetric Analysis of
Water Soluble Ionic Contamination of Blasting Abrasives” should be

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used. If the project specification references SSPC-AB 1, AB 2, AB 3

or AB 4 the tolerable threshold for conductivity is 1,000 microsiemen.
Note that the conductivity of the water used for the extraction should
be tested for conductivity and this value (the “blank”) subtracted from
the test value.

Measuring Surface Profile Depth

Surface profile is defined as the maximum peak-to-valley depth that is

generated by abrasive impacting the surface at high speed and by the
impact created using certain power tools. By imparting a profile, the
surface area is increased, enhancing the adhesion of the coating system
to the surface. While an insufficient surface profile depth may result
in poor coating system adhesion, excessive surface profile may cause
pinpoint rusting and will require significantly more coating to fill all of
the “valleys” of the surface profile and provide the specified thickness
of coating above the “peaks” of the surface profile. Therefore,
compliance with the minimum and maximum specified surface profile
depth is critical to the success of a coating system.

Factors affecting the depth of the surface profile were discussed

earlier in this module, and included (for abrasive blast cleaning) the
type, hardness and size of the abrasive media employed, as well as
the hardness of the surface being prepared. Lesser factors include the
distance from the blast nozzle to the surface and the angle at which the
operator holds the nozzle to the surface. For power tool cleaning, the
type of tool and the configuration of the “impactors” will oftentimes
dictate the depth of the surface profile. Adjusting to changes in profile
depth requirements in specifications is best achieved by selecting a
different sized abrasive. For projects requiring a relatively shallow
surface profile depth, a smaller abrasive should be selected. For
projects requiring a relatively deep surface profile, a larger abrasive
should be selected, but may be blended with a smaller abrasive to
increase productivity.

JPCL (Vol. 22, No. 6 and Vol. 23, No. 6) has published articles that
describe the importance of other surface roughness attributes, in
addition to average peak-to-valley distance, including peak count
(Pc), maximum roughness depth (Rmax) and maximum profile height
(Rt). Based on laboratory research conducted by Roper, et. al., and
published in JPCL as listed above, increased peak density improves

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coating adhesion and reduces corrosion undercutting beneath a

coating system damaged while in service compared to surfaces with
correspondingly lower peak counts. Methods of generating various
peak densities are described in the articles, and are based on abrasive
size, shape, hardness and other factors.

Because of the industry’s recognition of the importance of surface

roughness characteristics (beyond average surface profile depth),
ASTM D7127, “Standard Test Method for Measurement of Surface
Roughness of Abrasive Blast Cleaned Metal Surfaces Using a Portable
Stylus Instrument” was published in 2005. The standard describes
the procedures for verifying accuracy and using portable stylus-type
instruments to obtain surface characterization data. An inspector may
be required to perform peak count measurements in addition to peak-
to-valley depth measurements (if required by the project specification).

There are three industry-recognized standards for measuring

surface profile, including ASTM D4417, “Test Methods for Field
Measurement of Surface Profile of Blast Cleaned Steel,” NACE
SP0287, “Field Measurement of Surface Profile of Abrasive Blast
Cleaned Steel Surfaces Using a Replica Tape,” and ASTM D7127
“Standard Test Method for Measurement of Surface Roughness of
Abrasive Blast Cleaned Metal Surfaces Using a Portable Stylus
Instrument.” These methods prescribe how to obtain measurements of
surface profile depth and peak count, but do not provide an acceptance
criterion (e.g., “the surface profile shall be 50-88 µm [2-3.5 mils…”]).
Therefore, the project specification must indicate the desired surface
profile depth and the minimum peak count (as required).

ASTM D4417 describes three methods for field measurement of

surface profile depth (Methods A, B, and C), while NACE SP0287
describes only one method (the same as Method C in ASTM D4417).
Therefore, we will be focusing on the ASTM standard rather than the
NACE recommended practice. The step-by-step procedures for use
of surface profile measuring instruments are described below. Profile
conformance is determined by following SSPC-PA 17.

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Using the Surface Profile Comparator

ISO 8503-1/2 and Method A of the ASTM standard for measurement

of surface profile after abrasive blast cleaning describes the use of
surface profile comparators. For this method, you visually compare
the prepared steel surface to a disc or coupon containing known
anchor patterns. The Surface Profile Comparator employs a 5 power
illuminated magnifier and one comparator disc. The sequence of steps
on how to read profile using a surface profile comparator can be found
in the instrument supplement at the end of this module.

Using the Surface Profile Depth

Gage

Method B of the ASTM standard for

measurement of surface profile after abrasive
blast cleaning describes the use of a surface
profile depth micrometer. The Surface Profile
Depth Gage is suited for this method of
measurement. It is also the method specified
for surface profile when the steel substrate
has been cleaned by hand and power tools.
For this method, you measure the depth of
the “valleys” using a cone-shaped metal tip.
The surface profile depth is indicated on the
gage dial or on the digital display, depending
on the model you choose. For step-by-step
instructions on how to take surface profile
Surface profile depth micrometers
readings using a surface profile depth gauge,
refer to the instrument supplement at the end of this module.

Using Replica Tape

Method C of the ASTM standard for measurement of surface

profile after abrasive blast cleaning describes the use of a replica
tape in conjunction with a spring-loaded micrometer. Testex® is
the manufacturer of the replica tape. Testex® also private-labels
the Mitutoyo spring micrometer. This method of surface profile
measurement entails generating an “impression” of the anchor pattern,
then measuring the impression using a spring-loaded micrometer. This

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method is the most repeatable and reproducible of the

three methods described in the standard.

The replica tape itself consists of a non-compressible 50

µm (2 mil) film of Mylar® and a compressible layer of
foam, which is attached to the underside of the Mylar
(see Figure 1). While the Mylar remains a constant
50 µm (2 mils), the amount of compressible foam
varies depending on the range of the replica tape. This
compressible foam is pressed into the anchor pattern
created during abrasive blast cleaning, effectively
Replica tape, spring micrometer and burnishing tool creating a mirror image of the surface profile in the foam.
This peak-to-valley impression is then measured using a
calibrated spring micrometer.

Figure 1

Calibrating Surface Profile Measuring Instruments

Calibration of the Surface Profile Comparator is not required.

However, if the comparator discs become tarnished, they can be
difficult to use. A soft pencil eraser can be used to remove the tarnish
without disturbing the electroformed pattern on each segment.

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Calibration of the Surface Profile depth micrometer was described

earlier. This “zero set” adjustment procedure should be conducted
prior to and after each period of use. While the replica tape itself does
not require calibration, the micrometer should be verified for accuracy
routinely by inserting shims of known thickness into the micrometer
and verifying a correct measurement. Plastic shims used to verify
the accuracy of coating thickness gages can be used for this purpose.
However, it should be recognized that these shims may not represent
an exact thickness.

Documenting Surface Profile Measurements

Documentation of the surface profile measurements includes the date

of measurement, the method employed (ASTM D4417, Method A,
B or C), the area(s) of measurement, the number of measurements
obtained, and the range and average of the measurements taken. This
can be formatted as shown.

Date 5/13/02 6/3/02 6/5/02

1
Measurement Method Employed
C (X-coarse) C (X-coarse) A (G/S disc)
(D4417)
Item Measured Beam 4-1 Beam 4-2 Plate 6-1

Number of Measurements 3 3 5
63-73 µm 58-70 µm 50-75 µm
Surface Profile Range
(2.5-2.9 mils) (2.3-2.8 mils) (2-3 mils)
68 µm 63 µm 50-75 µm
Surface Profile Average
(2.7 mils) (2.5 mils) (2-3 mils)
1A: Surface Profile Comparator

Using Portable Stylus Instruments for Determining

Peak Density

There are several types of portable stylus instruments that can be

used to measure peak density. Each device operates somewhat
differently but they all require the user to position a retractable arm
containing a diamond point stylus (typically 5μm in diameter). The
arm containing the stylus is connected to a data collection device. The
arm is automatically retracted by the data logger at a constant speed

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across a known length of the prepared surface (typically 5.6 mm). The
total length that the arm travels is divided into seven equal segments.
Segments 1 and 7 are used in the calibration verification phase, while
segments 2 through 6 are used by the data logger to compute peak
count, as well as other parameters, if desired. The number of peaks
per linear segment is revealed by the instrument display. A minimum
of five traces should be measured and averaged to generate a single
representative peak count for a given area.

Frequency of Surface Profile Measurements

The number of surface profile measurements to make may be

stipulated by the project specification. If not, the inspector will need
to use some judgment as to the frequency of measurements. Difficult
access areas as well of the number of blast operators should be
considered. According to ASTM D4417, for each area selected, a
minimum of three readings is required and the average and range of
the surface profile recorded.

Stylus type device Close-up of stylus on blast cleaned surfaces

SSPC-PA 17 describes a procedure suitable for shop or field use

for determining compliance with specified profile ranges on a steel
substrate using Methods A (visual comparator), B (depth micrometer)
and C (replica tape) as described in ASTM D4417, and the portable
stylus instrument method used to determine surface roughness
and peak count as described in ASTM D7127. The standard sets
requirements for evaluating the preparation process, obtaining
surface profile readings, obtaining surface roughness and peak count
read¬ings, and determining if the profile of an evaluated area is within
the specified range. For each specific surface preparation apparatus
used during each work shift or twelve-hour period, whichever is

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shorter, you are required to select a minimum of three 15 x 15 cm (or

three 6 x 6 inch) locations in which to take readings. The standard
defines “apparatus” as an individual blast pot (which may supply
multiple nozzles), individual self-contained abrasive recycling/blast
cleaning units (which may contain multiple pots), individual stationary
or mobile centrifugal cleaning unit, or individual power tool. The
number of read¬ings to determine the average profile at each location
on steel substrates is based on the number required by ASTM D4417
or, if the portable stylus instrument is specified, the number required
by ASTM D7127. The average of the readings at each location shall be
the “location average.”

Waterjetting

Surface preparation by waterjetting under various water pressures can

remove even tightly-adhering coating systems from the underlying
surfaces. Waterjetting (at any pressure) will not generate a surface
profile; however at higher pressures, waterjetting can restore an
existing surface profile. If a surface profile is required by the project
specification (but does not pre-exist), then alternative methods of
surface preparation may be employed, in addition to coating and rust
removal by waterjetting. Wet abrasive blast cleaning (with abrasive
injection) can be used in this capacity. The levels of waterjetting
pressure are:

LPWC: Low Pressure Water Cleaning up to 35 MPa (5,000 psi)

HPWC: High Pressure Water Cleaning 35-69 MPa (5,000-10,000 psi)
HPWJ: High Pressure Waterjetting 69-207 MPa (10,000-30,000 psi)
UHPWJ: Ultra-High Pressure Waterjetting >207 MPa (30,000 psi)

Selecting the water pressure to employ is dependent on the adhesion of

the existing coating to the surface and the desired level of cleanliness.
Surface rusting can be removed using waterjetting, but intact mill
scale cannot, and will require mechanical removal or selection of a
Water Cleaning/Jetting
coating system that can be applied to intact mill scale and still perform
adequately in the service environment.

Low pressure water cleaning (LPWC) or “pressure washing” is often

specified for overcoating projects, where the existing coating is
salvageable and is incorporated into the maintenance coating system
for the structure. LPWC can be very effective in removing dirt,

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chalking, bird droppings and other contaminants from the surfaces,

although mechanical agitation of the surface during LPWC is often
required to ensure adequate removal. The remaining three levels of
water jetting pressure are used primarily to remove coatings. Waste
generation is minimized, in that the water is captured, filtered and
reused. The debris that is created is limited to the materials removed
from the surface. This is particularly advantageous when the coating to
be removed contains toxic metals, as the cost of handling, transporting
and disposing of hazardous waste can be relatively high.

Like most coating removal operations, water jetting has inherent

worker hazards. Personal protective equipment, including (but not
limited to) special foot, leg, arm, hand and torso guards are often
required when water jetting operations are employed, since using
water under these high pressures is essentially a lance and can cut or
even dismember an operator or adjacent worker.

SSPC/NACE Joint Surface Preparation Standards

Waterjet Cleaning of Metals

The four SSPC/NACE waterjet cleaning of metals standards require

the specifier to communicate to the contractor the level of surface
cleanliness desired (4 options), and the degree of flash rusting that
will be tolerated (4 options). The standard also provides the user with
guidance on specifying the level of non-visible surface contaminants
that will be tolerated. The four levels of surface cleanliness are:

SSPC-WJ-1/NACE WJ 1:Clean to Bare Substrate: A metal surface

after Clean to Bare Substrate, when viewed without magnification,
shall have a matte (dull, mottled) finish and shall be free of all visible
oil, grease, dirt, rust and other corrosion products, previous coatings,
mill scale, and foreign matter. Thin films of mill scale, rust and other
corrosion products, and coating are not allowed. The gray to brown-
black discoloration remaining on corroded and pitted carbon steel that
cannot be removed by further waterjet cleaning is allowed.

SSPC-WJ-2/NACE WJ 2 Very Thorough or Substantial

Cleaning: A metal surface after Very Thorough Cleaning, when
viewed without magnification, shall have a matte (dull, mottled) finish
and shall be free of all visible oil, grease, dirt, rust, and other corrosion
products except for randomly dispersed stains of rust and other corro-
sion products, tightly adherent thin coatings, and other tightly adherent
foreign matter. The staining or tightly adherent matter shall be limited
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©2015 SSPC 3-90
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

to no more than 5 percent of each unit area of surface and may consist
of randomly dispersed stains of rust and other corrosion products or
previously applied coating, tightly adherent thin coatings, and other
tightly adherent foreign matter.

SSPC-WJ-3/NACE WJ 3: Thorough Cleaning: A metal surface after

Thorough Cleaning, when viewed without magnification, shall have a
matte (dull, mottled) finish and shall be free of all visible oil, grease,
dirt, rust, and other corrosion products except for randomly dispersed
stains of rust and other corrosion products, tightly adherent thin coat-
ings, and other tightly adherent foreign matter. The staining or tightly
adherent matter shall be limited to no more than 33 percent of each
unit area of surface and may consist of randomly dispersed stains of
rust and other corrosion products or previously applied coating, tightly
adherent thin coatings, and other tightly adherent foreign matter.

SSPC-WJ-4/NACE WJ 4 Light Cleaning: A metal surface after

Light Cleaning, when viewed without magnification, shall be free of
all visible oil, grease, dirt, dust, loose mill scale, loose rust and other
corrosion products, and loose coating. Any residual material shall be
tightly adhered to the metal substrate and may consist of randomly
dispersed stains of rust and other corrosion products or previously ap-
plied coating, tightly adherent thin coatings, and other tightly adherent
foreign matter. Coatings, mill scale, and foreign matter are considered
tightly adherent if they cannot be removed by lifting with a dull putty
knife. The gray to brown-black discoloration remaining on corroded
and pitted carbon steel that cannot be removed by further waterjet
cleaning is allowed.

Similar to wet abrasive blast cleaning, the water used in waterjetting

is going to cause carbon steel surfaces to flash rust. Therefore, the
specifier may require the use of a rust inhibitor (that is compatible
with the coating system to be applied to the prepared surfaces), or
simply accept the flash rusting that occurs and select a coating system
that is tolerant in the given environment. The SSPC visual guides
and reference photographss (discussed later in this module) for water
jetting illustrate the levels of flash rusting (light, medium and heavy),
so that the degree of tolerable surface rust can be judged by the
inspector.

When mutually agreed upon or when invoked by the contract

documents, SSPC VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 photographic references can

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be used to help evaluate the cleanliness of surfaces prepared by

waterjetting. SSPC VIS 5/NACE VIS 9 photographic references can
be used to help evaluate the cleanliness of surfaces prepared by wet
abrasive blast cleaning. While the photographic references in these
visual guides will rarely match the actual surfaces prepared by the
contractor, they serve as an excellent tool to help those evaluating the
degree of cleanliness achieved to “calibrate” their eyes, and they are
invaluable for establishing a jobsite cleanliness standard. The use of
these visual guides is described later in this module.

Other SSPC Surface Preparation Standards

Two standards not otherwise categorized include SSPC-SP8,

“Pickling” and SSPC-SP13/NACE No. 6, “Surface Preparation of
Concrete.”

Using SSPC-VIS 4 /NACE VIS 7, “Guide and

Reference Photographs for Steel Surfaces
Prepared by
Waterjetting”

SSPC-VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 is

a collection of color reference
photographs depicting six initial
conditions and four levels of
cleaning by waterjetting for
each condition. Most of the
color reference photographs are
approximately 9 square inches, but
some are 4 square inches.

To use the SSPC VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 Guide and Reference

Photographs, follow these five basic steps.

Step 1: Ask, “What does the steel look like prior to surface
preparation?” The answer will yield an “Initial Condition”
Step 2: Ask, “What level of surface cleanliness does the specification
require?” The answer will yield a “Surface Cleanliness
Code”

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Step 3: Ask, “How much flash rusting is allowed to remain on the

prepared surface?” The answer will yield a “Flash Rust
Code”
Step 4: Locate the reference photograph in the visual guide
illustrating the initial condition (the “answer” to Step 1) and
the reference photograph representing the specified degree of
surface cleanliness by waterjetting (the “answer” to Step 2)
with the specified maximum level of flash rusting permitted
(the “answer” to Step 3, if appropriate).
Step 5: Use the reference photograph selected in Step 4 to assess
whether the prepared steel meets or exceeds the requirements
of the specification.

Let’s take a closer look at each of these five steps.

Step 1: Ask, “What does the steel look like (prior to surface
preparation)?”

In order to use the visual guide and reference photographs properly,

it is important that you determine what the existing steel looks like
before it is prepared by waterjetting. To do this, locate the reference
photographs in the visual guide illustrating the six possible initial
conditions of the steel. We’ll call these “before photographs,” since
they depict the condition of the steel “before” it was cleaned by
waterjetting. SSPC-VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 depicts six Initial Conditions,
including:

Condition C: Steel surface completely covered with rust; little or no

pitting visible .

Condition D: Steel surface completely covered with rust; pitting

visible.

Condition E: Previously painted steel surface; mostly intact, light-

colored paint applied to a blast cleaned surface.

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Condition F: Previously painted steel surface; mostly intact, zinc-rich

paint applied to a blast cleaned surface.

Condition G: Paint system applied to mill scale bearing steel; system

thoroughly weathered, blistered or stained.

Condition H: Degraded paint system applied to steel; system

thoroughly weathered, blistered or stained.

Select one of these “before” reference photographs that best illustrates

the condition of the steel and write down the letter (C, D, E, F, G or H)
before you proceed to Step 2. I f the steel is represented by more than
one condition, then write down the specific area of the structure and
the corresponding condition letter for each area.

Step 2: Ask, “What level of surface cleanliness does the

specification require?”

After you select a reference photograph that depicts the existing

condition of the steel surfaces (the “before photograph”), you’ll need
to look at the project specification to determine the degree of surface
cleanliness required. The degree of surface cleanliness will appear in
the project specification as one of four possible “levels,” including WJ-
4, Light Cleaning; WJ-3, Thorough Cleaning; WJ-2, Very Thorough
Cleaning; or WJ-1, Clean to Bare Substrate. If the specification does
not require one or more of these levels of surface cleanliness, then
the SSPC-VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 Guide and Reference Photographs
cannot be used. Chart 7 provides the surface cleanliness codes and the
corresponding levels of surface cleanliness depicted.

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Chart 7 - SSPC VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 Surface Cleanliness Guide

Surface Cleanliness Surface Cleanliness Level Depicts in Reference
Code Color Photographs
WJ-4 Light Cleaning
WJ-3 Thorough Cleaning
WJ-2 Very Thorough Cleaning
WJ-1 Clean to Bard Substrate

Write down the surface cleanliness level required by the project

specification using the code (e.g., if the specification requires very
thorough cleaning, write down WJ-2). At this point, you should have
both a code for the initial condition (C, D, E, F, G or H) and a code for
the surface cleanliness (WJ-1, WJ-2, WJ-3 or WJ-4).

Step 3: Ask, “How much flash rusting is allowed to remain

on the prepared surface?”

After you select a reference photograph that depicts the existing

Note: Photographs of flash rusting are only provided when the initial
condition of the surface was rusted (Condition C) or rusted and pitted
(Condition D), and for Thorough Cleaning (WJ-3) or Very Thorough
Cleaning (WJ-2), but the appearance can be applied to other conditions
(e.g., WJ-3 used on previously, painted steel). Chart 8 provides the
flash rusting codes and the corresponding descriptions.

Write down the flash rust code (e.g., if medium flash rusting is
permitted by the project specification, write down M). At this point,
you should have a code for the initial condition (C, D, E, F, G or H),
a code for the surface cleanliness (WJ-1, WJ-2, WJ-3 or WJ-4) and a
code for the amount of flash rusting permitted (L, M or H).

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Chart 8 – SSPC-VIS 4/NACE VIS 7

Surface Cleanliness Guide
Flash Rusting Code Degree of Flash Rusting
L Light
M Medium
H Heavy

REMEMBER: The flash rusting photographs are only

provided if the initial condition of the surface was “C” or “D,”
and the project specification requires either “WJ-3” or “WJ-2”
cleaning, but the appearance can be applied to other conditions.
Condition G selected

Step 4: Locate the reference photograph in the visual guide

The SSPC-VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 Guide and Reference Photographs

illustrates four levels of surface cleanliness (after waterjetting is
completed) for each of the conditions in Step 1. We’ll call these “after
photographs.” Select the “after” reference photograph in the visual
guide using the code put together in Step 3.

Here are two examples:

Example 1:
If the steel contains mill scale and a paint system that is thoroughly
weathered, select Condition G. If the specification requires very
thorough waterjetting, select WJ-2. Now locate photograph
G WJ-2 selected G WJ‑2 in the visual guide and reference photographs.
Example 2:
If the steel surface is rusted and pitted, select Condition D. If
the specification requires thorough waterjetting, select WJ-
3. If medium flash rusting is permitted, select M. Now locate
photograph D WJ-3 M in the visual guide and reference
photographs.

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Condition D selected
(Initial Condition)

D WJ-3 selected for level of

D WJ-3 selected since medium
cleanliness
flash rust allowed

Step 5: Assess the prepared surfaces.

Use the reference photograph selected in Step 4 to determine whether

Remember: Ambient lighting and variations in the initial condition,

as well as the quality of the steel will impact the appearance of the
prepared surface and the perceived level of cleanliness. Also, unless
rust inhibitors are used in the water, the prepared surfaces will flash
rust, independent of whether the specification addresses permissible
Using SSPC-VIS 4/ quantities of rust-back (light, medium or heavy) and whether the
NACE VIS 7 visual guide illustrates this condition. Since cleanliness assessments
can be subjective, it may be worthwhile to establish a project-
specific cleanliness standard (using the visual guides and reference
photographss for guidance) before a job begins. This can help all
parties involved gain a mutual understanding of the desired level of
cleanliness. The SSPC visual guides and reference photographss were
designed as a guide, and the written standards prevail in the event of a
dispute.
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©2015 SSPC 3-97
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

Recommended Guidelines for Evaluating Flash Rust

This is a non-mandatory guide with text and reference photographs

describing how to perform a field assessment of the amount of flash
rust on a steel surface by brushing the surface with a paint brush
wrapped with a white cotton cloth and evaluating the color and amount
of rust that transfers to the cloth. The guide was developed for the
National Shipbuilding Research Program Surface Preparation and
Coatings Panel (NSRP SP-3).

To evaluate flash rust perform the “Wipe” test. To conduct this test
perform the following steps:

1. Use a white, lint-free, woven cotton cloth and a standard 4-inch

nylon bristle paint brush.
2. Neatly wrap cloth around the paint brush. Hold the cloth in such a
manner as to prevent it from slipping.
3. Swipe the cloth across the surface in one motion, using the amount
of pressure you would use when applying house paint to a door.
4. The length of the swipe should be consistent. The NSRP Guide
recommends one pass at 6 inches (15 cm).
5. Evaluate the amount of rust transferred to the cloth.

ISO F1: Flame Cleaning

“When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free from

mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. Any remaining
residues shall show only as a discoloration of the surface (shades of
different colours.)”

SSPC-SP 8, Pickling

SSPC-SP 8, “Pickling” is a pretreatment process for steel surfaces

prior to hot-dip galvanizing. The pickling bath may contain sulfuric or
hydrochloric acid and is designed to remove grease, oil, mill scale, rust
and other debris from steel surfaces.

SSPC-SP 16, Brush-Off Blast Cleaning of Galvanized Steel,

Stainless and Non-Ferrous Metals

This standard covers surface preparation of coated or uncoated metal

surfaces other than carbon steel prior to the application of a protective

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coating system. Surface preparation using this standard is intended to

roughen and clean a non-ferrous metal substrate. Substrates that may
be prepared by this method include, but are not limited to, galvanized
surfaces, stainless steel, copper, aluminum, brass, as well as intact
coatings over these substrates.

Chemical Stripping

Removal of coatings using chemical strippers has been widely used

outside of the industrial coatings arena. Methylene chloride-based
paint strippers were used for removing coatings in the residential,
commercial and light industrial markets for years, and the commercial
aircraft industry used these strippers to remove coatings from the
exterior of the fuselage. However, when chlorinated solvents became
recognized as carcinogens (cancer-causing agents), their use as paint
strippers declined. Other paint strippers came onto the market, and
were formulated to work on a variety of surfaces, including wood,
steel, etc. These paint strippers were caustic-based
(pH 14), and attacked the resin component of coatings,
destroying their backbone and causing the coating system
to debond from the underlying substrate. Caustic-based
paint removers are the consistency of a heavy paste
that is sprayed or troweled onto the surface. After a few
hours of “dwell time,” the stripper is removed from the
surfaces using scrapers, air or water pressure or even
blasting with ice crystals. Multiple applications can be
required, depending on the coating system and thickness.
Neutralization of the surface after the stripper has been
Chemical Stripping
removed is required for proper coating performance.

Environmentally and user-friendly chemical strippers are available that

have a neutral pH and little odor. They rely on the metal surface below
the coating to act as a “catalyst” that sets-off the stripping reaction.
They are slower to work on thicker films, and metals in the coatings
themselves may trigger the reaction, thus requiring several applications
to remove multiple layers.

Chemical strippers do not generate a surface profile, and will not

remove rust or mill scale. Therefore, mechanical methods of surface
preparation may be required after the coating has been removed or
a coating system that is tolerant of intact mill scale and rust must

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be selected, provided it will perform adequately in the service

environment.

The use of chemical strippers is described in SSPC Technical

Update (TU) 6, “Chemical Stripping of Organic Coatings from Steel
Structures.”

Inspection of Surfaces for Primer Application

After the specified level of surface cleanliness has been achieved

and the surface profile depth has been measured and recorded, the
inspector should verify that the prepared surfaces are ready for
application of the primer. This includes dust removal, a final chemical
contamination test (if required), measurement of the base metal
effect (known as the BMR or Base Metal Reading), if required and
verification that the time interval from surface preparation to primer
application will not be exceeded.

Dust/Debris Removal

Dust and debris remaining on the surface must be removed by

brushing, compressed air blow down (or double blow down), or by
vacuuming the surfaces. If the compressed air blow down option is
selected, then the compressed air must be verified for cleanliness by
employing the blotter test (ASTM D4285) described earlier in this
module. Compressed air blow down must be carefully inspected,
as dust tends to cling to surfaces by static electricity. While a “white
glove” test is not necessary nor recommended, if gloved fingers
are traced across the surfaces and tracks are visually evident on the
surface, then excessive dust remains and can interfere with primer
adhesion and/or cause application defects. Alternatively, ISO 8502:
Preparation of Steel Substrates Before Application of Paints and
Related Products – Tests for the Assessment of Surface Cleanliness,
Part 3: Assessment of Dust on Steel Surfaces Prepared for Painting
(pressure-sensitive tape method) can be used to evaluated the presence
of surface dust.

To perform this test, a special type of clear, pressure sensitive adhesive

tape (25 mm wide with an adhesion peel strength of at least 190 N
per meter width), a special spring-tensioned roller, a 10X illuminated

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magnifier and a white board (e.g., bright white cardboard or poster

board) must be acquired. Note: The spring-tensioned roller is relatively
costly and is not required by the standard unless the testing procedure
or results are being disputed. The roller can be replaced by thumb
pressure applied to the tape, as described below).

Step 1: Discard three full turns of tape from the roll.

Step 2: Remove a test piece of tape approximately 200 mm long,
being certain to only touch the two ends (25 mm at each end).
Step 3: Attach (press) approximately 150 mm of the tape (excluding
the two – 25 mm ends) to the surface.
Step 4: Press the tape to the surface by placing your thumb at
one end of the tape, then move your thumb along the tape
length (at a constant speed and pressure) three times in each
direction (each stroke should take between 5 and 6 seconds
to complete). Leave the two 25 mm ends of the tape up off
of the surface. Only the middle 150 mm of the tape should
be attached. Note that thumb pressure must be replaced by
a spring-tensioned roller in the case of disputes regarding
procedure or test results.
Step 5: Remove (peel) the tape from the surface at a 180o angle (to
the surface) at a peel rate of 300 +/-30 mm/minute.
Step 6: Attach the peeled tape to a white board (poster board).
Step 7: Rate the quantity of dust attached to the tape using Figure
1 (Dust Quantity Ratings). If required by the project
specification, rate the dust size attached to the tape using
Table 1 (Dust Size Classes). These pictorial references are
provided in the standard.
Step 8: The standard requires one test for every 19 square meters
(200 square feet) of prepared surface that is ready to be
primed. Unless the project specification indicates otherwise,
a dust quantity rating of 1 and a dust size rating of 2 or less is
considered an acceptable surface for coating.

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Summary

While every phase of a coatings operation can contribute to the

success or failure of a coating system, surface preparation is
critical. Preparing the surface can also be the most costly phase of
a coatings operation. However, not all surfaces require the same
degree of surface preparation to accept a coating system, and not
all service environments are as demanding on a coating system as
others. Depending on the intended longevity of the installed coating
system and the prevailing service environment, owners may be able
to economize by specifying a lower degree of cleaning and selecting
a coating system that can perform adequately over a lower level of
surface preparation, or exposing existing surface roughness.

Surface preparation has a two-fold purpose: cleaning and roughening

the surface to successfully accept the coating. The inspector’s role
in verifying cleanliness depends on what the specification requires.
Typically, the level of cleanliness specified depends on the difficulties
posed by the service environment. The specification may require the
inspector to verify that grease, oil, and other contaminants have been
adequately removed from the surface (SSPC-SP 1). This initial phase
is referred to as pre-surface preparation and takes place before the
actual surface preparation begins. During pre-surface preparation, an
inspector’s responsibilities may also include verifying that structural
deficiencies have been repaired, that weld spatter has been removed,
and that edges and corners have been properly treated. This initial
phase may also require testing for chemical contamination of the
surface, as described in ISO Standard 8502 (Parts 5, 6, 9 and 10)
and in SSPC-Guide 15.

There are many methods that may be employed to prepare a substrate

for the application of a coating system. Those methods include solvent
cleaning, hand and power tool cleaning, dry and wet abrasive blast
cleaning, chemical stripping and waterjetting. Centrifugal, diamond
grinding and scarifying are also prevalent today. Dry abrasive blast
cleaning is the most common method of surface preparation and

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can be used to roughen an existing coating system (to prepare for

overcoating) or to remove the existing coating system completely. Of
course, abrasive blast cleaning can also be used to prepare new steel
for the application of a coating system.

The International Standardization Organization (ISO), the Society

for Protective Coatings (SSPC), and NACE International (NACE)
have all developed consensus standards for surface cleanliness. More
than one cleanliness standard may be invoked for a coating project
and it is imperative that the coatings inspector understands both the
intent, as well as the details, of each specification invoked. SSPC-SP
1 or “Solvent Cleaning” is a requirement in most of the cleanliness
standards and requires the removal of all visible grease, oil, lubricants,
cutting compounds and other non-visible contaminants from the
surface prior to performing mechanical cleaning.

Each cleanliness standard has been assigned a code by ISO, NACE,

and SSPC, and each standard has a descriptive title, such as “Brush-
off Blast,” “Commercial Blast,” Near-White Blast,” or “White Metal
Blast.” The current standards define the level of cleanliness required,
including the amount of mill scale, rust, paint, or staining (from those
materials) that may or may not be allowed to remain on the surface,
and two of the SSPC power tool cleaning standards (SSPC-SP 11
and SP 15) invoke a minimum 25 µm (1 mil) surface profile. While
experienced inspectors are typically familiar with all of the cleanliness
standards, it is always advisable to review the standard(s) invoked by a
project specification in case there have been changes or recent updates.

There are nine common “inspection check points” that may be

required by the project specification relating to surface preparation.
While not all of these checkpoints are required on every project, an
inspector should be prepared to verify all of them whenever required.
These common checkpoints include:

1. Receipt of contractor submittals (work plan, pollution control

plan, QC plan and staging/access plan)
2. Verifying grease and oil removal by solvent cleaning
3. Measurement of ambient conditions prior to final surface
preparation
4. Measuring blast nozzle air pressure and nozzle orifice size
5. Conducting an abrasive cleanliness test

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6. Conducting a compressed air cleanliness (blotter) test

7. Assessing surface cleanliness
8. Measuring surface profile depth
9. Verifying surfaces are ready for primer applications

In addition, minimum lighting for surface preparation and inspection

activities may be required by the project specification. The minimum
and recommended lighting levels (based on the operations taking
place) are provided in SSPC-Guide 12.

The proper use of instrumentation and visual guides for performing

the common inspection check points is one of the most important
responsibilities of a coatings inspector. The step-by-step procedures
for verifying the accuracy and using inspection instruments, visual
standards and chemical contamination detection kits were described,
and the common inspection instruments were made available for use in
the workshop.

If dry abrasive blast cleaning is part of the specification, an inspector

may be required to verify the cleanliness of the abrasive blast media
and the compressed air used in the blast lines. Dry abrasive blast
cleaning can both clean a surface and roughen it at the same time;
however, it is possible to achieve the correct level of cleanliness
while not achieving the specified roughness. The reverse is also true.
Therefore, the inspector must treat and verify cleaning and roughening
as separate criteria.

Dry abrasive blast cleaning is highly productive. While the level of

cleanliness achieved depends on the distance that the nozzle is held
from the surface and the “dwell time” the operator employs, the depth
and shape of the surface profile are determined by the type and size
of the abrasive. Both dry and wet abrasive blast cleaning requires an
abrasive media. These abrasives fall into two categories: recyclable
and expendable. Recyclable abrasives include steel grit, steel shot,
and aluminum oxide. They can be used multiple times (steel grit,
for example, can be used over 100 times with minimal breakdown),
but they cannot be used in wet abrasive systems. Non-recyclable or
expendable abrasives breakdown and are used once, then discarded,
and many are ideal in wet abrasive systems. A project specification
may invoke requirements for the abrasive itself. SSPC-AB 1 is an
industry standard for mineral and slag abrasives, while SSPC-AB 3

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governs newly manufactured metallic abrasives. These certifications

are provided by the abrasive manufacturer. SSPC-AB 2 governs the
cleanliness of recycled abrasive, which requires the contractor and the
inspector to perform various tests on-site to prove the cleanliness of
the abrasive as it is reused. SSPC-AB 4 governs recycled encapsulated
abrasive media.

Centrifugal blast cleaning is an automated, very productive form of
blast cleaning, which is typically employed by fabrication shops.
Centrifugal blast cleaning is ideal for large flat surfaces, and there
are portable versions of this equipment that can prepare horizontal
surfaces like ship decks or can be used to clean vertical surfaces, like
the exterior of storage tanks.

Vacuum blast cleaning is a much slower form of dry abrasive blast
cleaning and is used when a high degree of cleanliness and surface
roughness are required, but airborne abrasive and dust cannot be
tolerated. Wet abrasive blast cleaning is another form of blast
cleaning that can be used when airborne dust control is required by
the specification. These processes can also reduce worker exposures
when toxic metals and nuisance dust are generated during the coating
removal process.

The inspector’s role in achieving the specified roughness (also referred

to as the surface profile or anchor pattern) may require verifying
profile depth and uniformity over the project surface.

Waterjetting is another widely used method of surface preparation.

The variety of available water pressures can remove even tightly
adhering coating systems. But while waterjetting can restore an
existing profile or anchor pattern, it cannot create a new one. One
problem with both wet abrasive blast cleaning and waterjetting is that
any system that incorporates water will cause carbon steel to flash rust.
Specifiers may require the use of a rust inhibitor or accept the flash
rusting and select a coating system that is tolerant to flash rusting on
the substrate.

The final responsibilities of an inspector during the surface preparation

phase of a coatings project are to verify that the prepared surfaces are
free of dust and debris. Depending on the specification, there may also
be a final test to determine whether surface chemicals are at tolerable

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levels. And since many projects require the prepared surfaces to

be primed within four hours or within the same shift, it is up to the
inspector to verify that this timeframe has been met. Even when the
timeframe has been met, if surface rusting occurs prior to application
of the primer, the surfaces must be re-prepared to achieve the specified
level of cleanliness.

Throughout this module, we’ve stated that surface preparation is

critical to the success or failure of a coating project. The quality
and dependability of the verification process is also critical. Once
a primer has been applied to the substrate, it is nearly impossible to
determine the level of surface cleanliness and surface profile achieved
without destructive examinations. Therefore, a coatings inspector
must observe and verify that the pre-surface and surface preparation
procedures have been performed according to the specification before
the primer is applied. The informed, ethical inspector is the key to this
process.

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Introduction
Module Three (Module Content)
n  Pre-surface preparation
Surface Preparation: Methods,
n  Methods of controlling environmental
Industry Standards and Inspection conditions
n  Methods used to clean and roughen
surfaces
n  Surface cleanliness standards
n  Surface preparation equipment
n  Inspection of surface preparation

Module Three Learning

Overview
Outcomes
n  Comprehension of Module Three will enable n  Preparing the surface
the participant to: for the application of
Ø  Describe the importance of proper surface preparation the coating system is:
Ø  Explain the dual objective of surface preparation
Ø  Critical
Ø  Describe methods used to control an environment during
surface preparation activities Ø  Often expensive
Ø  Define the standards for surface preparation Ø  A key factor in
Ø  Describe common methods used to prepare surfaces for determining the service
coating life of the coating
Ø  Measure and record surface profile system
Ø  Evaluate surface cleanliness

Methods of Surface
Surface Preparation
Preparation
n  Dual Purpose: n  Solvent cleaning
Ø  Cleaningthe surface n  Hand and power tool cleaning
Ø  Roughening the surface n  Dry abrasive blast cleaning
n  Must be inspected for separately n  Wet abrasive blast cleaning
n  Chemical stripping
n  Often two distinct acceptance criteria
n  Waterjetting
n  Non-traditional (cryogenic, pliable media…)

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Inspector Responsibilities Common Surface Preparation

for Surface Preparation Inspection Checkpoints
Verify grease and oil
n  The role of the inspector is “OADR”: 1. 
removal by solvent
6.  Assessing surface
cleanliness
Observe, Assess, Document and cleaning
7.  Measuring surface profile
2.  Verify ambient conditions
Report. prior to final surface
depth
preparation 8.  Verifying surfaces are
n  The following checkpoints may be 3.  Conducting a compressed ready for primer
air cleanliness (blotter) application
required when inspecting. test
n  Remember to Document and Report
4.  Measuring blast nozzle
pressure and nozzle orifice
all test results size
5.  Conducting an abrasive
cleanliness test

Additional Inspector
Inspector Responsibilities Responsibilities for Surface
for Surface Preparation Preparation
n  May include verification of: n  May also include verifying that:
Ø  Abrasive cleanliness Ø  Structural deficiencies have been repaired
Ø  The contractor’s equipment is operating
Ø  Compressed air cleanliness
properly (to maintain schedule)
Ø  Adequate removal of grease, oil and Ø  Review/verify adequacy of submittals
other contaminants (SSPC-SP 1) –  PCP
Ø  Degree of surface cleanliness and –  Work Plan
Abrasive certifications
roughness – 

–  Staging and containment plan

Pre-Surface Preparation Pre-Surface Preparation

Inspection Inspection
n  Many specifications require a “pre- n  Weld Spatter
Stick, flux core, MIG or TIG
surface preparation inspection” to
Ø 
welds
verify that: Ø  Can result in spot corrosion
Specification may require
Ø  Fabrication defects are corrected
Ø 
removal
Ø  Surface contamination is sufficiently Ø  Coatings may not flow over
weld spatter
removed
Ø  Spatter may become
Ø  Only invoked if required by the project dislodged in service
specification

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Preparation of Welds – Pre-Surface Preparation

Immersion Service Inspection
n  Appendix C of NACE n  Sharp edges and corners
SP0178 n  Coating “draws thin”
Ø  Five degrees of surface n  Specification requirements
finishing of welds for edge preparation vary
Ø  Supplemented with Ø  2 mm (1/16”), 4 mm (1/8”)
molded plastic weld radius or chamfer; “break”
replica comparator n  May requiring “striping”
n  SSPC Guide 11

Pre-Surface Preparation
Stripe Coating (striping)
Inspection
n  Treatment of flame cut n  Additional coating layer
edges important on welds, edges, bolt
Ø  Often sharp heads, nuts, around
Ø  Heat causes hardening rivets, etc.
of steel surface
Ø  Abrasive blast cleaning n  Brush or spray
may not generate n  More detail in Module 5
adequate profile depth
Ø  Grinding removes
surface hardening

Pre-Surface Preparation Common Steel Defects:

Inspection Severe Section Loss
n  Laminations n  Older structures may
Ø  Occur during rolling exhibit severe section
process loss
Ø  May be raised by
abrasive blast cleaning n  Structural engineers
Ø  May project above may require
coating if not removed replacement or repair
Ø  Typically removed by n  Inspectors verify that
grinding
Ø  Affected area may
work is completed and
require re-blast cleaning acceptable to the
structural engineer

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SSPC-SP 1,
Pre-Surface Preparation Solvent Cleaning
n  Removal of Surface Contaminants n  Requires the removal of all visible grease, oil,
lubricants, and cutting compounds from the
Ø  Grease, oil, cutting compounds and/or surface
lubricants
n  Degreasing agents (solvents, alkaline and
Ø  Chemical contamination emulsion cleaners, steam cleaning) described
earlier
n  Mechanical cleaning will not remove grease/oil
n  “Indirect requirement” to the SSPC surface
cleanliness standards

Removing Grease and Oil Removing Grease and Oil

from the Surface from the Surface
n  Solvents like methyl ethyl ketone n  Solvents are:
Effective degreasers
(MEK), xylene or others Ø 
Ø  Toxic
n  Other cleaning methods include Ø  Flammable

detergent, alkaline, emulsion, steam n  Proper use, ventilation and disposal critical
n  Chlorinated solvents (e.g., methylene
chloride):
Ø  Carcinogenic
Ø  Cannot be used on stainless steel

Removing Grease and Oil Removing Grease and Oil

from the Surface from the Surface
n  Non-solvent degreasers n  Steam 150°C
Ø  Water with detergent (300°F) water
Ø  Alkaline cleaners (TSP) n  Combination steam
–  Requires thorough rinsing to remove soapy film and pressurized
May require testing for residual surface alkalinity
– 
water
n  Alkaline cleaner can
Ø  Emulsion cleaners (oil soaps diluted with
Kerosene or mineral spirits) be added
–  Requires thorough rinsing to remove surface residue

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Inspecting Surfaces for Chemical Contamination

Grease/Oil Contamination on the Surface
n  Chemical contaminants include
n  Visual or wiping chloride, ferrous ions, sulfates and
methods nitrates
n  Black light detection n  Deposited onto surfaces while
n  Water break test structure is in service
n  Deposited during transportation of
new steel to the fabrication shop
n  Water Soluble

Removal of Chemical Chemical Contamination:

Contamination Salts
n  More difficult to remove n  Undetected or
from rough or pitted inadequately removed
salts can become
surfaces & crevices
trapped beneath a
n  Pressure washing or newly installed coating
water jetting using system
clean water is common n  Potential for osmotic
n  Proprietary salt blistering, underfilm
corrosion, and
removal-enhancement premature coating
solutions available failure

Testing for Chemical Testing for Chemical

Contamination Contamination
n  Specific ion (salt-specific) n  Specification may prescribe methods of sample
retrieval and analysis
Ø  Chloride n  Retrieval methods include:
Ø  Sulfate Ø  Swabbing
Ø  Latex patches
Ø  Ferrous ion
Ø  Latex sleeves
n  Conductivity (non salt-specific) n  Methods of analysis include:
Ø  Chloride strips and tubes
n  ISO 8502-9 Ø  Drop titration for chloride
n  SSPC Guide 15 (Field Methods for Retrieval Ø  Ferrous ion strips
Ø  Conductivity meter (non ion-specific)
and Analysis of Soluble Salts on Steel and Ø  Turbidity meter (sulfate)
Other Non-porous Substrates)

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Latex Patch/Cell Sample Chloride Titrator Strip

Retrieval Steps Analysis Steps

Calculating Surface Conductivity Analysis

Concentrations-Chloride (patch) Steps
Entry Result 1.  Verify accuracy of
conductivity meter
PPM (from chart) 124 PPM 2.  Measure conductivity
of “blank”
Quantity of water 2 mL 3.  Measure conductivity
of sample
PPM x Quantity of Water 124 x 2 = 248 µg 4.  Deduct conductivity
reading of “blank”
Area sampled 12.25 cm2 from conductivity
reading of sample
Micrograms ÷ Area Sampled 248÷12.25=20.2 µg/cm2

Note: Retain your Quantab strip for

inspection documentation

Converting Conductivity Converting Surface

to Surface Concentration Concentration to Conductivity

n  Estimate of surface concentration n  Estimate of conductivity

n  Assumption is sodium chloride n  Assumption is sodium chloride

n  E = 0.5 x S x (V÷A) n  S = 2 x E x (V÷A)

Ø  E: Surface concentration (μg/cm2) Ø  S: Conductivity (μS/cm)
Ø  S: Conductivity (μS/cm) Ø  E: Surface concentration (μg/cm2)

Ø  V: Volume of extraction solution used Ø  V: Volume of extraction solution used

Ø  A: Area of sample collection Ø  A: Area of sample collection

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Tolerable Levels of Measuring Ambient Conditions

Prior to Final Surface Preparation
Chemical Contaminants
n  No industry standard n  If air temperature and relative humidity are such
that moisture from the air condenses on the
n  Project specification indicates the maximum surface, the surface may flash rust
quantity of soluble salts that can remain on
the surface and be coated over n  Recommend verifying that the temperature of the
surface is at least 3°C (5°F) higher than the dew
point temperature (may be invoked by
specification)
n  Measure conditions on-site, where work will occur
n  Measure conditions prior to start-up and at 4 hour
intervals (more frequent if required)

Measuring Ambient Conditions Measuring Ambient

& Surface Temperature Conditions
n  Conditions obtained using n  Using sling
sling, battery- powered, or
electronic psychrometers psychrometers
n  Dry bulb/wet bulb
n  Saturate wick
instruments used with US n  Whirl 20-30
Weather Bureau
Psychrometric Tables or
seconds until wet
dewpoint disc calculator bulb stabilizes
n  Surface temperature obtained n  Record wet & dry
using dial, thermocouple or bulb temperatures
non-contact instruments

Measuring Ambient Measuring Ambient

Conditions Conditions
n  Using battery- n  Using Psychrometric
powered Charts
psychrometers n  Locate Chart
n  Saturate wick n  Verify Barometric
n  Operate until wet Pressure (30.0 in.)
bulb stabilizes n  Intersect air
(typically 2 temperature with
minutes) wet bulb depression

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Determining Dew Point Determining Relative

Temperature Humidity

Measuring Surface
Electronic Psychrometers
Temperature
n  Measure/Report: n  Dial-Type
Ø  Air Temperature Thermometer
Surface Temperature
Thermocouple-Type
Ø 
(ST) n 
Ø  Relative Humidity Thermometers
Ø  Dew Point n  Infrared (non-
Temperature (DP)
Ø  Spread between
contact)
DP and ST thermometers

Documenting Ambient Conditions

and Surface Temperature Dehumidification
Condition Data n  Contractor/Facility Owner may elect to
Date 5/13/02 control the environment rather than
Time 1300 hours postpone operations
Dry Bulb Temperature (t) 16oC (60oF)
n  Dehumidification (DH) equipment
Wet Bulb Temperature (t’) 13oC (55oF)
Depression (t-t’) 3oC (5oF)
removes air moisture, reducing
Relative Humidity 73% opportunity for condensation
Dew Point Temperature 11oC (51oF) n  Inspector verifies conditions meet the
Surface Temperature 15oC (59oF) project specification
Measurement Location West side of tank, ground level

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Dehumidification, con’t. Dehumidification, con’t.

n  DH accomplished by: n  Refrigeration

Ø  Air cooled over
Ø  Compression
refrigeration coils
Ø  Refrigeration Ø  Condensation
occurs on coils and
Ø  Desiccation (liquid or solid sorption) is collected
Ø  Combination of methods listed Ø  Dry air exits the DH

Ø  Refrigeration and desiccation (solid system (at reduced

temperature,
sorption) most common for field work humidity and dew
point)

Dehumidification, con’t. Dehumidification, con’t.

n  Desiccant n  Sizing Equipment
Ø  Air passed over/through Ø  Determined by size of area and level of DH desired
granular beds or fixed
Ø  Appropriate air-change rate dependent on:
desiccant structures
–  Equipment
Ø  Desiccant (silica gel or
–  Geographical location
lithium chloride) is
active and dehydrated –  Climate
(low vapor pressure) –  Season
Ø  Desiccant absorbs –  Distance (equipment-to-enclosure)
moisture from air. –  Amount of air exhausted by other means
Hydration reaction
causes exothermic Ø  Equipment suppliers provide guidance
reaction (heated air), so
may be used with
refrigeration-type DH

Assessing Lighting Assessing Lighting, con’t.

n  You can’t inspect n  Foot Candle
what you can’t see Ø  Amount of light emitted by
a lit candle 1 foot away
n  If you can’t see, you
can’t inspect n  Meter Candle (Lux)
Ø  Amount of light emitted by
n  SSPC Guide 12: a lit candle 1 meter away
Ø  Minimum & n  Obtain minimum of five
recommended lighting measurements
Ø  Instrumentation used
to monitor light

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC Guide 12 Lighting Surface Cleanliness

Requirements Standards
Operation Meter Candle (lux) Foot Candle
n  International Standardization
Minimum Recommended Minimum Recommended Organization (ISO)
General Area 108 215 10 20 n  SSPC and NACE
Surface 215 538 20 50
Preparation
Coating 251 538 20 50
Application
Inspection 538 2153 50 200

ISO Surface Cleanliness Assessing Surface

Standards Cleanliness
n  ISO Standard 8501-1: n  ISO 8501-1
Two degrees of Hand and n  Select “Before” Photo of
Power Tool Cleaning Initial Surface Condition
–  A, B, C, D
Ø  Fours degrees of
Ø  Determine level of
Abrasive Blast Cleaning cleanliness required by
Ø  One degree of Flame specification
Cleaning –  St 1, St 2, Sa 1, Sa 2,
Sa 2 1/2, Sa 3
Ø  Select “After” Photo
–  e.g., B Sa 2

ISO Surface Cleanliness ISO Surface Cleanliness

Standards Standards
n  ISO St 2: Thorough Hand and Power n  ISO St 3: Very Thorough Hand and
Tool Cleaning Power Tool Cleaning

“When viewed without magnification, the “(Same) As for St 2, but the surface shall
surface shall be free from visible oil, be treated much more thoroughly to give
grease and dirt, and from poorly adhering a metallic sheen arising from the metallic
mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign substrate.”
matter.”

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC Visual Guides for Assessing Surface

Surface Cleanliness Cleanliness
n  SSPC VIS 1 (Abrasive n  Images in ISO and SSPC
Blast Cleaning) guides rarely “match”
actual conditions
n  SSPC VIS 3 (Power and
Hand Tool Cleaning) n  Establish a project-
! specific surface
SSPC VIS 4/NACE VIS
!

n  cleanliness standard/

!
!

7 (Water Jetting) test section

n  SSPC VIS 5/NACE VIS n  Use SSPC visual guides
9 (Wet Abrasive Blast to “calibrate” the eye
Cleaning) n  Preserve with clear
sealer or photograph

!
!

SSPC-SP 2,
Hand Tool Cleaning
Hand Tool Cleaning
n  Wire brushes, scrapers n  Requires removal of all loosely
Remove loosely
n 
adhering rust, mill scale and paint
adhering corrosion
products, old paint and n  Remaining materials must be tightly
flaking mill scale adhering
n  Do not produce a
surface profile n  Contract may require feathering
n  Frequently used to n  No surface profile requirement
prepare surfaces for
spot touch-up
(maintenance)

SSPC-SP 2, Hand Tool Inspection of SSPC-SP 2,

Cleaning-General Hand Tool Cleaning
n  SSPC-SP 1 (solvent cleaning) is an “indirect n  Verification of “intact” via dull putty knife
requirement” blade (subjective evaluation)
n  Weld slag, flux and fume deposits should be n  Establish project-specific cleanliness
removed from welds (per contract standard
documents) n  Visual verification using ISO 8501-1 or SSPC
n  Verify removal of dirt/debris generated by VIS 3
hand tool cleaning (blow down, brush, Ø  Prepared surfaces rarely match visual guides
vacuum) Ø  Excellent tool to “calibrate” eye and aid in
Ø  If blow down, verify cleanliness of compressed air establishing project standard
(“indirect requirement” of SP 2) Ø  Use described later

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Power Tool Cleaning

n  Grinders
n  Pneumatic chisels
n  Needle scalers
n  Rotopeens
n  Can remove loose and tightly adhering corrosion
products, paint and mill scale
n  Impact tools can remove pack rust & stratified rust
n  Some can produce an anchor pattern
n  Feathering of intact coating typically required

Power Tool Cleaning- Power Tool Cleaning-

General, con’t. General
n  Power tool selection n  SSPC-SP 1 (solvent cleaning) is an “indirect
requirement” of SP 3, SP 11, SP 15
Ø  Amount of surface area to be cleaned
n  Weld slag, flux and fume deposits should be
Ø  Surface configurations removed from welds (per contract
Ø  What needs removed (mill scale, surface documents)
rust, pack rust, stratified rust, coating…) n  Verify removal of dirt/debris generated by
Ø  Level of worker and environmental power tool cleaning (blow down, brush,
protection vacuum)
Ø  If blow down, verify cleanliness of compressed
Ø  Degree of surface roughness required air (“indirect requirement” of SP 3, SP 11, SP
15)

SSPC-SP 3, SSPC-SP 11, Power Tool

Power Tool Cleaning Cleaning To Bare Metal
n  Requires removal of all loosely n  Requires:
Removal of all loosely and all tightly adhering mill scale,
adhering rust, mill scale and paint Ø 
rust and paint to expose the bare metal surface (traces
n  Remaining materials must be tightly of paint, rust and mill scale can remain in bottom of pits)
Ø  A minimum 25 µm (1 mil) anchor pattern
adhering (dull putty knife test)
n  Prepared surfaces should not be compared to
n  No surface profile requirement abrasive blast cleaned surfaces
Ø  Surface roughness characteristics are different
n  Profile must be measured using ASTM D4417,
Method B, Profile Depth Micrometer

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC-SP 15, Commercial Inspection of Power Tool

Grade Power Tool Cleaning Cleaning
n  Requires removal of all loosely and tightly n  SSPC-SP 3: Verification of “intact” via dull
adhering mill scale, rust and paint putty knife blade (subjective evaluation)
n  Staining from rust, paint and mill scale permitted n  SSPC-SP 11 and SSPC-SP 15 require visual
but must not exceed 33% (one third) of each 58 inspection
cm2 (9 in2) of prepared surface n  Establish project-specific cleanliness
standards
n  Traces of paint, rust and mill scale can remain in
n  Visual verification using ISO 8501-1 or SSPC
bottom of pits VIS 3
n  Minimum 25 µm (1 mil) anchor pattern Ø  Prepared surfaces rarely match visual guides
n  Profile must be measured using ASTM D4417, Ø  Excellent tool to “calibrate” eye and aid in
establishing project standard
Method B, Profile Depth Micrometer
Ø  Use described later

SSPC-SP COM
November 1, 2004

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1%"#$+5'*$++)N

Traditional Dry Abrasive

Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning
Blast Cleaning Set-Up
n  Most common method of
surface preparation
n  Most productive
n  Hardness of abrasive (and
velocity of abrasive created
by compressed air)
generates energy
n  Velocity in excess of 805
Km/Hr (500 mph) using air
pressures up to 862 KPa
(125 psi)
n  Can remove existing coating
corrosion and mill scale
n  Can generate a surface Reference: Clemco Blast-Off 2
profile or anchor pattern

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Blast Cleaning ISO Surface Cleanliness

Productivity Standards
n  Many factors can influence productivity: n  ISO Sa 1: Light Blast Cleaning
Ø  Compressor must be adequately sized
Ø  Optimum blast nozzle pressure is 620- “When viewed without magnification, the
690 KPa (90-100 psi); 827-861 KPa surface shall be free from visible oil,
(120-125 psi) for metallic abrasives grease and dirt, and from poorly adhering
Ø  Clemco: a 69 KPa (10 psi) reduction in mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign
blast nozzle pressure equates to a 15% matter.”
reduction in productivity

ISO Surface Cleanliness ISO Surface Cleanliness

Standards Standards
n  ISO Sa 2: Thorough Blast Cleaning n  ISO Sa 2 ½: Very Thorough Blast Cleaning

“When viewed without magnification, the

“When viewed without magnification, the surface shall be free from visible oil, grease and
surface shall be free from visible oil, dirt, and from mill scale, rust, paint coatings and
grease and dirt, and from most of the mill foreign matter. Any remaining traces of
scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign contamination shall show only as stains in the
matter. Any residual contamination shall form of spots or stripes.”
be firmly adhering.”

ISO Surface Cleanliness Abrasive Blast Cleaning

Standards Standards
n  ISO Sa 3: Blast Cleaning to Visually n  Listed from lowest n  SSPC-SP 7/NACE 4
Clean Steel to highest level of n  SSPC-SP 14/NACE 8
cleanliness required n  SSPC-SP 6/NACE 3
“When viewed without magnification, the n  Specification must
n  SSPC-SP 10/NACE 2
surface shall be free from visible oil, stipulate the
required depth of n  SSPC-SP 5/NACE 1
grease and dirt, and shall be free from
mill scale, rust, paint coatings and foreign the surface profile
matter. It shall have a uniform metallic
colour.”

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Abrasive Blast Cleaning SSPC-SP 7/NACE No. 4,

Standards Brush-off Blast Cleaning
n  Two SSPC abrasive blast cleaning standards (SSPC- n  “Brush blasting” the surface
SP 6 and SP 10) invoke maximum allowable
staining (subjective) n  Removal of all loosely adhering
n  Establish project-specific cleanliness standards materials
Ø  Manufacturing stains cannot be removed
n  Visual verification using ISO 8501-1 or SSPC VIS 1 n  Remaining materials tightly adhering,
Ø 
Ø 
Prepared surfaces rarely match visual guides
Excellent tool to “calibrate” eye and aid in establishing
dull putty knife test
project standard n  Contractor must exercise care if
Ø  Use described later
roughening existing coating

SSPC-SP 14/NACE No. 8, SSPC-SP 6/NACE No. 3,

Industrial Blast Cleaning Commercial Blast Cleaning
n  Requires removal of all loosely adhering n  Requires removal of all loosely and all tightly
rust, mill scale and paint and removal of adhering mill scale, rust and paint
90% of all tightly adhering materials
n  Staining from rust, paint and mill scale
n  Evenly distributed islands of intact mill scale, permitted, but must be evenly distributed
rust or paint (up to 10%) may remain*
n  Staining is unlimited n  Staining cannot exceed 33% (one third) of
each 58 cm2 (9 in2) of prepared surface
n  Project specification may invoke feathering
of remaining “islands” of coating
*Remaining materials tightly adhering per dull putty knife test

SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2, SSPC-SP 5/NACE No. 1,

Near-White Blast Cleaning White Metal Blast Cleaning
n  Requires removal of all loosely and all n  No loosely or tightly adhering
tightly adhering mill scale, rust and materials may remain
paint from the surface
n  No staining is permitted
n  Staining from rust, paint and mill scale
permitted, but must be evenly
distributed
n  Staining cannot exceed 5% of each 58
cm2 (9 in2) of prepared surface

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Dry Abrasive Blast

Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning
Cleaning
n  Degree of cleanliness determined by: n  Selecting the correct type and size of
Ø  Distance the nozzle is held from surface abrasive
Ø  “Dwell time” employed Ø  Too small abrasive – surface profile too
n  Depth and shape of surface profile shallow
Ø  Too large abrasive – surface profile too
determined by:
deep
Ø  The abrasive
Ø  Test abrasive size selected prior to
Ø  The surface hardness
production for surface profile yield

SSPC-SP COM
November 1, 2004

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* = no3 photograph
1
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4
2 ' !)$+9#%$+'#@#0(+$%))"&'%S9%*"C+*T'!',-'.012/'!',-'.013/'!',-'.014
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3 ' !)$+9#%$+'(+$%))"&'%S9%*"C+*T'!',-'.052/'!',-'.053/'!',-'.054
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6
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4 'M,N'8K@$@L9%8K'"));*$9%$"#L'7',%'3'*K@Z*'<%9['%9+%*'$K%$'&@;)<'S+'"#$+989+$+<'%*'("))'*&%)+'%#</'$K+9+R@9+/'9+89+*+#$*',,-=0,-'26
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ISO photograph illustrating B Sa 2 shows dark areas that could be interpreted as mill scale and, therefore, represents SSPC-SP 14 and
' not
does M,N'8K@$@L9%8K*'"));*$9%$"#L'!',%'4/'7',%'4'%#<'=',%'4'<@'#@$'%<+Y;%$+):'"));*$9%$+'$K+'*;9R%&+'$+O$;9+'@R'$:8"&%)):'S)%*$'&)+%#+<'*$++)P
represent SSPC-SP 6.
\K+']#"$+<'^"#L<@(',$%#<%9<'7,'J>JW'-%9$'!2'"*'+Y;"C%)+#$'$@'M,N'U.>202'%#<'<+8"&$*'$K+'<+L9++*'@R'&)+%#)"#+**'@R';#8%"#$+<'*$++)P
ISO photographs illustrating A Sa 3, B Sa 3 and C Sa 3 do not adequately illustrate the surface texture of typically blast cleaned steel.The
United7,'J>JW'-%9$'!3'"*'+Y;"C%)+#$'$@'M,N'U.>203'%#<'<+8"&$*'$K+'*%(+'<+L9++*'@R'&)+%#)"#+**'@R'89+C"@;*):'8%"#$+<'*$++)
Kingdom Standard BS 7079 Part A1 is equivalent to ISO 8501-1 and depicts the degrees of cleanliness of unpainted P steel. BS 7079
H
Part A2,,-=0QM,'.'8K@$@L9%8K*'@R'Z+$'%S9%*"C+'S)%*$'&)+%#"#L'%9+'"#<"&%$+<'S:'H!7K
is equivalent to ISO 8501-2 and depicts the same degrees of cleanliness of previously painted steel.
5
SSPC-VIS 5 photographs of wet abrasive blast cleaning are indicated by WAB.

Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning

n  May be used: n  Variations include:

Ø  When airborne dust control is required Ø  Water jetting with
abrasive induction
Ø  In order to reduce the complexity of the
Ø  Abrasive blasting
containment system with water induction
Ø  As an engineering control to reduce Ø  Abrasive blasting
airborne worker exposures to toxic with a water collar
metals/dusts during coating removal

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning SSPC-SP 5 (WAB)/NACE

Standards WAB-1
n  SSPC-SP 5 (WAB)/NACE WAB-1, White Metal n  White Metal WAB Surface: A white metal WAB
Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning surface, when viewed without magnification, shall
n  SSPC-SP 10 (WAB)/NACE WAB-2, Near-White be free of all visible oil, grease, dust, dirt, mill
Metal Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning scale, rust, coating, corrosion products, and other
n  SSPC-SP 14 (WAB)/NACE WAB-8, Industrial Wet
foreign matter.
Abrasive Blast Cleaning
n  SSPC-SP 6 (WAB)/NACE WAB-3, Commercial Wet
Abrasive Blast Cleaning

SSPC-SP 10 (WAB)/NACE SSPC-SP 10 (WAB)/NACE

WAB-2 WAB-2
n  Near-White Metal WAB Surface: A near-white n  Random staining shall be limited to no more than
metal WAB-cleaned surface, when viewed without 5% of each unit area of the surface (approximately
magnification, shall be free of all visible oil, grease, 5,800 mm2 [9.0 in2]; i.e., a square 76 mm x 76
dust, dirt, mill scale, rust, coating, corrosion mm [3.0 in x 3.0 in]), and may consist of light
products, and other foreign matter. shadows, slight streaks, or minor discolorations
caused by stains of rust, stains of mill scale, or
stains of previously applied coating.

SSPC-SP 6 (WAB)/NACE SSPC-SP 6 (WAB)/NACE

WAB-3 WAB-3
n  Commercial WAB Surface: A commercial WAB- n  Random staining shall be limited to no more than
cleaned surface, when viewed without 33% of each unit area of surface (approximately
magnification, shall be free of all visible oil, grease, 5,800 mm2 [9.0 in2] (i.e., a square 76 mm x 76
dust, dirt, mill scale, rust, coating, corrosion mm [3.0 in x 3.0 in]), and may consist of light
products, and other foreign matter. shadows, slight streaks, or minor discolorations
caused by stains of rust, stains of mill scale, or
stains of previously applied coating.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC-SP 14 (WAB)/NACE SSPC-SP 14 (WAB)/NACE

WAB-8 WAB-8
n  Industrial WAB Cleaned Surface: An Industrial n  Mill scale, rust, and coating are considered
WAB cleaned surface, when viewed without tightly adherent if they cannot be removed by
magnification, shall be free of all visible oil, grease, lifting with a dull putty knife after abrasive blast
dirt, dust, loose mill scale, loose rust, and loose cleaning has been performed. Shadows, streaks,
coating. Traces of tightly adherent mill scale, rust, and discolorations caused by stains of rust, stains
and coating residues are permitted to remain on of mill scale, and stains of previously applied
up to 10% of each unit area of the surface. coating may be present on the remainder of the
surface.

SSPC-SP 7 (WAB)/NACE SSPC-SP 7 (WAB)/NACE

WAB-4 WAB-4
n  Brush-Off WAB Surface: A brush-off WAB n  The entire surface shall be subjected to the wet
cleaned surface, when viewed without abrasive blast. The remaining mill scale, rust, or
magnification, shall be free of all visible oil, grease, coating shall be tight. Flecks of the underlying
dirt, dust, loose mill scale, loose rust, and loose steel need not be exposed whenever the original
coating. Tightly adherent mill scale, rust, and substrate consists of intact coating.
coating may remain on the surface. Mill scale, rust,
and coating are considered tightly adherent if they
cannot be removed by lifting with a dull putty knife
after abrasive blast cleaning has been performed.

SSPC-VIS 5 Centrifugal Blast Cleaning

n  Uses Portable or

Stationary Equipment
Ø  Portable machines:
warehouse floors, ship
decks, other large flat
surfaces
Ø  Stationary equipment
located in steel
fabrication shops

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Centrifugal Blast Cleaning:

How it Works Vacuum Blast Cleaning
n  Machines hurl n  Similar to dry abrasive
abrasives at the blast cleaning, except
surfaces using high that:
Blast nozzle is equipped
speed centrifugal Ø 
with a Neoprene rubber
wheels and bristle brush shroud
Ø  Portable machines (collar) and is held
typically have a tightly against the
single wheel surface
Ø  Abrasive and debris (old
Ø  Stationary machines
coating, rust, mill scale)
are often multi-wheel immediately vacuumed
and collected

Vacuum Blast Cleaning

n  Used when a high degree of cleanliness

and surface roughness are required,
but airborne abrasive and dust cannot
be tolerated
n  Surface irregularities can cause the
equipment to lose contact with the
surface
n  Vacuum blast cleaning is relatively slow

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Conducting a Compressed Air

Cleanliness (Blotter) Test Blast Nozzles
Oil/water in compressed air
n 
can contaminate the abrasive
n  Variety of sizes and
and the surface lengths
Air is filtered & dried before
Two basic designs:
n 
contacting abrasive n 
n  Inspector verifies air is clean Ø  Straight bore
& dry
n  ASTM D4285 Blotter Test
Ø  Venturi
n  “Indirect” requirement of –  Increases the velocity
SSPC surface cleanliness of the abrasive
standards –  Abrasive traveling at a
n  Document date, time and test higher speed as it exits
result the nozzle

Blast Nozzle Sizing Monitoring Nozzle Wear

n  Blast nozzles sized in 1/16” (1.6 mm) n  Nozzle orifice gage
(represents the inside diameter of the n  Blast nozzles should
nozzle) be replaced when
the opening
n  Example: A No. 7 nozzle has an orifice
increases by one
diameter of 7/16” (11 mm) when new size
n  Wear and tear enlarges the opening

Measuring Blast Nozzle

Blast Cleaning Abrasives
Pressure
n  Hypodermic needle n  Two broad categories
pressure gage Ø  Expendable (used
n  Insert needle into the once and then
blast hose at a 45° discarded)
angle (in the direction Ø  Recyclable
of air and abrasive (breakdown rate is
flow) low, permitting
n  Close all deadman multiple use)
controls (air & abrasive
flowing)

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Expendable Abrasives,
Expendable Abrasives
con’t.
n  Mineral (occur naturally) n  Slag (not naturally
1.  Silica sand generated; by-
2.  Garnet products of other
3.  Staurolite (Star industries processed
Blast®) into abrasives)
1.  Copper slag

2.  Nickel slag

3.  Coal slag

Round or Spherical
Angular Abrasives
Abrasives
n  Produce a rounded n  Angular abrasives,
profile or “peened” such as steel grit
surface
and aluminum
Result in a lower peak
n 
oxide:
density pattern
Ø  Produce sharp
n  Coatings that rely
peaks and valleys in
heavily on a
the surface
mechanical bond to the
Ø  Generate greater
surface may not
adhere as well peak density

Specifications for Mineral &

Abrasive Size
Slag Abrasives
n  Round abrasives are sized based on n  SSPC-AB 1
their diameter (the bigger the shot, Ø  Abrasive cleanliness sections in AB 1 are
the bigger the number) an “indirect” requirement of SSPC
abrasive blast cleaning standards
n  Angular abrasives are sized according Ø  Categorizes by Type, Class, and Grade
to their “sieve” number (the bigger Ø  Type I: Natural mineral
the grit, the smaller the number) Ø  Type II: By-Product and Manufactured
Abrasives
Ø  Class A: <1% crystalline silica
Ø  Class B: <5% crystalline silica
Ø  Class C: Unrestricted crystalline silica

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Specifications for Mineral Specifications for Mineral &

& Slag Abrasives, con’t. Slag Abrasives, con’t.
n  SSPC-AB 1 n  SSPC-AB 1
Ø  Categorizes by Type, Class and Grade Ø  Testing for conformance
Specific Gravity
(surface profile yield) – 
–  Hardness
–  Grade 1: 13-38 µm (0.5-1.5 mil) –  Weight change on ignition
–  Grade 2: 25-64 µm (1.0-2.5 mils) –  Water soluble contaminants*
–  Grade 3: 51-89 µm (2.0-3.5 mils) –  Moisture content
–  Grade 4: 75-127 µm (3.0-5.0 mils) –  Oil content*
–  Crystalline silica content
–  Grade 5: 102-150 µm (4.0-6.0 mils)
–  Surface profile yield*
–  Particle size distribution (sieve analysis)

* Can be verified in the field

Specifications for Metallic

Recyclable Abrasives
Abrasives
n  SSPC-AB 2 n  Steel grit (angular)
Ø  Cleanliness of recycled metallic abrasives
Ø  “Indirect” requirement of SSPC abrasive blast
n  Aluminum oxide (angular)
cleaning standards (if abrasive is recycled) n  Steel shot (rounded)
Ø  Testing for conformance
–  Non-abrasive residue*
–  Lead content (laboratory only)
–  Water soluble contaminants*
–  Oil content*
* Can be verified in the field

Specifications for Metallic SSPC-AB 4, Recyclable Encapsulated

Abrasives Abrasive Media (Sponge)
n  SSPC-AB 3
Ø  Abrasive cleanliness sections of AB 3 are an “indirect” n  Alternative to use of wet cleaning
requirement of SSPC abrasive blast cleaning standards
Ø  Categorizes by Class
methods in applications where dust
–  Class 1: Steel control is important
–  Class 2: Iron
Ø  Testing for conformance n  Can reduce risk of damage to sensitive
Abrasive size
– 
–  Specific Gravity
surroundings from ricochet of hard
–  Chemical composition abrasive media
–  Hardness
–  Durability n  Type of media in composite will affect
Cleanliness*
cutting-can be varied to meet user
– 
–  Conductivity*
* Can be verified in the field
needs

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC-AB 4, Recyclable Encapsulated

Abrasive Media (Sponge) Abrasive Cleanliness

n  Included requirements for n  Vial test

compressible, open-cell media and the Ø  Oil film
cutting media that it surrounds (AB 1, Ø  Coloration
Ø  Turbidity (cloudiness)
AB 3 or aluminum oxide)
Ø  Conductivity (may
Ø  Classifier
effectiveness and require separate test)
Ø  Work
mix for oil and soluble salt n  ASTM D7393 Standard
contamination Practice for Indicating Oil
in Abrasives

Centrifugal Blast Centrifugal Blast Cleaning:

Abrasives Monitoring/Inspections
n  Degree of surface roughness n  Test for oil
based on abrasive size
contamination on
n  Monitor abrasive size by sieve abrasive
analysis or surface profile yield
n  Test for conductivity
n  Centrifugal blast machines use of abrasive
recyclable abrasives n  Record type, size and
(designed for shot)
amount of abrasive
n  May employ grit, shot or an added
operating mix of the two

Surface Profile Surface Profile Depth

n  Maximum peak-to-valley
n  No standard depth
depth generated by
abrasive impacting the n  Determined by the coating
surface at high speed manufacturer or project
specification
n  Insufficient profile depth
could result in poor n  Must be compatible with
coating adhesion the entire coating system
n  Too much profile depth n  Typically stated as a range
could cause pinpoint e.g., 38-75 µm (1.5-3 mils)
rusting

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Surface Roughness
Surface Profile Standards
Characteristics
n  Peak count (Pc) n  ISO 8503-1/2
n  Maximum roughness depth (Rmax) n  ASTM D4417
Ø  Method A (visual comparator)
n  Maximum profile height (Rt)
Ø  Method B (depth micrometer)
n  Research illustrates increased peak density Ø  Method C (replica tape)
improves coating adhesion and performance n  ASTM D7127 (stylus instrument)
n  ASTM D7127 (portable stylus instrument) n  NACE SP0287 (replica tape)
n  Inspector may be required to obtain peak n  Standards describe “how to”
count data n  Project specification provides acceptance criteria
n  SSPC-PA 17 determines compliance criteria

Measuring Surface Profile Method A: Visual Comparator

n  Method A: Visual n  Three Comparator Discs

Comparator Ø  S: Sand
Ø  G/S: Grit/Slag
Ø  5X illuminated
Ø  SH: Shot
magnifier
n  Stencil Code
Ø  Comparator Disc
Ø  Profile depth (2 mils)
Ø  Abrasive Type (Sand)
Ø  Year reference (1970)

Method A: Visual Comparator Measuring Surface Profile

n  Method B – Depth
n  Select Disc (based on
Micrometer
abrasive type)
Ø  Instrument sets on
n  Attach Disc to peaks of the profile
Comparator while a conical-
n  Examine Surface shaped point projects
into the valleys
n  Select Segment(s) Ø  Verify “zero” on plate
n  Obtain “sufficient” glass
no. of measurements Ø  Obtain 10
measurements per
area, report highest
value

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Measuring Surface Profile Method C: Replica Tape

n  Method C – Replica
Tape n  Coarse Minus 12-25
Ø  Replica tape used in µm (0.5 – 1.0 mils)
conjunction with a n  Coarse 20-64 µm (0.8

spring-loaded – 2.5 mils)

micrometer n  X-Coarse 40-115 µm
(1.5 – 4.5 mils)
Ø  Compressible foam
n  X-Coarse Plus 116-127
attached to 50 µm (2
µm (4.6 – 5.0 mils*)
mils) of polyester film
n  Grade is most accurate The thickness of the Mylar® film
(Mylar®) is always 50 µm (2 mils)
in the middle of its
Ø  2 readings = 1 range *Pre-measure to establish
measurement maximum measurement depth

Using Replica Tape Using Replica Tape

Step 1: Locate measurement site Step 4: Clean anvils, adjust zero point to read minus 51
Step 2: Remove debris µm (2 mils)
Step 3: Select grade of tape based on target profile A setting of minus 51 µm (2 mils) is equivalent to a
20-64 µm (0.8 to 2.5 mils) = Coarse grade setting of plus 203 µm (8 mils)
38-115 µm (1.5 to 4.5 mils) = X-Coarse grade Step 5: Remove release paper backing
n  Use of coarse-minus grade (<20 µm [0.8 mils]) or
Step 6: Check replica film thickness with gage
X-Coarse Plus (>117-127 µm [4.6-5.0 mils]) Step 7: Apply replica film to blast cleaned surface
should be restricted to checking measurements at
the lower or upper ends of the primary range
(20-115 µm [0.8-4.5 mils])
n  Select grade closest to the middle of range of
specified profile

Using Replica Tape Using Replica Tape

Step 8: Firmly compress replica film, using smoothest Step 11: If a measurement with either coarse or X-coarse
surface of round-end rubbing tool provided by the grade is in the 1.5 to 2.5 mil (38 to 64 micrometers)
manufacturer. Apply sufficient pressure to produce window, take a second reading with the other grade.
replica film with pebble-grain appearance. Fully compress If both readings are in the 1.5 to 2.5 mil (38 to 64
all parts of the film micrometers) range, record the average as the observed
profile.
Step 9: Remove replica and place (center it) between the Readings made with either grade that are outside this
anvils of the micrometer range—between 0.8 and 1.4 mils (20 to 27 micrometers)
or between 2.6 and 4.5 mils (65 and 115 micrometers)
Step 10: Record measurement – retain tape if required should be used without averaging.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Using HT Replica Tape Using Replica Tape

n  Obtain measurement with X-Coarse replica tape
Ø  If reading is 0.8-1.5 mils (red zone), record the
measurement using Coarse tape
Ø  If reading is 2.6-4.5 mils (blue zone), record the
measurement using X-Coarse tape
Ø  If reading is between 1.5-2.5 mils using X-Coarse,
obtain a second reading (same location) with the
Coarse tape
Ø  If the reading with the Coarse tape is also within
1.5-2.5 mils inclusive, average the two values

Obtain 2 measurements per area

Documenting Surface
Measuring Peak Count
Profile Measurements
n  Retractable arm with
Date 5/13/02 6/3/02 6/5/02 diamond point stylus
Method C (X-Coarse) C (X-Coarse) A (G/S Disc) n  Arm is automatically
retracted (typically 5.6
Item Beam 4-1 Beam 4-2 Plate 6-1 mm ÷ 7 segments)
No. of readings 2 2 5 n  No. of peaks/segment
63-73 µm 58-70 µm 50-75 µm read from display
Range
(2.5-2.9 mils) (2.3-2.8 mils) (2-3 mils) n  Obtain minimum of 5
68 µm 63 µm 50-75 µm measurements
Average
(2.7 mils) (2.5 mils) (2-3 mils)

Frequency of Surface
SSPC-PA 17
Profile Measurements
n  May be stipulated by the project specification n  Used to determine compliance with specified
n  SSPC-PA 17 profile ranges on a steel substrate.
n  Shop or field use.
n  ASTM D4417 Methods A, B, and C.
n  ASTM D7127 (Surface roughness and peak
count).

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Number of Locations
SSPC-PA 17
(to characterize the surface)
n  Sets requirements for evaluating preparation n  Minimum of three 6” x 6” (15cm x 15cm)
process, obtaining surface roughness and locations
peak count readings, and determining if Ø  Per surface preparation “apparatus”
profile of evaluated area is within the Ø  Per work shift or 12-hour period (whichever is
specified range. shorter)

n  Optional method (Non-mandatory Appendix B)

Ø  Based on changes in process between acceptance
of jobsite standard & completion of production
surface preparation

Conformance to the Specified

Surface Profile Range

6” x 6” (15cm x 15cm)
The average of the “location averages”
OK
n  areas
must fall within the specified surface profile
End of Prepared Area

range
n  Location averages and average surface OK
Non-
conforming
Non-
conforming OK OK

profile measurements outside of the Location Location

specified range are not acceptable

n  The magnitude of the non-conforming
OK
surface profile measurement areas must be Chalk line
determined, marked and recorded demarcating non-
conforming area
OK

Waterjetting SSPC/NACE WJ Standards

n  Depending on water pressures: n  LPWC: Low Pressure

Water Cleaning - up to 35
Ø  Can remove tightly-adhering coating MPa (5,000 psi)
systems Ø  Removes dirt, chalking,
bird droppings
Ø  Cannot etch an anchor pattern or profile Ø  Often specified for
overcoating projects,
into the surface where the existing coating
Ø  Can restore and existing anchor pattern is salvageable

n  Four levels of waterjetting

n  SSPC-SP 12/NACE No. 5 replaced by 4
separate WJ Standards (Effective July 2012)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC/NACE WJ Standards SSPC/NACE WJ Standards

n  HPWC: High Pressure n  UHPWJ: Ultra-High

Water Cleaning – 35- Pressure Water
69 MPa (5,000 –10,000 Jetting - > 207 MPa
psi)
(30,000 psi)
n  HPWJ: High Pressure
Water Jetting – 69-207
MPa (10,000– 30,000
psi)

SSPC/NACE SSPC/NACE
Waterjetting Standards Waterjetting Standards
n  Four standards & levels of cleanliness n  SP WJ-3: Removal of all visible rust, oil,
Ø  SP
WJ-1: Removal of all visible rust, dirt, grease, dirt, paint and mill scale, up to 33%
previous coatings, foreign matter and mill staining and tightly adhering matter is
scale, no staining is permitted permitted

Ø  SP
WJ-2: Removal of all visible rust, oil, n  SP WJ-4: Removal of all visible oil, grease,
grease, dirt, paint and mill scale, up to dirt, dust, loose mill scale, rust and loose
5% stains or tightly adhering matter is coating. Any residual material should be
permitted tightly adherent

Surface Preparation Methods

Incorporating Water Dealing With Flash Rust

n  Will cause carbon steel to flash rust Ø  Specifiermay require a rust inhibitor
Ø  Specifier may require the use of a rust Ø  May accept the flash rusting and select
inhibitor (compatible with the coating), or a coating system tolerant in the given
Ø  Accept the flash rusting and specify a service environment
coating system that is tolerant (given the
Ø  Evaluate degree of flash rust using
service environment)
Ø  SSPC Visual Guides depict three degrees
SSPC-VIS 4/NACE 7 (light, moderate,
of flash rust (light, medium, heavy) heavy)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Waterjetting - General SSPC-VIS 4

n  Establish project-specific cleanliness

standards
n  Visual verification using SSPC VIS 4/NACE
VIS 7 or SSPC VIS 5/NACE VIS 9
Ø  Prepared surfaces rarely match visual guides
Ø  Excellent tool to “calibrate” eye and aid in
establishing project standard

Waterjetting Standard Flash

Evaluating Flash Rusting
Rusting Designations
n  SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS n  None (requires use of rust inhibitor)
9 illustrates 3 levels
n  Light flash rusting (L)
of flash rusting:
Ø  Light (L) n  Medium flash rusting (M)
Ø  Medium (M) n  Heavy flash rusting (H)
Ø  Heavy (H)

Recommended
Guidelines for
Evaluating Flash Rust

Evaluating Flash Rusting

Recommended
Guidelines for
Evaluating Flash Rust
n  NSRP: Recommends Guidelines for
Evaluating Flash Rust
n  A guide intended to help the inspector
and customer determine the level of
flash rust on a surface
n  Intended to supplement SSPC-VIS 4/
NACE VIS 7 and SSPC/NACE WJ Prepared by:
National Shipbuilding Research Program
Surface Preparation and Coatings Panel

standards
(NSRP SP-3)

Prepared by:
National Shipbuilding Research Program
Surface Preparation and Coatings Panel
(NSRP SP-3)
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 3-135
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

Evaluating Flash Rusting Evaluating Flash Rusting

n  Degree to which it can be removed Ø  Swipe the cloth across the surface in one
when “lightly wiped” with a cloth motion, using the amount of pressure you
would use when applying house paint to a
Ø  Use a white, lint-free, woven cotton cloth
door
and a standard 4-inch nylon bristle paint
brush Ø  The length of the swipe should be
consistent. NSRP recommends one pass
Ø  Neatly wrap cloth around the paint brush.
at six (6) inches (15 cm)
Hole the cloth in such a manner as to
Ø  Evaluate the amount of rust transferred to
prevent it from slipping
the cloth

Other ISO Surface Other SSPC Surface

Cleanliness Standards Cleanliness Standards
n  ISO F1: Flame Cleaning n  SSPC-SP 8, Pickling
Ø  A pretreatment process for steel surfaces
“When viewed without magnification, the prior to hot-dip galvanizing
surface shall be free from mill scale, rust, Ø  Pickling bath removes grease, oil, mill

paint coatings and foreign matter. Any scale, debris

remaining residues shall show only as a
discoloration of the surface (shades of
different colours.”

Chemical Stripping Chemical Stripping

n  Caustic-based (pH n  Environmentally and user-friendly chemical

14) strippers are available
Ø  Neutral pH and little odor
n  Attacks the resin
Ø  Metal substrate acts as the catalyst that sets-off
n  Causes the coating the stripping reaction
system to disbond
n  Neutralization of n  Chemical strippers
the surface required Ø  Do not generate a surface profile
Ø  Will not remove rust or mill scale
Ø  Described in SSPC Technical Update 6 (TU-6)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC-SP 16 and SSPC-SP 16, Brush-Off Blast Cleaning of

Galvanized Steel, Stainless Steel and
Galvanized Surfaces Non-Ferrous Metals

n  Specific requirements for preparation of n  Intended for use on coated or uncoated
galvanized surfaces metals other than carbon steel (i.e.,
Ø  Testing for presence of chromates or other galvanized steel, stainless steel, soft
passivating treatments metals such as aluminum or copper)
Ø  Does not permit removal of “wet storage n  Used to clean and roughen bare metal
stain” using blast cleaning-can damage prior to coating
galvanizing
n  May also be used to clean and roughen
n  Notes contain additional information
existing intact coatings in preparation for
about abrasive selection, standoff
recoating
distance, blast pressure, etc.

SSPC-SP 16, Brush-Off Blast Cleaning of

Galvanized Steel, Stainless Steel and
Verifying Surfaces are Ready
Non-Ferrous Metals for Primer Application
n  Requires removal of all visible dirt, n  Verify dust and debris removal
dust, grease, oil, metal oxides, foreign n  Determine if specification requires a
matter final test for chemical contaminants?
n  19 microns (0.75 mil) profile required n  Measure the Base Metal Affect (effect
for bare metal surfaces of roughness on coating thickness
n  Intact coatings must be roughened as readings) if required (described in
specified, or if not specified, to Module 5)
requirements of PDS of subsequently
applied coating

Dust/Debris Removal Dust/Debris Removal

n  Typically accomplished by brushing, air n  ISO 8502, Part 3 – Assessment of Dust on
blow down or vacuuming Steel Surfaces Prepared for Painting
n  If blow down, verify compressed air
n  Equipment:
Ø  Clear, pressure sensitive tape (25 mm wide)
cleanliness (blotter test)
Ø  Spring-tensioned roller (if required)
n  Inspect visually, by touch (use gloved Ø  10x illuminated magnifier
hand) or tape method (ISO 8502, Part Ø  White cardboard (poster board)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

ISO 8502, Part 3

Surface Preparation/Primer
Application Window
n  Specification may dictate a maximum time
period between final surface preparation and
primer application
n  Inspector verifies primer application to
prepared surfaces within allowable “window”
n  If surface rusting is evident, the surfaces
must be re-prepared to achieve the specified
level of cleanliness (independent of elapsed
time)

Summary Module 3 Workshops

n  Described pre-surface preparation procedures n  Inspection Case Study (evening assignment)
n  Described dehumidification methods for controlling n  Surface Preparation Standards Workshop (A)
environmental conditions
n  Inspection Instrument Use Workshop (B)
n  Identified surface cleanliness standards published
by ISO, SSPC, and NACE n  Documentation of Workshop (B) Answers
n  Described common methods used to clean and n  Work in your teams
roughen surfaces
n  Reviewed surface preparation equipment
n  Described the instrumentation, visual guides and
inspection procedures associated with surface
preparation

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Instrument Use Supplement

The material in this supplement is reproduced with permission from

Chapters 1, 2, and 4 of Using Coating Inspection Instruments, 3rd edition,
William D. Corbett, © KTA-Tator, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, 2012.

Folio headings and page numbering in this supplement are those of the
original publication.

Participants are responsible for learning

the information in this supplement.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

4
— SOLUBLE SALT CONTAMINATION

The cleanliness of a surface prior to application of an industrial

protective coating system is one of the most critical factors in
determining the long-term performance of the coating system.
Typically when we speak of surface cleanliness, we are talking
about the degree to which rust, old paint, mill scale and other visible
surface debris must be removed prior to applying a coating system.
In addition to this type of surface debris, there can also be chemical
contamination like water-soluble salts on the surface. Sometimes you
can see this contamination on the surface and sometimes it is invisible.
In this module, you will learn about equipment and techniques
Common Water Soluble that are used to sample and test for two water-soluble chemical
Salts Include: contaminants: chloride and ferrous ion. But before you learn
how to test for these chemical contaminants, it is important to
ü Chlorides understand why they can be a problem.
ü Ferrous Ions
ü Sulfates
ü Nitrates Corrosion is caused by exposure of unprotected steel to an
ü Nitrites environment. Some environments contain natural or man-made
ü Ammonia chemicals. These types of environments may contain water-
soluble salts, such as chlorides, sulfates, nitrates, nitrites, and
Water soluble salts are ammonia that can collect on steel surfaces. If these salts are not
corrosion “promoters.”
removed from the steel prior to coating application, they can
Water soluble salts can cause or accelerate corrosion. Most authorities consider chloride
cause osmotic blistering contamination (when present) to be the most detrimental of
and underfilm corrosion. all water-soluble salt contamination, followed by the others
mentioned above. These “anions” react with steel (a ferrous

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metal) and form a ferrous ion product such as ferrous chloride, ferrous
sulfate and so on.

Where do these water-soluble salts come from? Chlorides are naturally

present in marine environments or along the seacoast, and many
State Highway Departments still use salt to melt the ice on roadways
and bridge decks in the winter. Some facilities, like pulp and paper
plants and chemical plants produce chemical contamination in their
processes. Water-soluble sulfates are commonly produced by burning
sulfur-containing oil and coal in power plants, while ammonia and
nitrate contamination may come from fertilizers and may be present
in rural agricultural areas. These contaminants can eventually get
deposited from the air onto steel surfaces.

But aside from where they come from, all of these chemical
contaminants are corrosion promoters. If they become trapped beneath
a coating applied to steel, and if there is a sufficient amount of water
outside the coating, these water-soluble chemicals will literally
pull the water through the coating film by a process called osmosis.
This osmotic force is quite strong. The passage of water through the
coating film will continue until the concentrations of salt in the water
is the same on both sides of the coating film. Naturally, if there is an
excessive build-up of water beneath the coating film, liquid-filled
blistering (called osmotic blistering) and underfilm corrosion will
occur (if oxygen is present). This can reduce the life of the coating
and cause deterioration of the steel substrate. It is not uncommon for
coating specifications to require testing for the presence of these water-
soluble salts prior to application of the coating system.

How Do I Test for Soluble Salt Contamination?

There are two widely accepted techniques for testing salt

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What is Specific Ion Detection?

What is Conductivity?

Water-soluble salts will increase the electrical conductivity of pure

Some individuals will assume that an increase in conductivity is an

How Do I Test for Specific Ions and Conductivity?

There are a variety of methods that can be used to sample the surface,
and there are several methods that can be used to test the collected
sample. Unless the project specification tells you what test method to
use, the first step is to select one. SSPC Technology Guide 15, “Field
Methods for Retrieval and Analysis of Soluble Salts on Steel and Other
Non-Porous Substrates” describes the most commonly used extraction
and testing methods. You will be learning about several of them. But
first, you will need to decide if you want to test for specific ions or test
for conductivity.

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Select a technique for testing the surface for water-soluble salt
contamination:

Technique for Testing Salt Contamination Select One (ü)

Specific Ion Detection
Conductivity

Selecting a Field Sampling and Testing Method

If you select “specific ion detection” there are several field sampling
techniques and several field testing methods to choose from. The ones
we will focus on in this Module will tell us whether chlorides and
ferrous ions are present and how much of each is there. There are also
commercially available kits for measuring water-soluble salts like
sulfates and nitrates, but they are not included in the Module.

If you select “conductivity” there are several field sampling techniques

to choose from, but only one field testing method that can be used.

To select a test method first ask yourself, “What does the project
specification require?” If the specification does not require a specific
method, then you can select from any of the methods available. This
module describes the KTA Surface Contamination Analysis Test
(SCAT) kits. The sampling and testing methods, and the possible
combinations of KTA SCAT kits are shown in the charts below.

Chart 1 lists three methods of collecting a sample from the surface,

and Chart 2 contains five methods for testing the collected sample.
Unfortunately, not all of the sample collection methods and sample
testing methods are compatible. Chart 3 lists the possible combinations
of sampling and testing methods. KTA SCAT kits are available in any
of the combinations shown in Chart 3.

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Chart 1 Chart 2
Methods of Sample Collection Methods of Sample Testing

A. Surface Swabbing 1. Quantab® Chloride Indicator Strip

B. Latex Sleeve (Chlor-Test® Kit) 2. Kitagawa® Chloride Indicator Tube
C. Latex Cell (Bresle Patch™ and 3. Bresle® Kit Drop Titration for Chloride
BresleSampler®)
4. EM Quant® Iron Strip (ferrous ion)

5. Conductivity

Chart 3 – Combination of Sample Collection and Testing Methods

Method of Sample Collection Method of Sample Testing
(from Chart 1) (from Chart 2)
A. Surface Swabbing 1. Quantab® Chloride Indicator Strip
2. Kitagawa® Chloride Indicator Tube
4. EM Quant® Iron Strip (ferrous ion)
5. Conductivity
B. Latex Sleeve (Chlor-Test® Kit) 2. Kitagawa® Chloride Indicator Tube
4. EM Quant® Iron Strip (ferrous ion)
5. Conductivity
C. Latex Cell 1. Quantab® Chloride Indicator Strip
(Bresle Patch ™ and BresleSampler®) 2. Kitagawa® Chloride Indicator Tube
3. Bresle® Kit Drop Titration (chloride)
4. EM Quant® Iron Strip (ferrous ion)
5. Conductivity

The remainder of this module is divided into three main sections.

Section 1 describes the step-by-step procedures for each of the
three sample collection procedures (A-C) listed in Chart 1. Section
2 describes the step-by-step procedures for each of the five sample
testing procedures (1-5) listed in Chart 2 above. Section 3 describes a
combination extraction and analysis procedure called SaltSmart™.

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SECTION 4-1 – COLLECTING A SAMPLE
Before you test a sample for soluble salt contamination, you will need to collect a sample or set of
samples from the surface. This section describes three methods of collecting samples from a surface
for testing. Remember, SCAT stands for Surface Contamination Analysis Test.

Surface Sampling Method A: Surface Swabbing (KTA-Swab SCAT Kit)

The surface swabbing technique was one of the first sample collection methods available. The
amount of soluble salt contamination actually sampled using the surface swabbing technique (better
known as extraction efficiency) is relatively low, compared to some of the other methods we will be
discussing. Despite its limitations, surface swabbing is still a viable technique for sample collection.
The KTA-Swab SCAT kit contains all of the necessary equipment you will need
to collect a sample from the surface, then test the sample for chloride, ferrous
ion and pH.

Step 1: Purify the Extraction Water

Before you collect a sample from the surface, make sure that the water you will
KTA-Swab SCAT kit use does not already contain chloride. You have a couple of options here.

Demineralizer bottle Open valve on

demineralizer bottle

Option 1: Demineralizer bottles are available from Hach (or from KTA) so that you can purify
regular tap water in the field. To use the Hach demineralizer bottle, simply fill it with
tap water and shake it gently. Open the valve in the lid and squeeze the demineralizer
bottle until the desired quantity of water is dispensed. Close the lid valve. The

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demineralizer bottle will need to be replaced when the
resin beads inside the bottle change in color from purple
to gold.

Option 2: Many grocery stores sell plastic, one-gallon containers

of distilled water. This water can also be used.
However, be certain that the water is truly free of
any detectable chloride by placing a few drops (1 or
2 milliliters) into a clean plastic beaker and testing it
using the Quantab® Titrator Strip (see instructions on
using and reading the Quantab® strip). This is called
“running a blank.” If the Quantab® test strip does not
indicate the presence of chloride, then the distilled
water is okay to use for the extraction.

If you test the extraction water, be sure to document the results of

your test (e.g., “chlorides, if any in the blank sample were below
the detection limit of the test strip, which is 28 PPM”). Note: The
detection limit of the Quantab® Titrator Strips will vary depending
on the batch. The detection limit is the lowest PPM value listed on the
conversion chart.

Step 2: Measure an Area for Sampling

Select a test area based on the project specification requirements or

other instructions. If no guidance is provided, then you’ll need to
select test areas based on likely areas of contamination. Typical sample
locations might be on the bottom of a vessel, or in areas where rust and
contamination are present. Once a test area is selected, measure and
draw a square on the surface using a chloride-free pencil. The square
can be any size, as long as you measure and record its dimensions.

A 4" x 4" sample area is convenient, because it converts to

approximately 100 square centimeters (1" = 2.54 cm). Record the
actual size of the test area (in cm2) using the formula: In2 x 2.542 = cm2
Measure an area for
sampling
Example: Area tested was 4" x 4"
(16 in2) x (2.542) = 103.2 cm2

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Step 3: Measure the Amount of Step 4: Sample the Surface
Sampling Water

4-1 Using a pair of tweezers (included) or

latex surgical gloves take a cotton ball out of
the zip-lock bag.

3-1 Dispense the desired quantity of

demineralized or distilled water into the plastic
graduated cylinder (included). You can use
any amount of water, but if you use too much
water, you may dilute your sample so much
that you will not get a reading. Therefore, for 4-2 Immerse the cotton ball in the sampling
larger areas 10 milliliters is recommended; for water inside the small plastic beaker. Withdraw
smaller areas like 4” x 4”, use 5 milliliters of the moistened cotton ball.
water. Whatever quantity you use, make sure to
record it on the data chart.

Swab the pre-measured area

3-2 Pour all of the water from the graduated 4-3 Swab the entire measured area on the
cylinder into the small plastic beaker. surface. Be careful not to lose too much water
in the process. The cotton ball should be wet,
Example: Quantity of water used was 5 mL but not saturated or dripping.

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“Blank” sample
Wring-out water from cotton ball
using side of beaker

4-4 After swabbing the entire measured area, 4-6 You can run a “blank” sample to
place the cotton ball back into the beaker confirm that the water, containers and
and swirl it in the water. Be careful not to cotton balls are not the source of salt
touch the water or the cotton ball with your contamination. To run a blank sample,
unprotected fingers, as they can contaminate measure and dispense the same quantity
the sample. Wring-out most of the water from of water used in Step 3-1 into a second
the cotton ball, then swab the same measured clean beaker. Remove a new cotton ball
area a second time. Repeat this process several from the bag (using tweezers or latex
times (minimum of 4 times) to ensure that any gloves), place it in the beaker of water,
salts on the surface are dissolved in the water, then swirl the cotton ball in the water for
collected on the cotton ball and transferred into at least two minutes. Test this sample
the plastic beaker. using the same procedure you intend to
use on the actual sample collected from
the surface. Deduct any reading you
obtain on the “blank” from the sample
collected during the surface extraction.

Swirl cotton balls in water

4-5 After the final swabbing, swirl the cotton balls in the water for at least two minutes. You are now
ready to test the sample you collected from the surface for chloride, ferrous ions and/or conductivity.
You can also test the sample for pH if you desire. If you selected this method of sample collection,
you can now proceed to Section 2 of this module for instructions on how to test the sample(s) you
have collected.

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Surface Sampling Method B: Latex Sleeve (KTA-Chlor*TestTM SCAT Kit)

The KTA-Chlor*TestTM SCAT Kit contains five latex sleeves and five
bottles of Chlor*ExtractTM solution that are used for collecting a sample
from the surface. The extraction efficiency of this method is better than
the swabbing method.

Step 1: Prepare the Latex Sleeve

KTA-Chlor*Test™ SCAT Kit

1-1 Remove the cap from the Chlor*ExtractTM

solution bottle and pour the entire contents
into the Chlor*SleeveTM.

1-2 Peel the white, pressure sensitive adhesive 1-3 Remove the air from the latex sleeve by
strip backing from the latex sleeve to expose squeezing it between your fingers and thumb.
the adhesive. Be careful not to spill any of the solution
while you are evacuating the air from the latex
sleeve.

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Step 2: Attach the Latex Sleeve to the Test Surface

Attach the latex sleeve to the surface Seal the sleeve

2-1 Select a test area based on the project 2-2 Press firmly around the perimeter of the
specification requirements or other instructions. contact area to ensure you have a good seal
If no guidance is provided, then you’ll need between the surface and the latex sleeve.
to select test areas based on likely areas of
contamination. Typical sample locations might
be on the bottom of a vessel, or in areas where
rust and contamination are present. Once a test
area is selected, firmly affix the latex sleeve to
the surface by attaching the adhesive end of the
sleeve to the test surface. The latex sleeve can
be attached to horizontal or vertical surfaces, or
even overhead.

Step 3: Sample the Surface

Lift sleeve Massage sleeve to

extract sample
3-1 With one hand, lift and hold the free end of 3-2 Use your fingers on the other hand to
the latex sleeve upright so that the extraction massage the solution (through the latex sleeve)
solution comes in contact with the test surface. for at least 2 minutes. This helps to extract
the contamination from the surface into the
solution.

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Step 4: Remove the Latex Sleeve from the Surface

Remove latex sleeve from Insert sleeve through box lid hole
surface

4-1 After you complete Step 3, carefully 4-2 After removing the latex sleeve from the
remove the latex sleeve from the test surface. surface, place it through the hole in the kit box
Make sure that the extraction solution returns lid, with the open end of the sleeve up. The
to the bottom of the latex sleeve before you sample will remain in the bottom of the latex
remove it from the surface. For overhead or sleeve. You are now ready to test the sample
vertical surfaces, gravity will put it there. For you collected from the surface for chloride,
horizontal surfaces, you will need to slide your ferrous ions and/or conductivity. If you selected
fingers along the outside of the latex sleeve and this method of sample collection, you can
push all of the solution into the closed end of now proceed to Section 2 of this module for
the sleeve before removing it from the surface. instructions on how to test the sample(s) you
have collected.

Surface Sampling Method C: Latex Cell (Bresle PatchTM and

BresleSampler®)

There are two latex cells that can be used to collect a sample from the surface. They are both
named “Bresle.” The Bresle PatchTM is an adhesive latex cell. The sampling area of the latex cell is
12.25cm2 and is square in shape. The BresleSampler®
is also an adhesive latex cell. The sampling area of
this latex cell is 12.5cm2 and is round in shape. Since
the procedure for collecting a sample from the surface
using these two latex cells is essentially the same,
only the Bresle Patch™ is illustrated.

Bresle Patch™, BresleSampler® and

Extraction Syringe

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Step 1: Purify the Extraction Water

The KTA-Bresle SCAT Kit contains a bottle of Extraction Liquid. If you purchased a KTA-Bresle
SCAT Kit and you are going to use the Extraction Liquid, then you can proceed to Step 2. If you are
going to use water instead of Extraction Liquid, then make sure that the extraction water you will use
does not already contain chloride before you begin to collect a sample from the surface. You have a
couple of options here.

Demineralizer bottle Open valve on

demineralizer bottle

Option 2: Many grocery stores sell plastic, one-gallon containers of distilled water. This water
can also be used. However, be certain that the water is truly free of any detectable
chloride by placing a few drops (1 or 2 milliliters) into a clean plastic container and
testing it using the Quantab® Titrator Strip (see Step 5 for instructions on using and
reading the Quantab® strip). This is called “running a blank.” If the Quantab® test
strip does not indicate the presence of chloride, then the distilled water is okay to use
for the extraction.

If you test the extraction water, be sure to document the results of your test (e.g., “chlorides, if any
in the blank sample were below the detection limit of the test strip, which is 28 PPM”). Note: The
detection limit of the Quantab® Titrator Strips will vary depending on the batch. The detection limit
is the lowest PPM value listed on the conversion chart.

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Step 2: Prepare the Latex Cell

Select a test area based on the project specification requirements or other instructions. If no guidance
is provided, then you’ll need to select test areas based on likely areas of contamination. Typical
sample locations might be on the bottom of a vessel, or in areas where rust and contamination are
present.

2-1 Once a test area is selected, peel the label 2-2 Carefully press the center of the non-
backing from the adhesive side of the latex adhesive side of the patch with your finger(s)
cell and discard the label. This will expose the to “punch-out” the foam square (or circle in the
adhesive. case of the BresleSampler®) to create a “void”
area. This foam piece can be discarded.

2-3 Attach the latex cell to the test surface 2-4 Press firmly around the foam border of the
(adhesive side down). latex cell to ensure a good seal. You have now
created a “sampling cell” that will retain the
extraction solution once it is placed inside.

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Step 3: Evacuate the Air from the Latex Cell

Using an empty 5cc syringe, insert the syringe needle

through the top of the foam border, then continue to slide
the syringe needle into the latex cell until it is visible
through the semi-translucent top. Withdraw the syringe
plunger to evacuate the air from inside the cell. This will
help prevent over-pressurizing of the patch during sample
collection. You will notice that a vacuum is created
Evacuate air from latex cell
inside the cell, because the top of the cell will be sucked
in towards the test surface. Depending on the quality
of the seal around the foam border, this vacuum may or may not hold. It is okay if the cell does not
maintain the vacuum. Carefully remove the syringe needle from the cell by sliding the needle back
through the foam border.

Step 4: Measure the Amount of Sampling Water or Extraction Liquid

Draw liquid into

syringe

4-1 Dispense some of the demineralized water 4-2 Draw water or liquid into the syringe
or Extraction Liquid into a clean plastic beaker through the needle. Overfill the syringe, hold
or other small container. the syringe upright, tap the syringe then discard
the excess by slowly depressing the syringe
plunger until the desired quantity is obtained
(e.g., 2cc). This procedure will also get rid
of the air. Never discard liquid back into the
container, as you may cause it to become
contaminated.

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Fill mark (2cc)

Approximately 2cc of liquid in syringe

4-3 You can use any amount of liquid (1cc to 3cc), but the more you
use, the more you will dilute your sample. Make sure to record the
actual quantity of sampling liquid that you used. Note that milliliters
(mL) and cubic centimeters (cc) are the same value.

Example: Quantity of water used was 2cc (2 mL)

Step 5: Collect the Sample

Insert needle into cell Inject liquid into cell

5-1 Carefully insert the syringe needle through 5-2 Slowly inject the liquid into the cell. Once
the top of the foam border, then continue to all of the liquid is injected, carefully slide the
slide the syringe needle into the void area of needle back through the foam border, but do
the cell until it is visible through the semi- not remove the needle from the cell.
translucent top.

Agitate liquid in cell

5-3 Carefully rub and tap (using moderate

pressure) the top of the cell for 15-20 seconds.
This “agitates” the liquid inside the cell and
helps to extract the salt contaminants.

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Draw liquid from cell, then reinject Empty sample into plastic beaker or vial

5-4 Slide the needle back into the cell and 5-5 Empty the contents of the syringe into
evacuate the solution. You do not have to a small plastic beaker or other small plastic
evacuate all of the solution. Slowly inject the container/vial. You are now ready to test the
liquid back into the cell and agitate the surface sample you collected from the surface for
again. Repeat this procedure a minimum of 3 chloride, ferrous ions and/or conductivity. If
times. After the final time, evacuate as much of you selected this method of sample collection,
the liquid from the latex cell as possible using you can now proceed to Section 4-2 of this
the syringe. Completely remove the syringe module for instructions on how to test the
needle from the cell by sliding the needle back sample(s) you have collected.
through the foam border.
If you are going to collect additional samples
using the same syringe, you must thoroughly
ﬂush the syringe and needle with distilled or
deionized water. Otherwise, you will cross-
contaminate samples. Properly dispose of all
syringes and syringe needles so that they do not
injure anyone.

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SECTION 4-2 – TESTING THE COLLECTED SAMPLES
Now that you have collected a set of samples using one or more of the sample collection methods
described in Section 1, you are ready to test the collected sample(s) for chlorides, ferrous ion, and/
or conductivity. This section describes five methods for testing the collected samples for soluble salt
contamination.

Sample Testing Method 1: Quantab® Chloride Indicator Strips

Now that you have collected a sample or a set of samples, you are now ready to test the sample(s)
for chloride. Method 1 describes the procedure for testing the sample for chloride using Quantab®
Chloride Indicator Strips.

Step 1

1-1 Remove a Quantab® Chloride Indicator 1-2 Place the bottom of the strip into the plastic
Strip from the bottle. beaker containing the sample. You only need a
few drops of liquid to activate the strip.

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Step 2
Yellow indicator
string darkened
Yellow
indicator
string

2-1 Allow the sample to saturate the center 2-2 The Indicator strip is completely saturated
orange wick (column) of the strip. This takes when the yellow indicator string at the top
approximately 5 minutes. of the strip (right below the “b” in Quantab)
darkens. This indicates that the test is done.

Step 3: Read the Titrator Strip

Peak indicates chloride

concentration in the
sample

Conversion chart on Quantab®

strip bottle

3-1 Remove the Indicator strip from the beaker 3-2 Convert this value to parts per million
and locate the peak of the white mark on the (ppm) of chloride using the conversion chart on
orange wick or column. Read the Quantab® the side of the Quantab® Indicator strip bottle.
unit value corresponding to the tip of the white Make sure you use the “ppm” column on the
peak from the scale imprinted on the orange conversion chart and not the % NaCl column.
column. Each division between the numbers is Record the ppm value.
0.2 Quantab® unit.
Note: The conversion chart is only applicable
to the strips in the bottle. Strips from one bottle
cannot be used with the chart from another
bottle.
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Quantab® strip value
of 3.4 = 124 ppm

Example: The white peak indicates a Quantab unit value

of 3.4 on the orange column. According to the
chart on the side of the Quantab® Indicator
strip bottle, this value equates to 124 ppm. The
0.020 value is percent sodium chloride. Do not
use this value.

Step 4: Calculate the Surface Chloride Concentration

Enter all of the data into a chart similar to the one below, then calculate
the chloride concentration. This requires two calculations, so a
calculator will come in handy here. Assume you tested a 4” x 4” area
(103.2 cm2) by swabbing using 5 mL of water, and the PPM chloride
from the Quantab conversion chart was 124 PPM.

Entry Result

PPM (from Step 3 Example) 124 ppm chloride

Quantity of Water Used (from Section 1) 5 mL of water

PPM x Quantity of Water Used 124 x 5 = 620 micrograms of chloride

Area Tested (from Section 1) 103.2 cm2 of surface

Micrograms of chloride ÷ Area Tested 620 ÷ 103.2 = 6.0 micrograms/cm2 chloride

Note: 1.0 microgram/square centimer = 10 milligrams/square meter

What if I Don’t Get a Reading on the Quantab® Chloride

Indicator Strip?

There are two reasons why you would not get a reading on the
Quantab® Chloride Indicator Strip. Either there are no detectable
chlorides on the surface, or you have used too much water during
sample collection and you have diluted your sample. If you believe
you have used too much water, then you’ll have to retest the surface
using a lesser amount of water. If you used the correct amount of water

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc

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and still did not get a reading, then the chloride concentration will
need to be reported as “non-detectable, less than “X” micrograms/cm2
chloride.”

To calculate “X”, or the detection limit of the testing method, choose

the lowest PPM value from the conversion chart on the side of the
Quantab® Indicator strip bottle. Make sure you use the “ppm” column
on the conversion chart and not the % NaCl column. Record the ppm
value, but this time, place a “less than” sign (<) in front of the value.
Perform the same set of calculations illustrated in Step 4, using the
lowest PPM value posted on the conversion chart. The final value
will be reported as “Non-detectable, less than “X” micrograms/cm2
chloride.”
Example:
Entry Result

PPM (lowest value on chart) <28 ppm chloride

Quantity of Water Used (from Section 1) 5 mL of water

PPM x Quantity of Water Used <28 x 5 = <140 micrograms of chloride

Area Tested (from Section 1) 103.2 cm2 of surface

Micrograms of chloride ÷ Area Tested 140 ÷ 103.2 = <1.4 micrograms/cm2 chloride

Therefore, the lowest detection limit for this particular bottle of

Quantab® Indicator strips is 1.4 micrograms/cm2 (1.4 µg/cm2) when
5mL of water is used and 103.2 cm2 of surface is tested.

If you EXCEED the maximum value on the Quantab® Indicator strip,

you will need to dilute your sample with a known quantity of water,
then retest using a new strip.

Sample Testing Method 2: Kitagawa® Chloride

Indicator Tube

Now that you have collected a sample or a set of samples, you are
now ready to test the sample(s) for chloride. Method 2 describes
the procedure for testing the sample for chloride using Kitagawa®
Chloride Indicator Tubes.

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NOTE: The procedure described below is based on using the indicator tubes with the KTA-
Chlor*TestTM SCAT Kit and Latex Sleeves (Sample Collection Method B from Section
1). If you used Sample Collection Methods A or C, then you will need to calculate the
concentration of chlorides in your sample based on the amount of water you used to
extract the sample and the size of the area that you sampled using the formulas provided
in this section.

Step 1: Prepare the Indicator Tube for Testing

Kitagawa® Indicator Tube Break ends of tube using metal

snapper

1-1 Remove the Kitagawa® Indicator Tube 1-2 Using the metal tube-end snapper, break
from the kit, making sure you do not touch the off both ends of the indicator tube. The ends
ends with your fingers. of the tube will be very sharp, so be sure not
to cut your skin. Keep the tube ends away
from your eyes as well. Both ends of the tube
should be “open.”
Step 2: Test the Sample

2-1 Place the prepared “open” indicator tube

into the test sleeve with the arrow and smaller
numbers on the tube at the bottom.

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Direction of sample ﬂow Cotton filaments at
top of tube

2-2 The arrow indicates the direction that the 2-3 The cotton filaments at the top of the
solution will ﬂow through the tube (upwards). indicator tube will turn from white to amber
Allow the tube to remain in the solution for color when the sample has reached the top.
at least 90 seconds, or until the solution has Disregard any yellow coloring inside the tube
wicked all the way up to the top of the tube. during the test.

Place black rubber bulb Aspirate the solution up

over the tip of the tube through tube if necessary

2-4 If the sample does not begin to travel up the indicator tube after 30 seconds, you will need to
help it. A small black rubber aspirator bulb is included in the kit. Place the aspirator bulb over the top
end of the tube (while the lower end is still in the solution), give the bulb one squeeze, then release.
The suction will help to bring the solution into the tube.

2-5 Carefully remove the black aspirator bulb and allow the tube to continue to draw the sample
upwards until the cotton fibers at the top of the tube turn amber color.

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Step 3: Read and Record the Surface Chloride
Concentration

After the cotton filaments at the top of the tube turn from white to
amber, remove the indicator tube from the latex sleeve and read the
value on the tube at the interface of the pink/white color shift. The

Interface of pink/white area

indicates chloride concentration

pink coloration inside the tube is normal, while the white coloration
indicates the presence of chloride. The value at the pink/white color
interface is the amount of chloride present in the test solution. This
value is expressed in parts per million (ppm). Since the amount of
test solution (in milliliters) and the size of the test area (in square
centimeters) is the same number for the KTA-Chlor*TestTM SCAT
Kit, these cancel each other out. Therefore PPM equals micrograms/
square centimeter (µg/cm2). The value on the indicator tube is the
concentration of chloride, in µg/cm2.

If you sampled the surface using Method A (surface swabbing) or

Method C (latex cell), then the value from the indicator tube (in PPM)
can be used to calculate the surface chloride concentration ({PPM x
quantity of water used}÷area sampled).

What if I Didn’t Get a Reading on the Kitagawa® Chloride

Indicator Tube?

If you did not get a reading on the Kitagawa® Chloride Indicator

Tube, then the chloride concentration will need to be reported as “non-
detectable, less than “X” micrograms/cm2 chloride.”

To calculate “X”, or the detection limit of the testing method, choose

the lowest PPM value on the indicator tube (1 PPM) Record this
value as “less than (<) 1 PPM.” Since the amount of test solution
(in milliliters) and the size of the test area (in square centimeters) is
the same number for the KTA-Chlor*TestTM SCAT Kit, these equate
to micrograms/square centimeter (µg/cm2). So you do not need to
perform any calculations. The value on the indicator tube (in PPM) is
the concentration of chloride, in µg/cm2. Therefore, the concentration

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc

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would be reported as “Non-detectable, <1 microgram/square
centimeter (<1µg/cm2).”

If you sampled the surface using Method A (surface swabbing) or

Method C (latex cell), then the lowest value from the indicator tube (in
PPM) can be used to calculate the detection limit of the test method, as
shown below.
Example using Sampling Method A (surface swabbing):
Entry Result

PPM (lowest value on titrator tube) <1 ppm chloride

Quantity of Water Used (from Section 1) 5 mL of water

PPM x Quantity of Water Used <1 x 5 = <5 micrograms of chloride

Area Tested (from Section 1) 103.2 cm2 of surface

Micrograms of chloride ÷ Area Tested 5 ÷ 103.2 = <0.05 micrograms/cm2 chloride

Therefore, the lowest detection limit is 0.05 micrograms/cm2 (0.05 µg/

cm2) when 5mL of water is used and 103.2 cm2 of surface is tested.

Example using Sampling Method C (Bresle Patch™):

Entry Result

PPM (lowest value on titrator tube) <1 ppm chloride

Quantity of Water Used (from Section 1) 2 mL of water

PPM x Quantity of Water Used <1 x 2 = <2 micrograms of chloride

Area Tested (from Section 1) 12.25 cm2 of surface

Micrograms of chloride ÷ Area Tested <2 ÷ 12.25 = <0.16 micrograms/cm2 chloride

Therefore, the lowest detection limit is 0.16 microgram/cm2 (0.16 µg/cm2)

when 2mL of water is used and 12.25 cm2 of surface is tested.

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Sample Testing Method 3: KTA-Bresle® SCAT Kit (Drop Titration for
Chloride)

Now that you have collected a sample or a set of samples, you are
now ready to test the sample(s) for chloride. Method 3 describes the
procedure for testing the sample for chloride using a procedure called
“Drop Titration.” Three bottles of chemical solutions (Titration Set)
are included in the KTA-Bresle® SCAT Kit. By adding drops of
the chemical solutions (in the correct sequence) to your sample, the
amount of chloride can be measured and recorded.

KTA-Bresle® SCAT Kit

Step 1

1-1 Select Bottle 1 from the Titration Set. 1-2 Open the top and add 2 drops to
your sample.

1-3 Carefully swirl the sample to ensure the

drops mix with your sample.

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Step 2

Select Bottle 2 from the Titration Set, open the top and add 2 drops to
your sample. Carefully swirl the sample to ensure the drops mix with
your sample. Your sample should now be yellow.

Step 3

Open the top of Bottle 41 and add 1 drop at a time to your sample.
Carefully swirl the beaker after you add each drop to ensure it mixes
with your sample. Count the number of drops required to turn your
sample from yellow to blue.

Bottle 3 was eliminated from the kit to improve the accuracy of the
1

method of detection.
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Step 4

Use the chart below to determine the concentration of chloride ion (in
micrograms per square centimeter) in your sample.

No. of Drops From Bottle 4 Concentration of Chloride Ion

1 Less than 2 µg/cm2
2 2 – 4 µg/cm2
3 4 – 6 µg/cm2
4 8 – 10 µg/cm2
Note: 1.0 microgram/square centimeter = 10 milligrams/square meter

Step 5: Dispose of the Sample

After you have recorded the result from Step 4, empty the contents of
the 10 mL plastic beaker into the Waste Bottle. Thoroughly rinse the
beaker and the syringe with distilled or deionized water.

Detection Limits
The lowest detection limit for drop titration is 2 µg/cm2.

Sample Testing Method 4: EM Quant® Iron Strip Properly dispose of your

(ferrous ion) sample

If the specification requires you to measure the ferrous ion

concentration, you can use an EM Quant® Iron (Fe2+) Test Strip. If you
collected a liquid sample for chloride testing, you can use the same
sample to test for soluble ferrous ions. If you need to obtain a sample
from the surface, you can use any of the sample collection methods
discussed in Section 1 of this Module.

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Step 1

1-1 Remove a ferrous ion indicator strip from 1-2 Dip the lower end of the strip into the
the bottle. beaker of solution. Make sure at least ½” of the
lower portion of the test strip is saturated.

Step 2

Remove the strip from the beaker and shake

off the excess liquid. Wait 10 seconds, then
compare the color of the indicator strip to the
color chart on the side of the test strip bottle.
Record the value from the color chart. The
values are in milligrams per liter (mg/L), which
is the same as parts per million. Therefore,
we can use the same method to calculate the
concentration of ferrous ions that we used to Compare test strip to color
calculate chloride. chart

Example: The color chart indicates a ferrous ion concentration of 3 mg/L of Fe2+.

Example using Sampling Method A (surface swabbing):

Entry Result

Mg/L (from Step 2 Example) 3 mg/L of Fe2+ (ferrous ion)

Quantity of Water Used (from Section 1) 5 mL of water

Mg/L x Quantity of Water Used 3 x 5 = 15 micrograms of ferrous ion

Area Tested (from Section 1) 103.2 cm2 of surface

Microgram(s) of chloride ÷ Area Tested 15 ÷ 103.2 = 0.15 micrograms/cm2 Fe2+

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What if I Didn’t Get a Reading on the EM Quant® Iron (Fe2+)
Test Strip?

There are two reasons why you would not get a reading on the EM
Quant® Iron (Fe2+) Test Strip. Either there are no detectable ferrous
ions on the surface, or you have used too much water during sample
collection and you have diluted your sample. If you believe you have
used too much water, then you’ll have to retest the surface using a
lesser amount of water. If you used the correct amount of water and
still did not get a reading, then the ferrous ion concentration will need
to be reported as as “non-detectable, less than “X” micrograms/cm2
ferrous ion.”

To calculate “X”, or the detection limit of the testing method, choose

the lowest PPM value from the color chart on the side of the ferrous
ion test strip bottle. Record the value, but this time, place a “less than”
sign (<) in front. Perform the same set of calculations illustrated in
Step 2, using the lowest value posted on the color chart. The final
value will be reported as “Non-detectable, less than “X” micrograms/
cm2 ferrous ion.”

Example using Sampling Method A (surface swabbing):

Entry Result

PPM (lowest value on color chart) <3 ppm ferrous ion

Quantity of Water Used (from Section 1) 5 mL of water

PPM x Quantity of Water Used <3 x 5 = <15 micrograms of ferrous ion

Area Tested (from Section 1) 103.2 cm2 of surface

Micrograms of ferrous ion ÷ Area Tested 15 ÷ 103.2 = <0.15 micrograms/cm2 ferrous ion

Therefore, the lowest detection limit is 0.15 microgram/cm2 (0.15 µg/

cm2) when 5mL of water is used and 103.2 cm2 of surface is tested.

If you EXCEED the maximum value on the color chart, you will need
to dilute your sample with a known quantity of water and retest using a
new test strip.

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Sample Testing Method 5: Conductivity

If the specification requires you to measure the

conductivity of the sample, you can use a conductivity
meter such as a Horiba Conductivity Meter. If you
collected a liquid sample for chloride testing, you can use
the same sample to test for conductivity. If you need to
obtain a sample from the surface, you can use any of the
sample collection methods discussed in Section 1 of this Horiba Conductivity Meter and solutions
Module.

There are three color-coded buttons and a digital display on the Horiba Conductivity Meter:

Color Function
Pink POWER
Tan CAL/MODE
Green HOLD
Three color coded buttons and digital display

Step 1: Verify the Accuracy of the Conductivity Meter

Remove protective cap

1-1 Before each use, you will need to verify 1-2 Press the pink “POWER” button.
the accuracy of the Horiba Conductivity Meter
using the standard solution provided with the
meter. Remove the sensor cell protector cap.

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1-3 Dispense a couple drops of “141” standard 1-4 Depress the tan “CAL/MODE” button.
solution onto the sensor cell.

Value of 1.41 mS/cm displayed Rinse cell using demineralized water

1-5 The icon “CAL” and a value of 1.41 mS/ 1-6 After you have completed the calibration
cm (millisiemen) will appear on the display. verification, thoroughly rinse the sensor with
Calibration verification is complete when the demineralized water and remove any residual
“CAL” icon disappears from the display. If the water with a soft tissue. You are now ready
“CAL” icon blinks, then you will need to repeat to measure the conductivity of your collected
the calibration verification. sample(s).

Step 2: Select the Unit of Measurement

Before you place a sample onto the sensor, you will

need to select the unit of measurement. Depress the
“CAL/MODE” button until the  indicator points
to the unit of measurement you desire (milliSiemen/
centimeter [mS/cm] or microSiemen/centimeter [µS/
cm]). The meter will automatically switch to the
other unit of measurement (if necessary), based on Select unit of measurement using tan CAL/
the actual conductivity of the sample. MODE button

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Step 3: Obtain a Conductivity Measurement of the Water (Blank)

Determine the conductivity of a “blank” Press the green “HOLD” button to take a
measurement

3-1 Using the plastic pipet (dropper), place 3-2 If you want to hold the value displayed,
a few drops of the same water you used to depress the green “HOLD” button while
perform the surface extraction onto the sensor taking a measurement. The meter will hold the
cell. When the indicator appears (), read and displayed value, and an “H” will be displayed.
record the value. This value is the conductivity Record this value as the “conductivity-blank.”
of a blank.

Step 4: Deposit a Sample onto the Sensor Cell and Obtain a Conductivity
Measurement

Since the amount of sample collected is usually

relatively small, you will need to use the “Flat
Surface Measurement” method rather than the
“Immersion Measurement” method. Using the plastic
pipet (dropper), place a few drops of your sample
onto the sensor cell. When the indicator appears (),
read and record the value. If you want to hold the
value displayed, depress the green “HOLD” button
while taking a measurement. The meter will hold the Determine the conductivity of your sample
(extract)
displayed value, and an “H” will be displayed. Record
this value as the “conductivity-extract.”

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Step 5: Power-down and Rinse the Sensor Cell

Replace protector cap

5-1 After you have recorded the conductivity 5-2 Thoroughly rinse the sensor with
value, depress the pink “POWER” button to demineralized water and remove any residual
turn the power off. water with a soft tissue. Replace the protector
cap over the sensor.

Step 6: Calculate the Conductivity of the Sample

Calculate the conductivity due to soluble salt contamination using the formula:
(A-B) = C, where:

A = Conductivity of Extract
B = Conductivity of Blank
C = Conductivity due to surface soluble salt extraction

Assume that the conductivity of the blank was 10.2 µS/cm and the conductivity of the extract was
80.2 µS/cm.

Example:
Entry Result
Conductivity of Extract (A) 80.2 µS/cm
Conductivity of Blank (B) (10.2 µS/cm)
Conductivity Due to Soluble Salt Extraction (C) 70 µS/cm

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc

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SECTION 4-3 – COMBINATION EXTRACTION AND
ANALYSIS USING SALTSMART™

SaltSmart is a digital soluble salt contamination meter system

that combines extraction using an expendable salt detection
strip with analysis using a digital meter that can reveal the result
in conductivity (microsiemen/cm) or in surface concentration
(milligrams/m2 or micrograms/cm2).

SaltSmart consists of a Soluble Salt Contamination Meter,

disposable detection strips equipped with water “sipper tubes”
and deionized water ampoules. Each detection strips consists
of a salt extraction pad, an extract solution reservoir and a
conductivity sensor electrode. An accuracy verification strip is
provided. You should verify the accuracy of the meter before
each period of use.

There are seven steps to the extraction and analysis procedure using SaltSmart. Each of the seven
steps is described and illustrated below.

SaltSmart Detection Strip SaltSmart Salt Extraction Pad

Step 1

Remove the detection strip and deionized (DI) water ampoule from the sealed packet. Do not
touch the sensor electrode or the sipper tube at the ends of the detection strip, and do not touch the
extraction pad on the underside of the strip. That is, handle the detection strip with care to avoid
contamination.
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Squeeze end of water ampoule Push ampoule onto sipper tube Water ampoule snug to detection strip

Step 2

Place the end of the DI water ampoule between your thumb and index finger and squeeze. This
action opens the end of the ampoule. Maintain pressure and push the opened end of the DI water
ampoule onto the “sipper tube” of the detection strip until it locks into place. The end of the DI water
ampoule should be snug against the ¾" wide end
of the detection strip (the sipper tube should be
completely inside the DI water ampoule). If it is
not locked in, you may experience leaking from
the ampoule.

Place a tape strip across the middle of the

detection strip, making certain that the extraction
pad is facing downward towards the surface to be
tested. The detection strip is now assembled and Place tape across detection strip
ready to be attached to the surface.

Step 3

Attach the test strip to the surface using the

tape strip. Position the detection strip at a slight
downward slope so that the DI water in the ampoule
will ﬂow downward into the extraction pad. The
extraction pad area should be compressed (using
tension from the tape strip) and in direct contact
with the surface to be measured.

Attach detection strip to surface using tape

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Step 4

Allow the DI water to ﬂow through the extraction pad and into the
extraction solution reservoir for 8-10 minutes. Removing the detection
strip before the test is completed can result in an inaccurate test result.

Remove the tape and lift the detection strip

Step 5

Once the test is complete, carefully remove the detection strip

from the surface and discard the adhesive tape. Leave the DI water
ampoule attached to the detection strip. You will see a wet mark (the
approximate size of the extraction pad) on the surface. This area will
dry once exposed to air ﬂow.

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Insert the conductivity sensor electrode (end of detection strip) completely into the slot of the meter

Step 6

Power-up the meter and insert the conductivity

sensor electrode completely into the slot located
at the top of the digital meter. Read and record
the conductivity of the extraction in microsiemen/
cm, or µS/cm, or the surface concentration in
micrograms/cm2, or µg/cm2. The extraction strip
Power-up the meter
and DI water ampoule can be discarded. They are
intended to be one-time use items.

SaltSmart meter in use

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MEASURING SURFACE PROFILE DEPTH

2 Surface profile is defined as the maximum peak-to-valley depth that is

created during surface preparation. Surface profile, sometimes referred
to as anchor pattern or “tooth,” is generated by abrasive blast cleaning
and by some power tool cleaning methods.

When surface profile is observed under high magnification (Figure 1),

it appears as a mountain range or a series of peaks and valleys in the
surface of the steel. These peaks and valleys can be sharp or “angular,”
or they may be rounded.

Surface Profile Is:

 The maximum peak-

to-valley depth

 Also know as anchor

pattern

 Important for coating Figure 1 - Surface Proﬁle

system adhesion
The adhesion of the coating system to the underlying steel
 Measured using any of surface is greatly enhanced by generating this “peak and
3 methods described valley” pattern in the steel. That is why project specifications
in ASTM D4417 often require the contractor to not only clean the surface, but to
roughen the surface as well.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 2-1

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Surface profile is quantified by measuring
the depth of the “valleys,” in relationship
to the top of the “peaks.” While an
inadequate surface profile depth may not
properly “anchor” the coating system
(and disbonding may occur), an excessive
surface profile depth may cause rogue
peaks to protrude above the coating film,
causing pinpoint rusting and accelerated
corrosion. Therefore, accurately assessing the surface
profile depth for compliance with the project specification
is paramount to a successful coatings project.

There are a variety of methods for measuring surface

Top - excessive profile
profile depth. For the greatest accuracy, the steel surface Above - inadequate profile
can be examined microscopically and the surface profile
depth measured in cross-section using a calibrated eye
piece. However, this is not practical in the shop or in the field. There are three methods that are
practical and routinely used on the shop floor and in the field for quantifying the depth of the surface
profile. ASTM D4417, “Standard Test Methods for Field Measurement of Surface Profile of Blast
Cleaned Steel” describes all three of these methods. They are:

 Method A: Visual Surface Profile Comparator,

 Method B: Surface Profile Depth Gage, and
 Method C: Replica Tape

These methods have their inherent advantages and

limitations. Unless the project specification requires that
a specific method be employed, any of these may be used
to measure the surface profile. Let’s look at each of these
three methods and learn step-by-step how to perform them.
Surface proﬁle measuring instruments
Then you can decide which of these will work best for your
specific application.

Using the Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator

Method A of the ASTM standard for measurement of surface profile after abrasive blast cleaning
describes the use of surface profile comparators. For this method, you visually compare the prepared
steel surface to a disc or coupon containing known anchor patterns.

2-2 ©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

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The Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator employs a 5 power illuminated magnifier and one
comparator disc. Let’s follow the sequence of steps below to ensure you use the Comparator
properly.

5X Illuminated Magniﬁer Comparator Disc on surface

5 segments of Comparator Disc The “S” tells you that the disc represents sand abrasive

Step 1: Examine the comparator disc stencils

Each comparator disc contains five segments. Each segment of each disc is stenciled with a code
identifying the surface profile depth, the disc type and the year that a master disc was generated (the
discs are electroformed copies of a master disc; they are not prepared individually by abrasive blast
cleaning). The first designation on each segment indicates the surface profile depth in mils (e.g., 1, 2,
2.5, 3, etc.). The second designation on each segment indicates the abrasive type (S for Sand, SH for
SHot and G/S for Grit/Slag). Step 2 below describes the significance of these designations. The third
and final designation indicates the year the master disc was created (1970 or 1976). For example,
a segment stenciled with 3.0 G/S 76 indicates a 3.0 mil surface profile depth generated using Grit/

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 2-3

Measuring Surface Proﬁle Depth
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3S70 = 3 mil surface
profile depth gen-
erated using sand
abrasive, master disc
created in 1970.

3.0 mil segments from three different comparator discs

Slag abrasive, with the master disc created in 1976. There are three comparator discs to choose from.
Your choice of disc will depend on the abrasive media used to blast clean the steel surface.

Step 2: Select the correct comparator disc

There are three comparator discs to choose from, and selecting the correct one to use is very
important. Select the comparator disc that matches the type of abrasive used to blast clean the
surface. Use the “Sand” disc (S) to compare surfaces that were prepared using silica sand; use the
“SHot” disc (SH) to compare surfaces that were prepared using steel shot; and use the “Grit/Slag”
disc (G/S) to compare surfaces that were prepared using grit or slag abrasives. While silica sand
and steel shot are specific types of abrasives, grit/slag can represent a variety of abrasives, some of
which include steel grit; copper, coal and nickel slags; garnet; aluminum oxide and others. Many
fabrication shops use an operating mix of steel shot and steel grit in their centrifugal blast machines.
In this case, the abrasive type crosses over two different comparator discs (SH and G/S), however the
appearance of the surface profile will likely be angular. Therefore, since this is a visual assessment of
surface profile depth, the G/S disc is likely the best candidate, as it depicts angular peaks.

Step 3: Attach the comparator disc to the

illuminated magnifier

Choose the disc that represents the abrasive used to

prepare the surface, then attach the disc selected to
the viewing head of the 5X illuminated magnifier
(face-up, centered). The magnifier head is equipped
with a magnetic strip that holds the disc in place
while examining the prepared surfaces.
Attaching a comparator disc to the magniﬁer

2-4 ©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

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Assessing surface proﬁle using the Keane-Tator Comparator
Step 4: Examine the prepared surfaces

Turn the light switch on the magnifier to the “on” position and place the magnifier with the attached
disc directly onto the abrasive blast cleaned steel. The hole in the center of the disc reveals the
prepared surface. Compare this surface to each of the five segments and select the segment that
is the closest match to the surface profile depth. If the surface falls between two segments, do not
interpolate, but simply record both segments as a range (e.g., 2-3 mils). Be sure to examine more
than one area to verify that the surface profile depth is consistent throughout. Record the type of disc
used and the surface profile depth, in mils. If the specification refers to surface profile depth in terms
of micrometers or microns (µm), the surface profile in mils can be converted to micrometers by
simply multiplying by 25.4 (e.g., 3 mils is 76 micrometers).

Using Digital Surface Profile Gages

Method B of the ASTM standard for

measurement of surface profile after abrasive
blast cleaning describes the use of a surface
profile depth micrometer. The DeFelsko
PosiTector® SPG and the Elcometer® 224
Surface Profile Gage are suited for this method
of measurement. For this method, you measure
the depth of the “valleys” using a 60° cone-
shaped metal tip. The surface profile depth (in
mils or micrometers) is indicated on the digital
display.
Surface proﬁle depth micrometers

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Measuring Surface Proﬁle Depth
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Using the PosiTector® SPG Digital Surface Profile Gage

Power-up the gage Remove the black vinyl probe

protector

Step 1: Power-up

Power-up the instrument by depressing the center of the middle button. The display will indicate 0.0
thou/mils and a battery life indicator. Remove the black vinyl probe protector.

Menu access and upper selection pad Menu access and lower selection pad

Step 2: Access the Menu

Access the menu by depressing the center of the middle “navigation” button. Use the upper and
lower pads on the navigation button to scroll through the menu options. Press the center of the
navigation button to select a menu item.

Step 2 Note: To change from thou/mils to microns, access the menu and select “Setup” then select
“Units.” The display will show a Warning! that changing the units will close the current batch of
readings and reset the statistics. You can select OK or Cancel. If you select OK, the gage will now
display measurements in microns. To change back to mils, repeat the procedure.

Step 3: Zero the Gage

Zero the gage by accessing the menu using the navigation button and scrolling through the options
until “Zero” is highlighted in black on the display. Depress the center of the navigation button to
select this option. Select the number of “zero measurements” using the “+” or “—” buttons located
to the right and left of the center button. Once the number of zero readings is selected, place the

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instrument on the 2 inch square ﬂoat plate glass provided with the instrument. Follow the illustration
on the display which indicates when to place the probe and when to remove the probe. Once the
desired number of zero readings is obtained, the display will reveal “0.0.”

Step 3 Note: If the ﬂoat plate glass provided with the gage is not
available, the “Factory Zero” setting can be restored. However this
setting may not always be precise. For optimum accuracy, the ﬂoat
plate glass should be used. To “Factory Zero” the gage, access the
menu using the navigation button and scroll through the options until
“Zero” is highlighted in black on the display. Depress the center of the
navigation button to select this option. Press the bottom of the navigation
button until “Reset” is highlighted in black, then press the center of the
navigation button. The gage will display 0.0.

Zero the gage on the ﬂoat

glass plate

Verify gage accuracy using metal shim on glass plate

Step 4: Verify Gage Accuracy

Verify gage accuracy by placing the horse shoe-shaped metal shim onto the ﬂoat plate glass. Make
sure that the probe tip is centered and that the probe footprint is only contacting the left and right
legs of the shim and not the top of the cut-out. Verify that the display reads 3.0 mils (+/- 0.2 mil)
or 76 µm (+/- 0.5 µm). If it does not, do not try to adjust the gage. The gage must be returned for
service.

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Step 5: Measure surface profile

Measure surface profile by placing the probe ﬂat onto the abrasive
blast cleaned surface. Hold the gage steady until the gage indicates
that a measurement has been obtained (the gage will “Beep” twice and
a reading will be displayed). Lift the probe from the surface between
measurements. Never slide the probe across the surface.

To Power Down the gage, access the menu by pressing the middle
of the center button and scroll through the menus until Power Off is
highlighted in black. Press the middle of the center button.

The PosiTector SPG has memory, hi/lo reading alarm, data upload/
download functions and statistics functions (depending on the model Measure surface proﬁle depth
purchased) that can be activated by accessing the menu. Step-by-
step procedures for using these functions can be obtained from the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Using the Elcometer 224 Digital Surface Profile Gage

Step 1: Power-up

Power-up the instrument by depressing the on/off button in the center

of the key pad. The display will indicate “mil” or “µm” (depending on
the units selected from the Set-up menu) and a battery life indicator.
Remove the black plastic probe protector cap.

Power-up the gage (push lower key pad)

Remove the probe protector cap

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Step 2: Access the Menu

Access the Menu by depressing the far right hand “Soft Key.” Use the middle two  Soft Keys to
scroll through the menu options. Press the far right hand soft key (SEL) to select a menu item.

Access menu using right soft key Scroll through menu options using these soft
keys

Step 3: Zero the Gage

Zero the gage by pressing the far left soft key (Zero). Place the instrument on the 1 inch x 2 inch
square ﬂoat plate glass provided with the instrument. Follow the illustration on the display which
indicates when to place the probe. The display will reveal “0.0 mil” or “0 µm.”

Step 3 Note: If the ﬂoat plate glass provided with the gage is not available, the “Factory Zero”
setting can be used. To “Factory Zero” the gage, access the menu using the right Soft Key and scroll
through the options until “reset” is indicated on the display, then select “Factory Zero.”

Press to zero the gage Place gage probe onto ﬂoat Zero the gage on the ﬂoat glass plate
glass plate

Step 4: Verify gage accuracy

Verify gage accuracy by placing the optional ceramic standard onto the ﬂoat plate glass. The probe
tip must pass through the hole in the standard and rest on the glass plate while the base of the
instrument is resting on the standard (but not on the label). Compare the gage reading to the value

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indicated on the ceramic standard. Verify that the displayed reading is
within 5% of the standard reading (e.g., 19.68 mils (+/- 1 mil) or 500
µm (+/- 25 µm). If it does not, do not try to adjust the gage. The tip
must be replaced or the gage must be returned for service.

Step 5: Measure surface profile

Measure surface profile by placing the probe ﬂat onto the abrasive
blast cleaned surface. Hold the gage steady until the gage indicates
that a measurement has been obtained (the gage will “Beep” once and
a reading will be displayed). Lift the probe from the surface between
measurements. Never slide the probe across the surface.

To Power Down the gage press and hold the on/off button through a
series of four “Beeps.”

The Elcometer 224 has memory, hi/lo limits, data upload/download

Measure surface proﬁle
functions and statistics functions (depending on the model purchased)
that can be activated by accessing the menu using the far right soft key
(Menu). Statistics functions can be selected from the Set-up menu.
Step-by-step procedures for using these functions can be obtained from
the manufacturer’s instructions.

Using Replica Tape

Method C of the ASTM standard for

measurement of surface profile after
abrasive blast cleaning describes the
use of replica tape in conjunction with
a spring-loaded micrometer. Testex®
is the manufacturer of the replica
tape. Testex® also private-labels the
Mitutoyo spring micrometer (analog
and digital versions). This method of
surface profile measurement entails
generating an “impression” of the
anchor pattern, then measuring the
impression using a spring-loaded
micrometer. Testex® replica tape, spring micrometer and burnishing tool

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The replica tape itself consists of a non-
compressible 2 mil film of Mylar® and a
compressible layer of emulsion (foam), which
is attached to the underside of the Mylar (see
Figure 3). While the Mylar remains a constant
2 mils, the amount of compressible foam varies
depending on the range of the replica tape. This
compressible foam is pressed into the anchor
pattern created during abrasive blast cleaning,
effectively creating a mirror image of the
surface profile in the foam. This peak-to-valley
impression is then measured using a calibrated
spring micrometer. The “HT” indicates that the Figure 3
tape can withstand temperatures up to 140°F
(60°C).

Testex Coarse Replica Tape (0.5-2.5 mils)

Testex X-Coarse Replica Tape (1.5-4.5 mils)

Testex X-Coarse Plus Replica Tape (4-5 mils)

Step 1: Select the appropriate replica tape

Prior to obtaining a surface profile measurement, select the range of the Testex replica tape to be
used. There are four ranges to choose from. They include:

1. “Coarse Minus,” which measures surface profile depth from 0.5-0.8 mils (not shown);
2. “Coarse,” which measures surface profile depth from 0.8-2.5 mils;
3. “X-Coarse,” which measures surface profile depth from 1.5-4.5 mils; and
4. “X-Coarse Plus,” which measures surface profile depth from 4.0-5.0 mils.

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The tape selected for measurement is based on the specified surface profile depth. For example, if
the specified surface profile is 0.8-2.5 mils, then the Coarse tape is selected. If the specified surface
profile is 1.5-4.5 mils, then the X-Coarse tape is selected. If the specified surface profile is 4-5 mils,
then the X-Coarse Plus tape is selected. Independent of which tape grade is used, the thickness of
the Mylar backing is always 2 mils and will not vary.

If a measurement made with either Coarse or X-Coarse grade tape is between 1.5 and 2.5 mils
inclusive, a second reading is taken in the same spot with the other grade. If both readings are in
the range of 1.5-2.5 mils inclusive, the two measurements are averaged and recorded as the surface
profile. This is illustrated in the diagram below.

Step 2: Prepare the surface for measurement

Unlike the previous two methods of surface profile measurement, the replica tape method can be
adversely affected by residual abrasive and dust remaining on the abrasive blast cleaned surface.
Therefore, prior to obtaining a measurement, the area of measurement should be free of dust and abrasive
debris. This can be accomplished by lightly sweeping the surface with a clean brush (a 1" disposable paint
brush works well).

Removing dust and debris prior to measurement

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Removal of paper backing

Adjusting the micrometer to “8” (-2 mils)

Step 3: Prepare the Testex replica tape Step 4: Adjust micrometer dial for the
Mylar thickness1 and pre-measure the
Remove a piece of the tape selected for use tape
from the roll. Carefully remove the Testex tape
from the paper backing, exposing the adhesive Loosen the thumbscrew and rotate the black
on the tape. Discard the paper backing and the ring until the needle rests on “8.” This step
small black & white protective circle attached presets the micrometer to -2 mils to compensate
to the paper backing. Ensure that this protective for the Mylar thickness. Prior to attaching the
circle does not remain attached to the replica tape to the surface, insert the unused piece of
tape. replica tape (after removing the paper backing)
into the anvils of the micrometer and release the
lever. The micrometer reading is the maximum
surface profile depth that can be measured with
that piece of replica tape.

Step 5: Burnish the Testex replica tape

Firmly attach the replica tape to the surface to

be measured, leaving one corner folded over
to create a pull-tab. Using the rounded tip of
the plastic stick provided with the micrometer,
NEW IMAGE burnish the white Mylar circle (3/8” diameter)
located in the center of the replica tape until it
turns uniformly gray. This requires moderate
pressure that is best applied using a back &
forth pattern (non-circular). Ensure that there
Burnish the replica tape are no visible white streaks, then using the pull
tab carefully lift the Testex replica tape from the
surface.
1
If a digital micrometer is used, the display should read “-2.0” with the anvils closed.
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Obtaining a measurement (X-Coarse Plus Digital Micrometer
tape used)

Step 7: Measure the Testex replica tape Step 8: Record the measurement
and determine the surface profile depth
Document the area tested and surface profile
Insert the Testex replica tape containing the measurement. Verify that the surface profile
surface profile impression into the anvils of depth that you recorded falls within the range
the micrometer and release the lever, allowing of the tape chosen for measurement. If it does
the top and bottom anvils to close in the center not, then the reading may be invalid.
of the 3/8" diameter Mylar/foam circle. Each
division on the micrometer dial is 0.1 mil, and
each number represents mils (e.g., a reading of
5 is 5 mils).

Calibrating Surface Profile Measuring Instruments

Calibration of the Keane-Tator Surface Profile Comparator is not required. However, if the
comparator discs become tarnished, they can be difficult to use. A soft pencil eraser can be used to
remove the tarnish without disturbing the electroformed pattern on each segment.

Verifying the accuracy of the surface profile gages was described earlier. This “zero set” adjustment
procedure should be conducted prior to and after each period of use.

While the Testex replica tape itself does not require calibration, the Testex micrometer should be
verified for accuracy routinely by inserting shims of known thickness into the micrometer and
verifying a correct measurement. Plastic shims used to calibrate coating thickness gages can be
used for this purpose. However, it should be recognized that these shims may not represent an exact
thickness.

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Documentating Surface Profile Measurements

Documentation of the surface profile measurements includes the date of measurement, the
method employed (ASTM D4417, method A, B or C), the area(s) of measurement, the number of
measurements obtained, and the range and average of the measurements taken. This can be formatted
as shown below.

Date 5/13/12 6/3/12 6/5/12

Measurement Method Employed1 (D4417) C (X-coarse) C (X-coarse) A (G/S disc)

Item Measured Beam 4-1 Beam 4-2 Plate 6-1

Number of Measurements 3 3 5

Surface Profile Range 2.5-2.9 mils 2.3-2.8 mils 2-3 mils

Surface Profile Average 2.7 mils 2.5 mils 2-3 mils

1A: Surface Profile Comparator
C: Replica Tape

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MEASURING AMBIENT CONDITIONS

1
AND SURFACE TEMPERATURE

“Ambient Conditions” are the prevailing conditions of air temperature,

the moisture content of the air (expressed as relative humidity),
and the temperature at which condensation will occur (expressed
as the dew point temperature). Coating specifications frequently
have requirements for monitoring ambient conditions and surface
temperature, and contain thresholds for air and surface temperatures,
and relative humidity. These conditions are measured and recorded
in the specific area on the project where surface preparation and/or
coating application is scheduled to occur during that time period.

Measuring and recording the ambient conditions and surface

temperature prior to final surface preparation and coating
application is one of the most important steps in determining the
Ambient Conditions are success of a protective coating system. Applying a protective
the prevailing weather
conditions including: coating outside of the manufacturer’s recommended temperature
and humidity ranges may result in premature coating failure.
 Air Temperature
There are three ambient conditions that are typically measured
 Relative Humidity-
on an industrial painting project: the air temperature, the relative
the moisture content
of the air. humidity, and the dew point temperature. Additionally, the surface
temperature is measured and recorded, then compared to the
 Dew Point-the dew point temperature to verify that moisture in the air will not
temperature at which
condense on the surface.
condensation occurs.

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There are many instruments used to measure ambient conditions, and the industry continues to
develop newer versions that will allow us to gather information faster and easier. We will focus on
the instruments that are most commonly used at the time of this writing.

This module details the use and calibration of the following instruments and charts:

 Sling psychrometer
 Battery-powered psychrometer
 Electronic psychrometers
 US Weather Bureau Psychrometric
Tables
 Dial surface temperature
thermometers
 Digital surface temperature
thermometers and non-contact
infrared thermometers

Using Psychrometers to Measure Ambient Conditions

The most common (and most economical) method of

measuring the ambient conditions on a project site is by using
either a sling or battery-powered psychrometer, in conjunction
with the US Weather Bureau Psychrometric Tables. The
psychrometer is used to measure the air temperature and
to assess the latent heat loss caused by water evaporation
from a wetted sock on the end of a bulb thermometer. The
psychrometric tables are used to look-up the relative humidity
and dew point temperature (based upon temperature readings
from the psychrometer and the barometric pressure). For
now, it is more important that we know how to obtain the
information. We will discuss what the information means later
in the module.

Sling Psychrometer and the US

Weather Bureau Psychrometric Tables

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Obtaining Temperature Readings from the Psychrometer

Sling and the battery-powered psychrometers wick or sock

are each equipped with two bulb
thermometers. The two thermometers
are identical, except that one has a wick
or sock covering the end of the bulb.
This thermometer is called the wet bulb.
The thermometer without the wick is
called the dry bulb thermometer. Follow
Steps 1 through 4 below to obtain the
dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures. Wet and dry bulbs of a sling psychrometer

Step 1: Verify wick cleanliness

Prior to each use, verify that the wick surrounding the wet bulb thermometer is relatively clean. If
the wick is dirty, the pores of the wick may be clogged, which can prevent proper contact of the
water with the thermometer bulb.

Saturating the wick

Whirling the sling psychrometer
Step 2: Saturate the wick Step 3: Obtain the wet bulb temperature

Saturate the wick with clean water, or fill If you are using a sling psychrometer, whirl
the water reservoir at the end of the sling the instrument through the air (away from your
psychrometer. You may use distilled or body) for approximately 20 or 30 seconds. Be
deionized water, but this is usually not careful not to “whip” the instrument through
necessary. In fact, it is more important that the the air, but whirl the gage at a moderate speed,
wick remain clean, than it is to use purified such that the ambient air passes over both bulb
water. thermometers. After 20 or 30 seconds, obtain a
reading from only the wet bulb thermometer.
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Remember or write down this temperature. Without re-wetting the
wick, whirl the instrument for another 20 or 30 seconds and obtain
another temperature reading from the wet bulb thermometer. Repeat
this process until the wet bulb temperature remains unchanged for
three consecutive readings. Record the wet bulb temperature after it
stabilizes.

Battery-powered psychrometer Turn on fan switch

If you are using a battery-powered psychrometer, the procedure for

obtaining the wet bulb temperature is easier. Simply saturate the
wick using clean water, turn the fan switch located on the front of
the housing to the “on” position, and allow the fan to operate for
approximately 2 minutes. Record the wet bulb temperature after it
stabilizes.

Step 4: Obtain the dry bulb temperature

Independent of whether you are using a sling or battery-powered

psychrometer, the dry bulb temperature is read directly from the bulb
without the wick on the end. This temperature stabilizes rather quickly,
and only needs to be read one time (after the wet bulb temperature
stabilizes).

Determining the Percentage of Relative Humidity and the

Dew Point Temperature

The next steps in determining the ambient conditions are to calculate

and record the relative humidity and the dew point temperature. The
relative humidity is the amount of moisture in the air, compared
to complete saturation. This is expressed as a percentage (e.g., the
relative humidity is 56%). The dew point is the temperature at which
moisture that is in the air will condense on a surface. It stands to

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reason that the surface temperature should remain warmer than the dew point temperature, in order
for coating work to begin or continue. A surface temperature above the dew point temperature will
not allow moisture to condense on the surface. Conversely, a surface temperature at or below the
dew point can result in condensation, which may or may not be visible.

Based upon the wet and dry bulb temperatures, the

relative humidity and dew point temperature can be
determined. There are several charts available that
can be used to assess these conditions. One of the
more common charts available is the US Weather
Bureau Psychrometric Tables. This is a book of
charts that are used in conjunction with dry and wet
bulb thermometer readings to determine the relative
humidity and dew point temperature. These charts are
relatively easy to use, provided that you follow the US Weather Bureau Psychrometric Tables
four-step procedure below.

Title of Table Barometric Pressure Reference

Step 1: Locate the Correct Table Step 2: Find the Correct Barometric
Pressure Reference
Locate the title of the table at the top of the
page. The relative humidity and dew point Find the tables corresponding to 30 inches
tables appear almost identical, so make sure barometric pressure, unless the exact
you are on the correct table. barometric pressure is known to be different.
There are tables ranging from 23 inches up
to 30 inches barometric pressure in the book.
Using a table other than 30 inches pressure will
affect your results.

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Sample dew point temperature chart

Step 3: Determine the Dew Point the wet bulb reading from the dry bulb reading.
Temperature The difference is the “depression of wet-bulb
thermometer (t-t’).” Locate the depression of the
Let’s determine the dew point temperature first. wet bulb thermometer across the top row of the
The dew point charts are located in the front half table (if the dry bulb is 70°F and the wet bulb is
of the psychrometric tables. Turn to the dew point 61°F, the depression is 9°). Intersect the depression
chart at the appropriate barometric pressure (say of the wet bulb thermometer (along the top row)
30 inches) and find the dry bulb temperature with the air temperature (down the left column).
(air temperature) reading in the far left column, The intersection of the two values represents the
entitled “air temperature t” (say 70). Subtract dew point temperature in °F (55°F in this case).

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Sample relative humidity chart

Step 4: Determine the Relative Humidity bulb depression). The intersection of the two
values represents the relative humidity (%).
To determine the relative humidity, turn to the For example, if the air temperature is 70°F and
back half of the psychrometric tables and locate the depression of the wet bulb thermometer is
the relative humidity tables with the appropriate 9°F, the relative humidity is 59%. The sling
barometric pressure reference. Follow the same psychrometer also contains a slide scale for
procedure that was used to calculate the dew determining the relative humidity that can be
point (intersect the air temperature with the wet used instead of the psychrometric tables.

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Using Electronic Psychrometers to Assess
Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature

An alternative to sling and battery-powered psychrometers are the

Elcometer 319 Dew Point Meter PosiTector® Dew Point Meter Extech RH 401

The Elcometer 319, the PosiTector® Dew Point Meter (DPM) and the Extech RH 401 are three
common and versatile electronic psychrometers. A wand or probe is exposed to the environment (and
touched to/pointed at the surface). A digital display indicates a dataset, including the air temperature,
the relative humidity, the dew point temperature, the surface temperature and the numerical spread
between the surface temperature and the dew point temperature.

Since the electronic psychrometers automatically measure and display the ambient conditions
and surface temperature, their use is fairly straightforward; however, they all operate somewhat
differently. Basic step-by-step instructions are provided in this module. The instruction manuals
provided with the gages should be consulted to understand their full capabilities.

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Using the PosiTector® DPM

Power-up the instrument

Step 1: Power-up the gage by depressing the center button on the front of the gage.

Remove the black cap

Step 2: Remove the black vinyl cap from the surface temperature sensor.

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Obtain a data set of ambient
conditions Obtain a surface temperature

Step 3: Expose the sensor element to the environment and touch the surface temperature probe to
the surface to be coated. Allow the psychrometer to stabilize for 30 seconds to one minute
or longer (the dataset are updated each second). All five data points (air temperature
[Ta], relative humidity [RH], dew point temperature [Td], surface temperature [Ts] and the
surface temperature/dew point temperature spread [Ts - Td]) are shown simultaneously on
the digital display.

Step 4: Record the values displayed. To hold the display,

depress the “+” button once. This will pause the
display. Push the “+” button again to release the
pause feature.

Note: The menu is activated by depressing the

center of the middle button. Toggle through
the menu choices using the top and bottom
raised portions of the middle button. Press
the center of the middle button to select an Raised portion of menu selection button
item from the menu.

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Using the Elcometer 319 Dew Point Meter

Step 1: Power-up the gage by depressing

the lower single button on the
front of the gage. To turn the gage
off, press and hold the same key
until the gage powers down.

Obtain surface temperature data Data set display

Obtain ambient condition data

Step 2: Expose the sensor element to the environment and touch the
surface temperature probe to the surface to be coated. Allow
the psychrometer to stabilize for 30 seconds to one minute (or
longer). The air temperature (Ta), surface temperature (Ts),
percent relative humidity (RH), dew point temperature (Td),
and the surface temperature/dew point temperature spread
(T∆) are shown on the digital display. Record the values.

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Using the Extech RH 401 Digital Psychrometer

Step 1: Release the temperature/humidity sensor

Extech RH 401
Sensor in storage

The Extech RH 401 is equipped with a retractable temperature

and humidity sensor to protect it from damage. The sensor is
approximately ½" in diameter and is located at the top of the meter.

Sensor released

Press down on the sensor to release it. The air

temperature and humidity will not be shown
on the meter display when the sensor is in
storage.

Step 2: Turn on the meter

Power-up the meter by depressing either the

/SET button or the IRTemp button.

Power-up meter

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Step 3: Record the air temperature and relative humidity

Depress the °C/°F button to display Fahrenheit or Celsius values.

Position the meter in the area where you want to measure the
prevailing conditions. Allow the meter to stabilize, then read and
record the air temperature located in the middle of the display. Read
and record the relative humidity located in the lower portion of the
display.
Air temperature
displayed

Step 4: Record the wet bulb temperature (if required)

If you are interested in reading and recording the wet bulb

temperature, depress and hold the DP/WB button until the symbol
Wb appears in the middle of the display (left side). The wet bulb
temperature is shown in the middle of the display.

Wet bulb
temperature
displayed
Step 5: Record the dew point temperature

Depress and hold the DP/WB button until the symbol DP appears
in the middle of the display (left side). Read and record the dew point
temperature, which is shown in the middle of the display.

Dew point
Step 6: Measure and record the surface temperature
temperature displayed

Point the meter at the surface to be measured. Depress

and hold the IRTemp button. The laser sighting will
be deployed and the surface temperature is shown
in the upper portion of the display. After you release
the IRTemp button, the display will hold the surface Surface temperature button
temperature reading until a new one is taken.

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The meter is set-up on an 8:1 spot:distance ratio,
which means that if you position the meter 8” from the
surface, the meter is measuring the surface temperature
in a 1" diameter area. If you position the meter 32”
from the surface, the meter is measuring the surface
temperature in a 4" diameter area. The further away
you are from the surface, the greater the potential for
error, since the meter is collecting temperature data
from a larger area.

The infrared (IR) sensor emissivity may have to

be adjusted based on the type of surface you are
measuring. The instrument manufacturer provides
a chart (in the instruction booklet) containing 28
different materials and their respective emissivity. For
example, the emissivity setting for a concrete surface
is 0.94. Unfortunately, the emissivity value for steel
(or coated steel) is not shown in the chart. If you
Measuring surface temperature know the emissivity value for steel (or if it is listed in
(note red laser)
another reference), you can adjust the value as needed.
If it is not known, use the default setting of 0.95.
The procedure for adjusting the emissivity value is
described below.

To adjust the emissivity value, power-up the meter as described in Step

2. Depress the /SET button twice. The symbol E will ﬂash on the
top of the display (left side). Use the °C/°F button to increase the
emissivity value or the LASER button to reduce the emissivity
value. When the desired emissivity value is displayed, depress the
/SET button once. The value selected will be retained and the
meter will return to normal operation.

The laser can be turned on and off by holding down the IRTemp
button and depressing the LASER button. The laser radiation
symbol (* inside a triangle) will appear on the left side (middle) of the
display when the laser is active. For safety, you should never point
the laser at anyone’s eyes, or direct the laser at explosive gases.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 1-15

Measuring Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature
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Step 7: Record the temperature spread between the surface
and dew point temperatures

Most painting specifications and paint manufacturers require the

temperature of the surface to be at least 5°F (3°C) higher than the dew
point temperature, to preclude moisture from condensing onto the
surface to be painted. To display the difference between the surface
temperature and dew point temperature, depress and hold the
 DP/WB button for more than 2 seconds, then depress the IRTemp
button. The difference will be shown in the top portion of the display.
Depress and hold the  DP/WB button for more than 2 seconds to
return the meter to normal operation.

Step 8: Power down the meter

The meter will automatically shut down after 5 minutes. To turn

the meter off manually, depress and hold the /SET button for
three seconds, then release it. The meter will shut-off. Push the
retractable temperature and humidity sensor back into the top of the
meter (until it “clicks” into place) to protect it from damage.

Power-down meter

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Using Surface Temperature Measuring Instruments

There are a variety of instruments for measurement of surface

Dial type surface temperature thermometers contain

Temperature-sensing spring a bi-metallic, temperature-
sensing spring on the back
of the thermometer that
expands and contracts with
the temperature of the surface.
Since the spring is attached
to the indicator needle on the
front side of the thermometer,
the needle increases and
decreases on the temperature
scale, indicating the surface
temperature. Magnets attached
to the back of the thermometer
enable self-attachment
Dial type surface temperature thermometer to vertical steel surfaces,
(left is backside; right is frontside) although this thermometer can
be used on almost any surface.

Measuring surface temperature using dial type

thermometers

Step 1: Place the thermometer in the desired location. Surface

temperature can vary considerably and should be measured
in the area where surface preparation and/or painting work is
scheduled to take place. In some cases, multiple readings are
required to assess the range of surface temperature in a given
area.

Step 2: Allow the thermometer to remain undisturbed for at least 3

Dial Type Surface
minutes before recording the temperature. Lightly tap the
Thermometer face glass before reading the dial, and make sure to read the
thermometer dial straight-on to eliminate a mis-read due to
parallax.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 1-17

Measuring Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature
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Thermocouple digital surface temperature
gages are quicker and more accurate than the
dial type, but are typically more expensive.

Thermocouple digital
surface thermometer

Measuring surface temperature using digital thermometers

Obtain a surface temperature

Connecting the probe
Step 1: Insert the probe connector into the Step 2: Touch the end of the sensing probe
thermometer module and depress the to the desired surface and allow the
“On” button. digital display to stabilize. This should
only take 5 or 10 seconds.

Non-contact infrared thermometers can also be used to measure surface

temperature. These gages are often equipped with laser sightings, so that
you can target the location on the surface to be
measured. However, the further away from the
surface that the “gun” is held, the larger the area
of measurement is, causing potential error. Also,
there is a maximum distance, depending on the
make and model of the thermometer. You should
carefully read the manufacturer’s instructions
prior to use.
Non-contact IR
thermometer

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Measuring surface temperature using non-contact thermometers

Digital
Display

Point the instrument Obtain a surface

temperature
Step 1: Point the digital non-contact Step 2: Read the surface temperature from the
thermometer to the targeted surface and pull LCD located on the back of the gage, above the
the trigger. handle.

Calibrating Instruments for Measuring Ambient Conditions and Surface

Temperature

Verifying the accuracy of any coating inspection instrument is paramount to the reliability of the data
it produces. This section describes the calibration verification procedures for instruments used to
assess ambient conditions and surface temperature.

Accuracy Verification of Psychrometers

The bulb thermometers in sling and battery-powered psychrometers cannot be “calibrated” per se.
However, their accuracy should be routinely verified using the following steps.

Step 1: Compare the thermometer readings with that of an ASTM traceable “referee” thermometer
(Kessler is one manufacturer of this type of thermometer). These are available from
scientific equipment distributors.

Step 2: Make comparisons out of drafts and sunlight (e.g., in a temperature regulated room). Cover
the bulb thermometers and “referee” thermometer with a dry cloth until stabilization occurs
(30 minutes minimum). The wick must be removed from the end of the bulb before placing
the thermometers beneath the dry cloth.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 1-19

Measuring Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature
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Step 3: Uncover the thermometers and quickly compare the readings
of the two psychrometer bulbs to the referee thermometer
reading. If the readings are outside of the tolerance of
the psychrometer bulbs (typically +/- 1 or 2oF), then the
psychrometer bulbs should be replaced.

Accuracy Verification of Dial Type Surface Temperature

Gages

Calibrating Digital Psychrometers, Digital Surface

Temperature Thermometers and Non-contact Infrared
Thermometers

Digital psychrometers, digital surface temperature thermometers

and the non-contact thermometers can only be calibrated by the
manufacturer. Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for
calibration frequency, as it may vary depending on the manufacturer
and model of the instrument.

Documenting Ambient Conditions and Surface

Temperature

Independent of the instrumentation used to assess the prevailing

ambient conditions and surface
Condition Data
temperature, it is important to
document the measurements, Date 5/13/12
including the date and time of Time 1300
day that the measurements were Dry Bulb Temperature (t) 60°F
obtained. The location where the Wet Bulb Temperature (t') 55°F
readings were obtained is also Depression (t-t') 5°F
important; and some projects will Relative Humidity 73%
require documentation on the Dew Point Temperature 51°F
instrument type and serial numbers Surface Temperature 59°F
of the gages. The table to the right Measurement Location West side of tank, ground level
illustrates a typical data set for
ambient conditions and surface temperature.

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What Does It All Mean?

Now that all of the data has been collected and recorded, it is important
to understand how to use the information; otherwise it represents only
numbers on paper.

The coating manufacturer and/or the project specification will typically

have threshold ranges for air and surface temperature (e.g., 50 -
120oF). These same documents may also specify a maximum relative
humidity (e.g., 85%). However, if the coating requires moisture to
cure (e.g., moisture-cure urethanes and ethyl silicate-type inorganic
zinc-rich primers), a minimum humidity requirement may be specified.
Simply verify that the data set obtained from the instrumentation
are within the requirements of the specification or manufacturer’s
recommendations. If not, work may need to be postponed.

In addition, the surface temperature typically must be at least 5oF

(3oC) above the dew point temperature (and rising) in order for final
surface preparation and/or coating work to begin or to continue.
While it is recognized that a surface temperature
Five Important Conditions only slightly above the dew point temperature will
not allow moisture to condense on the surface,
 Air Temperature (min & instrument inaccuracies, human error and variations
max) on the surface and throughout the project site must be
considered; thus the reason for this “safety factor.”
 Relative Humidity (min &
max) Finally, ambient conditions are typically measured and
recorded every four hours; more often if conditions
 Dew Point Temperature
appear to be degrading, or if required by the
 Surface Temperature (min specification. Obviously if work is halted due to poor
& max) weather conditions, a new set of data may need to
be generated every 20-30 minutes, in order to begin/
 Surface Temperature at resume final surface preparation and/or painting work
least 5°F above dew point as soon as conditions improve.
temperature

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Module 4 – Practical Arithmetic for the Protective Coatings Inspector

Practical Arithmetic for the

4
Protective Coatings Inspector

Coatings inspectors frequently need to apply basic arithmetic to

everyday inspections. This module provides a review of common
calculations associated with coatings inspection, including: averaging
values; converting percentages to decimal format; calculating area
(square feet and square meters); calculating volume and converting
from milliliters/liter (ounces/gallon) to percentage of thinner addition;
converting VOC values into other units; converting temperatures
between fahrenheit and celcius; and converting units of measurement
for surface profile depth and paint thickness (mils to microns and
back). A special session on calculating coating material quantities
required for a project based on theoretical and practical coverage rates
is also described in this module. Calculating wet film thickness based
on the target dry film thickness, volume solids content and thinner
addition will be described in Module 5. The intent of this module is to
cover basic mathematical procedures that are used in various coatings
inspection check points described later in the course.

Learning Outcome

Successful completion of Module 4 will enable the participants to

apply practical arithmetic to coatings inspection activities.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Introduction

Arithmetic can be one of the more challenging aspects of coatings

inspection that an inspector must employ on a project. Those
challenged by math may simply throw up their hands and give up,
rather than working through the formulas to generate the correct
value(s), or they may rely on others to perform calculations for
them. This module helps inspectors to become more comfortable
with arithmetic, and describes the steps necessary to perform basic
calculations. SSPC publication 03-05, “Practical Math For The
Protective Coatings Industry” is an excellent resource that can be used
as an aid in helping with calculations.

An inspector should always be equipped with a working calculator to

make the calculations easier and faster, and to avoid making simple
errors. Recognize however, that if an incorrect value (or the incorrect
form of a value) is inadvertently entered into the calculator, the answer
will be wrong despite using the correct formula. So take your time
and double check all entries. The old phrase says “practice makes
perfect.” And replication helps. If you are unfamiliar with any of the
procedures described in this module, practice the examples over and
over. You can even substitute your own numbers in the examples to
help gain confidence in application of the formulas. Finally, recognize
that there is always more than one way to arrive at the correct answer.
This module describes commonly used methods, but other methods or
procedures may be used, as long as the final answer is the same. You
will have an opportunity to practice the skills covered in this module
during the Module 4 Workshop.

Averaging a Set of Values

Coatings inspectors oftentimes need to evaluate multiple readings

through averaging in order to determine if the specification is met.
For example, multiple surface profile measurements and dry film
thickness readings are typically averaged. Averaging a set of values
is one of the simplest mathematical skills that can be applied to the
coatings industry. To obtain the average of a set of values, simply add
all of the values together to generate a total (a “sum”), then divide the
sum by the number of values in the set. Here are several examples of
“averaging.”

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Example 1: Averaging Surface Profile Measurements

(in microns)

Area 1: Measurement (1) 65 microns

Measurement (2) 75 microns
Measurement (3) 50 microns

Step 1: Calculate the Sum (65 + 75 + 50) = 190 microns

Step 2: Divide the Sum (190) by the number of values in the set (3)
190÷3 = 63.3 microns
Step 3: Since each measurement contains only 2 significant figures,
the average value should contain the same number of
significant figures. It should be rounded down to 63 microns.

Example 2: Averaging Surface Profile Measurements

(in mils)

Area 1: Measurement (1) 2.3 mils

Measurement (2) 3 mils
Measurement (3) 2 mils
Measurement (4) 2.8 mils

Step 1: Calculate the Sum (2.3 + 3 + 2 + 2.8) = 10.1 mils

Step 2: Divide the Sum (10.1) by the number of values in the set (4)
10.1÷4 = 2.5 mils

Example 3: Averaging Dry Film Thickness Measurements

(in microns)

Spot 1: Measurement (1) 100 microns

Measurement (2) 125 microns
Measurement (3) 137 microns

Step 1: Calculate the Sum (100 + 125 + 137) = 362 microns

Step 2: Divide the Sum (362) by the number of values in the set (3)
362÷3 = 120.7 microns
Step 3: Since each measurement contains only 3 significant figures,
the average value should contain the same number of
significant figures. It should be rounded up to 121 microns.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Example 4: Averaging Dry Film Thickness Measurements

(in mils)
Spot 1: Measurement (1) 5.6 mils
Measurement (2) 6.2 mils
Measurement (3) 4.9 mils

Step 1: Calculate the Sum (5.6 + 6.2 + 4.9) = 16.7 mils

Step 2: Divide the Sum (16.7) by the number of values in the set (3)
16.7÷3 = 5.6 mils

Converting Percentages to Decimal Format

There are a number of occasions where it may be necessary to

convert percentages to decimal format in order to make calculations.
Examples include converting the percentage of volume solids of the
coating and thinning. The volume solids content of a coating (the
volume of resin and pigment in a coating) is expressed by the coating
manufacturer as a percentage of the total volume of the coating (the
volume of resin, pigment and solvent in a coating). The volume
solids (volume of solid materials in a coating) is used to calculate the
coverage rate (in square meters/liter; or square feet/gallon) and the
target wet film thickness (in microns or mils). However, prior to using
the volume solids content value in a formula, it must be converted
to “decimal format.” Additionally, the amount of thinner that can be
added to a coating to reduce its viscosity is expressed as a percent
(e.g., add 15% thinner to the mixed volume). Prior to calculating the
amount of thinner that can be added, the percentage value must be
converted to decimal format. Both of these are described below.

The volume solids content of a coating is expressed as a percentage,

for example 67% solids by volume, which means that 67% of the total
volume of the coating is resin and pigment which will remain on the
surface after application. The remaining 33% represents the solvents,
which will evaporate from the coating film. To convert “67%” to a
decimal, simply place a decimal point after the value, then move it two
places to the left, and drop the percent symbol (%).

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Example 5: Volume Solids Content is 67%

Step 1: 67.%
Step 2: 0.67
So 67% in decimal form is 0.67

Example 6: Volume Solids Content is 84%

Step 1: 84.%
Step 2: 0.84
So 84% in decimal form is 0.84

Example 7: Reduce (thin) the mixed volume of 40 liters of

coating using 15% thinner. How much thinner do you add?

Step 1: 15.%
Step 2: 0.15
So 15% in decimal form is 0.15
Step 3: 40 liters of mixed coating x 0.15 = 6 liters of thinner

Example 8: Reduce (thin) the mixed volume of 15 gallons of

coating using 5% thinner. How much thinner do you add?

Step 1: 5.%
Step 2: 0.05
So 5% in decimal form is 0.05
Step 3: 15 gallons of mixed coating x 0.05 = 0.75 gallons of thinner

Note: Converting percentages to decimal format can also be illustrated

using the United States monetary system. A US dollar is expressed as
$1.00. A dime is 10% of a dollar. It is expressed in decimal format as
$.10. Similarly, a quarter is 25% of a dollar. It is expressed in decimal
format as $.25.

Calculating Area

The coating inspector may need to calculate the surface area prepared
and/or coated to determine the number of surface profile or coating
thickness measurements to take, or to record the daily progress of the
contractor regarding the total area prepared or coated. The coatings
inspector may also be required to verify that there is a sufficient

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

quantity of each coating on the project site to complete the work. In

all of these cases, the area must be either known or calculated. If the
area cannot be obtained from contract drawings or other sources, then
it must be calculated. The formula used to calculate area is based on
the shape of the surface. There are hundreds of shapes of items that
could be prepared and coated, but this section will focus on three basic
shapes: plate, I-beams, and pipe or cylinders.

Calculating the Area of Plate

The area of a plate or wall section is perhaps the easiest shape to

calculate. The basic formula is:
Area (in square meters or square feet) = Length x Width

9m
10m
4m

3m 4m
Figure 1 Figure 2

If the surface illustrated as Figure 1 is 10 meters (33 feet) long and 3

meters (9.8 feet) wide, the area can be determined by multiplying the
length (10 meters) by the width (3 meters). 10 meters x 3 meters = 30
square meters. The area can also be determined in square feet (33 feet
x 9.8 feet = 323.4 square feet). Note that if both sides of the surface are
to be prepared and coated, then the area must be doubled. In this case,
both sides of the surface shown in Figure 1 add up to 60 square meters
(or 646.8 square feet).

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

The surface illustrated as Figure 2 must

be divided into two separate shapes or
areas in order to calculate the total area, as
shown below in Figures 2a and 2b. Once
the area of each of the separate shapes
is calculated, they are added together in
order to calculate the total area of the
entire surface, as shown below. Figure 2

9m
4m
Figure 2b

4m
Figure 2a

Dimensions of surface illustrated in Figure 2a: 9 meters long x 4

meters wide
Dimensions of surface illustrated in Figure 2b: 5 meters long x 4
meters wide
The area of the surface illustrated in Figure 2a is 36 square meters (9
meters x 4 meters)
The area of the surface illustrated in Figure 2b is 20 square meters (5
meters x 4 meters)
The total area of the surface illustrated in Figure 2 (Figures 2a and 2b
combined) is 56 square meters (36 meters + 20 meters)
If both sides are to be prepared and coated, then the area must be
doubled. In this case, both sides of Figure 2 would total 112 square
meters.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

The area of the surface in Figure 2 can also be calculated in square

feet:
Dimensions of surface illustrated in Figure 2a: 29.5 feet long x 13.1
feet wide
Dimensions of surface illustrated in Figure 2b: 16.4 feet long x 13.1
feet wide
The area of the surface illustrated in Figure 2a is 386.5 square feet
(29.5 feet x 13.1 feet)
The area of the surface illustrated in Figure 2b is 214.8 square feet
(16.4 feet x 13.1 feet)
The total area of the surface illustrated in Figure 2 is 601.3 square feet
(386.5 feet + 214.8 feet)
If both sides are to be prepared and coated, then the area must be
doubled. In this case, both sides of Figure 2 would total 1,202.6
square feet.

Calculating the Area of I-beams

A steel I-beam is used for this example, but I-beams can also be
constructed of concrete. The same approach is used to calculate
surface area, whether concrete or steel are involved. A steel I-beam
is essentially three steel plates joined (welded) together to create the
shape. The beam may have “stiffeners,” but these are also steel plate
sections. Therefore, we can use the same formula (length x width) to
calculate the area of a steel I- beam.

An I-beam has top and bottom plates that are positioned horizontally.
These are called “flanges.” The vertical steel plate that connects the top
and bottom flanges is called the “web.” Stiffeners are vertical plates
that are connected to the top and bottom flanges and to the web. They
are located on either side of the web. An I-beam (without stiffeners) is
shown in Figure 3. A photograph of an I-beam with stiffeners in place
is also shown.

To determine the total area of the I-beam, follow these 8 basic steps:

Step 1: Measure the length and width of one of the flanges and
calculate the area of one of the surfaces by multiplying the
length times the width.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Figure 3 I-Beam

Step 2: Multiply the area determined in Step 1 by four, since both

flanges will be coated on both sides. Note that the edges
of the flanges will also be coated, but this surface area will
typically not have a significant affect on the total area.
However, if the thickness of the flange is significant, the
area of the edges can also be calculated by multiplying the
width (thickness in this case) times the length of one of the
edges and multiplying by 4 to account for all 4 edges. For
the purpose of this example, the edges are not included in the
calculations.

Step 3: Measure the length and width of the web and calculate the
area by multiplying the length times the width.

Step 4: Multiply the area in Step 3 by two, since the web will be
coated on both sides.

Step 5: Measure the length and width of a stiffener (again ignore the
thickness for this example), and calculate the area of one of
the sides by multiplying the length times the width.

Step 6: Multiply the area in Step 5 by two, since the stiffener will be
coated on both sides.

Step 7: Multiply the area in Step 6 by the total number of stiffeners.

Step 8: Add the total surface area of the flanges, web and stiffeners
together to determine the total area of the I-beam
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 4-9
Module 4 – Practical Arithmetic for the Protective Coatings Inspector

Example 9 (metric)

A 12 meter long I-beam has a 1.2 meter web, 0.6 meter flanges and
eight (8) - 0.15 meter wide by 1.2 meters long stiffeners.

Step 1: 12 meters (length) x 0.6 meter (width)

(12 x 0.6) = 7.2 square meters

Step 2: 7.2 square meters x 4 = 28.8 square meters

Step 3: 12 meters (length) x 1.2 meters (width) = 14.4 square meters

Step 4: 14.4 square meters x 2 = 28.8 square meters

Step 5: 1.2 meters (length) x 0.15 meter (width) = 0.18 square meter

Step 6: 0.18 x 2 = 0.36 square meter

Step 7: 0.36 square meter x 8 stiffeners = 2.9 square meters

Step 8: 28.8 square meters (flanges) + 28.8 square meters (web) + 2.9
square meters (stiffeners) = 60.5 square meters

Example 10 (US standard):

A 40 foot long I-beam has a 4 foot web, 2 foot flanges and eight (8) - 3
inch wide by 4 foot long stiffeners.

Step 1: 40 feet (length) x 2 feet (width)

(40 x 2) = 80 square feet

Step 2: 80 square feet x 4 = 320 square feet

Step 3: 40 feet (length) x 4 feet (width) = 160 square feet

Step 4: 160 square feet x 2 = 320 square feet

Step 5: 4 feet (length) x 0.25 foot (width) = 1 square foot

Step 6: 1 square foot x 2 = 2 square feet

Step 7: 2 square feet x 8 stiffeners = 16 square feet

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Step 8: 320 square feet (flanges) + 320 square feet (web) + 16 square
feet (stiffeners) = 656 square feet

Calculating the Area of a Cylinder (i.e., tank)

The area of a cylinder or tank can be calculated if the

circumference of one end (e.g., the roof) can be determined and
if the area of the side walls can be calculated. Note that the side
walls of a tank are created by bending flat steel sheets to create
a circle. So the formula to calculate the area of the side walls is
the same as the formula to calculate the area of plate, described
earlier in this module.

Example 11 (metric)

This first example uses the metric system. The tank in this example is
ground storage tank 40 meters high with a roof diameter of 30 meters.

The circumference (C) of the roof (or the bottom) of a tank is

calculated using the formula:

C = ∏ x d, where ∏ (pi) = 3.14 and d = diameter of the roof

If the diameter of the roof is 30 meters, the circumference is 3.14 x 30

meters, or 94.2 meters.

To determine the radius (r) of the roof, divide the diameter by 2.

r = 30 ÷ 2 = 15 meters

To determine the area (A) of the roof, use the formula: A= ∏ x r2

A = 3.14 x (15 meters)2 = 3.14 x (225) = 706.5 square meters

If the tank bottom was the same diameter as the roof, then the total
area of the tank bottom is the same as the area of the roof (706.5
square meters in this example).

The surface area of the shell is determined by multiplying the height of

the tank shell by the circumference: 40 meters x 94.2 meters = 3,768
square meters.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

If the entire exterior of the tank is being coated, the surface area is the
sum of the areas of the roof and shell (706.5 square meters + 3,768
square meters = 4,474.5 square meters).

Example 12 (US standard)

This second example uses the US standard system. In this example

the ground storage tank is 50 feet high with a roof diameter of 100
feet:

The circumference (C) of the roof and/or the bottom of a tank is

calculated using the formula:

C = ∏ x d, where ∏ (pi) = 3.14 and d = diameter of the roof or floor

If the diameter of the roof is 100 feet, the circumference is 3.14 x 100,
or 314 feet.

To determine the radius of the roof, divide the feet diameter by 2

100 feet ÷ 2 = 50 feet

To determine the area of the roof, use the formula: A= ∏ x r2

A = 3.14 x (50 feet)2 = 3.14 x (2500) = 7,850 square feet

If the tank bottom was the same diameter as the roof, then the total
area of the tank bottom is the same as the area of the roof (7,850
square feet in this example).

The surface area of the shell is determined by multiplying the height of

the tank shell by the circumference: 50 feet x 314 feet = 15,700 square
feet

If the entire interior of the tank is being coated, the surface area is the
sum of the areas of the roof, floor, and shell (7,850 square feet + 7,850
square feet + 15,700 square feet = 31,400 square feet)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Calculating the Surface Area of a Pipe

The surface area of a pipe can be calculated by knowing the

circumference of the pipe (calculated using the same formula
used to determine the circumference of a circle) and the length
of the pipe. The circumference is multiplied by the length of
the pipe to determine the total area (in square meters or square
feet). If the inside diameter (ID) and outside diameter (OD) of
the pipe are significantly different (due to pipe wall thickness),
the total interior surface area may be significantly less than the
total exterior surface area of the pipe.

Example 13 (metric)

This first example uses the metric system. The pipe has a 0.6 meter
outside diameter and is 12 meters long:

C = ∏ x d, where ∏ (pi) = 3.14 and d = diameter of the pipe

If the diameter of the pipe is 0.6 meter, the circumference is (3.14 x

0.6), or 1.9 meters.

To determine the surface area of the exterior of the pipe, multiply the
length by the circumference:
12 meters x 1.9 meters = 22.80 square meters

Example 14 (US standard)

This second example uses the US standard system. The pipe is 2 feet
in outside diameter and 40 feet in length:

C = ∏ x d, where ∏ (pi) = 3.14 and d = diameter of the pipe

If the diameter of the pipe is 2 feet, the circumference is (3.14 x 2), or

6.3 feet.

To determine the surface area of the exterior of the pipe, multiply the
length by the circumference:

40 feet x 6.3 feet = 252 square feet

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Calculating Volume

A coatings inspector may be required to estimate the total volume

of liquid that a tank or vessel can hold. The formulas for calculating
volume are shown below. It is more likely that a coatings inspector
will need to calculate the volume of mixed coating and the volume of
thinner that can be added to the coating and still conform to the coating
manufacturers instructions, as well as Volatile Organic Compound
(VOC) regulations. Examples of these types of calculations are also
provided in this section.

Example 15

The volume of a box is calculated using the formula:

V = l x w x h, where

l= length
w = width
h = height

If the box is 3 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 4 feet high, the volume inside
the box is:

3 feet x 2 feet x 4 feet = 24 cubic feet

Example 16

The volume (V) of a cylinder (i.e., a tank) can be calculated by

determining the surface area of the roof and multiplying by the height.
Note this is the same approach for the box above because in the
formula above, the surface area of one end of the box is determined (3
feet x 2 feet) and multiplied by the height (4 feet). In the case of the
cylinder, the surface area of the roof is determined by the formula п x
r2 as discussed earlier in the module, with this result multiplied by the
height of the tank. The formula for the volume of a tank is therefore:

V = ∏ x r2 x h, where

∏ = 3.14
r = radius of the tank
h = height of the tank

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If the radius of the tank is calculated to be 9 meters and the height of

the tank is 10 meters, the volume that the tank will hold (in liters) is
calculated as:

3.14 x (9 meters)2 x 10 meters = 2,543 cubic meters.

To convert cubic meters to liters, multiply by 1,000. Therefore, the

volume that the tank can hold is 2,543,000 liters.

Example 17

If the radius of the tank is calculated to be 30 feet and the height of

the tank is 50 feet, the volume that the tank will hold (in gallons) is
calculated as:

3.14 x (30 feet) 2 x (50 feet) = 141,300 cubic feet

To convert cubic feet to gallons, multiply by 7.48 since there are 7.48
gallons in a cubic foot. Therefore, the volume that the tank can hold is
141,300 cubic feet x 7.48 gallons per cubic foot = 1,056,924 gallons

While the information above may be useful to an inspector, it is

perhaps more useful to be able to calculate the volume of mixed
coating and the volume of thinner that can be added to the mixed
coating.

To calculate the volume of mixed coating and thinner, some basic

conversion factors may be needed.

1. There are 3.79 liters in 1 US Gallon

2. There are 29.6 milliliters in 1 ounce
3. There are 1000 milliliters in 1 liter
4. There are 128 ounces in 1US gallon

Example 18 (metric)

Step 1: A container holding 4 liters of Part A is combined with a

container holding 1 liter of Part B. The total mixed volume
will be 5 liters.

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Step 2: If the coating in Step 1 is to be thinned 5%, the total volume

of coating (5 liters) is multiplied by 0.05, which equates to
0.25 liter (5 liters x 0.05 = 0.25 liter).

Step 3: Convert 0.25 liter to milliliters for more accuracy. There are
1000 milliliters in a liter.

Multiply 0.25 x 1000 milliliters = 250 milliliters. If 250 milliliters

of thinner are added to 5 liters of mixed coating, the coating will have
been thinned 5% by volume.

Example 19 (US standard)

Step 1: A container holding 4 gallons of Part A is combined with a

container holding 1 gallon of Part B. The total mixed volume
will be 5 gallons.

Step 2: If the coating in Step 1 is to be thinned 5%, the total volume

of coating (5 gallons) is multiplied by 0.05, which equates to
0.25 gallon (5 gallons x 0.05 = 0.25 gallon).

Step 3: Convert 0.25 gallon to ounces for more accuracy. There are
128 ounces in a gallon.

Multiply 128 ounces x 0.25 = 32 ounces. If 32 ounces (1 US quart) of

thinner are added to 5 gallons of mixed coating, then the coating will
have been thinned 5% by volume.

Converting Milliliters/Liter to Percentage

If the coating manufacturer or prevailing conditions require the

mixed material (liters) to be reduced (thinned) using a given amount
of thinner (e.g., milliliters or liters of thinner), the amount of thinner
added will have be converted to a percentage, so that the applied
wet film thickness can be increased to provide the desired dry film
thickness. The formula for adjusting the wet film thickness (based on
percentage of thinner addition) will be described in Module 5. The
example below shows how to convert a given volume of added thinner
to a percentage of thinner added.

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If the coating manufacturer requires the coating to be thinned 30

milliliters/liter, the first step is to convert the liter to milliliters (there
are 1000 milliliters in a liter). Next, divide the amount of thinner
added by the volume of paint being thinned. In this example 30
milliliters of thinner is divided by 1000 milliliters of paint (30 ÷1000 =
0.03). By moving the decimal two places to the right, the percentage
of thinner that can be added to the coating and conform to the
manufacturers instructions is 3% of the total volume of coating mixed.

Converting Ounces/Gallon to Percentage

If the manufacturer requires the coating to be thinned 8 ounces/gallon,

the first step is to convert gallons to ounces (there are 128 ounces
in a gallon). Using the same formula as discussed above, 8 ounces
of thinner is divided by 128 ounces of coating to determine the
percentage of thinner added (8 ÷ 128 = 0.06). By moving the decimal
two places to the right, the percentage of thinner that can be added to
the coating and conform to the manufacturers instructions is 6% of the
total volume of coating mixed.

Converting Volatile Organic Compound (VOC)

Content Values

The Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) content of a coating represents

any compound of carbon that evaporates from a coating and photo-
chemically reacts with solar radiation (sunlight) and contributes to
air pollution. Note that not all solvents are addressed under the air
pollution regulations. There are “exempt” solvents in paints that are
not included in the VOC content value because they do not undergo
very significant photochemical reactions in sunlight. Water is one
example of an exempt solvent, as water does not contribute to poor
air quality upon evaporation. The VOC content of a coating is listed
on a coating manufacturer’s product data sheet. Most manufacturers
also list the adjusted VOC content when a specific type and amount
of thinner is added to the coating for purposes of application. More
information on VOC content in industrial coatings is provided in
Module 6 of this course.

The VOC content of a coating may be expressed using the metric

system or standard US system. The coatings inspector may be required
to convert from one form to another.
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Module 4 – Practical Arithmetic for the Protective Coatings Inspector

If the VOC content of a coating material is expressed in grams/liter

(g/L) and the inspector must convert it to pounds/gallon to verify
conformance to the project specification, the value in g/L is divided
by 119.8. If the VOC content of a coating material is expressed in
pounds/gallon (lbs./gal) and the inspector must convert it to g/L to
verify conformance to the project specification, the value in lbs./gal is
multiplied by 119.8. An example of each of these conversions is shown
below.

Example 20

Converting grams/liter (g/L) to pounds/gallon (lbs./gal.)

The coating contains 343 grams/liter of non-exempt solvents.

343 g/L ÷ 119.8 = 2.86 lbs./gal.

Example 21

Converting pounds/gallon (lbs./gal.) to grams/liter (g/L)

The coating contains 3.4 pounds/gallon of non-exempt solvents.

3.4 lbs/gal x 119.8 = 407.3 g/L

Converting Temperature

Temperature can be expressed in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or in degrees

Celsius (°C). The Fahrenheit scale is the scale where the boiling point
of water is 212° and the freezing point of water is 32° under standard
atmospheric conditions. It is the primary scale used in the US to report
temperature. The Celsius scale is the metric version of the Fahrenheit
scale where the boiling point of water is 100° and the freezing point
of water is 0° under standard atmospheric conditions. You may hear
it referred to as a “centigrade” scale, although this term is no longer
used.

A coatings inspector may need to convert from °F to °C, or from °C

to °F to meet specification requirements. There are many conversion
charts that convert one temperature unit to another at a glance.
However, if no conversion table is readily available, the temperatures
can be converted from one to another using two simple formulas
shown below. A conversion chart is appended to this module.

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If the temperature in °F is known, and needs to be converted to °C, the

following formula can be used:

°C = (°F-32 °F) ÷ 1.8

If the temperature in °C is known, and needs to be converted to °F, the

following formula can be used:

°F = (1.8 x °C) + 32 °F

Example 22: Converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius

The temperature is 83°F

°C = (83 °F -32 °F) ÷ 1.8 = (51 °F) ÷ 1.8 = 28.3 °C

Example 23: Converting from Celsius to Fahrenheit

The temperature is 5 °C

°F = (1.8 x 5 °C) + 32 °F = (9) + 32 °F = 41 °F

Converting Units Used to Express Coating

Thickness and Surface Profile Depth

Surface profile depth (described in Module 3) and coating thickness

(described in Module 5) can be expressed in either mils or
micrometers. One mil is equivalent to 0.001 inch; One micrometer
is equivalent to 0.001 millimeter. Oftentimes the term micrometer is
abbreviated as “micron.” The symbol for micrometer or micron is μm.
There are 25.4 microns in a mil.

A coatings inspector may need to convert from one unit to another

to verify conformance to a project specification and/or the coating
manufacturer’s instructions. For example, if the surface profile
is expressed in micrometers (μm) or microns, but the inspection
equipment used to measure the surface profile depth displays the value
in mils, then the inspector will need to convert from mils to microns to
verify conformance. Conversely, if the coating thickness is displayed
from the gage in microns and the project specification lists the
specified coating thickness in mils, the inspector will need to convert
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Module 4 – Practical Arithmetic for the Protective Coatings Inspector

from microns to mils to verify conformance. To convert from mils

to microns, the value in mils is multiplied by 25.4; to convert from
microns to mils, the value in microns is divided by 25.4. An example
of each of these situations is provided below.

Example 24: Converting from mils to micrometers (microns)

Measured surface profile depth: 3.5 mils

Conversion to microns: 3.5 mils x 25.4 = 88.9 μm

Example 25: Converting from micrometers (microns) to mils

Measured coating thickness: 125 μm

Conversion to mils: 125 μm ÷25.4 = 4.9 mils

Calculating Wet Film Thickness

Prior to mixing, thinning and applying the coating, the contractor

should determine the target wet film thickness to apply to achieve
the specified DFT. Some coating manufacturers list the wet film
thickness or “WFT” on the product data sheet (many do not). Even
if the target WFT is listed on the PDS, the contractor must ensure
that the recommended dry film thickness or “DFT” is the same as the
specified DFT for the product. Further, if the coating will be reduced
(thinned), the target WFT must be adjusted based on the amount
of thinner added, so the manufacturer’s target WFT will no longer
be representative. The bottom line is that the contractor and/or the
applicator should be knowledgeable in how to calculate a target wet
film thickness. In most cases, the inspector is concerned with the dry
film thickness and not the wet film thickness. But the contractor must
ensure that the proper wet film thickness is applied, in order to comply
with the dry film thickness requirements of the specification. If the
coating is applied too thin or too thick, then rework is often required.

Calculating the Target Wet Film Thickness

Before you measure the wet film thickness, you will need to calculate
the target wet film thickness for the applicator to shoot for by
obtaining three values. Without these values, the target wet film
thickness (WFT) remains unknown unless it is provided by the coating
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Module 4 – Practical Arithmetic for the Protective Coatings Inspector

manufacturer. Also, attempts to determine the WFT without the help

of a calculator can result in mathematical errors, so use your calculator.

Value No. 1: The target dry film thickness (DFT)

Value No. 2: The solids by volume content of the coating material
Value No. 3: The amount of thinner that will be added to the coating

Let’s look at each of these a little closer to determine where the three
values come from.

Step 1: Determine Value No. 1 – The Target Dry Film

Thickness

The target dry film thickness (DFT) is indicated in the project

specification. It is typically expressed in mils (0.001”) or microns
(µm). There are 25.4 µm in 1 mil. If the project specification does not
provide the target DFT, then you will need to locate the recommended
DFT on the coating manufacturer’s application instructions. In either
case, write down the target DFT. If the project specification or the
manufacturer’s instructions provide a range for the DFT rather than a
target, then write down the range.

Example:
“The primer coat shall be applied to a dry film
thickness (DFT) of 51-102 microns (2-4 mils).”
Write down: 51-102 microns DFT
(2-4 mils DFT)

Step 2: Determine Value No. 2 – The Solids by Volume

Content of the Coating Material

When the solids by volume content is indicated on the coating

manufacturer’s product data sheet, it is typically expressed as a
percent (%). This value represents the non-volatile or non-evaporative
content of a coating (e.g., the resin, pigment and additives). Often
there is a solids by weight value on the product data sheet as well. Do
not use this value in determining WFT requirements.

Example: Solids by Volume: 47%

If the solids by volume content is not listed on the coating

manufacturer’s product data sheet, there are two ways to determine
it, depending on whether or not you are working in metric units.

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Metric Example
1. Start with the standard rule of coating coverage: One liter of
coating that is 100% solids be volume will cover 149 square
meters if it is applied exactly 25.4 microns thick.

2. Determine coverage rate at 25.4 microns. Locate the theo-

retical coverage rate and dry film thickness that the coverage
rate is based on using the coating manufacturer’s product data
sheet. Multiply the two numbers together to determine the
coverage rate at 25.4 microns.

Example: The theoretical coverage rate is

37 square meters per liter at 76 microns.
76 ÷ 25.4 = 3
37 x 3 = 111 square meters per liter at
25.4 microns dry film thickness

3. Calculate the solids by volume content. Divide the theoretical

coverage rate at 25.4 microns by 149.

Example: The theoretical coverage rate is

111 square meters per liter at 25.4 microns.
111 ÷ 149 = 0.74

4. Covert the solids content to a percentage. Multiply the volume

solids value by 100.

Example: 0.74 x 100 = 74% solids by volume

U.S. Customary Units Example

You can use the value for the “theoretical coverage rate at 1 mil” on
the product data sheet to estimate the solids by volume content of the
coating. This can be a little more challenging, so you’ll need to follow
these next few steps carefully and you’ll need to use your calculator.

1. Start with the standard rule of coating coverage: One US

gallon of coating that is 100% solids by volume will cover
1,604 square feet if it is applied exactly 1 mil thick.

2. Determine coverage rate at 1 mil. Locate the theoretical

coverage rate and the dry film thickness that the coverage rate
is based on using the coating manufacturer’s product data
sheet. Multiply the two numbers together to determine the
coverage rate at 1 mil.

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Example: The theoretical coverage rate is 401 square feet

per gallon at 3 mils. 401 x 3 = 1203 square feet
per gallon at 1 mil dry film thickness.

3. Calculate the solids by volume content. Divide the

theoretical coverage rate at 1 mil by 1,604.

Example:
The theoretical coverage rate is 1,203 square
feet per gallon at 1 mil.
1203 ÷ 1604 = 0.75

4. Convert the solids content to a percentage. Multiply the

volume solids value by 100.

Example: 0.75 x 100 = 75% solids by volume

Step 3: Determine Value No. 3 – The Amount of Thinner that

will be added to the Coating

Most industrial coatings do not require thinning unless a low

temperature increases the viscosity of the coating. Unnecessary
thinning should be avoided. Over thinning a coating may violate air
pollution regulations.

If the project specification and the coating manufacturer permit thinner

to be added to the coating, the amount of thinner that will be added
must be taken into consideration when calculating a target wet film
thickness. This is because the thinner is part of the wet film that is
applied to the surface, but is not part of the dry film that remains on the
surface (the thinner will evaporate into the air).

Coating manufacturers typically communicate the amount of thinner

to add based on a percentage of the total volume of coating mixed
for application (e.g., 15%), or based on a certain volume (1 pint per
gallon). Ultimately, you will need a “percent thinner” value for your
calculation. If the coating manufacturer provides the percentage
of thinner to add, then no further work is required. If the coating
manufacturer indicates thinner addition by volume, then you will
need to calculate the percentage using some very basic units of
measurement.
a) There are 4 quarts in 1 US gallon. A quart is 25% (1/4) of 1 US
Gallon

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b) There are 8 pints in 1 US gallon. A pint is 12.5% (1/8) of 1

US Gallon

Example: The coating was thinned 1 pint per gallon, or

12.5%

Now that we have all three values (target DFT, percent solids by
volume and percent thinner), we can calculate the target WFT.

Step 4: Select a Formula

There are two formulas. Select only one of the two formulas when
calculating a wet film thickness. The formula you should select is
based on whether or not the coating was thinned prior to use. Here are
the two formulas. Formula A is one step, while Formula B requires two
steps.
Formula A (NO thinner addition)
DFT ÷ % solids by volume = WFT

Formula B (WITH thinner addition)

Step 1: % solids by volume ÷ (100% + % thinner added) =
adjusted volume solids content
Step 2: DFT ÷ adjusted volume solids content = WFT

Step 5: Enter the Values into the Formula Selected in Step 4

Once you select a formula, enter the values into the formula to arrive
at the wet film thickness range. Remember, ALL percentage values
must be converted to decimal format, simply by moving the decimal
point two places to the left. For example, 75% is 0.75

Example 1 – DFT range of 51-102 microns (2-4 mils) with no thinner

added. The solids by volume is 75%. Use Formula A:

51 microns (2 mils) DFT ÷ 0.75 solids by volume =

68 microns (2.7 mils) WFT
102 microns (4 mils DFT) ÷ 0.75 solids by volume = 135 microns
(5.3 mils WFT)

Therefore, the applicator should strive to apply the coating within a

range of 63-140 microns (2.5-5.5 mils) WFT.

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Example 2 – DFT range of 51-102 micrometers (2-4 mils) with 12.5%

thinner added. Use Formula B:

(75% solids by volume ÷ 112.5%) = 67% adjusted volume solids

content

51 microns (2 mils) DFT ÷ 0.67 solids by volume =
76 microns (3.0 mils) WFT
102 microns (4 mils) DFT ÷ 0.67 solids by volume =
152 microns (6.0 mils) WFT

Therefore, the applicator should strive to apply the coating within

a range of 76-152 microns (3-6 mils) WFT. Even with the addition
of 12.5% thinner, the coating should “shrink” to 51 to 102 microns
(2-4 mils) DFT.

The percentage of solids by volume content of a coating remains a key

component in the calculation of the wet film thickness. Unfortunately,
the published value may be “theoretical” and based on the formulation.
Therefore, the contractor may choose to apply a test area of the coating
(thinned if appropriate), measure the wet film thickness, then after
the coating dries on the test area, measure the dry film thickness.
This will provide the applicators with a “practical” wet film target.
If the resulting dry film thickness meets the requirements of the
specification, the actual volume solids content of the coating material
becomes a moot point. Conversely, if the resulting dry film thickness
is too low or too high, the actual percentage of volume solids can be
calculated as long as the wet film and dry film thickness is known.
Then the revised target wet film thickness can be calculated. This is
demonstrated below. Concurrently, the applied coating film can be
evaluated for flow characteristics, resistance to sag, etc.

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Target DFT (from the specification): 127 microns (5 mils)

Calculated Target WFT (based on 67% solids by volume):
203 microns (8 mils)
Actual WFT (measured): 203 microns (8 mils)
Actual DFT (measured): Only 102 microns (4 mils)

(Actual DFT / Actual WFT) x 100 = Adjusted Percent Volume Solids

Content

102 ÷ 203 microns (4 ÷ 8 mils) x 100 = .50 or 50%

Revised Target WFT = 127 microns (5 mils DFT) ÷ 0.50 =

254 microns (10 mils )WFT

Calculating Coating Coverage Rates and

Estimating Material Quantities

The coatings inspector is not responsible for ordering coating materials

and thinners for a project. That responsibility lies with the facility
owner or the contractor. However, the inspector may be required to
verify that there is an adequate amount of each coating material and
thinner on-site, in order to prevent project delays associated with
material shortages.

Coating manufacturers frequently provide a rate of coverage (square

meters per liter, or square feet per gallon) on their product data sheets.
However, this rate is theoretical (does not include any material losses)
and is based on their recommended coating thickness (in microns
or mils), which may or may not be the same as that required by the
project specification. The theoretical coverage rate (based on the
specified coating thickness) can be calculated using the information
below.

All coating manufacturers calculate the theoretical coverage rates of

their products based on one of two standard formulas.

“Four liters of 100% volume solids paint will cover 149 square
meters of smooth surface, when applied 25 microns thick,” or

“One gallon of 100% volume solids paint will cover 1,604 square
feet of smooth surface, when applied 1 mil thick.”

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Based on the actual volume solids (from the coating manufacturers’

product data sheet) and target coating thickness (from the project
specification), the theoretical coverage rate can be calculated, as
illustrated below.

For example, assume that the project specification requires that the
coating be applied 100-150 microns (4-6 mils) thick (dry), and that the
volume solids content of the coating is 65%. The theoretical coverage
rate can be calculated as:

Example 26 – Metric Coverage Rates

149 square meters/4 liters ÷ 6 (which is 150 ÷ 25) = 25 square

meters/4 liters (with no losses) if the coating is 100% solids. Since the
coating is less than 100%, the coverage rate is reduced by multiplying
the theoretical coverage by the percent solids by volume of the coating
material:

25 square meters/4 liters x 0.65 = 16.3 square meters/4 liters when

applied at the specified 150 microns dry film thickness. Note that
the coverage rate would be further reduced by material losses during
application.

Example 27 - US Standard Coverage Rates

1604 square feet/gallon ÷ 6 mils = 267 square feet/gallon of coverage

(with no losses) if the coating is 100% solids. Since the coating is less
than 100%, the coverage rate is reduced by multiplying the theoretical
coverage by the percent solids by volume of the coating material:

267 square feet/gallon x 0.65 = 174 square feet per gallon when
applied at the specified 6 mils dry film thickness. Note that the
coverage rate would be further reduced by material losses during
application.

Example 28 (metric) Total Amount of Coating Required

Without Consideration of Losses

If the project encompassed 4,000 square meters of smooth structural

steel, a minimum of 246 4-liter containers of primer will be required
without any consideration for material losses (4,000 square meters ÷
16.3 square meters/4 liters = 246 4-liter containers).

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Example 29 (US standard) Total Amount of Coating

Required Without Consideration of Losses

If the project encompassed 35,000 square feet of smooth structural

steel, a minimum of 202 gallons of primer will be required without any
consideration for material losses (35,000 square feet ÷ 174 square feet
per gallon = 202 gallons).

As indicated above, this assumes that every drop of paint that is mixed
will be transferred to the surface. This is not possible due to mixing
and application losses. Quantifying these losses can be challenging,
and is dependent on the transfer efficiency of the application method,
as well as other factors such as the size of kits available (e.g., if all kits
are 5 gallons or larger, a few gallons may have to be discarded at end
of each day after all prepared surfaces have been coated). And coating
manufacturers do not provide any specific written guidance on their
data sheets, other than a statement like, “Allow for losses due to mixing
and application.”

In order to calculate a practical coverage rate, an estimation of the
transfer efficiency must be made, and is based on the porosity of the
substrate, the complexity of the structure being coated, the method of
application, etc. For example, brush and roller application to large,
flat surfaces will generate a very high transfer efficiency rating, while
spray application to intricate parts will typically generate a lower
transfer efficiency rating. It is up to the contractor or material estimator
to generate a transfer efficiency rating based on the specifics of the
project. For illustration purposes, we will assume a 20% loss, or an
80% “transfer efficiency.” The “practical” coverage rate is calculated
by multiplying the theoretical coverage rate (above) by the transfer
efficiency, as shown below:

Example 30 (metric) Coverage Considering Transfer

Efficiency

16.3 square meters/4 liters x 0.80 = 13.0 square meters/4 liters

Example 31 (US standard) Coverage Considering Transfer

Efficiency

174 square feet per gallon x 0.80 = 139 square feet per gallon.

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Based on this practical coverage rate, the number of 4-liter containers

of paint required to coat 4,000 square meters of smooth steel increases
from 231 to 290 (4,000 square meters ÷ 13.0 square meters per 4
liters). The number of gallons of paint required to coat 35,000 square
feet of smooth steel increases from 202 gallons to 252 gallons (35,000
square feet ÷139 square feet per gallon).

The final factor that has an impact on the amount of primer to order
includes the surface profile. For example, if the primer is applied to
a blast cleaned surface with a nominal surface profile of say 75 µm
(3 mils), the contractor should figure on using as much as 25% of
the primer to fill the anchor pattern before building up the thickness
that is measured, since dry film thickness is measured from the tops
of the peaks (the actual percentage used depends on the thickness of
the primer). Imparting a surface profile into a steel surface effectively
increases surface area. It makes sense then that the larger the surface
(more surface area), the more coating that will be required.

So our practical coverage rate of 13.0 square meters/4 liters (139

square feet per gallon) will not be accurate for the primer coat applied
to an abrasive blast cleaned surface with a 75 µm (3 mil) anchor
pattern. The coverage rate for the primer must be adjusted as shown
below (based on 25% loss in the anchor pattern):

Example 32 (metric) Revised Coverage Rates Considering

Material Requirements to Fill Profile

13.0 square meters/4 liters x 0.75 = 9.8 square meters/4 liters

Example 33 (US standard ) Revised Coverage Rates

Considering Material Requirements to Fill Profile

139 square feet per gallon x 0.75 = 105 square feet per gallon

Note that this step is only required for estimating the amount of primer
required, since subsequent coats will be applied to a relatively smooth
surface.

Example 34 (metric) Total Amount of Coating Required With

Consideration of Losses

4000 square meters ÷ 9.8 square meters/4 liters = 408-4 liter containers

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Example 35 (US standard) Total Amount of Coating

Required With Consideration of Losses

35,000 square feet ÷105 square feet per gallon = 334 gallons

Example 36 Metric Example Summary

Remember we started with a theoretical coverage rate of 16.3 square

meters per 4-liters and a 246 4-liter material (primer) order. After
estimating material losses and surface roughness, we ended with a
practical coverage rate of 9.8 square meters/4-liters and a 408-4 liter
material order to coat 4,000 square meters with primer. If material
losses and surface profile consumption were not accounted for, the
contractor would have been short 162-4 liter containers of primer.

Example 37 US Standard Example Summary

Remember we started with a theoretical coverage rate of 174 square

feet/gallon and a 202 gallon material (primer) order. After estimating
material losses and surface roughness, we ended with a practical
coverage rate of 105 square feet/gallon and a 334 gallon material order
to coat 35,000 square feet with primer. If material losses and surface
profile consumption were not accounted for, the contractor would have
been short 132 gallons of primer.

If the contractor plans to thin every mixed lot of coating by 15%,

then the total quantity of coating must be multiplied by 15% to obtain
the quantity of thinner that must be ordered. Note that this does not
include clean-up solvent; only thinner to reduce the viscosity of the
coating. Remember to convert 15% to decimal format, as shown
below.

Example 38 (metric) Example for Thinner Requirements

385-4 liter containers of primer x 0.15 = 58-4 liter containers of

thinner

Example 39 (US standard) Example for Thinner

Requirements

334 gallons of primer x 0.15 = 50 gallons of thinner

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Summary

This module provided a review of common arithmetic that a coatings

inspector may use during basic coatings inspection, including:
averaging of values; converting percentages to decimal format;
calculating area (square foot and square meters); calculating volume
and converting from milliliters/liter (ounces/gallon) to percentage of
thinner addition; converting VOC values; converting temperatures; and
converting units of measurement for surface profile depth and paint
thickness (microns/mils). The procedures used to calculate coating
material quantities based on theoretical and practical coverage rates
was also described in this module.

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Protective Coatings
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U.S. Module 4 –Module
U.S. Practical Arithmetic
4 - Practical for the Protective
Arithmetic Coatings
for the Protective Inspector
Coatings Inspector

Calculating Area-Plate Calculating Area-Plate

n  Calculating area of plate n  Calculating area of
or wall section irregular plate or wall
Ø  Area = Length x Width Ø  Area = Length x Width
(Divide into separate sections)
Ø  Section 1:
Ø  33 feet x 10 feet 29.5 feet x 13.1 feet
Ø  33 x 10 = 330 square feet Ø  29.5 x 13.1 =
Ø  If coating both sides, double the area 386.5 square feet
660 square feet 10 ft
Ø  Section 2:
16.4 feet x 13.1 feet
Ø  16.4 x 13.1 =
214.8 square feet

33 ft Ø  Section 1 + Section 2

386.5 + 214.8 = 601.3 square feet

Calculating Area-I Beam Calculating Area-I Beam

n  Steel or Concrete “I” 1.  Measure length (L) & width (W) of one
Beams flange. L x W = Area of 1 flange side.
n  Area = Length x Width
2.  Multiply area of flange x 4 (4 sides),
n  Two Flanges (4 sides)
ignoring flange thickness*
n  One Web (2 sides)
n  Multiple stiffeners
(2 sides) * If edges are included, measure length &
thickness of one edge.
L x W = Area of 1 flange edge. Multiply area of
flange edge x 4 (4 edges).

Calculating Area-I Beam Calculating Area-I Beam

3. Measure length (L) & width (W) of web. n  Example 10: A 40 foot long I-beam has a 4 foot
web, 2 foot flanges and eight (8) – 3 inch wide by
L x W = Area of 1 web side. 4 foot long stiffeners.
4. Multiply area of web x 2 (2 sides)
5. Measure length (L) & width (W) of stiffener. Step 1: 40 feet (length) x 2 feet (width)
L x W = Area of 1 stiffener side. (40 x 2) = 80 square feet
Step 2: 80 square feet x 4 = 320 square feet
6. Multiply area of stiffener x 2 (2 sides) (flange area)
7. Multiply area of stiffener by no. of stiffeners Step 3: 40 feet (length) x 4 feet (width) =
8.  Add flange (with or without edges), web and 160 square feet
stiffener area together Step 4: 160 square feet x 2 = 320 square
feet (web area)

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Coating Mixing, Thinning and

Application: Equipment Overview

5
and Inspection Techniques

Introduction

Transferring the coating material from the container to the surface

may seem like a routine task and would hardly warrant training
and inspection. Yet, next to surface preparation, it is one of most
important steps to ensuring corrosion protection of structural steel. As
we discussed in Module 1, coatings protect the substrate by barrier,
inhibitive and/or galvanic means. If the coating material is not properly
mixed, thinned and applied, then any protection afforded by the
coating may be minimized or eliminated. This is why it is important to
read and comprehend the project specification and the manufacturer’s
written instructions for product use (product
data sheet), then verify that the proper
Methods of Coating Application mixing and application procedures are
employed. This module describes the proper
1 Brushes, rollers and daubers methods of coating mixing, thinning and
2 Conventional (air) spray application, and discusses the associated
3 High Volume Low Pressure inspection procedures. It also provides an
(HVLP) spray overview of common application methods.
4 Airless spray
5 Air-assisted airless spray
6 Plural component spray

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Module 5 Learning Outcomes

Successful completion of Module 5 on Coating Mixing, Thinning and

Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques will
enable the participant to:

1. Describe the inspector's role in coating mixing, thinning, and

application.
2. Describe the SSPC standards for coating application and coating
thickness measurements.
3. Use SDSs and product data sheets to verify safe and proper
mixing, thinning, and application of coatings.
4. Describe the procedures associated with proper mixing, thinning,
and application of coatings.
5. Calculate and measure wet film thickness.
6. Describe and implement the proper inspection testing procedures
and processes used in coating application.

The Inspector’s Role

The inspector’s role related to coating mixing, thinning and application

is multi-fold, and will vary from project to project (and from product
to product). For example, on most projects, the inspector is typically
responsible for measuring and recording ambient conditions and
surface temperature, and for witnessing coating mixing, thinning and
application procedures. The inspector may also be responsible for
calculating the target wet film thickness and for measuring the wet and
dry film thickness. Additionally, verification of the cleanliness between
coats and compliance with recoat intervals are also typically monitored
by the inspector. Other responsibilities may include verifying
that the contractor’s equipment is set-up according to the coating
manufacturer’s recommendations and is operating properly and
productively. The inspector may also be responsible for performing
pinhole or holiday detection, assessing the degree of coating cure and
hardness of the film, or for measuring the adhesion of the applied
coating system. Finally, in the event that it is necessary to measure the
thickness of individual layers after the whole system is installed, the
inspector will need to know how to use a destructive coating thickness
gage. We will be discussing each of these inspection checkpoints in
this module.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Review of SSPC Standards for Coating Application

SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings has several specifications

pertaining to coatings application. A brief overview of the two most
commonly referenced specifications is provided below.

SSPC Paint Application Specification No. 1 (PA 1): Shop,

Field and Maintenance Painting of Steel

SSPC PA 1 is the first Paint Application specification released by

SSPC. It is a common reference in project specifications for painting
of steel surfaces, and contains much of the same information as will
be covered by this module. The specification contains 14 sections.
Section 1 is the Scope, which states that PA 1 covers procedures
for painting steel surfaces and is a broad document describing
general and specific requirements for coating application. Section 2
(Description) lists the content of the standard, and Section 3 lists all
of the Referenced Standards included in the specification. Section 4
includes the Definitions of key terms used throughout the document,
and Section 5 (Pre-Application Procedures) contains information
on coating material handling and use (including storage), surface
preparation (general), application of chemical pretreatments, and
preparation of coatings, including mixing and thinning procedures.
Section 6 describes Factors Affecting Application of Coatings,
including temperature and moisture, humidity, methods to control
conditions (cover), defects, striping, continuity of the applied film,
recoating intervals, tinting of successive coats, intercoat adhesion,
induction time and pot life, as well as requirements for treatment of
contact (mating) surfaces. Section 7 briefly describes eleven different
Application Methods ranging from brush and roller to various spray
methods. Shop Coating procedures are described in Section 8, and
Field Coating procedures are listed in Section 9. Section 10 describes
methods for Repair of Damaged, Intact Coatings, including
surface preparation of the damaged areas. Section 11 describes the
Application Procedures for Generic Groups of Coatings (some of
which are rarely or no longer used), and include drying oil paints, vinyl
and chlorinated rubber coatings, bituminous coatings, epoxy and coal
tar epoxies, zinc-rich primers, polyurethanes, and waterborne latex
coatings, and Section 12 lists requirements for Curing and Handling
of Coatings. The specification is completed by brief sections on
Inspection (13) and Safety and Environmental Concerns (14).

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC Paint Application Specification No. 2 (PA 2):

Procedure for Determining Conformance to Dry Coating
Thickness Requirements

SSPC PA 2 includes sections that cover description and use,

calibration, verification and measurements procedures, required
number of measurements, and accuracy. SSPC PA 2 will be described
in greater detail later in this module.

Coating Manufacturer’s Technical Data Bulletins/

Product Data Sheets

A coating manufacturers technical data bulletin (also called a product

data sheet, or PDS) is essentially an “instruction manual” for the
coating. We will be reviewing a few examples of PDS. Sometimes
the label on the coating containers provide basic instructions for
use, but typically they do not contain the same level of detail as that
provided on a PDS. Further, container labels can become covered
with paint, hiding key information. Therefore a PDS should always
be made available at the work site. Note however that the information
provided on a product data sheet can be revised or updated at any
time. The best way to ensure that you are using the product data sheet
that corresponds to the batch of coatings on the project is to contact
the technical representative of the coating manufacturer and provide
them with the batch or lot no. of the coating. They will direct you to
the version of the product data sheet corresponding to the batch. Most
coating manufacturers maintain current product data sheets on their
websites, which can be downloaded and printed within minutes. In
general, a PDS contains information for the specifier that includes the
product brand name and number, the generic type of coating (epoxy,
polyurethane, etc.), and when and where the coating can and cannot
be used, as well as compatible coatings. A product data sheet will
contain technical information such as the weight and volume solids
content of the coating, the theoretical coverage or spreading rate
of the coating (the number of square meters [square feet] that one
liter [gallon] of the coating will cover), the recommended level(s)
of surface preparation and the recommended dry film thickness, the
Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) content of the coating as it is
manufactured and the adjusted VOC content based on the type and
amount of thinner added to the coating. Sometimes a PDS is used to
communicate “performance data” to the specifier, such as adhesion

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

characteristics, accelerated weathering/corrosion resistance, hardness,

abrasion resistance, etc.

The PDS contains valuable information for the applicator as well,

which includes the recommended method(s) of application (brush,
roller, air/airless spray, etc.), and equipment recommendations for each
application method listed. Additionally,
the PDS contains mixing and thinning
instructions, and if the coating contains
multiple components, the number of
components to be blended together,
and the pot life of the coating (how
long the coating can be used once
the components are blended). Some
multiple component coatings require an
induction (“stand-in time” or “sweat-
in”) which allows the individual
components to co-react or “simmer”
after mixing, but before application.
Product Data Sheets
However, not all multiple component
coatings require an induction period. If
required, the time periods for different material temperatures will be
listed under the mixing instructions on the PDS, e.g., allow the mixed
coating material to induct for 30 minutes at 24°C (75°F). Note that the
induction time (when required) is part of the pot life of the coating.
That is, if a coating has a pot life of 4 hours and a 30-minute induction
at the prevailing temperature, the “usable pot life” is only 3 ½ hours.
And the pot life is also dependent on the material temperature. A pot
life of 4 hours at 24°C (75°F) may only be 3 hours at 32°C (90°F), but
may be 5 hours at 16°C (60°F).

Drying and curing times are also listed on the PDS. These times
are dependent on the air and surface temperatures, and the relative
humidity (the amount of moisture present in the air). Drying times
are often listed based on “dry-to-handle,” “dry-to-recoat” and “full
cure.” The maximum recoat time may also be listed. Some coating
manufacturers will even specify the method(s) used to verify cure
of the coating. Finally, the PDS provides information on clean up
of equipment, approximate shipping weights and the various sized
units that the coating is available in e.g., 3.8 liter (1 gallon) kits, 19
liter (5 gallon) kits, etc. The shelf life is also indicated. The shelf
life is the period of time that the coating can be used, from the
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 5-5
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

date of manufacture. For example, the shelf life of a coating may

be listed as 24 months, provided it is unopened and is stored at the
proper conditions of temperature and humidity. As a general rule,
coatings should not be used after the shelf life has expired, even if
they “appear” to be in acceptable condition. Note that some coating
manufacturers consider the shelf life of a coating to begin upon
receipt, rather than from the date of manufacture.

ASTM F718 provides a standardized format and lists the minimum

information to be indicated on product data sheets. However, there
are no requirements for the type of information that is listed. While
there is certainly commonality to the type of information that is
conveyed, a coating manufacturer can list any information they desire
and place it anywhere on the PDS. Some manufacturers provide all of
the information on two pages, while others use a six or an eight-page
format. Some manufacturers publish a “Technical Bulletin” and a set
of Application Instructions, rather than combining the information onto
one document. Despite these limitations, the information conveyed
on a PDS can be critical to the success of a coating installation. The
specifier, inspector and the contractor should be familiar with the
information listed on the PDS, for each product to be applied. The
correct version of the PDS for each coating to be applied should be
readily available on the project site, and should be supplied to the
inspector(s) by the contractor.

Product data sheets contain recommendations. For example, the

manufacturer may recommend preparing the surface to achieve
“Thorough Blast Cleaning” (ISO 8501-1 Sa 2) or a “Commercial
Blast” (SSPC-SP 6/NACE No. 3) with a 38-50 µm (1.5-2 mil) surface
profile, while the project specification may require “Very Thorough
Blast Cleaning” (ISO 8501-1 Sa 2-1/2) or a “Near-White Metal Blast”
(SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2) and a 50-75 µm (2-3 mil) surface profile.
Similarly, the manufacturer may recommend one coat at 125-175
µm (5-7 mils), while the specification may require two coats at 100-
200 µm (4-8 mils) each. In all of these cases, the specification is the
governing document unless it states otherwise. However, if there are
large discrepancies between the manufacturer’s recommendations
and the specification, the discrepancy should be brought to the
attention of the facility/structure owner, to ensure that the variance
was not an oversight. If the coating is applied in a manner that the
PDS does not support (and problems arise with the coating), it may
risk not being covered by the warranty. For example, if the product
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 5-6
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

data sheet states, “Do not exceed 175 µm (7 mils) dry film thickness”
and the specification requires 200 µm (8 mils) dry film thickness,
the contractor or the inspector should “red flag” the discrepancy and
advise the owner.

Some owners will elect to invoke the product data sheets by reference
in the specification. In these cases, the product data sheets become
the governing document. Others state that the document that is
more restrictive (specification or PDS) shall become the governing
document.

Let’s review a couple examples of product data sheets/technical

bulletins to see how two different suppliers of industrial protective
coatings convey information on how to use their products. After
reviewing these PDS, there will be a workshop (Workshop 5A) on
navigating a PDS, which you will work together as a team to complete.

A coating manufacturer cannot anticipate every situation and inquiry

that may arise regarding the use of their product and publish it on
a data sheet. For example, the manufacturer may state the potlife
of a coating at one temperature, but not multiple temperatures. And
they may state the required induction time at a single temperature,
which may not represent the prevailing temperature at the project
site. Or they may recommend the use of a single type of thinner, but
another type may work better during hot or windy conditions. In these
circumstances, access to the coating manufacturer’s technical service
representative can be invaluable. This representative can provide
guidance on the use of their coatings on the project site where they will
actually be applied. The experience and expertise of these technical
representatives should be tapped whenever project-specific situations
arise regarding the use of their coatings. They know them best of all.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Low VOC organic zinc epoxy steel primer with

extremely fast cure-to-topcoat characteristics
for in-shop applications and quick turnaround
requirements in the field. ABCzinc 859 has less than
3.0 lbs/gallon VOC (thinned) and is used extensively
in virtually all industrial markets.

Test
System Results
Method
A. 841 psi
Pneumatic
ASTM A. Zinc
B. 1,100 min, psi
D4541 B. Polyurethane
Pneumatic
Adhesion C. Epoxy/Polyurethane
C. 602 psi
Elcometer
ASTM
A. Epoxy A. > 6%
D522
B. Zinc/Polyurethane B. > 5%
Flexibility
A. Epoxy
ASTM B. Polyurethane
A. 160
D2704 Gardner Impact Tester,
B. 100 min.
Impact Direct (intrusion), inch-
pounds, over 1/8" steel
Can be topcoated with epoxies, Polyurethanes, Zinc
Acrylics and others as recommended by your Meets
Slip Co- A-490 bolt spec; 6 mils
manufacturer's sales representative. Under certain requirements for
Efficient dry film maximum, 10%
conditions, a mist coat is required to minimize class B rateng
topcoat bubbling. max. thinning

Test reports and additional data available upon, written request.

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Normally not required but may be thinned up to 13

oz/gal (10%) with Thinner #2 or Thinner #76. In
hot or windy conditions, may be thinned up to 13
oz/gal with Tinner #33. Use of thinners other than
those supplied by manufacturer may adversely affect
product performance and void product warranty,
whether expressed or implied.
Manufacturer's Thinner #236E may also be used to
thin this product to minize HAP and VOC emmisions.
Consult manufacturer's Technical Service for
guidance.

Consult manufacturer for

Consult manufacturer's Technical Service

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Typical Uses
ABC COAT 383H is used as an economic intermediate coating
for atmospheric exposure in marine and industrial environments.
ABC COAT 383H is normally applied over an inorganic zinc-
silicate, zinc-rich epoxy or epoxy primer.

ABC COAT 383H is not recommended for use in continuous

immersion conditioins. ABCcoat 383H is normally topcoated for
optimal performance.

ABC COAT 65
ABC COAT 101
ABC COAT 12

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ABCcoat 383H Chemical Resistance Guide Application Data

When applied over suitable primer or intermediate coat and Prepared or primed steel,
topcoat with ABCcoat 450 Series. ABCcoat 68 Series, ABCcoat
385 PA
Airless, conventional spray,
brush or roller

ABCcoat

ABCcoat 101
ABCcoat 65

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ABCcoat

ABCcoat
manufacturer representative.

ABCcoat

ABCcoat 383H. Use ony manufacturer recommended thinners.

ABCcoat

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Manufacturer makes no other warranties concerning the product.

No other warranties, whether express, implied, or statutory,
such as warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular
purpose, shall apply. In no event shall manufacturer be liable for
consequential or incidental damages.

Any recommendation or suggestion relating to the use of the

products made by manufacturer, whether in its technical literature,
or in response to specific inquiry, or otherwise is based on data
believed to be reliable; however, the products and information
are intended for use by Buyers having requisite skill and know-
how in the industry, and therefore it is for Buyer to satisfy itself
of the suitability of the products for its own particular use and it
shall be deemed that Buyer has done so, at its sole discretion and
risk. Variation in environment, changes in procedures of use, or
extrapolation of data may cause unsatisfactory results.

Limitation of Liability
Manufacturer's liability on any claim of any kind, including claims
based upon manufacturer's negligence or strict liability, for any
loss or damage arising out of, connected with, or resulting from
This product is to be used by those knowledgeable about proper the use of the products, shall in no case exceed the purchase price
application methods. Manufacturer makes no recommendation
allocable to the products or part thereof which give rise to the
about the types of safety measures that may need to be adopted
because these depend on application environment and space, of claim. In no event shall manufacturer be liable for consequential
which manufacturer is unaware and over which it has not control. or incidental damages.
Due to manufacturer's policy of continuous product improvement,
the information contained in this Product Data/Application
Instructions sheet is subject to change without notice. It is the
Buyer's responsibility to check that this issue is current prior
to using the product. For the most up-to-date Product Data/
Application Instructions always refer to the manufacturer's
website.

Manufacturer warrants its products to be free from defects in

material and workmanship. Manufacturer's
manufacturer's sole obligation and
Buyer's exclusive remedy in connection with the products shall be
limited, at manufacturer's option, to either replacemnt of products
a manufacturer's
not conforming to this Warranty or credit to Buyer's account in the
invoices amount of the nonconforming products. Any claim under
this Warranty must be made by Buyer to manufacturer in writing
within five (5) days of Buyer's discovery of the claimed defect, but
in no event later than the expiration of the applicable shelf life, or
one year from the delivery date,whichever is earlier. Buyer's failure
to notify manufacturer of such nonconformance as required herein
shall bar buyer from recovery under this Warranty.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Material Receipt Inspection and Storage

Conditions

A material receipt inspection is nothing more than verifying that what

was ordered for the project was shipped to the project site, and was
received in good condition. The contractor should verify the name of
the manufacturer; the product name, number and color; the
shelf life of the coating components (discussed earlier in
this module); and the type and quantity of thinner received.
In addition, the contractor should record the batch or lot
number associated with each component (and thinner),
in the event that a formulation problem with the batch
is discovered later on. If multiple batches of the same
product are used on a single project, then the contractor’s
QC personnel and the QA inspector should record which
batch is used on which portion of the project. Without this
information, batch problems can be very difficult to trace
after the fact.

Likewise, the coatings inspector should record the name

of the coating manufacturer, the product name and no. or
code, and the batch no. or lot no. of each component. The
manufacturer, product code and batch no. for any thinner
brought onto the project site should also be recorded by
the inspector. Some coatings are shipped to the project site with an
accompanying certificate of acceptance or certificate of compliance.
These documents should be properly filed and their receipt should
be documented. Batch numbers or lot numbers can be found on the
can label, or they may be stenciled on the side of the can or on the
can lid. Interpreting a coating manufacturer’s numbering/lettering
scheme that comprise a batch no. can be quite challenging. For
example, the manufacturer may use the first 12 letters of the alphabet
to code the manufacturing month into the batch (e.g., the letter “B”
may indicate a batch manufactured in February, since it is the second
month of the year and “B” is the second letter of the alphabet). Or
the coating manufacturer may employ other codes to indicate the
batch and its manufactured date. Some manufacturers number their
batches sequentially. Therefore, it is not possible to interpret when
the batch was manufactured. If the batch code is not obvious, then
the inspector or contractor should contact the manufacturer, as the
manufacturing date is critical when determining whether the coating or

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

component of the coating is within the manufacturer’s published shelf

life. Remember, many industrial coatings are multiple component,
which means they are comprised of two or even three components. All
components must be blended into one container prior to application.
Otherwise they will not cure, or provide protection of the underlying
coating layer(s) and/or the substrate.

The contractor should not only verify that the proper components of
each coating are received, but should also verify that the coatings are
properly stored on the project site prior to use. The manufacturer’s
product data sheets will contain storage conditions of temperature and
humidity. Some specifications will require the contractor to monitor
the actual temperature and humidity in the storage facility using a
recording temperature/humidity instrument. Most manufacturers of
waterborne coatings require the contractor to protect the coatings
from freezing during storage. Excessive heat or high humidity can be
equally as damaging to coating materials during storage.

Contractors may elect to use chart recorders to document the

temperature and relative humidity over a 24-hour or 7-day period,
inside paint storage areas. Limitations to use of this type of equipment
include battery life (can be somewhat limited) and the fact that
someone is responsible for changing the chart daily or weekly. Also,
the charts must be stored in the project file.

Palm-sized data loggers are an alternative to chart recorders. These

devices are self-contained, portable recorders equipped with internal
temperature and humidity sensors, memory and extended battery life
(multi-year). The data loggers are placed in storage area and time-
based temperature/humidity readings are acquired automatically (up to
several times in one minute). The data collected by the devices can be
downloaded to computer software for “paperless” recordkeeping.

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Data logging devices for monitoring paint storage conditions

Inspection of Mixing, Thinning and Application of

Coatings

Next to surface preparation, the inspection of mixing, thinning and

coating application procedures can make or break a coatings project.
Traditionally a lot of time, money and effort are expended to properly
prepare a surface for coating. These efforts can be wasted very
quickly if a product is mis-mixed, an inappropriate thinner or amount
of thinner is used, or poor application technique is employed. These
mistakes can result in complete removal of the newly applied coatings.
It stands to reason then that the inspection of these procedures as they
are occurring can help reduce the number of premature coating failures
and the amount of rework.

The inspection of mixing, thinning and application includes the

following checkpoints. Each of these inspection checkpoints will be
discussed. Verification of correct materials (coating and thinner), shelf
life and material temperature are included in the list below but were
described earlier in this module.
• Verifying correct materials
• Verifying shelf life
• Measuring ambient conditions and surface temperature
• Inspecting mixing procedures
• Measuring coating temperature
• Inspecting thinning procedures
• Measuring wet and dry film thickness
• Measuring individual layer thickness
• Assessing intercoat cleanliness

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• Verifying recoat times and temperatures

• Detecting pinholes and holidays
• Assessing cure
• Measuring adhesion
• Measuring coating hardness

Measuring Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature

The measurement of air temperature, relative humidity, dew point

temperature, and surface temperature is required before and during
coating application activities. Air or surface temperatures above/below
the manufacturer’s specified range,
as well as excessive or inadequate
moisture levels in the air (relative
humidity) can contribute to
application challenges, inadequate
curing and performance problems.
As we discussed in Module 3, a
surface temperature at or below the
dew point temperature can result
in moisture condensation on the
surface. Therefore, it is important
Sling Psychrometers to verify that the temperature of
the surfaces to be coated is at
least 3°C (5°F) higher than the
temperature of the dew point*, and to verify that the air and surface
temperatures, as well as the relative humidity, are all within the
coating manufacturers' specified ranges and/or as required by the
project specification.

These values (air temperature, relative humidity, surface temperature

and dew point temperature) can be obtained using sling or battery-
powered psychrometers in conjunction with US Weather Bureau
Psychrometric Tables and surface temperature thermometers, or
can be obtained using direct read-out electronic psychrometers
equipped with surface temperature probes. The step-by-step use of
this instrumentation was described in Module 3. It is important that
the inspector not rely on prevailing weather conditions from a local
Thermocouple Digital service (e.g., airport weather station), as conditions at the project site
Surface Thermometer can vary considerably. Ambient conditions should be measured and

*May see additional requirements (i.e., “and rising,” “not falling”)

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©2015 SSPC 5-17
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

recorded prior to mixing the coating materials and at 4-hour intervals

thereafter, unless conditions appear to be declining. In this case, more
frequent checks may be required. If coating work will be done inside
a facility, tank, or inside containment, then the prevailing ambient
conditions inside these areas (at the actual location of the work) should
be assessed. The location, date, time of day and the conditions of air
temperature, relative humidity, dew point temperature, and surface
temperature should be recorded on forms or in log books. A wind
meter can be used to monitor wind speed if required by the project
specification.
Wind Meter

Inspecting Mixing Procedures

Prior to mixing the coatings, the materials should be checked to

verify that they are within the manufacturer’s shelf life. Using coating
materials beyond the shelf life or “expiration date” can result in mixing
and application difficulties as well as poor coating performance.

The personnel responsible for mixing the coating materials should be

knowledgeable in mixing procedures for various generic coating types,
and should both read and comprehend the coating manufacturer’s
written instructions for mixing. All liquid components should be
thoroughly blended using a shear-type mixing blade (e.g., "Jiffy"
mixer). If the coating to be applied is multi-component, the inspector
must assess whether partial kit mixing is permitted. Most of the time,
the mixing of partial kits is prohibited by the manufacturer and/or the
project specification. If permitted, the mixer will need to determine
whether the components should be blended by weight or by volume.
If by weight, then a scale is required to weigh-out the individual
components. If by volume, then graduated containers are required so
that the individual components can be measured out. In general, the
mixing of partial kits should be discouraged, as mathematical errors
and approximate measurements can lead to mixing errors. Special
touch-up kits or cartridges (described earlier in this module) are
available from some manufacturers and can be used to repair small
areas exhibiting damage.

Mixing Zinc Primers

Zinc-rich primers containing a zinc powder component require special

mixing procedures. After blending the liquid component(s), the zinc
powder is slowly sifted into the liquid while under agitation. It is

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important not to reverse this procedure (empty the liquid into the zinc
powder). After the zinc powder is thoroughly blended into the liquid
components, the mix should be strained through a fine mesh screen
to remove any un-wetted zinc particles that may clog the spray tip.
Straining of other coatings (non-zinc-rich) is usually not necessary
unless required by the project specification.

Measuring Coating Temperature

After all of the components are thoroughly blended, the temperature

of the mixed coating can be measured using a paint thermometer,
which contains an 8” long stainless steel stem and a clip for attaching
the thermometer to the side of the paint can. After a minimum of
three minutes, the temperature of the coating can be read from the
thermometer and recorded. Thermocouple-type thermometers with
immersion probes reveal the coating temperature more rapidly than
a paint thermometer. The temperature of the coating materials is
important, since the induction time and the pot life are both based on
the temperature of the coating, not the air or surface temperature.

Induction Period

Some coatings require an induction period. Also known as sweat-in,

stand-in, cook time, and digestion, this represents a specific period of
time (after blending of the components but before application) that
the coating must chemically react or “simmer.” Without this induction
time, the coating may not properly or fully cure and the applicator may
encounter application difficulties (e.g., sagging, etc.). Not all coatings
and not all manufacturers require an induction time. It is based on
the formulation of the material. If required, the time period and
material temperature will be indicated on the manufacturer’s product
data sheets, typically under the “mixing” instructions. Generally, the
warmer the material, the shorter the induction time that is required.
Conversely cooler materials will require a longer induction time.
Induction time is part of the pot life, discussed next. As stated earlier,
a coating with a four-hour pot life at 25°C (77°F) and a 30-minute
induction at the same temperature has a usable pot life of only 3 ½
hours.

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Pot Life

The pot life of a multi-component material is the period of time

(starting immediately after mixing the components together) that the
coating is usable. The pot life varies depending on the manufacture
and the formulation of the coating, and can range from a few minutes
to 24 hours or more. Once the pot life has expired, any remaining
coating should not be used.

Documentation and Reporting Procedures Relating

to Inspection of Coating Mixing

Documentation of coating mixing procedures includes:

• The manufacturer and product name/number, color, and generic
type of the coating material that was blended;
• The batch number(s) of the component(s);
• The number of kits mixed and the size of each kit;
• The mix ratio;
• Induction time (if required);
• The date and time the mixing occurred;
• The method used to agitate the individual components and the
blended components; and
• The coating layer (primer, intermediate, finish, etc.)

In addition, the inspector should record whether or not the coating

material was strained, and should document the actual coating
temperature. If the project specification or coating manufacturer
requires pot agitation during application, then the method used by
the contractor to ensure the coating remains blended throughout the
application process should be recorded.

Coating Mixing Procedures

One of the most important steps in the successful installation of a

protective coating system is the proper mixing or blending of the
coating materials, prior to application. The procedure for blending
single component materials is straightforward and needs little
instruction other than ensuring the material is homogeneous by
mixing all of the settled pigment and solids materials into the liquid.

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Conversely, the mixing procedures for multiple component materials

can be more complex, and often requires the individual responsible
for mixing the coatings and the inspector to read and comprehend the
product data sheets. This section provides a step-by-step guide to the
proper mixing procedures of multiple component coating materials.

Coating Mixing Step 1: Agitating the Individual Components

Before combining the individual components of the

coating (if multi-component), the individual liquid
components must be thoroughly mixed. Power agitation
using shear-type mixing blade such as a “Jiffy Mixer”
mounted into a pneumatically-operated drill or stirrer
is often required. Hand stirring using wooden paddles
may be acceptable for house paints, but is inadequate for
mixing industrial coatings and is often prohibited by the
specification. Non-liquid components like zinc powder
do not require agitation.

Coating Mixing Step 2: Blending the Components and

Mixing the Blended Product

Most coating manufacturers and/or the project

specifications prohibit the blending of partial kits. In fact,
most manufacturers require that complete kits be mixed.
This is for good reason. First, many coating components
may be ratioed by weight, not by volume. So in order to
mix partial kits, the contractor would need to accurately
weigh out a portion of each component prior to blending.
In addition, there may be a critical minimum volume
of material that must be blended so that the chemical
curing reaction between the components occurs. This
information is typically not published, but is no less critical. Many
coatings are available in both larger and smaller kits. The contractor
may choose to have a few smaller kits on hand, although smaller kits
may be more costly. Excess mixed components cannot be saved and
must be disposed of properly. Mixing instructions are provided on the
manufacturer’s product data sheet.

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The Bottom Line

Unless partial kit mixing is permitted by the specification and the

coating manufacturer (and the ratio of components is published), the
contractor should always mix complete kits. The coating manufacturer
pre-measures each component to ensure the proper ratio is achieved
when complete kits are used. Even if partial kit mixing is permitted
and the ratio is known, the contractor must have graduated containers
for blending by volume or weighing devices (scales) for blending by
weight before partial mixing should even be attempted.

Once the components are combined into one container, they must be
thoroughly blended by power-driven agitation using shear-type mixing
blade as described earlier. Alternatively, the materials can be blended
by “boxing,” which is done by dumping ½ of the material into a clean
container, then alternating dumping the material back and forth, from
container to container until the material is blended. This procedure is
typically prohibited when mixing inorganic zinc-rich primers, moisture
cured urethanes or other coating materials that react with moisture.
Remember, once the coating material is blended, the “pot life clock”
begins. Some manufacturers provide “touch-up” kits or cartridges,
which are designed to patch or repair damaged coating without having
to mix a large kit. These cartridges are typically supplied in two-
component tubes. A plunger pushes the components through a built-in
static mixer, which blends the components in a 1:1 ratio. Once the
blended components exit the static mixer, the coating is applied to the
damaged area using a brush.

Mixing Zinc-Rich Primers

Since zinc-rich primers (solvent borne) are commonly used throughout

the industrial sector, it is worth spending a few minutes describing the
special mixing procedures for these types of coatings.

Some zinc-rich primers are single component and cure by a reaction

with airborne moisture. In this case, the zinc powder is already blended
with the liquid, so the single component material mixing instructions
described earlier can be employed for these types of products. In fact,
over-mixing moisture-cured zinc-rich primers can entrain (bring in)
moisture, which can cause the material to gel.

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Multi-component zinc-rich primers can be either two or three

component. In most cases, the zinc powder is one of the
components that must be blended with the liquid component(s).
In this case, the liquid components are thoroughly agitated, then
the zinc powder is slowly and evenly dispersed into the liquid
component(s) while the liquid is under power-driven agitation.
Once all of the zinc powder is blended in, the coating should
be power agitated for several minutes to help ensure thorough
wetting of the zinc particles. Finally, the blended coating should
be strained through a fine mesh cloth sieve or screen to remove
any particles that may clog the spray gun tip or become lodged
in the applied coating film.

Note: Any coating can be strained after mixing. Some specifications

require straining of the coating material after mixing and before
application.

Coating Mixing Step 3: Measure the Coating Temperature

After the components are blended and strained (if

required), the temperature of the coating should
be measured. A long-stem, stainless steel liquid
thermometer can be used for this. The stem thermometer
may be equipped with a can clip, so that that thermometer
can be attached to the perimeter lip of the can. The
thermometer should be allowed to stabilize for three
minutes before it is read, then removed and cleaned.
Thermocouple thermometers with liquid probes can also
Taking the Coating Temperature be used. It is this temperature that determines the length
of the induction time and/or the pot life (both terms were
described earlier) of the coating. As a general rule, the
warmer the coating, the shorter the induction time and/or the pot life,
since heat increases the rate of the curing reaction. A non-contact
thermometer should not be used, since it will only read the temperature
of the surface of the coating.

Coating Mixing Step 4: Determine Whether Pot Agitation

During Application is Required

Because zinc is a dense pigment, it may settle out of the blended

material during application. In this case, the original mix ratio of the
product becomes distorted, and much of the protection afforded by the

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primer is lying on the bottom of the pot or can. To prevent settling-

out of the zinc, most coating manufacturers and project specifications
require automated, constant agitation of the mixed material during
application. In fact many spray systems are equipped with motor-
driven agitating blades. Note however that many single component,
moisture cured zinc-rich primers contain anti-settling agents and do
not require pot agitation during spray-out. In fact, agitation can draw
airborne moisture into the coating, causing it to gel. Therefore pot
agitation is not recommended for these products, even though they
contain zinc pigment. The PDS will often provide guidance as to
whether or not pot agitation during application is required.

Coating Thinning Procedures

Similar to mixing, thinning of a coating material is perceived to be

rather straightforward and requires little explanation. However, the
type and amount of thinner added to the coating impacts the volatile
organic compound (VOC) content, the target wet film thickness of the
coating, and over thinning or under thinning a coating can adversely
affect the application and the performance characteristics. Therefore,
thinning of a coating is an important area to discuss. It is also
important to verify that thinning is done properly.

Determine Whether Thinning is Permitted

Fairly restrictive air quality regulations have caused

manufacturers to reformulate coating materials with less
solvent (higher solids content) and even different solvents.
To this end, field addition of thinner for the purposes of
reducing the viscosity of the coating material may be
restricted or even prohibited. If thinning is allowed, there
is oftentimes a maximum type and amount of thinner that
can be added in order to maintain the volatile organic
compound threshold established by Federal and/or local
air quality regulations (which may be more restrictive than
the Federal limit). Therefore, prior to adding thinner, the
contractor must determine whether thinning is permitted.
Some manufacturers prohibit thinner addition, and claim that
the coatings can be applied as supplied. Conversely, while the
coating manufacturer may allow the coating to be thinned, the
Thinning

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specification may prohibit the use of thinner. Heat may also be used to
reduce coating viscosity, but may affect pot life.

Determine the Type and the Amount of Thinner to Add

Once it is determined that thinner addition is permitted and necessary,

the next step is to determine the type and amount of thinner to add.
This information can be gleaned from the manufacturer’s product
data sheet. The type of thinner to add may be dependent on the air
temperature during application. Manufacturers may have a slow-
evaporating thinner for warmer temperatures and a faster one for
colder temperatures. Only the manufacturer’s recommended thinner
should be used. In fact, use of thinners other than those recommended
can void the warranty on the coating, and can result in reduced coating
system performance. Thinners added to coatings should be clean,
new, and in their original containers. Contaminated, recycled or used
thinners should never be used for reducing coatings.

The amount of thinner to add is also based on the application

temperatures, the method of application and the local air quality
regulations. Most coating manufacturers will indicate the VOC content
of the coating material as formulated, and the adjusted VOC content
based on the amount of thinner added. Any regulated thinner that
is added to the coating in the field will increase the VOC content.
Conversely, the use of a non-regulated solvent (e.g., water) will not
increase the VOC content of the coating. But there is still a maximum
amount that can be added to maintain sag resistance and performance
of the coating while in service.

The permissible amount of thinner that can be added is reported on the

product data sheets in various ways, including:

“Thin up to 100 mL per liter”

“Thin up to 1 pint per gallon”
“Thin up to 10%”

These three statements are phrased as the maximum amount of thinner

that can be added. It may not be necessary to add the maximum
amount. For example 50 mL per liter (5%) (1/2 pint per gallon) may
be adequate for proper atomization and flow-out of the coating.

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Calculations for converting from percentage thinner to volume thinner

were described in Module 4.

Use of Viscosity Cups

Zahn or Ford viscosity cups can be used to measure the viscosity of

a coating. The viscosity cup is used to measure the adjustment made
to a coating using thinner. A viscosity cup is a stainless steel cup on
a long handle that holds a known volume of coating. The cup has a
precise diameter hole in the bottom. The cup is filled with coating
and a stopwatch is used to time how long it takes the coating to drain
from the cup through the orifice. Thinner can be added to the coating
to aid in adjusting the flow of the coating through the hole (the more
thinner that is added, the faster the coating will drain from the cup).
The inspector must know the target number of seconds that the cup
is intended to drain, (based on the temperature of the coating), the
manufacturer and orifice size of the viscosity cup to use, and must
assure that the test is conducted out of wind, so that a true end point
(stream break) can be noted. Many coatings used today will not flow
through the small orifice, and the effect of temperature and other
jobsite conditions are too difficult to control, making the use of
viscosity cups for the purpose of determining thinner addition nearly
obsolete.

Consequences of Under- and Over-Thinning

Consequences of Adding Thinner to Extend the Pot Life

You may find that some contractors do not measure the amount of
thinner that is added to the coating, but simply dump in thinner until
the material appears or “feels” right. There are several consequences
associated with this practice, some of which affect both quality and
productivity.

First, by adding an unknown quantity of thinner to the coating, the

effect on the VOC content of the coating is unknown, which may
result in a violation of a local air quality regulation or contract
requirement. Not only is the VOC content unknown, but the target wet
film thickness cannot be accurately calculated, since the amount of
thinner added cannot be included in the equation (shown earlier). This
can result in insufficient or excessive coating layer thickness, causing
potential rework. Despite what many may think, the addition of thinner
does not increase the spreading rate of the coating, since the thinner is

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a component of the wet film, but not the dry film layer. While the
volume of material being applied to the surface increases, the resulting
dry film thickness and coverage rate will not.

The addition of excessive amounts of thinner may cause the

coating to sag (downward movement of a wet film between
application and setting, resulting in an uneven coating with a
thick lower edge) on vertical surfaces, and if the surface of the
coating dries or “skins-over” before the solvents in the body of
the coating have an opportunity to escape and evaporate, a porous
film filled with solvent voids can result. Conversely, under-
thinning a coating may cause poor film integrity, as the applied
material may dry before it has an opportunity to flow together
Sagging and knit into a continuous film. This can result in exposure of
the substrate or the underlying coating layers, which may not be
resistant to the service environment.

As a coating approaches the end of its pot life, the material oftentimes
(not always) increases in viscosity. Some believe that by adding
thinner and reducing the viscosity of the coating, that they can actually
extend the pot life of the coating. This is not the case. The pot life of
a coating material is a defined time period that can only be extended
for a short period of time (not overnight) by maintaining the material
at a lower temperature. For example, if the pot life of a coating is 4
hours at 25°C (77°F), it may be possible to use the coating for up to 5
hours after it is mixed if the temperature of the material is maintained
at 18°C (65°F). Therefore, the practice of adding thinner to reduce
viscosity, so that the coating can be used beyond the pot life is poor
practice and can result in premature failure of the applied film. Any
thinner used should be added to the coating immediately after mixing,
and not again until a new mix is blended.

Inspecting Thinning Procedures

With the advent of stricter air quality regulations, the type and amount
of thinner that can be added to the coating may need to be monitored.
If thinning is permitted by the coating manufacturer and by the
project specification, then only the manufacturer’s recommended
type and amount of thinner can be used. Use of alternate thinners
or over-thinning a coating can result in application difficulties and
premature coating failure, not to mention violation of local air quality
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©2015 SSPC 5-27
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

regulations. If thinning is permitted (and is necessary), the inspector

should verify the correct type of thinner is used and should verify that
graduated containers are used to measure the quantity of thinner e.g.,
100 mL per liter (one pint per gallon), 10% of the total volume mixed,
etc. Thinner addition for the purpose of reducing the viscosity of the
coating material to “extend” the pot life is not recommended and may
adversely affect coating performance. The only way to extend the pot
life is to reduce the material temperature (within the range listed on the
manufacturer’s product data sheet) to retard the rate of reaction.

Documentation and Reporting Procedures Relating

to Inspection of Thinning (reducing)

Documentation of coating thinning procedures includes:

• The manufacturer of the thinner/reducer and the thinner/reducer
name and/or no.;
• The batch no. of the thinner;
• The amount of thinner added (based on percentage or volume);
and
• The date and time the thinner was added to the coating

Coating Application Methods

Transferring the coating materials from the can to the surface

can be accomplished in a number of ways. Factors that should be
considered when deciding on an application method include the size
and configuration of the surfaces to be coated, the desired or required
transfer efficiency, the type of coating, environmental regulations,
the proximity to other operations/conditions, the specification and the
coating manufacturer’s recommendations.

The six methods of coating application that we will describe in this

Module include:

1. Brushes, rollers and daubers 5. Air-assisted airless spray

2. Airless spray 6. Plural component spray
3. Conventional (air) spray
4. High Volume Low Pressure
(HVLP) spray

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Brushes, Rollers and Daubers

The use of brushes on industrial painting projects is generally

restricted to striping or “cutting in” of inside/outside corners, welds,
around rivet heads and bolt/nut assemblies, etc. Striping is the
application of a layer of coating to surfaces that are
relatively difficult to achieve a normal film build on.
Wet striping can be done on any coating layer. After the
“wet stripe” is given an opportunity to release most of
the solvent (becomes tacky after 5-10 minutes), the full
coat is applied. Conversely, dry striping is applied after
the full coat of primer or intermediate coat, since the
stripe coat in this case is allowed to dry for the full
recoat interval (e.g., 12-16 hours), but not completely
Paint Brushes cure. Many specifications that address the application of
lining systems (e.g., inside of water storage tanks) will
require striping of the weld seams and other appurtenances prior to
application of the full coat, since the service environment is
“continuous immersion.” If striping is not specified, then it is up to the
contractor as to whether he wants to apply a stripe coat.

Similar to brushes, daubers are used to coat inside crevices like back-
to-back angles. There is little control of film thickness using these
devices. Rollers can be used to coat large, flat surfaces, and provide the
user with a high “transfer efficiency rating” (the percentage of coating
that reaches the surface versus waste). Careful attention
must be paid to acquiring the recommended roller nap
depth. Too deep of a roller nap can result in streaking
and poor appearance. Additionally, roller nap can be
pulled from the roller core and become embedded in
the dry coating film. This can act like a small wick and
draw moisture into the coating film. Also, the gloss
level of the coating will be reduced as roller “stipple” is
increased, and coating thickness is difficult to control.
Some industrial coatings dry/cure too rapidly to be
Roller Application recommended for roller application.

Airless Spray

Airless spray is by far the most common method used for the
application of industrial and marine coatings. If the equipment is
operating properly and the applicator employs good spray technique,

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the finish can approach that which is created by conventional or HVLP

spray, but at much higher production levels. Because airless spray
does not employ compressed air to atomize the coating, the transfer
efficiency is relatively higher than conventional spray, reducing
airborne emissions. And because airless spray does not incorporate
compressed air into the paint stream, the cleanliness of the compressed
air is not critical.

Airless spray is analogous to a garden hose with a spray nozzle on the

end. Both work by pressurizing a stream of fluid through a tiny orifice
in the spray nozzle. This pressure is released on the opposite side of
the spray nozzle as the fluid exits the nozzle. This causes the fluid
to atomize, or to break-up into tiny-sized droplets. For perspective,
residential water supply pressure may be 690-827 KPa (100-120 psi),
Airless Spray Gun
while airless paint pressure is 10 to 75 times higher.

A reciprocating pump is used to siphon paint from a non-pressurized

container into the pump, which puts the coating under the designated
pressure. These pumps are ratioed. For every pound of pressure that
is regulated into the spray pump, the pump generates a given paint
pressure. For example, an airless spray pump that is ratioed at 45:1
will produce 310 KPa (45 psi) of paint pressure for every 7 KPa (1
psi) of air that is regulated into the pump. Therefore, if the coating
manufacturer recommends an airless spray pressure of 25 MPa (3,600
psi), then the pressure regulator should be set at 80 psi (80 x 45 =
3,600). Pumps ratioed at 74:1 and higher can be used for application
of viscous coating materials that may otherwise not be able to be
atomized.

The equipment itself consists of a paint pump that is operated using an

air compressor (although electric pumps are available) that is equipped
with a regulator. Coating manufacturers provide recommended airless
spray pressures, which frequently have to be adjusted slightly based
on project conditions (amount of thinner addition, temperature, etc.).
A single hose containing the paint traverses to the spray gun from the
pump. There are no controls on the spray gun. In fact the only way to
control the shape of the spray fan is to change the spray tip. Most tips
are identified using a 3-digit number; the first number is doubled to
obtain the size of the spray fan at 30 cm (12 inches) from the surface,
and the remaining 2 digits indicate the orifice size of the spray tip.
For example, the applicator may choose a 521 tip. The orifice size of
this spray tip is 0.5 mm (0.021 inches), and the fan width is 25 cm (10
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©2015 SSPC 5-30
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

inches) when the spray tip is maintained 30 cm (12 inches) from

the surface. An airless spray gun cannot be “half-triggered” the
way the conventional or HVLP guns can. sssss

The operating pressures of airless spray gun are considered

dangerously high, and paint can be injected beneath the
operator’s skin if fingers are held too close to the spray tip and
the trigger is pulled. Use of a special guard (typically bright
orange or yellow) attached to the tip and the use of a trigger lock
can help prevent these types of injuries.

Airless Spray Tip and Guard The distance that the airless spray gun is held from the surface
is approximately 30 cm (12 inches), and varies depending on the
type of coating and prevailing spraying conditions.

Conventional (air) Spray

Conventional or “air-atomized” spray uses compressed air to transport

the paint from a pressurized pot to the spray gun, to atomize the
coating into a fine spray, then propel the atomized coating to the
surface. The ratio of air to paint is quite high (some say 600:1).
Therefore, compressed air cleanliness is critical and transfer efficiency
is relatively low. The major reason conventional (air) spray is used to
apply industrial coatings is the ability to control both the amount of
paint that exits the spray gun tip and the shape of the spray pattern.

Conventional spray equipment consists of a pressure pot equipped

with two regulators. One pressure regulator is used to control the
amount of pressure in the pot itself (known as
pot pressure) and the other is used to control
the volume of atomization air that is used
to break up the stream of paint exiting the
spray tip. Coating manufacturers will provide
recommended pot and atomization pressures on
the PDS, which oftentimes have to be adjusted
slightly based on project conditions (amount of
thinner addition, temperature, etc.). Two hoses
traverse to the spray gun from the pot. One
hose contains the paint and the other contains
Air Hose
the atomization air. There are two controls on
Paint Hose
the spray gun. The lower control regulates the
amount of paint that comes out of the spray tip.

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This control essentially adjusts how far the operator can pull back
the spray gun trigger (and the needle from the tip opening), which
regulates the amount of paint that exits the spray tip. The upper
control regulates the shape of the fan pattern from a small circle for
striping of corners, etc. to a larger oval for spraying flat surfaces.

A conventional spray gun can be “half-triggered” (pull the trigger

Air Cap
back part way), so that the atomization air (without paint) exits the
spray nozzle. This compressed air can be used to perform a final
blow-down of the surface immediately prior to coating application.

Half-Triggering a Conventional Spray Gun

The distance that the conventional spray gun is held from the surface is
15-20 cm (6-8 inches), and varies depending on the type of coating and
prevailing spraying conditions (i.e., air temperature, wind speed). We
will be describing spray techniques in more depth later in this module.

High Volume Low Pressure (HVLP) Spray

Similar to conventional spray, high volume low pressure (or HVLP)

spray uses compressed air to transport the paint from a pressurized
pot to the spray gun, to atomize the coating into a fine spray, then
propel the atomized coating to the surface. In this case, the coating
is atomized using a high volume of air under very low pressure (less
than 69 KPa [10 psi], verses 345-517 KPa [50-75 psi] for conventional
spray). Like conventional spray, compressed air cleanliness is critical.
But unlike conventional spray, the transfer efficiency can be much
higher. The major reasons HVLP spray is used to apply industrial

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coatings is the ability to control both the amount of paint that exits
the spray gun tip, the shape of the spray pattern and most importantly
reduced blow-back (paint rebound from the surface due to the
high velocity of the paint as it exits the spray tip), which increases
the transfer efficiency of the paint. When the transfer efficiency is
increased, less coating is used, which translates into lower volatile
organic compound (VOC) emissions.

The equipment itself consists of a pressure pot equipped with two

regulators (just like conventional spray). A third regulator is sometimes
positioned near the spray gun, so that that atomization pressure can be
finely regulated just before it enters the spray gun. Unfortunately,
many coating manufacturers do not provide recommended pot and
atomization pressures for HVLP on their PDS. However, the
atomization air should never be set higher than 10 psi. Otherwise, the
HVLP spray becomes traditional conventional spray, negating the
transfer efficiencies.

Conventional Cap and Tip HVLP Cap and Tip

The biggest noticeable difference between conventional and HVLP

spray gun lies in the design of the spray tip and air cap. Compared
to conventional spray, the atomization air ports around the perimeter
of the spray tip and in the air cap are much larger, enabling a higher
volume of air to pass through them. Similar to conventional spray, an
HVLP spray gun can be “half-triggered” (pull the trigger back part
way), so that the atomization air (without paint) exits the spray nozzle.
This compressed air can be used to perform a final blow-down of the
surface immediately prior to coating application. However, because of
the low air pressure, the blow down may not be adequate for removal
of heavy dust deposits. The distance that the HVLP spray gun is held
from the surface is the same as is used for conventional spray (15-20
cm, or 6-8 inches).

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Air-Assisted Airless Spray

Air-assisted airless spray combines the productivity of airless spray

with some of the control of conventional spray. An “air cap” attached
to the exit port of the spray gun is used to help atomize the coating
and to shape the spray fan. One control knob located on the back
of the spray gun is used to adjust the pattern shape. Compressed air
cleanliness is once again critical to coating quality. Air-assisted airless
spray operates at lower pressures than traditional airless spray.

Plural Component Spray

Plural component spray is used for coating materials with a relatively

short pot life or coating materials that do not have viscosity-reducing
solvents in them (e.g., 100% solids materials). Plural component spray
does not require “pre-mixing” of the coating components. Rather,
the individual components are pumped to a mixer/manifold at the
correct ratio, then are mixed and pumped to the spray gun using a
short material hose that can be intermittently flushed with
solvent using a solvent purge system. This is known as an
internal mix process. There are also external mix plural
component systems that send each component to the spray
gun in separate material hoses. The components blend as
they exit the spray tip. It is common for the material hoses
to be heated for plural component spray, in order to reduce
the viscosity of the components (for easier transport and
improved atomization). This process is analogous to the
motor oil in your vehicle’s engine that reduces in viscosity
as it increases in temperature.

Plural component spray can employ either fixed ratio or

variable ratio proportioning pumps. Fixed ratio pumps can
only proportion the components in a set ratio (e.g., 1:1),
while a variable ratio pump can proportion the materials
according to the required ratio (e.g., 2:1, 4:1, 8:1, 16:1
and so on…). Plural component spray equipment can be complex and
typically requires a technician to set-up the equipment and to monitor
the mix ratio, so that the coating materials are not applied “off-ratio.”
Many plural component apparatuses now contain an off-ratio alarm
that alerts the applicator when the ratio of the components is incorrect.
This prevents the applicator from applying under or over catalyzed
coating to the surface.

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Some contractors have employed plural component spray systems

even when using multi-component coatings that could be mixed prior
to application and have a fairly lengthy pot life. In this case, plural
component spray is being used to minimize waste and reduce material
usage. That is, by keeping the components separated, the cans
containing the individual components can be resealed and used another
time, rather than having to discard unused material. Further, the
coating will not need to be reduced, since heat can be used to reduce
the viscosity of the components. Note that coatings requiring an
induction time cannot be applied using plural component equipment.

SSPC’s Plural Component Application for Polyureas and High-Solids

Coatings training course provides additional information on plural
component spray.

Spray Technique

Spray technique cannot typically be taught in a

classroom, but rather by practice and experience with
the spray equipment and different industrial coatings. In
fact, many automotive coating applicators struggle with
industrial coatings application, as the techniques and
equipment can vary considerably. Therefore, it is not the
intent to teach application techniques here, but rather to
inform the inspector of the techniques that applicators
should demonstrate.

A unique laser device developed and patented by the

Iowa Waste Reduction Center (IWRC) attaches to the top
LaserPaint Applicator Training Device
of a spray gun and can be used to train new applicators
or correct bad habits of experienced sprayers. The applicator attaches
the device to the spray gun using the mounting hardware provided
with the device, then establishes the correct distance from the spray
gun tip to the surface 15.2-20 cm (6-8 inches) for conventional and
HVLP spray and 30.5 cm (12 inches) for airless and air-assisted airless
spray). The applicator then adjusts the laser control knob so that a
single laser “dot” appears on the surface. If the applicator positions
the spray gun further away or closer to the surface (than the pre-set
distance), or arcs the spray gun (rather than remaining perpendicular to

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the surface) during actual application, the single laser dot will double,
giving the applicator a visual signal to correct the spray gun distance/
position (i.e., re-establish the correct spray gun distance/position until
the laser dots converge). Also, since the laser device is positioned at
the same latitude as the spray gun tip, the laser can be used to indicate
the location of the middle of the spray fan, making it easier to overlap
spray passes by 50% (described later in this module). The device can
be removed once the applicator perfects his technique. The device was
invented with the goal of reducing rework and paint waste.

Remain Perpendicular to the Surface; Maintain Proper

Distance

In order to build a consistent coating layer, it is important that the

spray gun be positioned perpendicular to the surface to be coated, and
that the applicator maintain this position throughout the application
process. If the applicator does not remain perpendicular to the surface,
then light and heavy areas will likely be the result. In addition to
remaining perpendicular, the applicator must maintain the proper
distance from the surface, which varies depending on the application
equipment (conventional, airless, etc.) Spray distances were discussed
earlier in this Module.

Correct Gun Position During Application - Incorrect Gun Angle

Perpendicular to The Surface

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Use Spray Pass Overlapping and Crosshatch Spray

Techniques

The quantity of coating material exiting the spray gun tip varies, due
to the atomization air that creates a fan-shaped spray pattern. That is,
the amount of material in the center of the fan is typically greater than
the amount of material at the ends of the fan pattern. This variation
can only be corrected by the applicator. Once the applicator makes
the first pass (e.g., left to right), the applicator should overlap the
previous pass by 50% when making the second pass (e.g., right to left),
then overlapping that pass when making the third pass (left to right
again) and so on. This overlapping technique is important. It helps to
ensure an even film build and will improve the consistency of coating
thickness.

In order to build an even more consistent film, the applicator can

alternate between horizontal and vertical passes, overlapping each type
of pass by 50% as described above. This is called a crosshatch spray
technique.

Calculating Wet Film Thickness

Prior to mixing, thinning and applying the coating, the contractor

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Calculating the Target Wet Film Thickness

Before you measure the wet film thickness, you will need to calculate
the target wet film thickness for the applicator to shoot for by
obtaining three values. Without these values, the target wet film
thickness (WFT) remains unknown unless it is provided by the coating
manufacturer. Also, attempts to determine the WFT without the help
of a calculator can result in mathematical errors, so use your calculator.

Value No. 1: The target dry film thickness (DFT)

Value No. 2: The solids by volume content of the coating material
Value No. 3: The amount of thinner that will be added to the coating

Let’s look at each of these a little closer to determine where the three
values come from.

Step 1: Determine Value No. 1 – The Target Dry Film

Thickness

The target dry film thickness (DFT) is indicated in the project

Example:
“The primer coat shall be applied to a dry film
thickness (DFT) of 51-102 microns (2-4 mils).”
Write down: 51-102 microns DFT
(2-4 mils DFT)

Step 2: Determine Value No. 2 – The Solids by Volume

Content of the Coating Material

When the solids by volume content is indicated on the coating

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Example: Solids by Volume: 47%

If the solids by volume content is not listed on the coating

manufacturer’s product data sheet, there are two ways to determine
it, depending on whether or not you are working in metric units.

Metric Example
1. Start with the standard rule of coating coverage: One liter of
coating that is 100% solids by volume will cover 149 square
meters if it is applied exactly 25.4 microns thick.

2. Determine coverage rate at 25.4 microns. Locate the theo-

Example: The theoretical coverage rate is

37 square meters per liter at 76 microns.
76 ÷ 25.4 = 3
37 x 3 = 111 square meters per liter at
25.4 microns dry film thickness

3. Calculate the solids by volume content. Divide the theoretical

coverage rate at 25.4 microns by 149.

Example: The theoretical coverage rate is

111 square meters per liter at 25.4 microns.
111 ÷ 149 = 0.74

4. Covert the solids content to a percentage. Multiply the volume

solids value by 100.

Example: 0.74 x 100 = 74% solids by volume

U.S. Customary Units Example

1. Start with the standard rule of coating coverage: One US

gallon of coating that is 100% solids by volume will cover
1,604 square feet if it is applied exactly 1 mil thick.
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©2015 SSPC 5-39
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

2. Determine coverage rate at 1 mil. Locate the theoretical

Example: The theoretical coverage rate is 401 square feet

per gallon at 3 mils. 401 x 3 = 1203 square feet
per gallon at 1 mil dry film thickness.

3. Calculate the solids by volume content. Divide the

theoretical coverage rate at 1 mil by 1,604.

Example: The theoretical coverage rate is 1,203 square

feet per gallon at 1 mil.
1203 ÷ 1604 = 0.75

4. Convert the solids content to a percentage. Multiply the

volume solids value by 100.

Example: 0.75 x 100 = 75% solids by volume

Step 3: Determine Value No. 3 – The Amount of Thinner that

will be added to the Coating

Most industrial coatings do not require thinning unless a low

temperature increases the viscosity of the coating. Unnecessary
thinning should be avoided. Over-thinning a coating may violate air
pollution regulations.

If the project specification and the coating manufacturer permit thinner

Coating manufacturers typically communicate the amount of thinner

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calculation. If the coating manufacturer provides the percentage

of thinner to add, then no further work is required. If the coating
manufacturer indicates thinner addition by volume, then you will
need to calculate the percentage using some very basic units of
measurement.
a) There are 4 quarts in 1 US gallon. A quart is 25% (1/4) of 1 US
gallon
b) There are 8 pints in 1 US gallon. A pint is 12.5% (1/8) of 1
US gallon

Example: The coating was thinned 1 pint per gallon, or

12.5%

Now that we have all three values (target DFT, percent solids by
volume and percent thinner), we can calculate the target WFT.

Step 4: Select a Formula

Formula B (WITH thinner addition)

Step 1: % solids by volume ÷ (100% + % thinner added) =
adjusted volume solids content
Step 2: DFT ÷ adjusted volume solids content = WFT

Step 5: Enter the Values into the Formula Selected in Step 4

Example 1 – DFT range of 51-102 microns (2-4 mils) with no thinner

added. The solids by volume is 75%. Use Formula A:

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51 microns (2 mils) DFT ÷ 0.75 solids by volume =

68 microns (2.7 mils) WFT
102 microns (4 mils DFT) ÷ 0.75 solids by volume = 135 microns
(5.3 mils WFT)

Therefore, the applicator should strive to apply the coating within a

range of 63-140 microns (2.5-5.5 mils) WFT.

Example 2 – DFT range of 51-102 micrometers (2-4 mils) with 12.5%

thinner added. Use Formula B:

(75% solids by volume ÷ 112.5%) = 67% adjusted volume solids

content

51 microns (2 mils) DFT ÷ 0.67 solids by volume =
76 microns (3.0 mils) WFT
102 microns (4 mils) DFT ÷ 0.67 solids by volume =
152 microns (6.0 mils) WFT

Therefore, the applicator should strive to apply the coating within

a range of 76-152 microns (3-6 mils) WFT. Even with the addition
of 12.5% thinner, the coating should “shrink” to 51 to 102 microns
(2-4 mils) DFT.

The percentage of solids by volume content of a coating remains a key

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Target DFT (from the specification): 127 microns (5 mils)

Calculated Target WFT (based on 67% solids by volume):
203 microns (8 mils)
Actual WFT (measured): 203 microns (8 mils)
Actual DFT (measured): Only 102 microns (4 mils)

(Actual DFT / Actual WFT) x 100 = Adjusted Percent Volume Solids

Content

102 ÷ 203 microns (4 ÷ 8 mils) x 100 = .50 or 50%

Revised Target WFT = 127 microns (5 mils DFT) ÷ 0.50 =

254 microns (10 mils )WFT

Measuring Wet Film Thickness

Theoretically, an accurate measurement of the wet film thickness,

together with the volume solids content of the coating will
correspond to the targeted dry film thickness. Applicators should
routinely verify that the targeted wet film thickness of the coating
is being achieved during application. That is why a wet film
thickness gage should be regarded as much of an applicator’s
tool as a paint brush or spray gun. The industry standard for
Wet Film Thickness Gage measuring wet film thickness is described in ASTM D4414,
“Practice for Measurement of Wet Film Thickness by Notch
Gages.” Calculation of the target wet film thickness was described
earlier in this module; the proper use of a wet film thickness notch
gage is described in the instrument supplement at the end of this
module.

Low range WFT gage Mid-range WFT gage Metric range WFT gage
(1/2 to 20 mils) (4 to 60 mils) (10 to 500 microns)

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Measuring Dry Film Thickness

While the applicator is concerned with the wet film thickness of the
applied coating, inspection personnel are much more concerned with
the end result, or the dry film thickness. The measurement of wet
film thickness is simply a means to an end on most metal surfaces,
where measurement of the dry film is feasible. Currently there
are two standards that address the nondestructive measurement of
coating thickness on steel: SSPC-PA 2 “Procedure for Determining
Compliance with Dry Coating Thickness Requirements," and ASTM
D7091, “Standard Practice for Nondestructive Measurement of Dry
Film Thickness of Nonmagnetic Coatings Applied to Ferrous Metals
and Nonmagnetic, Nonconductive Coatings Applied to Non-Ferrous
Metals.” Each of these standards prescribes methods for verifying the
accuracy of the measuring devices and for obtaining coating thickness
measurements. SSPC-PA 2 also provides guidance on the frequency
of measurements (number of measurements to obtain based on the
size of the coated structure) and includes a table of coating thickness
restriction levels that establish varying ranges of coating thickness
tolerance. Coating Thickness Restriction Level 3 is the default level
unless otherwise specified.

Aside from the industry standards, coating thickness measurements

should be obtained after the application of each coat in a multiple coat
system, not just after the final coat. The vast majority of nondestructive
coating thickness gages described in SSPC-PA 2 and ASTM D7091
cannot distinguish individual coating layers, but rather measure the
total “gap” between the substrate and the gage probe.

Verifying Gage Accuracy

Prior to obtaining coating thickness measurements, the user must

verify the accuracy of the magnetic gage. Otherwise, the coating
thickness measurements are of little value. In fact, SSPC-PA 2 requires
that the gage be verified for accuracy prior to and after each period of
use. You’ll notice that we have not used the phase “calibrate the gage.”
Typically, the only party that can truly calibrate a coating thickness
gage is the manufacturer or approved laboratory. Rather, the user can
verify accuracy and adjust/optimize the gage if necessary.

SSPC-PA 2 and ASTM D7091 define two types of nondestructive

coating thickness gages as Type 1 (magnetic pull-off) and Type 2

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(electronic). Certified traceable coated standards are typically used

to verify the accuracy of Type 1 coating thickness gages, while
certified non-metallic foils (also known as plastic shims) are used to
verify Type 2 gage accuracy. The user must carefully read the project
specification to determine which type of gage and accuracy verification
are required.

Certified traceable coated standards are manufactured by thickness

gage suppliers and by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST). They are typically chrome-plated steel or plastic
coated steel blocks. These coated standards are typically more accurate
than certified measured shims. In addition, because the surface beneath
the chrome or plastic-coated film is not representative of abrasive blast
cleaned steel, the gage operator must measure and record the effect of
surface roughness on the coating thickness gage measurement. This
is called a Base Metal Reading or BMR. The BMR is deducted from
any coating thickness measurement. It remains constant for the entire
project (assuming the same size abrasive was used throughout) and is
deducted from each measurement, regardless which coat is involved:

Measured Primer Thickness 102 microns 4 mils
BMR 13 microns 0.5 mils
Actual Primer Thickness 89 microns 3.5 mils

Measured Primer + Finish Thickness 178 microns 7 mils

BMR 13 microns 0.5 mils
Actual Total System Thickness 165 microns 6.5 mils

The step-by-step procedures for verifying the accuracy and using a

variety of Type 1 and Type 2 coating thickness gages are described in
the supplement at the end of this module. Briefly, gage readings are
obtained on the certified coated standard or certified measured shims in
the intended range of use (if the user intends to measure 203 microns
(8 mils) of coating, then accuracy in the 178-229 micron (7-9 mil)
range should be verified). If the gage reading does not closely match
the known thickness (within the combined accuracy of the gage and
calibration standard, shown below) and cannot be adjusted by the user,
then the gage should be returned to the manufacturer for calibration.

For example, if the gage accuracy is +/- 5% and the

standards accuracy is +/- 5%, then the combined accuracy of
the gage and the standard will be +/- 7%. This is calculated
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©2015 SSPC 5-45
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

by squaring both the gage and standard accuracy values,

summing them, then taking the square root of the sum.

√ 52 + 52 = 7.071 or approximately 7%

When certified measured shims are used for verifying gage accuracy,
there is no need to measure nor deduct a BMR, as the gage will only
recognize the coating thickness represented by the shim from the tops
of the peaks of the surface profile.

Many are confused by the BMR, its net effect on coating thickness
devices and the measurements that they yield. To simplify this, it is
important to recognize that the basis for whether the user should obtain
a BMR or not is not based on the gage type, but rather the method
chosen to verify gage accuracy. If coated standards are used, then the
base metal effect must be assessed, independent of whether a Type 1
or a Type 2 gage is used. If measured shims are used AND if they are
positioned on the prepared, uncoated steel, then the base metal effect
is already incorporated into the measurement and no deduction is
required.

Frequency of Coating Thickness Measurements

The number of areas in which to obtain coating thickness

measurements can be a challenging decision. SSPC PA 2 has a
recommended frequency, as described below:

The coated area is divided into 9.29 sq m (100 square foot) areas. In
each area, five spots are selected – each spot is approximately 3.8 cm
(1.5 inch) in diameter. Three gage readings are taken at each spot.
The average of the three individual gage readings is representative
of a “spot measurement.” The average of 5 “spot measurements” is
representative of the area.

The size of the coated

area dictates the number
of areas to measure.
For coated areas less
than 27.9 square m (300
square feet), each 9.29
square m (100 square
Verify the Accuracy of a Type I Gage.
foot) area should be

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measured. For coated areas between 27.9 and 92.9 square m (300
and 1,000 square feet), three random 9.29 square m (100 square foot)
areas are measured. For coated areas exceeding 92.9 square m (1000
square feet), three random areas are selected and measured in the first
92.9 square m (1,000 square feet) and one more area is selected and
measured for each additional 92.9 square m (1,000 square feet). The
following example is based on a coated area that is 55,000 square feet.

Coated Area: 5110 square m

No. of Areas: 3 + 52 = 55 areas
No. of Spots 55 Areas x 5 Spots/Area = 275 Spots
Minimum No.
of Gage Readings: 275 Spots x 3 Readings/Spot = 825
Gage Readings

Coated Area: 55,000 square feet

No. of Areas: 3 + 54 = 57 areas
No. of Spots: 57 Areas x 5 Spots/Area = 285 Spots
Minimum
No. of Gage Readings: 285 Spots x 3 Readings/Spot = 855
Gage Readings

The illustrations that follow show application of SSPC-PA 2 for

large, structural steel members (I-beams) and for coated flat surfaces,
respectively. Note that each numbered spot is the average of a
minimum of three individual gage readings.

Tolerance of Coating Thickness Measurements

Most industrial coating specifications (and even manufacturer’s

technical data sheets) specify/recommend coating thickness in terms
of a range (e.g., 4-6 mils/coat) rather than a single value (e.g., 5
mils). However, even given this range, it is nearly impossible for the
applicator to apply the coating consistently to meet these requirements.
This begs the question: Just how far out of tolerance is the coating
thickness allowed to be and remain acceptable? SSPC PA 2 provides
guidance here. In fact, if a specification invokes SSPC PA 2, then
the contractor is limited to the tolerances stated below, depending on
which level is specified.

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TABLE 1
COATING THICKNESS RESTRICTION LEVELS
Spot
Thickness Gage Reading Area Measurement
Measurement
Level 1
Minimum Unrestricted As specified As specified
Maximum Unrestricted As specified As specified
Level 2
Minimum Unrestricted As specified As specified
Maximum Unrestricted 120% of maximum As specified
Level 3
Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified
Maximum Unrestricted 120% of maximum As specified
Level 4
Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified
Maximum Unrestricted 150% of maximum As specified
Level 5
Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified
Maximum Unrestricted Unrestricted Unrestricted

The individual gage readings that are averaged to generate a spot

measurement are unrestricted. The user should obtain 3 readings
that are truly representative of the spot, even if unusually high or
low readings must be discarded. The average of the three individual
readings (the spot measurement) must be within the minimum
tthickness and the maximum thickness percentage quoted in Table 1
of SSPC-PA 2. The average of the five spot measurements must fall
within the specified thickness range.”

This tolerance concept is illustrated below, based on a target dry film

thickness of 102-152 microns (4-6 mils) at Level 3:

METRIC
• 102 microns x 0.80 = 81 microns
• 152 microns x 1.20 = 183 microns
• Spot measurements must fall between 81 microns
(80% of 102 microns) and 183 microns (120% of 152
micrometers) Area measurement must fall between 102
and 152 microns

US CUSTOM
• 4 mils x 0.80 = 3.2 mils
• 6 mils x 1.20 = 7.2 mils

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• Spot measurements must fall between 3.2 mils (80% of

4 mils) and 7.2 mils (120% of 6 mils)]
• Area measurement must fall between 4 and 6 mils

If the coating thickness for any 100-ft2 (~10-m2) area coated during
a work shift is not in compliance with the contract documents, PA 2
provides a procedure to establish the magnitude of the nonconforming
thickness. Additional spot measurements must be made at 5-foot
(1.5m) intervals in 8 equally spaced directions radiating outward from
the nonconforming area until two successive measurements in one
direction are in compliance. This is illustrated on the next page.

Cumulative Thickness Measurements

As stated earlier in this module, the vast majority of nondestructive
coating thickness gages for use on ferrous and non-ferrous metal
surfaces cannot distinguish layers as they are applied. They simply
measure the total cumulative thickness. For this reason, the inspector
must understand that as each layer is applied, the range becomes
somewhat wider. This concept is illustrated below.

Specification
Primer Thickness: 76-127 microns 3-5 mils
Intermediate Coat Thickness: 102-152 microns 4-6 mils
Finish Coat Thickness: 51-76 microns 2-3 mils

Gage Reading
After Primer Application: 76-127 microns 3-5 mils
After Intermediate Application: 178-279 microns 7-11 mils
After Finish Coat Application: 229-356 microns 9-14 mils

Measuring the Thickness of Individual Layers

Using Destructive Means

ASTM D4138, “Test Method for Measurement of Dry Film Thickness

of Protective Coating Systems by Destructive Means” describes the
procedures used to obtain individual layer thickness data after the full
system has been installed. The PIG (Paint Inspection Gage) and the
Tooke Gage are frequently used. The Tooke Gage is more common
and is described in this section.

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Radiating Spot Measurements to Determine Extent of

Nonconforming Area

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What is a Tooke Gage?

The Tooke Gage consists of a gage body (plastic or aluminum) and

battery compartment, a 50 power illuminated microscope with a scale
etched onto the lens, a focus adjustment for the microscope and three
tungsten carbide precision cutting tips. It is perhaps the most accurate
field method of measuring coating thickness. You do not have to
calibrate the Tooke Gage, and it is unaffected by the type of substrate,
the effect of the base metal, and surface profile. The Tooke Gage is
destructive, in that it makes an incision or groove (about the width of a
line drawn with a pencil) through the coating film down to the
substrate. The Tooke Gage can be used to measure coating thickness
up to 1270 microns (50 mils).

The Tooke Gage

measures coating
thickness using basic
trigonometry. By
cutting a precision “V”
groove into the coating
system using one of the
tungsten carbide cutting Cross-section of groove. Right triangles
tips, a right triangle is are shown on left side
created. The angles of
the right triangle are known. By measuring the length of one leg of the
triangle, you can calculate the length of the other leg, which represents
the coating thickness. If the coating layers are different or alternating
in color, then each layer can be both seen and the thickness measured
through the Tooke Gage lens. The good news is that you do not have
to know trigonometry, nor do you actually have to calculate the third
angle. The cutting tips and the scale etched on the microscope lens do
the work for you.

Documentation Procedures Relating to Inspection

of Dry Film Thickness

Documentation of dry film thickness (DFT) data is a very important

responsibility of a coating inspector. The following items typically
comprise recordkeeping relating to coating thickness measurements:

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• DFT gage manufacturer and type (Type 1 magnetic pull-off or

Type 2 electronic)
• Serial No. of DFT gage
• Serial No. of calibration blocks or shims (if available)
• Date of gage calibration (typically performed annually by gage
manufacturer or approved laboratory)
• Method used to verify gage accuracy prior to use
• Date measurements were acquired
• Specified DFT range (may also document the allowable spot
measurement range)
• Area of structure where coating thickness was measured
• Spot measurements (the average of the 3 gage readings)
• Area measurements (the average of the 5 spot measurements)

Note that is some instances the inspector may be required to record the
individual gage readings that were averaged together to generate the
spot measurements.

Assessing Intercoat Cleanliness

Airborne dirt and dust is common on industrial painting sites and

may become deposited onto the coated surfaces. This poses no
particular problem unless the surface is scheduled to be recoated. In
this case, a visual or tactical (touch) examination of the surface is
required to detect the presence of dust and to help prevent intercoat
contamination. Alternatively, the pressure-sensitive tape procedure
(ISO 8502, Part 3) described in Module 3 can be used to assess the
presence of dust on coated surfaces, in the same manner used for
evaluating dust on prepared surfaces. Surface dust/debris can cause
subsequent applied coatings to fisheye (inability to wet the surface)
and, in sufficient quantities, can cause intercoat delamination.

Detecting Amine Exudate (Blush) On Polyamide

and Polyamide-Cured Surfaces By Elevated
Alkalinity

Many industrial structures are protected from corrosion using epoxy

coatings, which are often regarded as the "workhorse" of today's coating
systems. Epoxy coatings are multi-component, which means that the user
must blend together multiple cans of material prior to application. One of
these cans contains a curing agent or co-reactant, which helps the coating
go from a liquid state to a solid film. Often this curing agent contains a

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chemical called "Amine." Amine curing agents are water-soluble, which

means they seek out moisture and can be dissolved in water.

Shop or field conditions of high humidity and/or cold temperatures dur-

ing the application and/or curing stages of an amine-cured epoxy coating
can produce a haze or an oily residue (oftentimes amber in color) on the
surface of the coating. This is commonly referred to as amine exudate or
"blush." Polyamide-cured epoxy coatings may also produce an exudate,
but to a lesser extent. The residue is unreacted amine on the surface of
the epoxy coating, amine which may have partially reacted with carbon
dioxide and moisture in the air. This blush is intensified by cool tempera-
tures and increased coating thickness. The presence of an amine blush
may or may not be visible on the surface of the coating. If the surface
amine goes undetected and a topcoat is applied over the exudate, intercoat
delamination can result (provided there is enough amine on the surface
to cause a problem). This oily residue interferes with the adhesion of the
topcoat to the epoxy. When applying a coating over an epoxy, it is best
practice to consult with the coating manufacturer in regard to determining
if amine blush exists on the substrate, and, if so, what the proper removal
methods may be.

Documentation Procedures Relating to Verification

of Intercoat Cleanliness and Conformance to
Recoat Intervals

The inspector should record (document) the method(s) employed by

the contractor to clean the surfaces of dirt or dust (if performed) and
the results of the inspection of the surfaces after cleaning. Finally, the
actual elapsed time between coats should be documented. If the actual
recoat time exceeded the manufacturer’s maximum recoat interval,
then the manufacturer’s recommendations for preparing the surfaces
and the procedures employed by the contractor to prepare the surfaces
for recoating should be recorded.

Assessing Coating Cure

Prior to application of subsequent coats, or prior to placing the lining

system into service, many specifications require that the coating/
lining be assessed for cure. Coatings and linings cure in a variety of
ways, including solvent evaporation (air-dry), oxidation (reaction with
oxygen), polymerization (chemical cross-linking) and moisture cure
(reaction with moisture). We will be discussing curing mechanisms in
more detail in Module 6. If a coating or lining system is placed into
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©2015 SSPC 5-55
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
service before it is fully cured, it may exhibit a reduced service life or
may catastrophically fail.

ASTM has three test methods that can be employed to evaluate drying
or curing of coatings. Each of these test methods is briefly described
below. All of these test methods are procedural. Prior to conducting
any of these tests, the inspector should carefully read the applicable
ASTM test method and acquire the necessary equipment/supplies.

Coatings and linings can be evaluated for “drying” according to the

procedures described in ASTM D1640, “Standard Test Methods for
Drying, Curing, or Film Formation of Organic Coatings at Room
Temperature.” The standard includes test procedures for evaluating
set-to-touch, dust-free, tack-free, dry-to-touch, dry-hard, dry-through
and dry-to-recoat.

Each of these test procedures is briefly described below:

Set-to-Touch

Touch the coating film with the tip of a clean finger, then immediately
touch the surface of a clear glass plate with the same finger. Observe
the plate for any paint transfer. Set-to-touch is achieved once the film
is tacky, but does not attach to the finger or transfer to the glass.

Dust Free

Cotton fibers removed from a cotton ball using tweezers are dropped
from a distance of 25 mm (1 inch) onto the coated surface. The film is
considered dry to a “dust-free” condition when the cotton fibers can be
removed from the film by lightly blowing on the film.

Tack-Free

Tack-free testing can only be performed using a Tack Tester. Testing

by this method is typically restricted to the laboratory.

Dry-to-Touch

Similar to “set-to-touch,” the film is considered dry-to-touch if it does

not “rub up” when lightly rubbed with finger pressure, or does not
adhere to the finger.

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Dry-Hard

Hold the coated surface (e.g., coated test plate) in one hand and
depress maximum thumb pressure downward on the coating film
(using the opposite hand) without twisting. Lightly polish the surface
with a soft cloth, then examine the tested area. The coating film is
considered hard when there is no evidence of thumb pressure in the
film.

Dry-Through (Dry-to-handle)

The test procedure is similar to the “dry-hard” test, except that the
test surface is not held by hand, but rather is allowed to rest on a firm
surface. Also, the thumb is twisted in the coating surface (once in
contact) 90°. The coating film is considered dry-through when there is
no evidence of loosening, detachment or wrinkling of the film.

Dry-to-Recoat

The dry-to-recoat time is assessed by recoating the film, then

examining the applied coating for evidence of lifting, wrinkling or loss
of adhesion from the underlying coat.

ASTM D5402, “Assessing the Solvent Resistance of Organic Coatings

Using Solvent Rubs” can be used to evaluate the cure of any coating
which cures by polymerization (chemical cross-linking) or by moisture
cure. Briefly, it involves saturating a cloth with solvent (i.e., methyl
ethyl ketone) and conducting a series of “double rubs” (one forward
and backstroke is one double rub) until a specific number of double
rubs is achieved, or until the coating is dissolved by the solvent.
ASTM D4752, “Test Method for Measuring MEK Resistance of Ethyl
Silicate (Inorganic) Zinc-Rich Primer by Solvent Rub” describes a
similar procedure, but is only intended for inorganic (ethyl silicate
type) zinc-rich primers.

For both of the solvent rub methods, the number of double rubs that
the coating/lining can withstand is converted to a rating scale provided
by ASTM, which can then be compared to the requirements of the
project specification or the coating manufacturer’s requirements. The
inspector should record the method used to assess coating cure, the
area(s) on the structure where the tests were conducted, and the results

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of the cure tests. Also, if the solvent rub test was employed, then the
type of solvent used for the testing should be recorded.

Assessing Coating Film Hardness

The hardness of a coating or lining film is sometimes used to as an

alternative method to assess its level of cure. Film hardness can be
assessed using a variety of methods described by ASTM, including
pencil hardness, Barcol hardness and durometer hardness. Barcol
and durometer hardness testing are oftentimes restricted to thick film
systems. Each of these methods is described below. If hardness testing
is required by the project specification, then the inspector should read
the entire ASTM standard (corresponding to the type of test required)
prior to conducting the inspection. Otherwise, the testing may be
performed improperly and may generate misleading data.

ASTM D3363, “Test Method for Film Hardness by Pencil Test” can
be used to assess the drying characteristics of a coating, as indicated
by its inherent hardness. Pencils containing various hardnesses of lead
(shown below), from very soft (6B) to very hard (6H) are sharpened,
then blunted (dressed) using a fine sandpaper. The pencil is held at
a 45o angle to the coated surface and the edge of the blunted lead
is pushed into the coated film, in an attempt to scratch or gouge the
coating. If the coating is scratched or gouged, a softer lead is selected
and the coating film is re-tested. If the coating is not scratched or
gouged, a harder lead is selected and the coating film is re-tested. The
hardest pencil lead that cannot scratch the coating is recorded as the
“scratch hardness;” the hardness pencil lead that cannot gouge the
coating is recorded as the "gouge hardness."

ASTM D3363 Pe ncil Hardne s s Scale

6B 5B 4B 3B 2B B HB F H 2H 3H 4H 5H 6H
So f t Medium Hard

ASTM D2583, “Barcol Hardness” is also called “impressor hardness”

and is measured using a hand held impressor. The impressor is
designed to be used on aluminum, soft metals, plastics, fiberglass,
rubber and leather. It is designed for use on thicker materials, and

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therefore may not work on thin film coatings. If Barcol hardness is

required by the project specification, the inspector will need to acquire
an impressor. An impressor is easy to use, and simply requires the
user to position the device so that the indenter pointer and support
legs are on the same plane. The inspector should press down firmly on
the impressor handle, observe
the dial indicator and record
the peak reading. If a softer
coating is being tested, there
may be some drift from the
peak value. Multiple readings
should be obtained (from 3 to
9 measurements, depending on
the relative hardness of the material) and an average hardness value
reported. The manufacturer of the Impressor has specific requirements
for verifying the accuracy of the instrument prior to use. The inspector
should carefully read the instructions provided with the instrument
prior to use, and should verify the accuracy of the instrument before
acquiring hardness measurements.

ASTM D2240, “Durometer

Hardness” is measured using
either a Shore A or a Shore D
scale durometer. Similar to
the Barcol impressor, position
the durometer on the coated
surface and set the red ancillary
hand on the durometer dial
just above the black needle
(which indicates the hardness).
Hold the durometer vertically
and apply the presser foot to
the coated surface as rapidly as possible, maintaining the foot of the
durometer parallel with the coated surface. Hold the durometer in
place for 1 or 2 seconds, then release the downward pressure. The
maximum hardness value is indicated by the red ancillary hand (the
black hand returns to zero once the downward pressure is released).
Obtain a minimum of five measurements and report the average
hardness value. The manufacturer of the durometer has specific
requirements for verifying the accuracy of the instrument prior to
use. The inspector should carefully read the instructions provided

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with the instrument prior to use, and should verify the accuracy of the
instrument before acquiring hardness measurements.

If hardness testing is performed, the inspector should document the

test method employed (pencil hardness, Barcol hardness or durometer
hardness) and the manufacturer, model and serial no. of the instrument
used (note that serial no’s. are typically not available for the pencils
used for pencil hardness, however a “lot no.” may be assigned, which
should be documented). The area(s) on the structure where the testing
was performed and the results of the testing should be documented.

Measuring Adhesion

Some project specifications may require the inspector to measure

the adhesion of the coating system after it has been applied and is
cured. Or, the inspector may be required to measure the adhesion
of a coating system that has been on a structure for several years, to
determine its condition or whether it can be successfully overcoated.
In either case, it is important to perform adhesion testing properly.
Otherwise the inspector may obtain misleading results. The adhesion
testing supplement at the end of this module describes the procedures
for performing two different types of adhesion testing: shear or
knife adhesion and tensile or pull-off adhesion (using a variety of
instruments). But before conducting an adhesion test, it is important
for the inspector to understand what is being measured when the
adhesion of a coating is evaluated.

When performing an adhesion test, the strength of a coating at several

different “planes” is being measured. First, the adhesion of the coating
system to the substrate is being assessed. Secondly, the adhesion of
the coating layers to each other (provided there is more than one layer
of coating on the surface) is being assessed. In both of these cases,
the adhesive strength of a coating, or the bond of the layers to one
another and to the substrate is being tested. Lastly, when performing an
adhesion test, the inner-strength of each coating layer is being tested.
This is known as the cohesive strength of a coating, or the ability of
each layer to hold itself together.

The adhesion of a coating system to a surface is highly variable, and

can be influenced by a multitude of factors too numerous to list here.
That is why there is no industry-wide standard that says that a certain
type of coating must have a minimum adhesion or cohesion strength.

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Standard Test Method

ASTM D3359 "Adhesion By Tape Test"

ASTM D6677 "Knife Adhesion"

ISO 4624 "Pull-Off Test for Adhesion"

"Pull-off Strength of Coatings Using Portable Adhesion
ASTM D4541
Testers"
"Pull-off Strength of Coatings on Concrete Using Portable
ASTM D7234
Adhesion Testers"

However, project specifications may require a minimum adhesion

value as a contract requirement, and coating manufacturers will often
report an adhesion value on their technical data sheets. Sometimes this
value is adopted into a project specification.

Types of Adhesion Testing

Prior to performing an adhesion test, a test method must be selected.

The project specification should indicate the required method, as
the various methods can generate very different results. There are
three primary ways to test the adhesion of a coating system. All
three methods are described in ASTM standards. The chart below
summarizes the methods that are commonly used to test the adhesion
of industrial coatings.

Generally the first two methods listed above (ASTM D3359 and
D6677) are considered “field” test methods, since they do not require
any special equipment and can be conducted rather quickly. The latter
two methods (ISO 4624 or ASTM D4541 and ASTM D7234) require
an instrument and the attachment of pull stubs using an adhesive
that may need to cure overnight, up to 24 hours. It is common to
conduct this method of adhesion testing in a laboratory; however, the
instruments used to test the pull-off adhesion strength of coatings are
portable and testing can and is routinely done in the field. The tests
listed in the table above evaluate two different adhesion properties, and
they use different testing mechanisms. The tape and knife adhesion
tests (ASTM D3359 and D6677) are used to evaluate the “shear”
or “peel” strength of a coating, while the pull-off test (ISO 4624 or
ASTM D4541 and ASTM D7234) is used to evaluate a coating’s
tensile strength, or its resistance to a perpendicular pull. Since the
testing mechanisms are different (peel-back versus pull-off), the test
results generated from each test should not be compared. Also, any
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©2015 SSPC 5-61
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

type of adhesion test is “destructive.” That is, the coating in the area in
that the test is performed will be damaged, and oftentimes it must be
repaired. Therefore, adhesion testing should not be conducted unless
required by the project specification. The specification should include
repair procedures for the affected areas.

If adhesion testing of the coating/lining system is performed, then

the inspector will need to document the following items. The level of
documentation is based on the type of adhesion testing employed, as
shown below

First, the inspector should document the type of adhesion testing

performed (tape, knife or pull-off)

If tape or knife adhesion is performed, then the following items should

be documented:
• The manufacturer, model and serial no. of the testing equipment
• The area on the structure where the testing was performed
• The thickness of the coating in the area on the structure where
the testing was performed
• The test method performed (knife or tape; if tape adhesion,
Method A or B)
• If Method B was performed, the spacing between the incisions
(in mm)
• The adhesion rating
• The location of break (adhesion or cohesion, if discernable)

If tape adhesion is performed, then the detached tapes should be

attached to a report form, identified and stored for future reference, as
necessary.

If tensile (pull-off) adhesion is performed then the following items

should be documented:
• The manufacturer, model and serial no. of the testing equipment
• The area on the structure where the testing was performed
• The thickness of the coating in the area on the structure where
the testing was performed
• The diameter of the pull stubs employed for the testing
• Preparation of the pull stub contact surfaces prior to attachment
• Preparation of the coated surface prior to pull stub attachment
• The type of adhesive used (manufacturer and type)

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• The cure time of the adhesive used to attach the pull stubs and
the ambient conditions (air temperature and relative humidity)
during the adhesive curing process
• The pull-off strength (in kpa, MPa or psi)
• The location of break (adhesion, cohesion or glue, and the
approximate percentage of each)

The detached pull stubs should be identified and stored for future
reference, as necessary.

The adhesion testing supplement at the end of this module provides

examples of documented adhesion test data.

Detecting Pinholes and Holidays

Project specifications for coating the interior of storage tanks and

vessels, railcars, or for the application of coatings and linings to
liquid and gas pipelines, frequently require a continuous, holiday
and pinhole-free coating or lining system. Rather than relying on a
visual inspection, holiday/pinhole detectors are used to determine the
number and location of skips, misses, and pinholes, so that they can
be repaired prior to placing the tank, vessel, railcar or pipeline into
service. The pipeline industry refers to this procedure as “jeep” testing.
If holiday, pinhole or “jeep” testing is not performed, and there are
undetected voids in the coating or lining system, then the contents of
the tank, vessel, railcar or pipeline may attack the exposed substrate
and cause pitting corrosion, loss of section and eventual perforation of
the substrate. In addition, the contents may become contaminated with
corrosion products and coating/lining debris if deterioration occurs.
Holiday testing is governed by two industry standards: ASTM D5162,
“Practice for Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of Nonconductive
Protective Coating on Metallic Substrates” and NACE SP0188,
“Standard Recommended Practice-Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of
New Protective Coatings on Conductive Substrates.”

What are Pinholes and Holidays?

The terms “pinhole” and “holiday” are used interchangeably. However,

they can represent two different types of “breaches” in the coating/
lining system. Generally, the term Pinhole is used to describe tiny

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voids in the coating or lining that penetrate down through all of the
layers to the substrate. These voids allow the contents of the tank,
vessel or pipeline access to the metal substrate via tiny “pathways.”
The term Holiday or discontinuity is used to describe “skips” or
“misses” in the coating/lining system (just like holidays are skips in
the work calendar). These uncoated areas permit easy access to the
unprotected substrate.

Pinholes are usually caused by poor wetting of the coating/lining on

the surface during application, or out-gassing (displacement) of air
without subsequent flow-out of the coating. Holidays are areas that
are missed by the applicator. They may be caused by the configuration
of the structure being coated or lined (e.g., difficult to access with the
application equipment), or lack of attention to detail by the applicator.
Most holidays and pinholes are found on areas that are difficult to
protect or access, such as edges and corners, welds, bolts, nuts and
threads, behind angles and clips, inside holes, between back-to-back
angles, etc. Large, flat surfaces like the walls of a tank or vessel
are easier to coat, and therefore usually contain fewer pinholes and
holidays.

When is Holiday Detection Performed?

Pinhole or holiday detection is usually conducted after the final

coat has been applied, but within the recoat interval (period),
in case repair of the coating film is required. Some project
specifications require holiday testing before the application of
the final coat. If this is done, intercoat cleanliness of the surfaces
must be verified prior to application of the final coat, and a
wetting agent should not be used with the holiday detector, as
Low Voltage Holiday Detector Kit
the coated surfaces can become contaminated and may result in
intercoat adhesion problems. Pinhole detection should never be
performed on a coating system that has already been in service.

Selecting a Holiday Detector

There are two different types of holiday detectors. Low voltage or

“wetted sponge” holiday detectors are used on coatings/linings that are
less than 508 microns (20 mils) thick. High voltage holiday detectors
or “spark testers” are used on coatings greater than 508 microns (20
mils) thick. Independent of coating thickness, both of these detectors
will only work on non-conductive coatings applied to a conductive

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substrate. For example, epoxy coatings applied to steel can be tested

for holidays, while a zinc-rich coating applied to the same steel could
not (zinc is a conductive metal in the coating). Most high voltage
detectors can also be used on non-conductive coatings applied to
concrete.

The step-by-step use of low-voltage and high-voltage holiday detectors

for coatings on steel appears in the instrument supplement at the end of
this module.

Holiday testing of pipeline using spring electrode

Verifying the Accuracy of High Voltage Holiday

Detectors

The voltage settings on the holiday detectors are verified at the factory
and at the distributor before they are sold or leased by setting the HI/
LO switch and Voltage Setting Switch to a known operational voltage,
then connecting the detector to a Peak Reading Voltmeter. The value
displayed by the voltmeter must be within 10% of the set value.

You can verify the accuracy using the same procedure, provided that
you have a Peak Reading Voltmeter. Otherwise, you will need to return
the instrument to the manufacturer for verification of accuracy. If the
detector is beyond the allowable tolerance, then the detector must be
returned to the manufacturer, as there are no field adjustments that can
be made.

The inspector should record (document) the type of pinhole detection

performed (low or high voltage) and the manufacturer, model and

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serial no. of the detector used. If high voltage detection is performed,

then the inspector must also record the test voltage employed, and
should document the method used to verify the voltage setting of
the detector unit (e.g., a volt meter, including the make, model and
serial no.). The area of the structure inspected and the method used to
demarcate the location of any holidays or pinholes should be recorded.
Finally, the method employed by the contractor to repair and recoat
the areas should be recorded. If post-repair pinhole/holiday testing is
performed, then the results of the retesting should be documented.

Inspecting Fluorescent Coating Systems

As an alternative to pinhole and holiday detection, fluorescent

pigments or “Optically Active Additives (OAA) can be added to an
existing coating formulation during the manufacturing process, similar
to the process used to add a color pigment to a formulation. Once
the coating is applied, it is inspected using a UVA-340 lamp (black
light), which is reflected onto the coated surfaces. The inspection
is performed after application of the first coat and second coat in a
two-coat system and a three-coat system. In this manner, the proper
application of each coating layer is verified, rather than waiting to
perform a discontinuity inspection after all coats are applied. The
process is described in SSPC Technology Update No. 11 (TU 11), and
is summarized below.

Inspector Training

Some basic training on the use of black light fluorescence as an

inspection tool is necessary if an inspector has never performed this
type of inspection before. According to SSPC-TU 11, the coating
manufacturer supplying the optically active coating should prepare
at least five sample panels for examination by the inspector using the
lamp. These panels should represent:
1. Primer applied to a flat panel with pinholes
2. Primer and finish coat applied to a flat panel; pinholes in the
finish coat
3. Primer on a weld seam, with cracks in the coating
4. Primer and finish coat on a weld seam; cracking in the finish
coat
5. Prime and stripe coat on an angle

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In addition, the inspector should observe the safety requirements when

employing the UVA lamp, including eye and skin protection

Inspecting the Coating

After donning personnel protective equipment and entering the tank

or vessel, the inspector should begin a methodical inspection using the
UVA lamp.

The primer (first coat) is examined for the following:

1. Holidays or undercoated areas, as indicated by black or dark
spots beneath UVA 340 light.
2. High coating thickness areas, as indicated by brighter than
normal luminosity beneath UVA 340 light.
3. Coating detachment or hot work damage, as indicated by a
bright glow beneath UVA 340 light.
4. Organic dust or grit, as indicated by bright speckled spots
beneath UVA 340 light. Note that organic dust can be produced
by fabric (e.g., cotton) rags, clothing or booties.

If the coating system is limited to two coats (primer and finish),

then it is common to exclude the fluorescent pigment from the finish
coat. In this manner, any illumination revealed by the UVA lamp
during inspection of the finish coat would indicate holidays, pinholes,
cracking or low film builds.

If the coating system includes three coats, then a different (contrasting)

color fluorescent pigment should be used in the intermediate coat. The
inspection can then be performed as described above.

Stripe coats identical in color to the main coat (under normal lighting)
will look different under UVA lamps due to the fluorescent additive.
This helps where aesthetics are just as important as the additional
barrier protection afforded by a stripe coat.

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Summary

Next to surface preparation, coating application is one of the most

crucial steps in a successful coating operation. If the coating is not
properly mixed, thinned and applied, the protection of that coating
may be diminished. Therefore, the study and comprehension of both
the specification and the manufacturer’s recommendations (known
as the Product Data Sheet or PDS) are necessary to verify that proper
mixing, thinning, and application procedures are followed.

The inspector’s role in a coating project varies, depending on the

requirements of the specification. The more common checkpoints
include:

1. performing materials receipt inspection and documentation

2. witnessing and verifying (documenting) coating mixing and
thinning procedures
3. measuring and documenting ambient conditions and surface
temperature
4. calculating and measuring wet film thickness
5. measuring dry film thickness nondestructively
6. verifying re-coat times
7. assessing intercoat cleanliness
8. assessing cure
9. assessing coating hardness
10. performing pinhole or holiday detection
11. adhesion testing

SSPC has two main standards that pertain to coating application,

including SSPC PA 1 (Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting of
Steel) and SSPC PA 2 (Measurement of Dry Coating Thickness with
magnetic Gages).

Coating manufacturer’s technical bulletins or product data sheets

(PDS) contain very useful information about the products being used
on the project. However, the manufacturer is not limited to which

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product information they may or may not reveal. While the PDS
typically contains critical information about the content and use of the
coating products, in cases where the PDS and the specification differ
(say on the maximum humidity during application), the specification
is the governing document, except when the owner incorporates the
manufacturer’s recommendations on the PDS into the specification.
When that occurs, the PDS becomes part of the project specification.

Some coating manufacturers list the target wet film thickness, while
others do not. But even when the targeted wet film thickness is listed
on the PDS, this thickness will change if thinner is added to the
product, or when the specified dry film thickness differs from that on
the PDS. It is important for contractors and inspectors to know how to
calculate the target wet film thickness, in order to arrive at the desired
dry film thickness. There are two formulas that can be used to calculate
wet film thickness; one for unthinned coatings and one for coatings
that are reduced. The volume solids content of the coating and the
percentage of thinner added to the coating must be known in order to
calculate a wet film thickness.

Verifying that what was ordered (coating products, coating

components, and thinners, if permitted) was received at the project
site in good condition and in the correct amounts is called a material
receipt inspection. This is typically a job for the contractor’s QC
and although it is not a difficult process, it can prevent a multitude of
problems as the job moves forward. The contractor should also verify
that the coating products are properly stored on the project site prior to
use, and should record batch no’s. for each component and thinner.

Mixing or blending coating products is another essential step in a

successful coatings project and the correct process is geared to the
individual products involved. Mixing or blending a single component
coating is a straightforward process, with the main concern being that
all pigments and solid materials become suspended in the mix. Yet
while some single component coatings require constant agitation,
there are other single component products that do not. Over-mixing
moisture-cured zinc rich primers, for example, can bring moisture into
the product, which can cause the material to gel in the can. (Since
mixing procedures may vary from product to product, always review
the PDS prior to mixing.)

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The mixing of multi-component products is more complex.

Remember, any time you mix different components, you are creating
a “new” product, so following directions is imperative. Before
combining individual components, the individual liquid components
must be thoroughly mixed. Power agitation using a shear-type mixing
blade is often required for industrial coatings.

In the case of multi-component zinc-rich primers, the liquid

components are blended, and then the zinc powder is slowly blended
in while the entire mix is under power-driven agitation. A final step
is the straining of the blend, to remove any zinc particles that did not
thoroughly blend into the product and might clog the tip of the spray
gun or become lodged in the applied coating film.

Most specifications, as well as coating manufacturers, prohibit

the blending of partial kits. This is to prevent the combination of
product components in the wrong ratios. (Also, there may be a
critical minimum volume of material that must be blended so that
the anticipated chemical reaction between the components actually
occurs.) Once the multi-component coating material is blended, the
“potlife clock” begins.

Once the components are blended (and strained, if required), the

temperature of the coating should be measured. Some products
require an induction or “sweat-in” time, which is necessary to initiate
a chemical reaction. As a general rule, the warmer the coating the
shorter the potlife time, since heat increases the rate of the chemical
reaction. Induction time (which is part of the potlife time) is also based
on the temperature of the coating material.

The next step in the mixing process is to decide whether the product
will need constant agitation during application. Reminder: there
are products that need constant agitation and products that could be
damaged by the process. The need for constant agitation will be
addressed by the PDS.

Thinning a coating product impacts the VOC content and the targeted
wet film thickness. Even when thinning is permitted, it must be
done according to the specification and with the products and ratios
recommended on the PDS. There are times when the manufacturer
will permit thinning, but the specification will not. Since the

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specification is the governing document, the product is not reduced in

these instances.

Adding an unknown quantity of thinner to reduce viscosity or to

extend the potlife is poor painting practice; a practice that can result
in a variety of consequences. First, this practice does not extend the
pot life (it can only be extended by maintaining the product at lower
temperatures). Secondly, the addition of unknown quantities of
thinner alters the VOC content, and the target wet film thickness. The
end result of such a practice may be excessive or inadequate coating
thickness. Excessive thinning can cause the coating to sag on vertical
surfaces. If the coating should dry or “skin-over” before the solvents
have an opportunity to escape, a porous film filled with solvent voids
can result. Undo-thinning the coating can have equally negative
consequences, including poor film integrity and/or exposure of the
substrate or underlying coating layers (which may not be resistant to
the service environment).

The method of coating application depends on any number of factors:

the size and configuration of the surfaces to be coated, the proximity
to other structures, environmental regulations, and, of course, the
specification and the coating manufacturer’s recommendations. And
there are other issues for the contractor/applicator to consider when
choosing an application method, including speed and control.

The use of brushes for industrial projects is typically limited to

striping: the application of a layer of coating to surfaces where it is
difficult to achieve a normal film build. Brushes are also used around
rivet heads, welds, bolt-nut assemblies and to “cut-in” inside and
outside corners. Daubers are often used to coat inside crevices such
as back to back angles. Rollers have a high coating transfer efficiency
and can be used to coat large flat surfaces, but there are limitations.
Roller nap can become embedded in the dry coating film and pull
moisture into the coating, and film thickness is hard to control.

With conventional (air) spray the applicator can control both the
amount of paint that exits the gun and the shape of the spray pattern.
Another advantage is that the gun can be half triggered so that
compressed air (without paint) can exit the gun and blow-down
the surface to remove dust and debris. Compressed air cleanliness
is critical for the operation of conventional spray equipment, and

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verification of clean, dry compressed air using the blotter test is

an inspection checkpoint any time compressed air is used in the
atomization process.

High Volume Low Pressure (HVLP) Spray is similar to conventional

spray, but uses much lower air pressures. The result is excellent
control and a much higher transfer efficiency during application. In
addition, the reduced blowback from HVLP results in lower VOC
emissions. Like conventional spray, HVLP can also be half-triggered
to blow-down the surface, but since pressures are low, the blow down
may not be adequate to remove heavy deposits of dust.

Airless spray is a very productive method to apply industrial coatings,

but it operates using dangerously high fluid pressures. To prevent
injuries to applicators, a special guard attached to the tip of the airless
gun and a trigger lock are built-in safety features. If the equipment is
operating correctly, a skilled applicator can create a finish similar to
finishes created by conventional spray, but at much higher production
rates. Since airless spray does not employ compressed air to atomize
the coating, the transfer efficiency rate is higher than conventional
spray, which also lowers VOC emissions. Airless spray is the most
common method used to apply industrial coatings.

Air-assisted airless spray is an adaptation of airless spray. The

addition of atomization air helps control the shape and quality of the
spray pattern. The atomization air, as well as the operation of the
equipment at lower pressures gives the applicator some of the control
of conventional spray.

Good spray technique and the consistency of the coating thickness go

hand in hand. Unfortunately, classroom teaching has its limitations
as a job-training tool. Experience with the equipment and with a
variety of industrial coatings has proven to be the “best teacher.”
One technique that applicators must learn is to keep the spray gun
perpendicular to the surface. The distance of the gun from the surface
will vary according to the type of spray system used, but the angle of
the gun will remain the same. Overlapping technique is also important,
because whenever a fan pattern is created, the paint will be thicker at
the center of the fan. Only the operator and an appropriate technique
(crosshatch) can correct this problem. A special device that is attached
to a spray gun uses a laser to train applicators on maintaining proper
distance, angle and to use proper overlapping techniques.
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©2015 SSPC 5-72
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Inspection of the mixing, thinning and coating application, whether by

the contractor (QC), the owner/owner’s representative (QA), can make
or break a coatings project.

Prior to the mix, it is important for the QC personnel to verify that all
necessary materials/products/ and equipment necessary for the job are
on hand, are within the manufacturer’s shelf life (check the expiration
dates), and are properly stored.

Prior to the mix and throughout the application process, the

measurement of ambient conditions (relative humidity, dew point,
air temperature, wind conditions) helps determine whether or not
the application of the coating can move forward. Often, both the
specification and the PDS will contain information on the conditions
required to apply each specific coating product. If the requirements
listed in the project specification differ from that listed on the PDS, the
specification is the governing document. The right weather conditions
for the coating products open the way to a successful application of
the coating. If a coating must have moisture to cure, too little moisture
in the air becomes a problem. Conversely, for some coatings, too
much moisture in the air creates a problem. Warm versus cold air
temperature ranges are also important issues And wind conditions
are important, especially in areas where strong winds are frequently a
problem.

Ambient conditions should be measured at regular intervals both

before and throughout the application process, and anytime the
weather conditions appear to be declining. Perhaps the single most
important temperature relationship is the relationship between the
dew point and the surface temperature. To prevent applicators from
coating a “wet surface,” the surface temperature should be at least 3°C
(5°F) higher than the dew point temperature. An inspector should not
depend on national or regional weather service information for weather
conditions. Those conditions must be measured at the correct time
at the exact location where the coating application will take/is taking
place.

Both the individual responsible for mixing the coating and the
inspector(s) responsible for verifying proper mixing procedures should
first read the coating manufacturer’s instructions for mixing. Required
documentation of the mix may vary, but typically includes: the

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manufacturer, product number and product name, batch numbers, time

of the mix, amount of each component blended, type of agitation used,
and the coating temperature once blended. Storage conditions should
also be verified and documented. It should also be noted if full kits
were mixed. If partial kits were permitted, the measured amounts of
each component should be recorded. If a product requires an induction
time, the amount of time needed and the amount of time actually
allowed for the induction to take place should be recorded. Potlife
should also be noted. Remember: potlife includes the induction time
(when applicable), so the induction time must be subtracted from the
potlife to assess the actual time the coating is available for application
to the substrate. Potlife can range from a few minutes to 24 hours or
more, and is based on the temperature of the coating.

When agitation of the coating mix is required by the manufacturer or

project specification the equipment used should be documented. The
type of agitation and when the agitation took place (at the beginning of
the mix only, intermittently, or continually throughout the application
process) should also be documented.

If thinning in permitted, the type and amount of thinner added should

be monitored and documented. If a contractor uses an alternate thinner
or exceeds the amount of thinning recommended by the PDS, the
details of this action also need to be recorded.

Measurement of wet film thickness is typically performed by the

applicator, although an inspector should spot-check and record the
measured wet film thickness. A notch-type wet film thickness gage can
be used for this purpose.

There are three standards that apply to the measurement of dry film
thickness (DFT). The specification should state which standard
applies, but the dry film thickness of each layer in a multi-coat system
should be assessed after the application and before the next layer
is applied. All coating thickness gages, whether Type 1 (magnetic
pull-off) or Type 2 (electronic), must be verified for accuracy before
and after each period of use. Typically, calibration blocks are used to
verify the accuracy of magnetic pull-off gages, while plastic shims are
used to verify electronic gages. However, the inspector should always
check the specification to determine which type of gage to use and the
method to verify the gage’s accuracy. Some specifications for example
may prohibit the use of Type 1 gages.
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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Surface profile or roughness affects dry film thickness gages. If a gage

is verified for accuracy on smooth steel blocks (and the coating will be
applied to roughened steel) the amount the gage is affected (called the
Base Metal Reading or BMR) must be measured and deducted from
each cumulative coating layer. If a gage is verified for accuracy by
placing shims of known thickness on top of the peaks of the roughened
steel (the same surface the coating will be applied to), then there is no
BMR to measure or deduct.

Frequency of dry film thickness measurements is another inspection

concern. SSPC-PA 2 has specific requirements for the number of
readings that are taken and the number of areas measured according
to the coated area of the structure. SSPC-PA 2 requires obtaining a
minimum of three gage readings at each spot. These gage readings
are averaged to create a spot measurement and there is no restriction
placed on the individual gage readings (relating to thickness tolerance).
SSPC-PA 2 places a tolerance on the five spot measurements that
comprise an area measurement. Unless another coating thickness
restriction level is specified, the spot measurements must be within
80% of the minimum specified thickness and 120% of the maximum
specified thickness. The average of the five spot measurements (the
area measurement) must fall within the specified thickness range
established by the project specification.

Once all the coatings of a multi-coat system have been applied, the
only way to assess the thickness of each coat is through the use of a
destructive thickness gage. One type of destructive thickness gage is
the Tooke Gage, which cuts a groove through the coating layers all the
way down to the substrate using one of three precision cutting tips.
By using the microscope on the gage, an inspector can examine the
coating to determine the thickness of each layer. The Tooke Gage can
be used to examine different or alternating colored layers in a multi-
coat system up to 50 mils thick.

Documentation of coating thickness is critical and includes recording

the gage manufacturer and type; the serial no. of the gage and
calibration blocks/shims; the date the gage was last calibrated by the
manufacturer and the method used to verify accuracy prior to and after
use. The date(s) the coating thickness data was acquired; the specified
DFT range; the area where the coating thickness data was collected;
and the spot and area measurements complete the documentation
activities. The acceptability of the area should be recorded prior to
application of subsequent coating layers.

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Dirt, dust, debris or amine exudate (caused by curing of epoxy

coatings under cool, damp conditions) on surfaces to be recoated
can cause intercoat delamination. Inspection of surfaces for intercoat
cleanliness can be visual, tactile or chemical, in the case of amine
exudate (blush) detection. The inspection procedures used to verify
intercoat cleanliness (and the results) should be clearly documented.

Since coating materials typically have both a minimum and maximum

recoat time, the inspector must verify that the coating has been allowed
to dry or cure the recommended minimum amount of time and verify
that the next coat is applied before the maximum recoat time has
expired. The inspector should document the actual recoat interval.

Some coatings must perform in very challenging service

environments: for example, the coatings applied to the interior of
storage tanks, railcars, and liquid and gas pipelines. Visual inspection
of these coatings for pinholes, skips or missed areas would not be
adequate, therefore holiday or pinhole detectors are used to determine
the location of skips, misses, and pinholes. This testing is performed
so the coating or lining can be repaired before the vessel is put into
service. Holidays are skips or misses in the coating system. Pinholes
are tiny voids in the coating that penetrate all the way to the substrate.
The type of pinhole detection employed (low or high voltage) is
based on the coating system thickness. This type of inspection can
only be performed on nonconductive coatings applied to electrically
conductive substrates. In general, the test voltage for high voltage
holiday detection is 100-125 volts/25µm (1 mil), however the
manufacturer of the coating system should provide the proper test
voltage.

The inspector may be required to verify that a coating has adequately

dried or cured prior to application of subsequent coats, or prior to
placing the coating system into service (i.e., filling up the tank/vessel).
ASTM has three test methods for evaluating or assessing the degree
of coating drying or curing. These methods include drying tests (set-
to-touch, tack-free, dry-to-touch, dry-to-handle, dry-to-recoat, etc)
per ASTM D1640 and two solvent rub tests (one for organic coatings
[ASTM D5402] and one for ethyl silicate type inorganic zinc-rich
primers [ASTM D4752]).

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The hardness of a coating can also be an indicator of the degree of

cure, and an inspector may be required to test the hardness of a coating
film using the pencil hardness test (ASTM D3363), or an impresser/
indenter test (Barcol hardness [ASTM D2583] or Durometer hardness
[ASTM D2240]).

Some specifications require the measurement of the adhesion of the

applied coating system after it has cured. Adhesion assessments may
include: the adhesion of the coating to the substrate, the adhesion or
the bond of one layer of the coating to another, or the inner-strength of
the coating, also known as cohesive strength.

Different adhesion tests measure different coating adhesion

mechanisms (peel back versus pull-off). Two tests that are common
for the field are the "Adhesion by Tape Test" (ASTM D3359) and
the "Knife Adhesion Test" (ASTM D6677). These two tests are used
to evaluate the coating’s "shear" or "peel" strength. The third test
measures tensile strength and is governed by ISO 4624 "Pull-off Test
for Adhesion," or ASTM D4541, "Pull-off Strength of Coatings Using
Portable Adhesion Testers," or ASTM D7234, "Pull-off Strength of
Coatings on Concrete Using Portable Adhesion Testers." Pull-off
tests are used to evaluate the coating's resistance to a perpendicular
force on a pre-attached pull stub. All adhesion tests are destructive to
the coating film and should not be conducted unless required by the
specification. The specification should include repair procedures for
the affected areas.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2015 SSPC 5-77
Module 5 - Coating
Module 5Mixing, Thinning
- Coating Mixing,and Application:
Thinning Equipment
and Application: Overview
Equipment and Inspection
Overview Techniques
and Inspection Techniques

Module Five Learning

Module Five Outcomes
n  Successful completion of Module Five on Coating
Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment
Overview and Inspection Techniques will enable the
Coating Mixing, Thinning and participant to:
Application: Equipment Overview
n  Describe the inspector’s role in coating mixing,
and Inspection Techniques thinning, and application
n  Describe the SSPC standards for coating
application and coating thickness measurement
n  Use SDSs and product data sheets to verify
safe and proper mixing, thinning, and
application of coatings

Module Five Learning SSPC Standards for

Outcomes Coating Application
n  Describe the procedures associated with n  SSPC Paint Application Specification
proper mixing thinning, and application of No. 1 (PA 1)
coatings
n  SSPC Paint Application Specification
n  Calculate and measure wet film thickness No. 2 (PA 2)
n  Describe and implement the proper
inspection and testing procedures and
processes used in coating application

Product Data Sheets Product Data Sheets

n  Coating Manufacturer’s n  The specifier, the inspector(s), and the
Product Data Sheets
(PDS) contractor should be familiar with the
Ø  An “instruction manual” information on the PDS.
for the coating
Ø  Technical information
about the coating
Ø  ASTM F718 provides
standardized format
Ø  No standardized content

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Product Data Sheets Contain Material Receipt Inspection

Recommendations and Storage Conditions
n  When the PDS and the project n  Verifying that what was ordered for the project
was shipped to the project site and received in
specification differ, the specification is good condition
the governing document. n  Verify and document:
Manufacturer
n  Note discrepancies between the PDS
Ø 
Ø  Product name & No.
and the specification and advise the Ø  Shelf life
owner. Ø  Manufacturer, type & quantity of thinner
Ø  Batch No. of each component and thinner
–  If multiple batches of same product, record what
batches were used where
Ø  Products may have Certificates of Acceptance/
Compliance

Data Loggers for Paint

Material Receipt Inspection Storage Area
n  Verify coatings and n  Self-contained
thinners are properly
stored recording
n  Manufacturer publishes instruments
storage conditions on n  Download to
PDS
computer software
n  May require monitoring
of storage area
n  Protection from
freezing and extreme
heat/high humidity

Inspecting Mixing,
Ambient Conditions
Thinning and Application
n  Verify correct materials n  Measure ambient conditions:
n  Verify shelf life Ø  Prior to mixing the coating materials and at 4-
n  Measure ambient conditions hour intervals
n  Witness mixing and thinning Ø  Whenever conditions appear to be changing
n  Measure coating temperature Ø  At the location where the coating will be applied
n  Measure WFT and DFT (outside or inside)
n  Assess intercoat cleanliness n  Document:
n  Verify recoat intervals Ø  Date and time
n  Detect pinholes/holidays Ø  Air and surface temperatures
n  Assess cure Ø  Relative humidity and dew point temperature
n  Measure adhesion Ø  Temperature spread between surface & dew
n  Measure hardness point temperatures
Ø  Wind speed (if required)

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Inspecting Mixing
Measuring Wind Speed
Procedures
n  Wind meters n  Verify coatings are within the shelf life
Ø  Analog (floating ball) n  Check PDS for mixing instructions
Ø  Digital
n  Measure coating temperature after all
Ø  Rotating Vane
Anemometers
components are thoroughly blended
Ø  Feet/minute or MPH

Ø  Can convert to Km/Hr

Induction Pot Life

n  Also known as sweat-in, stand-in, cook time n  The period of time (after mixing) that
or digestion
multiple component coatings are usable
n  Required of some coatings
n  Ranges from a few minutes to 24 hours
n  Period of time when components chemically
co-react n  Once pot life has expired, any
n  Part of the pot life (but not the usable pot remaining coating should not be used
life)
n  Generally, the warmer the material, the
shorter the required induction time

Documenting Coating
Mixing Procedures Coating Mixing Procedures
n  Manufacturer, product name & no., color & generic n  Mixing single component materials
coating type
n  Batch No’s. of the components Ø  Ensurethe material is homogeneous by
n  Number of kits mixed and kit sizes mixing all of the settled pigments and
n  Mix ratio solid materials into the liquid
n  Date and time mixing occurred
n  Method used to agitate individual and blended
components
n  Whether straining was employed
n  Elapsed time of induction (if required)
n  Whether pot agitation was employed
n  The coating layer (primer, intermediate, finish, etc.)

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Coating Mixing Procedures Partial Kit Mixing

n  Before mixing two- n  Prohibited by most manufacturers and
component coatings, specifications
individual liquid
components must be n  Off-ratio blends wont cure properly
thoroughly mixed n  Some coatings are ratioed by weight, not by
Ø  Power agitation often volume
required – use shear
mixing blade
n  May be a critical minimum volume for
Ø  Non-liquid
chemical reaction
components (zinc n  Remedy: Order larger & smaller kit sizes
powder) do not
require agitation

Coating Mixing
Touch-up Kits/Cartridges
Procedures
n  Once combined: n  Designed to patch/repair damaged
Thoroughly blend - use
coatings
Ø 
power agitation
Alternative – blend by
n  Supplied in two component tubes
Ø 
“boxing” (prohibited for
mixing inorganic zinc-
rich primers and any n  Product blended through static mixer
coating that reacts with
moisture) n  Product brushed onto surfaces
Ø  Once materials are
blended, the pot life
begins

Mixing Zinc-Rich Primers Mixing Zinc-Rich Primers

n  Single component – cure by reaction Multi-component:

Mix liquid components
with airborne moisture (zinc powder n 
n  Slowly disperse zinc
already blended with the liquid; should powder into the mix
not be over-mixed) while under power
agitation)
n  Keep agitating to
ensure the wetting of
the dry zinc particles
n  Strain through a fine
mesh cloth, sieve or
screen

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Measuring Coating
Pot Agitation
Temperature
After mixing and
n  Zinc may settle-out n 
straining
Ø  Original mix ratio becomes distorted n  Attach thermometer to
lip of can
Ø  Protection lying at the bottom of the can n  Allow 3 minutes to
Ø  Most specifications require constant stabilize, then read
n  Temperature
agitation during application determines length of
Ø  Single component, moisture cured zinc- induction time and/or
pot life
rich primers should not be agitated during n  Thermocouples also
application available

Coating Thinning
Coating Thinning
Procedures
n  Amount of thinner added impacts: n  Determine if thinning is permitted:
Ø  volatile organic compound (VOC) content
Ø  the target wet film thickness Ø  If allowed, there is often a maximum
amount that can be added
n  Over or under thinning can adversely affect
application and performance characteristics Ø  Federal/state/local air quality

n  Thinners should be clean, new and in their regulations

original containers Ø  The coating manufacturer may permit
n  Contaminated, recycled, or used thinners thinning, but the specification may not
should not be used for thinning coatings
n  Thinner addition does not extend pot life

Thinners:
Coating Thinning Contribution to VOC Content
n  Determine the type and amount of n  In the field:
thinner to add: Ø  The addition of regulated thinner will
Ø  Check the product data sheet increase VOC content
Ø  Type thinner may depend on air temperature Ø  The use of non-regulated solvent (e.g.,
and wind during application water) will not increase VOC content
Ø  Use of thinners not recommended by the (there is still a maximum amount that can
PDS can void the coating warranty be added to maintain sag resistance)
Ø  Heat can reduce viscosity without thinner,
but may impact pot life
Ø  Use of viscosity cups

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Thinning Consequences Thinning Consequences

n  Excessive thinner n  Under thinning may cause poor film
may cause: integrity:
Ø  Coating to sag on
Ø  Can result in exposure of the substrate or
vertical surfaces
the underlying coating layers
Ø  Coating “skin-over”
entrapping solvents, Ø  Substrate and/or underlying coating may
resulting in a porous not be resistant to the service environment
film filled with
solvent voids

Inspecting Thinning
Thinning Consequences
Procedures
n  Thinner addition will not extend pot n  Inspector should
life verify:
Ø  Correct type of
n  Pot life can only be extended by thinner is used
reducing the material temperature Ø  Graduated

n  Applying coatings beyond the pot life

containers are used
to measure thinner
can result in failure
n  Thinner addition after mixing only

Documenting Thinning Six Methods of Coating

Procedures Application
n  Manufacturer, thinner name & number n  Brushes, rollers and daubers
n  Batch Number of the thinners n  Airless spray
n  Amount of thinner added n  Conventional (air) spray

n  Date and time thinner was added n  High Volume Low Pressure (HVLP)
spray
n  Air-assisted airless spray

n  Plural component spray

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Brushes Wet Stripe Coating

n  Brushes – n  Done on any coating layer
Ø  Cutting in outside/
inside corners n  Once it becomes tacky (about 5-10
Ø  Welds minutes), the full coat is applied
Ø  Around rivet heads
Ø  Bolt and nut assemblies
n  Brushes – stripe
coating
Ø  Wet stripe coating
Ø  Dry stripe coating
Ø  SSPC-PA Guide 11

Dry Stripe Coating Daubers and Rollers

n  Applied after the full coat of primer or n  Daubers

Used to coat crevices
intermediate coat, since the stripe coat Ø 

n  Rollers
is allowed to dry for the full recoat
Ø  Large flat surfaces
interval (e.g., 12-16 hours), but not n  Rollers problems:
completely cure Ø  Nap too deep – streaking
Ø  Roller nap can become embedded in dry coating
film – can draw moisture into the coating film
Ø  Coating thickness difficult to control
Ø  Roller stipple can reduce gloss

Airless Spray Airless Spray Equipment

n  Most common method n  One hose containing
used to apply the paint goes from the
industrial/marine pump to the spray gun
coatings n  Paint pump may be
n  Fast, high production operating using an air
levels compressor (or electric
n  No compressed air in pump)
the paint stream n  No controls on the
n  Operates under high spray gun (cannot be
fluid pressures half-triggered)
*Airless pressures 10 to 75 n  Change the spray tip to
times higher than residential change the shape of
water supply pressure
the fan

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Airless Operating
Airless Spray Tips
Pressures & Distance
n  Tip Nomenclature n  Pumps are ratioed
Ø  60:1 (1 psi input = 60 psi
Ø  3-Digit number fluid pressure
Ø  Double 1st number Ø  80 psi input = 4,800 psi
for fan width @ 30 fluid pressure
cm (12”) n  Fluid pressures are
dangerous
Ø  Last 2 numbers
Ø  Injection hazard
indicate orifice size Ø  Use of a special tip guard
(.001”) and trigger lock prevent
injection
Ø  Example: 521
–  10” fan; .021” n  Gun distance from surface:
orifice 30 cm (12 inches)

Conventional Spray
Conventional (Air) Spray
Equipment
n  Compressed air n  Pressure Pot
transports coating from
pressurized pot to gun, Ø  Two regulators:
atomizes coating into a •  Controls pot
fine spray
pressure
n  Compressed air
cleanliness critical •  Controls
volume of
n  Operator has good
control over paint that atomization air
exits the gun tip
n  Problem: transfer
efficiency is relatively
low

Conventional Spray High Volume Low

Equipment Pressure (HVLP) Spray
n  2 controls n  Similar to conventional
spray
Ø  Lower control – regulates
n  Uses a high volume of air
the amount of paint that under low pressure (less
comes out of the spray tip than 69 KPa [10 psi])
Ø  Upper control – regulates n  Compressed air cleanliness
the shape of the fan is critical
pattern n  The transfer efficiency can
n  Spray gun can be “half- be higher than conventional
triggered” – air (without paint) spray
exits the nozzle n  Operator can control the
n  Gun held 15-20 cm (6-8 amount of paint, the shape
of the spray pattern
inches) from the surface

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Air-Assisted Airless Spray Plural Component Spray

n  Combines the n  Plural component spray
productivity of airless used for:
spray with the control Ø  Short pot life materials
of conventional spray Ø  100% solids materials
n  An “air cap” attached n  Heated material hoses
to the exit port of the n  Internal mix systems
spray gun atomizes the
n  External mix systems
coating and shapes the
spray fan n  Fixed and variable ratio
pumps
n  Operates at lower
pressures than n  Many systems have
traditional airless spray “off-ratio” alarms

Spray Technique Spray Technique

n  Spray technique is best n  Laser Paint Device
learned through n  Teaches applicators
practice and to:
experience
Ø  Maintain proper
n  Coating application not distance
part of this course Ø  Maintain
n  Inspection personnel perpendicular gum
should report poor position
application technique Ø  Overlap spray
passes

Spray Technique Use Overlapping and

(arcing/tilting) Crosshatch Techniques
n  Position the spray n  The amount of coating
gun perpendicular in the center of the fan
is greater than the
to the surface
amount at the ends
n  Avoid Arcing/Tilting n  Can only be corrected
by the applicator
n  Applicator overlaps
each previous pass by
50%
n  Vertical and horizontal
passes (cross-hatch)

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Measuring Wet Film Documenting Wet Film

Thickness Thickness
n  Inspectors should verify n  May not be necessary if dry film thickness
the target wet film will be measured
thickness is being n  Attempts to measure fast dry coatings may
achieved generate inaccurate WFT readings
n  ASTM D 4414 – n  If required:
“Practice for Ø  Actual WFT applied
Measurement of Wet Ø  Type of gage (stainless steel, aluminum, plastic)
Film Thickness by Notch Ø  Serial No. of gage (if available)
Gages”

Measuring Dry Film Measuring Dry Film

Thickness Thickness
n  Three common standards that address n  Standards provide guidance on:
the nondestructive measurement of Ø  Frequency of calibration
coating thickness: Ø  Frequency of verifying gage accuracy
Ø  The frequency of measurements
Ø  SSPC-PA 2 (most common reference)
(number of measurements to obtain
Ø  ASTM D7091 (coating thickness on based on the size of the coated
ferrous and nonferrous metal surfaces) structure)
Ø  ASTM D6132 (concrete and other non- n  SSPC-PA 2 places limits on thickness
metal surfaces) readings vs. specified thickness

Measuring Dry Film

Verifying Gage Accuracy
Thickness
n  SSPC-PA 2 – requires gage accuracy n  Magnetic pull-off
verification before and after each period of (Type 1) gages:
use Use Certified
n  Read the specification to determine type of Traceable Coated
gage and method used to verify accuracy Standards
n  Two types of nondestructive coating Ø  NIST
thickness gages Ø  Proprietary
Ø  Magnetic pull-off (Type 1)
Ø  See supplement for
Ø  Electronic (Type 2) step-by-step
procedures

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

BMR Compensation for

The Base Metal Reading
Multiple Coat Systems
n  Surface roughness Measured Primer Thickness: 4.0 mils
affects dry film
thickness gages BMR: 0.5 mils
n  The amount the gage
is affected is the Base Actual Primer Thickness: 3.5 mils
Metal Reading or BMR
n  The BMR: Measured Primer + Finish Thickness: 7.0 mils
Ø  Remains constant for BMR: 0.5 mils
the entire project
Ø  Is deducted from each
cumulative coating layer Actual Total System Thickness: 6.5 mils
measurement

Verifying Type 2 Gage

Gage Adjustment
Accuracy
n  Using certified n  Using certified shims:
traceable coated Ø  Place certified shim on
standards: prepared surface
Ø  Adjust gage to Ø  Adjust gage to match
match thickness certified shim thickness
standard Ø  Measure coating
Ø  Measure BMR thickness
Ø  Measure coating Ø  No BMR compensation
thickness
Ø  Deduct BMR

Frequency of Coating Dividing Coated Areas

Thickness Measurements into Test Areas Per SSPC-PA 2
n  SSPC-PA 2 and ASTM D7091 n  If the coated area is less than 300
n  Test area size: 9.29 square meters square feet, each 100 square feet
(100 square feet) should be measured
n  Five spots per test area (each spot is
3.8 cm (1.5”) in diameter n  If the coated area is between 300 and
n  Minimum three gage readings per spot 1000 square feet, select 3 random 100
(average becomes the “spot square foot test areas and measure
measurement”)

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Dividing Coated Areas Dividing Coated Areas

into Test Areas Per SSPC-PA 2 into Test Areas Per SSPC-PA 2

n  If the coated area is less than 300 n  For coated areas exceeding 1000
square feet, each 100 square feet square feet, select 3 random 100
should be measured square feet test areas for the first
1000 square feet, and select 1 random
n  If the coated area is between 300 and 100 square foot test area for each
1000 square feet, select 3 random 100 additional 1000 square feet
square foot test areas and measure

SSPC-PA 2 Example
SSPC-PA 2 Example

Structure Size: 5110 square meters

Structure Size: 55,000 square feet
No. of Areas: 3 + 52 = 55 areas
No. of Areas: 3 + 54 = 57 areas
No. of Spots: 55 Areas x 5 Spots/Area = 275
No. of Spots: 57 Areas x 5 Spots/Area = 285 Spots
Spots
Minimum No. of Gage
Minimum No. of
Readings: 275 Spots x 3 Readings/Spot =
Gage Readings: 285 Spots x 3 Readings/Spot 825 Gage Readings
= 855 Gage Readings

Coating Thickness
PA 2 Options for Specifier
Tolerance (PA 2 only) Thickness Gage Reading
Spot
Area Measurement
Reading
Level 1

n  Individual gage readings within spot are Minimum Unrestricted As specified As specified

unrestricted (unusually low or high readings Maximum Unrestricted As specified As specified

are discarded) Level 2

Minimum Unrestricted As specified As specified

n  Spot measurements (average of 3 gage Maximum Unrestricted 120% of maximum As specified
readings) must be within specified thickness Level 3 DEFAULT (same as former PA 2 requirement)
range Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified

n  Coating Thickness Restriction Level 3 is Maximum Unrestricted 120% of maximum As specified

default unless otherwise specified Level 4

Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified
n  Area measurement must be within specified Maximum Unrestricted 150% of maximum As specified
range Level 5

Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified

Maximum Unrestricted Unrestricted Unrestricted

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Coating Thickness
Coating Thickness
Tolerance
n  Target DFT: 4-6 mils n  Specifications should indicate the range
n  Individual gage readings unrestricted of coating thickness (e.g., 5-7 mils), not
According to Level 3, spot measurements must be
n 
between 3.2 mils (4 mils x 0.80 = 3.2 mils) and 7.2
as a single value (e.g., 5 mils)
mils (6 mils x 1.20 = 7.2 mils) n  Nearly impossible for an applicator to
n  Area measurement must be between 4 mils and 6 achieve a single thickness value
mils
n  If spot or area measurements out of tolerance, n  The coatings inspector should not have
measure each 100 sq. ft area coated during the to assume a range
work shift to demarcate the deficient area
(independent of structure size) n  SSPC-PA 2 establishes range at +/-20%
if unspecified (by spec/manuf.)

Coating Thickness
Nonconformities
See illustration on the next
slide.

Cumulative Thickness Cumulative Thickness

Measurements Measurements
n  Nondestructive coating thickness gages Specification
cannot distinguish coating layers. Primer thickness: 3-5 mils
Intermediate Coat Thickness: 4-6 mils
n  They measure the total cumulative thickness Finish Coat Thickness: 2-3 mils

Target After -
Primer Application: 3-5 mils
Intermediate Application: 7-11 mils
Finish Coat Application: 9-14 mils

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Destructive Coating Destructive Coating

Thickness Thickness
n  Gages used to measure individual n  Gage body and battery compartment
layer thickness when all layers have n  50 power illuminated microscope with a
been applied scale etched onto the lens
n  Substrate independent n  A focus adjustment
n  Paint Inspection Gages (PIG) n  Three tungsten carbide precision cutting
n  Tooke Gages (shown) tips

Documentation of Dry Assessing Intercoat

Film Thickness Data Cleanliness
n  Gage manufacturer, model and type (1 or 2) n  Airborne dirt and dust deposited on coated
n  Serial No. of gage surfaces
n  Serial No. of calibration blocks/shims n  Problem if surface is to be recoated
Date of gage calibration
n 
n  Can cause fisheyes in the coating and
n  Method used to verify gage accuracy intercoat delamination
n  Date measurements were acquired
n  Requires visual or tactile (touch)
n  Specified DFT range
examination of the surface
n  Area of structure measured
n  Spot measurements n  Can employ ISO 8502, Part 3 (pressure
n  Area measurements
sensitive tape) described in Module 3

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Module 5 - Coating
Module 5Mixing, Thinning
- Coating Mixing, and Application:
Thinning Equipment
and Application: Overview
Equipment and Inspection
Overview Techniques
and Inspection Techniques

Verifying Recoat Times/

Amine Exudate (Blush)
Temperatures
n  Epoxy coatings can produce haze and/or oily n  Applied coatings may have a minimum
residue on the coated surface during cure.
and a maximum recoat time
Ø  High humidity and/or cool temperatures.
n  Haze and/or oily residue must be detected n  Inspector verifies:
and removed Ø  Coating has been allowed to dry or cure
Ø  Consult with coating manufacturer. the minimum amount of time
Ø  The next coat is applied before the
maximum recoat time expires

Documentation of Intercoat
Cleanliness and Recoat Intervals
Assessing Coating Cure
n  Method(s) used to remove dirt and dust n  ASTM Methods:
n  Results of inspection after dirt removal Ø  ASTM D1640, “Standard Test Methods for
Drying, Curing, or Film Formation of Organic
n  Elapsed time between coats Coatings at Room Temperature”

n  Manufacturer’s remedy and methods Ø  ASTM D5402, “Assessing the Solvent Resistance
employed by the contractor to prepare of Organic Coatings Using Solvent Rubs”
surfaces when the maximum recoat time is
exceeded Ø  ASTM D4752, “Test Method for Measuring MEK
Resistance of Ethyl Silicate (Inorganic) Zinc Rich
Primer by Solvent Rub”

Assessing Coating Cure Assessing Coating Cure

n  ASTM D1640 includes 7 procedures for n  ASTM D5402 and D4752 employ
testing: solvent rub testing (“double rubs”)
1.  Set-to-touch time
n  No. of double rubs is converted to
2.  Dust free time
3.  Tack-free time rating scale
4.  Dry-to-touch n  Rating compared to coating
5.  Dry-hard manufacturer’s PDS or the project
6.  Dry-through (Dry-to-handle) specification
7.  Dry to recoat

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Documenting Drying/
Assessing Coating Hardness
Curing Testing
n  Alternative methods to assess cure
n  Date and time of testing
Ø  ASTM D3363 (Pencil Hardness)
n  Method used to assess cure
Ø  ASTM D2583 (Barcol Hardness)
n  Areas on the structure tested
Ø  ASTM D2240 (Durometer Hardness)
n  Results of cure tests

n  If solvent rub testing employed, the

type of solvent used

Pencil Hardness
n  Pencils containing various lead hardness
values (6B to 6H) ASTM D3363 Pencil Hardness Scale
n  Sharpen pencil, then blunt point
n  Hold pencil at 45o angle and attempt to 6B 5B 4B 3B 2B B HB F H 2H 3H 4H 5H 6H
scratch and gouge the coating
n  Move up/down the hardness scale Soft Medium Hard
n  Hardest pencil lead that will not scratch the
coating is the scratch hardness
n  Hardest pencil lead that will not gouge the
coating is the gouge hardness

Barcol Hardness Durometer Hardness

n  “Impressor hardness” n  Shore A or Shore D scale
n  Designed for thick n  Designed for thick
materials materials
n  Position tester so legs n  Position tester so base
and pointer on same
and pointer on same surface
surface n  Press firmly downward,
n  Press firmly downward hold in place 1-2 seconds
n  Read hardness from n  Read hardness from
indicator scale indicator scale (red
n  Multiple measurements hand)
required n  Obtain 5 measurements

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Module 5 - Coating
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- Coating Mixing,and Application:
Thinning Equipment
and Application: Overview
Equipment and Inspection
Overview Techniques
and Inspection Techniques

Documenting Hardness
Measuring Adhesion
Testing
n  Assessing coating adhesion characteristics:
n  Date and time of testing
Ø  The adhesion of the coating system to the
n  Method used to assess hardness substrate
n  Manufacturer, model, serial no. of Ø  The adhesion of the coating layers to one

instrument (lot no. for pencils) another

Ø  The inner-strength of each coating layer
n  Areas on the structure tested (cohesion properties)
n  Results of hardness tests Ø  No “industry standard” for minimum
adhesion/cohesion strength (based on
specification requirements)

Adhesion Test Methods Field Testing for Adhesion

n  Adhesion by Tape Test,
Standard Title ASTM D3359
D3359 Adhesion by Tape Test n  Up to 50 µm (2 mils) =
1 mm spacing
D6677 Knife Adhesion
n  50-125 µm (2-5 mils) =
D4541 Pull-off Strength of Coatings Using Portable 2 mm spacing
Adhesion Testers n  >125 µm (5 mils) –
D7234 Pull-off Strength of Coatings on Concrete Use Method A (X-cut)
Using Portable Adhesion Testers n  See adhesion testing
Method A Method B
supplement for step-by-
step procedures

!
!

ASTM D3359 Method A ASTM

CLASSIFICATION OF ADHESION TEST RESULTS
PERCENT SURFACE OF CROSS-CUT AREA FROM WHICH
CLASSIFICATION AREA FLAKING HAS OCCURRED FOR SIX PARALLEL CUTS
REMOVED AND ADHESION RANGE BY PERCENT

Rating D3359 5B
0%
None

Method B
5A No peeling or removal Less than

Rating
4B
5%

4A Trace peeling or removal along the incisions

3A Jagged removal along the incisions up to 3B 5 – 15%

1/16” (1.6mm) on either side

2A Jagged removal along most of the incisions up to 2B 15 – 35%

1/8” (3.2mm) on either side

1A Removal of most of the coating from the area of
the “X” under the tape
1B 35 – 65%

0A Removal of coating beyond the area of the “X”

Greater than
0B
65%

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and Application: Overview
Equipment and Inspection
Overview Techniques
and Inspection Techniques

Evaluating Tensile
Field Testing for Adhesion
Adhesion Strength
n  Knife Adhesion, ASTM D6677 n  Resistance to a
perpendicular pull,
n  Generate X-Cut
n  ISO 4624, ASTM D4541
n  Probe intersection with knife & D7234
blade tip n  Requires the
n  Assign rating (10-0 scale)
attachment of pull
stubs
n  See adhesion testing n  Pulling mechanisms
supplement for step-by-step Ø Spring
procedures Ø Pneumatic
Ø Hydraulic
n  See adhesion testing
supplement for step-
by-step procedures

Documenting Tape/Knife Documenting Tensile

Adhesion Testing Adhesion Testing
n  Date and time of testing n  Date and time of testing
n  Manufacturer, model, serial no. of equipment n  Manufacturer, model, serial no. of equipment
n  Areas on the structure tested n  Areas on the structure tested
n  Thickness of the coating in the areas tested
n  Thickness of the coating in the areas tested n  Diameter of the pull stubs employed
n  Test method conducted (knife adhesion; tape n  Preparation of pull stub contact surfaces
adhesion [methods A/B]) n  Preparation of coated surfaces prior to pull stub attachment
n  Spacing between incisions (if method B) n  Type of adhesive used (manufacturer & type)
n  Adhesive cure time and curing conditions
n  Adhesion rating
n  Pull-off strength (KPa, MPa or PSI)
n  Location of break (if discernable) n  Location of break and percentage of each

Pinholes and Holidays Holiday Testing Standards

n  Holiday and pinhole-free linings are critical n  ASTM D5162, “Practice for Discontinuity
for: (Holiday) Testing of Nonconductive
Ø  Interior of storage tanks, vessels and railcars Protective Coating on Metallic Substrates”
Ø  Liquid and gas pipelines n  ASTM D4787, “Practice for Continuity
n  The pipeline industry refers to testing for Verification of Liquid or Sheet Linings
pinholes and holidays as “jeep testing” Applied to Concrete Substrates”
n  NACE SP0188, “Standard Practice-
Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of New
Protective Coatings on Conductive
Substrates”

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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Pinholes and Holidays Pinholes and Holidays

n  Holidays/Discontinuity – skips or n  Caused by:

misses in the coating/lining system Ø  areas missed by the applicator (holidays)
Ø  outgassing of the coating; poor wetting of the
n  Pinholes – tiny voids in the coating or coating/lining on the surface during application
lining that penetrate to the substrate (pinholes)
n  Typically found on difficult access areas/
non-uniform surfaces (behind angles,
corners, welds, bolt threads, inside holes,
between back-to-back angles, etc.)

When is Holiday
Selecting a Holiday Detector
Detection Performed?
n  After final coat has been applied, but within n  Two types:
the recoat period/interval Ø  Low voltage (wet
n  Specifications may require holiday testing sponge) – coatings
that are less than
after the application of each coat 20 mils thick
n  Cannot use wetting agent in water for Ø  High voltage (spark
“between coat” pinhole detection testers) – coatings
n  Cannot perform pinhole detection on a that are greater
than 508 microns
coating already in service
(20 mils) thick

Low Voltage Pinhole

Holiday Detection
Detection
1.  Attach ground wire to detector unit
n  Coating must be nonconductive 2.  Attach sponge wand wire to detector
n  Substrate must be conductive 3.  Attach ground wire to bare substrate
n  High voltage (spark) testing requires 4.  Saturate sponge with tap water. May use wetting
agent in water if coating thickness is 250-500 µm
voltage setting (10-20 mils)
Ø  100 to 125 volts/mil (per 25 µm) 5.  Power-up detector
Ø  Obtain recommended test voltage from 6.  Verify unit is operational (correct sensitivity)
coating manufacturer 7.  Test surfaces (move wand 30 cm [1 foot]/
second)
Ø  ASTM D5162 provides voltage chart &
formula 8.  Mark pinholes with chalk or other marker that is
removable

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High Voltage Holiday

Detection
1.  Attach ground cable to detector unit
2.  Attach electrode cable to detector
3.  Select test voltage
4.  Verify accuracy of test voltage setting using a
peak reading voltmeter
5.  Attach ground wire to bare substrate
6.  Power-up detector
7.  Test surfaces (move wand 30 cm [1 foot]/
second)
8.  Mark holidays with chalk or other marker that is
removable
9.  Only re-inspect repaired areas

Documenting Pinhole/
Holiday Detection
n  Type of inspection (low or high voltage)
n  Manufacturer, model No. and serial No. of
detector
n  If high voltage, the test voltage used and
the method used to verify test voltage
n  Area of structure inspected
n  Location of holidays/pinholes
n  Methods used to repair coating/lining
n  Results of retesting (if performed)

Inspecting Fluorescent Inspecting Fluorescent

Coating Systems Coating Systems, con’t.
n  Optically Active n  Holidays/undercoated areas:
Additives (OAA) added Ø  Black or dark spots under UV light
to coatings during n  High coating thickness
formulation
Ø  Brighter luminosity under UV light
n  Inspection performed
using UVA-340 light n  Coating detachment or hot work damage
Ø  Bright glow under UV light
n  Processed described in
SSPC-TU 11 n  Organic dust/grit
n  Inspector training Ø  Bright “speckled” spots under UV light
recommended if not Ø  Can be caused by cotton fibers
previously performed

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC
9
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 5-97
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Summary Summary
n  Coating mixing thinning & application critical to
coating system success n  Coating application standards include SSPC-
n  Inspection includes: PA 1 and PA 2
Ø  Material receipt inspection n  Product data sheets contain critical mixing,
Ø  Witnessing mixing/thinning procedures thinning and application information
Measuring ambient conditions & surface temperature
Ø 
Calculating & measuring WFT
n  Target WFT can be calculated based on
Ø 
Measuring DFT
volume solids content, thinner addition and
Ø 
Ø  Verifying recoat times
target DFT
Ø  Assessing intercoat cleanliness n  Methods of coating application include,
Ø  Assessing coating cure and/or hardness brush, roller, airless spray, conventional
Ø  Detecting pinholes/holidays spray, HVLP spray, air-assisted airless spray
Ø  Measuring adhesion and plural component spray
Ø  Documentation of inspections

Summary Summary
n  Spray technique includes maintaining gun
distance, position, overlapping passes and n  Coating mixing includes proper agitation,
consistent movement correct ratios, correct batches, material
n  Measure and record ambient conditions and temperature, induction consideration, pot
surface temperature prior to mixing life monitoring, material temperature,
thinning amount and ratio
n  Air and surface temperatures, and relative
humidity must be maintained within the n  Measurement of wet film thickness is
allowable ranges.
performed using notch-type WFT gages
n  Surface temperature must be maintained at
least 3oC (5oF) higher than dew point n  SSPC and ASTM categorize Type 1 DFT
temperature gages as “magnetic pull-off” and Type 2
n  Wind speed may be restricted by the project DFT gages as “electronic”
specification

Summary Summary
n  DFT gages must be verified for accuracy before n  Individual layer thickness data can be acquired using
and after each period of use a Tooke Gage
n  Type 1 & 2 gages are verified for accuracy n  Documentation of DFT data is a critical responsibility
using traceable coated standards of an inspector

n  Type 2 gages can be adjusted over prepared n  Intercoat cleanliness is critical for adhesion of coating
layers to one another
surfaces using measured shims
n  Coatings typically have minimum and maximum
n  Surface roughness affects gage readings. BMR recoat intervals
is required if traceable coated standards are
used n  Pinhole/holiday testing may be required on lining
systems
n  The frequency of DFT measurements and the
tolerance of spot measurements are described n  Fluorescent pigments (Optically Active Additives) can
be added to coatings for “visual” holiday detection
in SSPC-PA 2

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC
10
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 5-98
Module 5 -Module
Coating5 -Mixing,
CoatingThinning and Application:
Mixing, Thinning Equipment
and Application: Overview
Equipment and Inspection
Overview Techniques
and Inspection Techniques

Summary Module 5 Workshops

n  Coatings can be tested for degree of cure using
solvent rub or other “drying” tests n  Inspection Case Study

n  Coating can be assessed for degree of cure n  Navigating a PDS Workshop (A)
using hardness tests n  Identifying coating defects (B)
n  Tests can be performed to evaluate the Ø  Classroom-interactive
adhesion of the coating layers to one another n  Inspection Instrument Use Workshop (C)
and the coating system to the substrate (steel
or other) n  Documentation of Workshop (C) Answers
n  Adhesion testing can include: n  Work in your teams
Ø  Tape adhesion (Methods A or B)
Ø  Knife adhesion
Ø  Tensile (pull-off adhesion)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC
11
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
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Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Instrument Use Supplement

The material in this supplement is reproduced with permission from

Chapters 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10 of Using Coating Inspection Instruments,
3rd edition, William D. Corbett, © KTA-Tator, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, 2012.

Folio headings and page numbering in this supplement are those of the
original publication.

Participants are responsible for learning

the information in this supplement.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

10
COATING AND LINING SYSTEMS

Project specifications for lining the interior of storage tanks,

vessels,and railcars, and specifications for coating and lining of
liquid and gas pipelines frequently require a continuous, holiday
and pinhole-free coating or lining system. Rather than relying on a
visual inspection, holiday/pinhole detectors are used to determine the
number and location of skips, misses and pinholes, so that they can
be repaired prior to placing the tank, vessel, railcar or pipeline into
service. The pipeline industry refers to this procedure as “jeep”
testing. If holiday, pinhole or “jeep” testing is not performed,
 A holiday is a skip or and there are undetected voids in the coating or lining system,
miss in the coating/
then the contents of the tank, vessel, railcar or pipeline may
lining system
attack the exposed substrate and cause pitting corrosion, loss of
 Low voltage (wet section and eventual perforation of the substrate. In addition, the
sponge) testing is for contents may become contaminated with corrosion products and
coating systems less coating/lining debris if deterioration occurs. Holiday testing is
than 20 mils thick governed by two industry standards: ASTM D5162 and NACE
SP0188.
 High voltage (spark)
testing is for coating
systems greater than What are Pinholes and Holidays?
20 mils thick
The terms “pinhole” and “holiday” are used interchangeably.
However, they represent two different types of “breaches” in
the coating/lining system. Pinholes are tiny voids in the coating
or lining that penetrate down through all of the layers to the substrate.
These voids allow the contents of the tank, vessel or pipeline access

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Detecting Holidays and Pinholes in Coating and Lining Systems 10-1
www.kta.com
to the metal substrate via tiny “pathways.” Holidays are considered
“skips” or “misses” in the coating/lining system (just like holidays are
skips in the work calendar). These uncoated areas permit easy access
to the unprotected substrate.

Pinholes are usually caused by poor wetting of the coating/lining on

When is Holiday Detection Performed?

Pinhole or holiday detection is usually conducted after the final coat

has been applied, but before it has achieved complete cure, in case
repair of the coating film is required. Some project specifications
require holiday testing prior to application of the finish coat. If this is
the case with your project, you will need to verify intercoat cleanliness
of the surfaces prior to application of the next layer. Also, you should
not use a wetting agent in the water (discussed in Step 3 under low
voltage testing), as the coated surfaces can become contaminated and
may result in intercoat adhesion problems.

Selecting a Holiday Detector

There are two different types of holiday detectors. The one you select
is based on the total thickness of the coating/lining system. Low
voltage or “wet sponge” holiday detectors are used on coatings/linings
that are less than 20 mils thick. High voltage holiday detectors or
“spark testers” are used on coatings/linings greater than 20 mils thick,
and in some cases down to 10 mils. If you do not know the thickness
of the coating system, you will need to measure the thickness before
you perform holiday testing. You can use one of the instruments
described in Module 6.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

10-2 www.kta.com
Independent of coating thickness, both of these detectors will only
work on non-conductive coatings applied to a conductive substrate.
For example, epoxy coatings applied to steel can be tested for
holidays, while a zinc-rich coating applied to the same steel could
not (zinc is a conductive metal in the coating). Some high voltage
detectors can be used on non-conductive coatings applied to concrete.
For this application, you should carefully review the instrument
manufacturer’s instructions. This module discusses holiday testing of
coatings and linings on steel only.

Holiday Tester Coating/Lining Sytem Thickness

Low voltage (wet sponge) Less than 20 mils
High voltage (spark) Greater than 20 mils*
*Some cases down to 10 mils

Using a Low Voltage (wet sponge) Holiday Detector

There are several manufacturers of low voltage or wet sponge holiday

detectors. In this module, we will only be discussing the proper
calibration verification and use of the Tinker-Rasor Model M-1 low
voltage holiday detector. However, all of these detectors operate on
a similar principle. A sponge is clamped to the end of a wand and
is wetted with water. The holiday detector unit is grounded to the
structure using a ground wire clip. Both the wand and the ground wire
are attached to the detector. The wetted sponge is dragged across the
coated surface. If a pinhole or holiday is present, the water from the
sponge will pass through the pinhole, contact the steel, complete the
circuit or “loop” and cause the detector to signal using a visible and an
audible alarm.

Step 1: Assemble the Detector

The Tinker-Rasor Model M-1 low

voltage holiday detector contains
five basic components:
1. A 24" insulated wand containing
a silver-colored, metal clamp on
one end and a red insulated wire Low voltage holiday detector kit
on the other end.
2. A 6" sponge.
3. A 25' black insulated ground wire with a spring-loaded, copper-
colored clamp on one end (maximum of 75' allowed).
Using Coatings Inspection Instruments
Detecting Holidays and Pinholes in Coating and Lining Systems 10-3
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4. A 67.5 volt detector unit that operates on 6-AA batteries.
5. A 4 ounce bottle of wetting agent.

The detector unit contains two posts: one post on either side of the
unit. Connect the ground wire to one of the posts (it does not matter
which one) by loosening one of the knurled posts, inserting the
exposed metal tip of the black ground wire into the small hole and
retightening the post (hand-tighten only). Loosen the opposite post and

Connect the ground wire to the detector Connect the wand wire to the detector

insert the exposed metal tip of the red wire from the wand into
the small hole and retighten the post. The ground wire and the
wand should now be connected to the detector unit.

Loosen the wing nut on the silver-colored, metal clamp at the

end of the wand and insert the sponge into the clamp. You may
need to dampen the sponge slightly, so it becomes more pliable
prior to inserting it into the clamp. Hand-tighten the wing nut.
The unit is now assembled. Insert sponge into wand clamp

Step 2: Attach the Ground Wire to the Structure

Attach the copper-colored, spring-loaded clamp on the end of

the ground wire to the structure that you are inspecting. It is very
important that the clamp is in contact with the bare steel. This
means that you may have to remove a small section of coating
to properly ground the detector. If the detector is not properly
grounded, then no pinholes or holidays will be detected, even if Attach ground wire clamp through
they are there. coating to substrate

Step 3: Saturate the Sponge

Saturate the sponge with tap water. Do not use distilled or deionized
water, as pure water does not conduct electricity as efficiently as tap

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

10-4 www.kta.com
water. If you are inspecting a coating system that is less than 10 mils thick,
plain tap water is adequate. If you are inspecting a coating system that is
between 10 and 20 mils thick, you will need to add wetting agent to the tap
water before you saturate the sponge. The wetting agent makes it easier for
the water to penetrate down through the pinholes, rather than bridging across
them. The Tinker-Rasor M-1 comes with a 4 ounce bottle of wetting agent.
Add the 4 ounce bottle to 3 gallons of tap water. If you want to use less water,
add 3 to 6 bottle caps of the wetting agent to one gallon of tap water. Larger
bottles of wetting agent are available. Also, photograph-developing fluid (e.g.,
Eastman Kodak® Photo-Flo) can be used if you run out of the wetting agent. Saturate the sponge
After saturating the sponge, gently squeeze out the excess water. The sponge
should be thoroughly wetted, but should not be dripping water.

Step 4: Power-up the Detector and Verify Calibration and Continuity

4-1 The “On/Off” switch is located on the

bottom of the detector unit. Turn the switch to
the “On” position. You will hear a constant tone.
If you do not hear a tone, the batteries inside
the detector may need to be replaced.

Turn the detector unit “ON”

Verify detector is “IN” calibration Verify detector is not “OUT” of calibration

4-2 Next, verify that the detector unit is 4-3 If you depress the red button and the
operating at the proper sensitivity (greater than detector unit signals, the unit is “OUT” of
80,000 ohms, but less than 90,000 ohms). There calibration. If the unit is out of calibration, you
are two push buttons on the front of the detector can either open the detector unit and adjust the
unit. One is black and says “IN” while the other potentiometer using a small screwdriver (then
is red and says “OUT.” If you depress the black retest the calibration using the red and black
button and the detector unit signals, the unit is buttons), or return it to the manufacturer for
“IN” calibration. adjustment.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Detecting Holidays and Pinholes in Coating and Lining Systems 10-5
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4-4 Prior to inspecting the coated surfaces, you should verify
continuity by ensuring that the detector unit is properly grounded.
To do this you will need to touch the wetted sponge to an uncoated
section of the structure, or even create an intentional pinhole. Drag the
wetted sponge over the uncoated substrate or the intentional pinhole. If
the detector signals (a higher pitch tone is generated and the red light
on the front of the detector illuminates) the ground is adequate. If the
detector does not signal, touch the wetted sponge to the grounding
clamp. If you hear a signal, the detector is operating properly, it’s just
that the ground contact is not adequate. In this case, you will need to
improve the ground wire contact with the structure. If the detector does
not signal when you touch the wetted sponge to the grounding clamp,
the detector is not operating properly and should not be used.

Step 5: Inspect the Coated Surfaces

After you have verified that the detector is operational and the ground
contact is adequate, inspect the coated surfaces by dragging the
wetted sponge across the coated surfaces at a speed of approximately
one linear foot per second, using a systematic, overlapping method.
Maneuver the sponge as necessary and even use the ends of the sponge
to check non-flat surfaces, such as inside corners and around bolt
heads and nuts. Check the wetness of the sponge frequently and re-wet
the sponge as necessary. The detector unit has both an audible (higher-
pitch ringing) and a visual alarm (red signal light on the front of the
detector) that will signal if a pinhole or a holiday is detected. The Inspect the coated
visual alarm is for noisy environments, where you may not be able to surfaces for pinholes/
hear the higher-pitch ringing (optional head phones are also available). holidays

If the detector unit signals, turn the sponge on end and determine the
exact location of the pinhole or holiday. Circle the defective area with
chalk or other non-grease/non-wax marker that can be removed after
the pinhole or holiday is repaired.

Using a High Voltage (spark) Holiday Detector

There are several manufacturers of high voltage or “spark” holiday

detectors. In this module, we will be only be discussing the proper
use of the D.E. Stearns Model 14/20 Voltage-Regulated holiday
detector. However, all of these detectors operate on a similar principle.
An electrode is attached to the end of a wand. The holiday detector
unit is grounded to the structure using either a ground wire clip, or
by allowing the ground wire to drag along the earth (provided the

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

10-6 www.kta.com
structure itself is grounded to earth). Both the wand and the ground wire are attached to the detector.
The electrode is dragged across the coated surface. If a pinhole or holiday is present, the electrode
will throw a spark through the air gap and cause the detector to signal using an audible alarm.

CAUTION: These detectors operate at high voltage, low amperage. Electrical shock can occur
if you come in contact the electrode during use.

Step 1: Assemble the Detector

The D.E. Stearns Model 14/20 Voltage-Regulated holiday detector

contains seven basic components:

1. A 24" insulated wand.

2. A black insulated cable.
3. An electrode (neoprene rubber [shown], brass brush, or
High voltage holiday detector kit
spring coil).
4. A non-insulated ground wire with clip.
5. An adjustable, voltage-regulated detector unit that operates on a rechargeable battery.
6. A spare battery and battery charger unit.
7. A carrying case (not shown).

Before you proceed further, make sure the detector power switch is in the “OFF” position. Do not
turn the detector “ON” until you reach Step 4. If you perform Step 2 with the Detector “ON” you
will damage the detector unit.

Insert ground wire connector into detector port Insert electrode cable connector into detector
“GROUND” port “OUTPUT”

The detector unit contains two ports on the front Connect the electrode cable to the “OUTPUT”
side: one port is for attaching the ground wire port by inserting and twisting its connector
and the other port is for attaching the electrode. clockwise. The ground wire and the electrode
Connect the ground wire to the “GROUND” cable should now be connected to the detector
port by inserting and twisting the connector unit.
clockwise.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Detecting Holidays and Pinholes in Coating and Lining Systems 10-7
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Next, attach the wand to the free end of the Finally, attach the electrode (neoprene rubber,
electrode cable (insert and twist to lock). brass wire brush or spring coil) to the end of the
wand (insert and twist to lock). The unit is now
assembled.

Step 2: Select the Voltage Setting

Selecting the voltage setting is one of the most important steps when using a high voltage holiday
detector. If the voltage selected is too low, the detector will not locate any pinholes or holidays, even
if they are there. If the voltage is set too high, you could damage the coating. You should obtain the
correct voltage setting from the project specification or from the manufacturer of the coating system.

In lieu of this information, ASTM D5162, “Practice for Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of
Nonconductive Protective Coating on Metallic Substrates” contains a suggested formula for
calculating voltage settings:

V = M √Tc
Thickness, Test Thickness, Test
Mils Voltage Mils Voltage
Where: V = test voltage in volts
Tc - coating thickness in mils 20 2,348 45 8,385
M = a constant dependent on thickness 22 2,462 50 8,839
range as follows: 24 2,572 55 9,270
26 2,678 60 9,682
Thickness Range, mils M Value 28 2,778 65 10,078
< 40 mils 525 30 2,875 70 10,458
>40 mils 1250 32 2,970 75 10,825
34 3,061 80 11,180
The table to the right presents a list of voltages 36 3,150 85 11,524
that have been calculated for coating thicknesses 38 3,236 90 11,858
in the range of 20 to 95 mils using the equation. 40 3,320 95 12,183

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

10-8 www.kta.com
Voltage setting table Adjust the detector to HI or LO
(on detector unit) setting

2-1 Locate the “Voltage Setting Table” on the 2-2 Unscrew the protective cap on the
back side of the detector unit. Select the range “SELECTOR” port and turn the switch to HI
(HI/LO) and the voltage setting from the table. or LO (from the table) using a screwdriver.
Replace the protective cap.

Example: If you wanted the test voltage to be

9,000 volts, set the HI/LO switch
to “HI” and the voltage setting
switch to “7.”

Adjust the voltage setting on the

dectector

2-3 Unscrew the protective cap on the “Voltage

Setting” port and turn the switch to the desired
voltage (from the table) using a screwdriver.
Replace the protective cap.

Step 3: Attach the Ground Wire to the Structure or to Earth

Attach the non-insulated ground wire to the structure that

you are inspecting. It is very important that the wire remains
in contact with the bare steel. This means that you may have
to remove a small section of coating to properly ground the
detector. If the detector is not properly grounded, then no
pinholes or holidays will be detected, even if they are there.
For pipeline inspection, or if attaching the ground wire is not
practical, you can simply allow the ground wire to drag across Attach ground wire to substrate
the earth, provided that the pipeline or structure is grounded to
earth.
Using Coatings Inspection Instruments
Detecting Holidays and Pinholes in Coating and Lining Systems 10-9
www.kta.com
Turn detector unit “ON” Inspect coated surfaces for
pinholes/holidays

Step 4: Power-up the Detector and Verify Step 5: Inspect the Coated Surfaces
Continuity
After you have verified that the detector is
The “On/Off” switch is located on the front of operational and the ground contact is adequate,
the detector unit. Push the switch to the “On” inspect the coated surfaces by dragging the
position. You will hear a buzzing tone. If you do electrode across the coated surfaces at a speed
not hear a tone, the battery inside the detector of approximately one linear foot per second,
may need to be recharged or replaced. using a systematic, overlapping method. Do not
hold the electrode stationary at any time while
Prior to inspecting the coated surfaces, you in contact with the surface, or you may damage
should verify continuity by ensuring that the the coating. The detector unit has an audible
detector unit is properly grounded. To do this (high-pitch ringing) alarm that will signal if a
you will need to touch the electrode to an pinhole or a holiday is detected. Also, a spark
uncoated section of the structure, or even create will be generated providing a visual indication
an intentional holiday. Drag the electrode over of the location of the void. Circle the defective
the uncoated substrate or the intentional holiday. area with chalk or other non-grease/non-wax
If the detector signals (a higher pitch tone and marker than can be removed after the pinhole
spark are generated) the ground is sufficient. If or holiday is repaired.
the detector does not signal, touch the electrode
to the ground wire. If you hear a signal, the
detector is operating properly, it’s just that the
ground contact is not adequate. In this case,
you will need to improve the ground wire
contact with the structure or the earth. If the
detector still does not signal when you touch the
electrode to the ground wire, the detector is not
operating properly and should not be used.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

10-10 www.kta.com
Holiday testing of pipeline using
spring electrode

Verifying the Accuracy of High Voltage Holiday

Detectors

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Detecting Holidays and Pinholes in Coating and Lining Systems 10-11
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meaSuRing the adheSion

9
of coatingS

Some project specifications will require you to measure the adhesion

of the coating system after it has been applied and is cured. Or, you
may be required to measure the adhesion of a coating system that
has been on a structure for several years, to determine its condition
or whether it can be successfully overcoated. In either case, it is
important for you to perform adhesion testing properly. Otherwise
you may obtain misleading results. In Module 9, you will learn how
to perform two different types of adhesion testing: shear or knife
adhesion and tensile or pull-off adhesion. But before we
Adhesion Testing describe how to conduct an adhesion test, it is important for
Evaluates: you to understand what you are measuring when you test the
adhesion of a coating.
 Adhesive coating
strength When you perform an adhesion test, you are measuring the
 Cohesive coating strength of a coating at several different “planes.” First, you
strength
are testing the adhesion of the coating system to the substrate.
Secondly, you are testing the adhesion of the coating layers
Adhesion Test Methods
Include: to each other, if there is more than one layer of coating on the
surface. In both of these cases, you are testing the adhesive
 Tape adhesion strength of a coating, or the bond of the layers to one another
 Knife adhesion and to the substrate. Lastly, when you perform an adhesion
 Tensile (pull-off) test, you are also testing the inner-strength of each coating
adhesion layer. This is known as the cohesive strength of a coating, or
the ability of each layer to hold itself together. We will describe
each of these in more detail later.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-1
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The adhesion of a coating system to a surface is highly variable, and
can be influenced by a multitude of factors too numerous to list here.
That is why there is no industry-wide standard that says that a certain
type of coating must have a minimum adhesion or cohesion strength.
However, project specifications may require a minimum adhesion
value as a contract requirement, and coating manufacturers will often
report an adhesion value on their product data sheets. Sometimes this
value is adopted into a project specification.

Selecting an Adhesion Testing Method

Prior to performing an adhesion test, you must select a test method.

ASTM Standard ASTM Test Method

D3359 “Adhesion By Tape Test”
D6677 “Knife Adhesion”
D4541 “Pull-off Strength of Conatings Using Portable Adhesion Testers”
D7234 “Pull-off Strength of Coatings on Concrete Using Portable Adhesion Testers”

Generally the first two methods listed above (ASTM D3359 and
D6677) are considered more suitable for the field, since they do not
require any special equipment and can be conducted rather quickly.
The third and fourth methods (ASTM D4541 and D7234) require
instruments and take longer to perform, as you will see below. While it
is common to conduct this method of adhesion testing in a laboratory,
the instruments used to test the pull-off adhesion strength of coatings
on steel and concrete are portable and testing can and is routinely done
in the shop and in the field.

The tests listed in the table above evaluate two different adhesion
properties, and they use different testing mechanisms. The tape and
knife adhesion tests (ASTM D3359 and D6677) are used to evaluate
the “shear” or “peel” strength of a coating, while the pull-off tests
(ASTM D4541 and D7234) are used to evaluate a coating’s tensile
strength, or its resistance to a perpendicular pull. Since the testing
mechanisms are different (peel-back versus pull-off), the test results
©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.
9-2 www.kta.com
that you obtain from each test can not be compared. Also, any type of adhesion test is “destructive.”
That is, the coating in the area in which you perform the test will be damaged, and oftentimes it
should be repaired. Therefore, you should not conduct an adhesion test unless you are required to by
the project specification, or have been directed to perform the test by your supervisor.

Measuring Adhesion by the Tape Test (ASTM D3359)

If the project specification or other document requires you to perform an adhesion test according to
ASTM D3359, “Adhesion by Tape Test,” you will need the
following testing equipment. A kit is available that contains
most of the equipment listed below.

Tape adhesion test kit

Item Purpose

Steel Ruler or Guide To generate straight cuts using a knife blade

Utility Knife With a New To generate incisions (cuts) through the coating system to the
Razor Blade underlying substrate

Small Brush (not in kit) To remove the debris generated by the cutting process

Adhesive Tape To apply to the cut area and test the peel strength of the coatings

Pencil Eraser (not in kit) To ensure the adhesive tape is pressed against the cut area

ASTM Test Method To define the test procedure and rate the adhesion

Step 1: Select a Test Area

Selecting a test area is perhaps the most difficult part of testing adhesion, particularly if you are
evaluating an older coating system that has been maintained by spot or area touch-up painting over
many years. It is beyond the scope of this module to provide direction on where to test and how
many tests to perform. However, you should test several areas and perform replicate tests in each
area to ensure you are obtaining representative adhesion data. If you are testing the adhesion of a
new coating system, you may want to minimize the number of locations that you test to reduce the
amount of touch-up required. However, replicate testing (at least 3) in each area selected is always
a good idea. Ensure the areas you select are free of grease, oil, dirt, chalking, or water that will
interfere with the adhesion of the tape.

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Step 2: Determine the Thickness of the Coating System

Before you test the adhesion of the coating system using this procedure, you will need to determine
how thick the coating system is. This will enable you to select a testing “method” in Step 3. This will
be explained later in this module. The thickness of the coating system can be measured using any of
the coating thickness gages described in Module 6.

Step 3: Select a Testing Method

Based on the thickness of the coating system, select a test method (A or B). Method A is called
an “X-Cut” and is used to test the adhesion of a coating system that is greater than 5 mils thick.
Method B is called a “Cross-cut” and is used to test a coating system that is less than, or equal to 5
mils thick. ASTM allows you to use Method B for a coating system that is greater than 5 mils thick,
provided that you make some adjustments to the testing procedure, and that the project personnel
all agree to the deviation from the standard test method. If you select Method A (X-Cut), proceed to
Step 4 below. If you select Method “B,” proceed to Step 5.

Step 4: Measure the Adhesion using Method A (X-Cut)

If you selected the X-Cut method of testing the adhesion of the coating system, follow steps 4-1
through 4-8 below. Repeat these steps for each test area selected in Step 1.

Use a straight edge to make cuts

4-1 Mount a new razor blade in a utility knife The legs at the top and bottom of the “X” should
holder and extend the blade outward. Use be approximately 1” apart. The intersection of
a straight edge (one side of the KTA Cross- the “X” should be close to a 30-45° angle.
Cut Guide works well) and make a 1.5” long
cut through the coating system (down to the
substrate). Now make a second 1.5” long cut
across the first cut to form an “X.”

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Apply tape to X-Cut area

4-2 Remove any debris from the “X” area using 4-3 Remove two complete wraps of adhesive
a soft brush (a new 1” paint brush works well). tape and discard. Carefully remove a piece
of the adhesive tape and apply it to the “X”
area. Since the total length of the “X” is
approximately 1.5”, you will need a piece of
tape that is at least 2” long. Because the tape
and the “X” cut area are both 1” wide, the tape
should cover the entire X-Cut. If it does not, you
have made the “X” cut too wide.

Ensure tape is adherent Remove tape 180° to the surface

4-4 Using a soft pencil eraser, rub the tape 4-5 Within 90 (+/- 30) seconds, remove the tape
over the X-Cut. This step will help ensure from the X-cut smoothly and rapidly, 180° back
good contact between the tape and the coating across the X-Cut (i.e., peel back, do not pull
surface. Since you will generate some friction upwards).
here, allow the tape to remain on the surface for
a few seconds (to cool) before removing it in
Step 4-5.
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4-6 Examine the X-Cut area for coating delamination. Since there will be shavings of coating down
in the grooves of the cuts, it is not a good idea to rate the adhesion based on what appears on the
tape. The tape will almost always have coating debris on it. Instead, look at the X-Cut area on the
coated surface and rate the condition of it according to the table below.

Rating Description
5A No peeling or removal
4A Trace peeling or removal along the incisions
3A Jagged removal along the incisions up to 1/16" (1.6mm) on either side
2A Jagged removal along most of the incisions up to 1/8" (3.2 mm) on either side
1A Removal of most of the coating from the area of the “X” under the tape
0A Removal of coating beyond the area of the “X”

4-7 Classify the location of the delamination as “adhesion” or “cohesion” according to the definitions
provided in the table below. Usually this can only be done if the adhesion is rated 3A or lower.

Location of Delamination Description

A distinct break between coating layers or a distinct
Adhesion
break between the substrate and the first coating layer
Cohesion A split within a coating layer

4-8 If possible, you should also record the identity of the coating layers where the delamination
occurred (e.g., Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat). The table below illustrates an example of how to record
the adhesion data. You can use an 8X or 10X magnifier or “loop” to view the cut area, if needed.

Example using Method A from ASTM D3359:

Test Adhesion
Location Location of Delamination
No. Rating
Area 1 1 3A Cohesion: Within the primer layer
Area 1 2 2A Cohesion: Within the topcoat layer
Area 2 1 1A Adhesion: Between the substrate and the primer
Area 2 2 2A Adhesion: Between the primer and the topcoat
Area 3 1 5A Not applicable
Area 3 2 4A Cannot distinquish location of delamination

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Step 5: Measure the Adhesion using Method B (Cross-Cut)

If you selected the Cross-Cut method of testing the adhesion of the coating system, follow Steps 5-1
through 5-8 below. Repeat these steps for each test area selected in Step 1.

5-1 Mount a new razor blade in a utility knife holder and

extend the blade outward. Use a straight edge or the KTA
Cross-Cut Guide and make a series of 6 or 11 parallel knife
blade cuts through the coating system (down to the substrate).
The number of cuts and the amount of space between the
cuts is based on the total thickness of the coating system you
measured in Step 2. Using the chart below, determine the
number of cuts and the spacing between the cuts. Cutting parallel incisions into coating
film

Coating Thickness Number of Cuts Spacing Between Cuts

Up to 2 mils 11 1 mm
2-5 mils 6 2 mm
>5 mils 6 5 mm or X-Cut (Method A)

Cross-cut pattern (1mm spacing) Cross-cut pattern (5mm spacing)

Turn the straightedge or guide 90o and make If you used 6 cuts, you will have a 5 x 5 grid, or
a second series of parallel knife cuts over 25 squares.
top of the first set of cuts, but make them
perpendicular to the first set to form a grid,
cross-hatch or “Cross-Cut” pattern. If you
used 11 cuts, you will have a 10 x 10 grid, or
100 squares.

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Apply tape to cross-cut area
5-2 Remove any debris from the “Cross-cut” 5-3 Remove two complete wraps of adhesive
area using a soft brush (a new 1" paint brush tape and discard. Carefully remove a piece of
works well). the adhesive tape and apply it to the “Cross-cut”
area.

Ensure tape is adherent Remove tape 180° to the surface

5-4 Using a soft pencil eraser, rub the tape over 5-5 Within 90 (+/- 30) seconds, grasp one end
the cross-cut area. This step will help ensure of the tape and remove it from the cross-cut area
good contact between the tape and the coating. smoothly and rapidly, 180o back across the grid
Since you will generate some friction here, (i.e., peel back, do not pull upwards).
allow the tape to remain on the surface for a few
seconds (to cool) before removing it in Step 5-5.

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5-6 Examine the cross-cut area for coating delamination. Since there
will be shavings of coating down in the grooves of the cuts, it is not a
good idea to rate the adhesion based on what appears on the tape. The
tape will almost always have coating debris on it. Instead, look at the
cross-cut area on the coated surface and rate the condition according
to the table on page 9-10. The ASTM D3359 standard provides a chart
similar to the one shown below that illustrates the various percentages
of delamination described in the table.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADHESION TEST RESULTS

SURFACE OF CROSS-CUT AREA FROM

PERCENT WHICH FLAKING HAS OCCURRED FOR
CLASSIFICATION
AREA SIX PARALLEL CUTS AND ADHESION
REMOVED RANGE BY PERCENT

0%
5B
None

4B Less than
5%

3B 5 - 15%

2B 15 - 35%

1B 35 - 65%

Greater than
0B 65%

ASTM D3359 adhesion rating chart (Method B)

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Percent
Rating Description
Delamination
5B 0% (none) Edges of the cuts are completely smooth
4B < 5% Small flakes of coating are detached at the intersections
Small flakes of coating are detached along the edges and
3B 5-15%
intersections
Coating has flaked along the edges and on parts of the
2B 15-35%
square
Coating has flaked along the edges of the cuts in large
1B 35-65%
ribbons and whole squares have detached
0B >65% Flaking and detaching worse than Rating 1B

5-7 Classify the location of the delamination as “adhesion” or “cohesion” according to the definitions
provided in the table below. Usually this can only be done if the adhesion is rated 3B or lower.

Location of Delamination Description

A distinct break between coating layers or a distinct
Adhesion
break between the substrate and the first coating layer
Cohesion A split within a coating layer

5-8 If possible, you should also record the identity of the coating layers where the delamination
occurred (e.g., Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat). The table below illustrates an example of how to record
the adhesion data. You can use an 8X or 10X magnifier or “loop” to view the cut area, if needed.

Example using Method B from ASTM D3359:

Test Adhesion
Location Location of Delamination
No. Rating
Area 1 1 3B Cohesion: Within the primer layer
Area 1 2 2B Cohesion: Within the topcoat layer
Area 2 1 1B Adhesion: Between the substrate and the primer
Area 2 2 2B Adhesion: Between the primer and the topcoat
Area 3 1 5B Not applicable
Area 3 2 4B Cannot distinquish

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9-10 www.kta.com
Measuring Adhesion by the Knife Test (ASTM D6677)

The adhesion of a coating system to the underlying substrate

and the adhesion of coating layers to one another can be
evaluated using ASTM D6677, “Evaluating Adhesion by
Knife.” This test method provides you with a quick and easy
way to measure adhesion in the laboratory or in the field.
While subjective, this type of adhesion testing has been
conducted for many years, in fact long before it became an
ASTM standard test method. It requires very little investment
in equipment and can provide you with valuable information Knife, ruler, and test method
regarding the integrity of the coating system.

If the project specification or other document requires you to perform this type of adhesion testing,
you will need the following testing equipment.

Item Purpose

Steel Ruler or Guide To generate straight cuts using a knife blade

Utility Knife With a New To generate incisions (cuts) through the coating system to the
Razor Blade underlying substrate

ASTM Test Method To define the test procedure and rate the adhesion

Step 1: Select a Test Area Step 2: Make Two Incisions

Selecting a test area is perhaps the most difficult Mount a new razor blade in a utility knife
part of testing adhesion, particularly if you are holder and extend the blade outward. Using a
evaluating an older coating system that has been straight edge make a 1.5" long cut through the
maintained by spot or area touch-up painting coating system (down to the substrate). Now
over many years. It is beyond the scope of this make a second 1.5” long cut across the first cut
module to provide direction on where to test to form an “X”. The legs at the top and bottom
and how many tests to perform. However, you of the “X” should be approximately 1" apart.
should test several areas and perform replicate The intersection of the “X” should be close to
tests in each area to ensure you are obtaining a 30-45° angle.
representative adhesion data. If you are testing
the adhesion of a new coating system, you
may want to minimize the number of locations
that you test to reduce the amount of touch-up
required. However, replicate testing in each area
selected is always a good idea.

Cutting incision into coating film

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Step 3: Measure the Adhesion

Starting at the intersection of the “X,” use the tip of the knife blade
and attempt to lift the coating from the substrate or the underlying
coating layer(s). Rate the adhesion according to the table in the
ASTM standard, which is similar to the one below.

Measuring knife adhesion

Rating Description
Coating is extremely difficult to remove. Fragments no larger than 1/32" x
10
1/32" removed with great difficulty.
Coating is difficult to remove. Coating chips from 1/16" x 1/16" to 1/8" x 1/8"
8
removed with difficulty.
Coating is somewhat difficult to remove. Coating chips from 1/8" x 1/8" to
6
1/4" x 1/4" removed with slight difficulty.
Coating is somewhat difficult to remove. Coating chips in excess of 1/4" x
4
1/4" removed using light pressure with knife blade.
Coating is easy to remove. Once started with the knife blade, the coating
2
can be grasped with fingers and easily peeled to a length of at least 1/4".
Coating is easy to remove. Once started with the knife blade, the coating
0
can be grasped with fingers and easily peeled to a length greater than 1/4".

Step 4: Determine the Type and Location of Coating

Delamination

If possible, classify the location of the delamination as “adhesion” or

“cohesion” according to the definitions provided in the table below.

Location of Delamination Description

A distinct break between coating layers or a distinct
Adhesion
break between the substrate and the first coating layer
Cohesion A split within a coating layer

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You should also record the identity of the coating layers where the delamination occurred (e.g.,
Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat). The table below illustrates an example of how to record the adhesion
data. You can use an 8X or 10X magnifier or “loop” to view the cut area, if needed.

Example using ASTM D6677 test method:

Test Adhesion
Location Location of Delamination
No. Rating
Area 1 1 6 Cohesion: Within the primer layer
Area 1 2 4 Cohesion: Within the topcoat layer
Area 2 1 2 Adhesion: Between the substrate and the primer
Area 2 2 2 Adhesion: Between the primer and the topcoat
Area 3 1 10 Not applicable
Area 3 2 8 Cannot distinquish location of delamination

Measuring Pull-Off Adhesion (ASTM D4541; ASTM D7234)

If the project specification or other document requires you to perform a pull-off adhesion test
according to ASTM D4541, “Pull-off Strength of Coatings Using Portable Adhesion Testers” or
ASTM D7234, “Pull-off Strength of Coatings on Concrete Using Portable Adhesion Testers,” you
will need to select and use an adhesion test device discussed in this Module. All of these devices
are provided in kits that contain all of the necessary equipment to perform a series of adhesion tests.
Because these devices require you to attach a pull-stub to the surface using an adhesive, the amount
of time it takes to perform pull-off adhesion is greater than that required to perform a knife adhesion
test. Depending on the type of adhesive you use and the air/surface temperature, you may have to
attach the pull stubs on one day and pull them on the next.

This module primarily describes the use of pull-off adhesion testers for coatings on steel. For
coatings on concrete, larger diameter pull stubs (e.g., 2” diameter) may be required. Also, custom
made, concave and convex pull stubs for testing the adhesion of coatings/linings on the interior and
exterior of pipe are available for some models. All of the adhesion testers described in this module
are available with the larger diameter pull stubs. Special requirements for testing the pull off
strength of coatings on concrete are listed at the end of this module.

Step 1: Select a Test Area

Selecting a test area is perhaps the most difficult part of testing adhesion, particularly if you are
evaluating an older coating system that has been maintained by spot or area touch-up painting over
many years. It is beyond the scope of this module to provide direction on where to test and how
many tests to perform. However, you should test several areas and perform replicate tests (minimum
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of triplicate) in each area to ensure you are obtaining representative
adhesion data. If you are testing the adhesion of a new coating system,
the number of locations that you test may not be as critical. In fact, the
specifier may want to minimize the number of test areas to reduce the
amount of touch-up required. However, triplicate testing in each area
selected is always a good idea.

Step 2: Select a Test Device

Unless the project specification requires you to use a specific type of

adhesion tester, you will need to select one. This module discusses
four such devices, all of which conform to ASTM D4541 and ASTM
D7234. However, these devices do not all work the same, and the
device you select can influence the adhesion values that you generate.
In general, the self-aligning test devices will usually produce higher
(and more precise) adhesion values than the fixed alignment type.

ASTM
D4541 Device Pulling Mechanism Type
Annex
A.2 Elcometer® Model 106 Mechanical (spring) Fixed Alignment
A.3 HATE® Hydraulic Pressure Self-Aligning
A.4 PATTI® Quantum Pneumatic Pressure Self-Aligning
A.5 PosiTest® AT Hydraulic Pressure Self-Aligning

Once you select a test device, proceed to the section of Module 9 that
describes the step-by-step use of that particular device. These sections
are shown in the table below.

Model Section Device

9.1 Elcometer® Model 106

9.2 HATE®
9.3 PATTI® Quantum
9.4 PosiTest® AT

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Section 9-1 – meaSuRing adheSion uSing the
elcometeR® model 106
The Elcometer® Model 106 Adhesion Tester can be used to test the pull-off strength of a coating
or coating system. It is a mechanical adhesion tester, which uses a calibrated compression spring to
produce a perpendicular force on a pull stub. This force is automatically converted to pounds per
square inch (psi) or MegaPascals (MPa) by reading one of the scales on the instrument.

There are several ranges of Elcometer® Model 106 adhesion testers to choose from. The models
available and the range of each one are indicated in the table below. The 106/2 (0-1,000 psi) is the
most common model.

Model No. Range

106/1 0-500 psi

106/2 (shown) 0-1000 psi
106/3 0-2000 psi
106/4 0-3200 psi
106/4A For use with 2" pull stubs
106/5 0-30 psi
Elcometer® Model 106/2 adhesion tester

The Elcometer® Model 106 Adhesion Testers are factory-calibrated. You cannot verify nor change
the calibration. A device known as an Instron or a Tinius Olsen Universal Testing Machine is used to
create a calibration curve. You should send the adhesion tester to a qualified laboratory once every
six months if it is used frequently (annually is sufficient for infrequent use) and instruct them to
create a calibration curve for you. The calibration curve that they create will enable you to convert
the instrument reading to “actual pressure.”

Step 1: Prepare the Test Surface

Once you have selected a test area, you will need to prepare the surface.
Ensure the area you selected is free of grease, oil, dirt or chalking,
water, protrusions, or other conditions that will interfere with the
attachment of a pull stub to the surface. The area you select must also
be flat and rigid within a 4” diameter circle. Also, the ASTM standard
recommends a minimum substrate thickness of ¼”. If the test surface is
very smooth or glossy, you may want to lightly roughen it using a fine Lightly roughen surface
grade of sandpaper. If you abrade the surface, be sure to wipe away any
fine dust that was created.
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Step 2: Prepare the Test Pull Stub

The Elcometer pull stub (also known as a “dolly”) is a round, two-

sided aluminum fixture (1/2 square inch surface area). At first glance,
both sides of the pull stub appear the same. However, one side of the
pull stub is sloped on the top surface, while flat on the bottom surface.
The bottom surface is the contact area. It is very important to attach
the pull stub to the surface using the correct side of the pull stub. If
you attach the pull stub “up-side-down,” the test device cannot be Elcometer pull stub
positioned properly and you will have to attach new pull stubs. (proper orientation)

Blast cleaned (L) versus non-blast

Roughen pull stub base cleaned (R) pull stub Clean pull stub

Because the surface of the pull stub is polished aluminum, you will
need to roughen it using a coarse sand paper. Alternatively, you can
purchase pull stubs that have been pre-roughened by abrasive blast
cleaning. In either case, wipe the pull stub to remove any dirt or debris
using a soft cloth. You can also use some isopropyl alcohol (rubbing
alcohol) to help remove oxides or other debris that may interfere with
the attachment of a pull stub to the surface. The manufacturer does not
recommend reusing pull stubs.

Step 3: Select an Adhesive

There are a variety of adhesives that can be used to attach

the pull stub to the surface. The Elcometer adhesion tester
kit comes with Araldite, a 100% solids epoxy adhesive. This
adhesive requires at least 24 hours at room temperature to
cure. While other “quick-set” adhesives are available and
can be used, they may not be able to withstand the pulling Araldite 2011 epoxy adhesive
forces of the test device, and may break before the coating
does at a relatively low force. Also, cyanoacrylate adhesives (Super
Glue) may soften or penetrate the coating film. Mix the adhesive you
selected according to the manufacturer’s directions. If the adhesive is
two-component, it will have a maximum working time. Do not mix up
more than you can use during the working time.

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Step 4: Attach the Pull Stub to the Surface

Apply adhesive to pull stub Attach pull stub

4-1 Using a wooden stick, apply an even layer 4-2 Attach the pull stub to the coated surface
of adhesive to the entire contact surface of the and gently push downward to displace any
pull-stub (a 2-4 mil layer is adequate). excess adhesive. Do not twist or slide the pull
stub during attachment, because you may
generate air bubbles in the adhesive.

Remove excess adhesive

Use tape to hold the pull stub in

place

4-3 Carefully remove the excess adhesive from 4-4 Push the pull stub inward against the
the perimeter of the pull stub using a cotton surface, then apply tape across the head of the
swab or other device. Allow the adhesive to pull stub. Attach the tape to the test surface to
fully cure before performing the adhesion test. hold the pull stub in place while the adhesive
cures.

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Step 5: Determine Whether Scoring is Required

ASTM standard test method D4541 does not recommend any type of scoring around the base of the
pull stub prior to testing unless required by the specifier. Scoring may produce tiny fractures in the
coating or may generate friction heat, which can change the properties
of the coating and result in lower adhesion values. If the project
specification requires you to score the coating around the perimeter
of the pull stub, then you will need to use the hand-scoring device
included in the Elcometer® Adhesion Test Kit. However, this must be
done very carefully to avoid contact with the sides of the pull stub.

If you score around the perimeter, place the scoring device over the
pull stub and rotate the cutter using a back and forth motion. Make
sure you score down through all coating layers to the substrate. For
thick coatings (e.g., 100 mils or more), you may need to use a 1” hole
saw (with the lead drill bit removed) mounted in a portable drill to
Scoring the coating
penetrate down to the underlying substrate. This requires considerable (if specified)
skill to avoid contacting the sides of the pull stub. You may want to
score the coating prior to attaching the pull stub.

Hexagon-shaped nut
Hand wheel

Black column

Base

Elcometer® 106 adhesion Elcometer® 106/3

tester components or 106/4 tester (no
handwheel)

Step 6: Perform the Adhesion Test

6-1 The Elcometer® adhesion tester consists of three basic components: A hand wheel (model 106/2)
or hexagon-shaped nut at the top (models 106/3 and 106/4), a black column containing a dragging
indicator pin and scale in the middle, and a base containing three legs and a pulling “jaw” (designed
to fit the head of the pull stub) at the bottom.

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Position Tester Verify levelness
Lower jaw

6-2 Attach the adhesion tester to the pull stub

by rotating the hand wheel (or hexagon-shaped 6-3 Slide the jaw completely under the head
nut) counterclockwise to lower the “jaw” of the of the pull stub. Position the three legs of the
device. instrument so that they are sitting flat on the
coated surface.

Set drag pin

6-4 Slide the dragging indicator pin on the black

column to “zero” by pushing it downward.

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Rotate hexagon nut to
Rotate handwheel to increase load
increase load

6-5 Firmly hold the base of the instrument in one hand and rotate the hand wheel clockwise to raise
the “jaw” of the device that is attached to the head of the pull stub. If the adhesion tester is equipped
with a hexagon-shaped nut at the top, use the spanner wrench supplied with the tester. The tension
on the spring will place a perpendicular, upward force on the pull stub. The dragging indicator pin
will move upward on the black column as the force is increased, and will hold the reading for you.
Increase the tension smoothly and evenly. Apply the tension using a moderate speed. The rate of
force should not exceed 150 psi per second. Continue to increase the tension on the head of the pull
stub (with minimal stopping) until one of the three “events” occurs (described below). You should
complete the test in 100 seconds or less.

Step 7: Read the Scale and Record the Adhesion Value

The black column near the middle of the adhesion tester contains
two scales and a dragging indicator pin located between the two
scales. The right scale is pounds per square inch (psi) and the
left scale is MegaPascals (MPa). As we discussed in Step 6, the
dragging indicator pin will hold the reading for you until you push
it back to “zero.” When you achieve the endpoint of the test (see
the three possible events described below), read the scale across
from the bottom of the dragging indicator pin. If you select the psi
scale, multiply the scale value by 100. For example if the bottom
of the dragging pin is between 3 and 4 on the psi scale, record the Scales with dragging indicator pin
value as 350 psi (3.5 x 100).

Three Possible Events

Event 1: The minimum psi required by the project specification is exceeded and the test is
discontinued. When this occurs, relieve the tension by turning the hand wheel or spanner wrench
counterclockwise until the “jaw” of the adhesion tester can be removed (slid) from beneath the head
©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.
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of the pull stub. You can leave the pull stub on the surface, or you
can easily remove it by tapping it on the side with a hammer. Record
the adhesion as “Pass: > X psi.” Return the dragging indicator pin to
“zero” on the scale before you conduct additional tests.

Event 2: The maximum psi of the adhesion tester has been achieved
and the pull stub is still attached. When this occurs, relieve the tension
by turning the hand wheel or spanner wrench counterclockwise until
the “jaw” of the adhesion tester can be removed (slid) from beneath
the head of the pull stub. You can leave the pull stub on the surface,
or you can easily remove it by tapping it on the side with a hammer.
Record the adhesion as “> X psi,” or select and use an adhesion tester
with a higher capacity. You should not rerun the test on the same
pull stub, since the coating system has already been stressed beneath
the pull stub and a false low adhesion value may result. Return the
dragging indicator pin to “zero” on the scale before you conduct
additional tests.

Event 3: The force applied by the adhesion tester causes the pull stub
to dislodge. When this occurs, read the scale across from the bottom of
the dragging pin as described in Step 7. Return the dragging indicator
pin to “zero” on the scale before you conduct additional tests.

You will need to record the type of break that occurred and the
location of the break. The type of break can be described as
“adhesion,” “cohesion,” or “glue.” You should also record the identity
of the coating layers where the break occurred and the approximate
percentage of each (e.g., 70% Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat; 30%
Cohesion-Topcoat). Since the type and location of break are the same
for all types of pull-off adhesion testers, they are described only once,
at the end of this Module. An example “Table of Results” is also
shown.

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Section 9-2 – meaSuRing adheSion uSing the
hate® adheSion teSteR
The HATE® Adhesion Tester can be used to test the pull-off strength of a coating or coating
system. HATE stands for Hydraulic Adhesion Testing Equipment. The HATE® adhesion tester
uses hydraulic oil pressure to produce a simultaneous, perpendicular push on the coated surface
and pull on a pre-glued pull stub. This hydraulic pressure
is automatically converted to pounds per square inch (psi)
or “Bar” by reading one of the two scales (red or black) on
the instrument dial. A digital version is also available. The
range of the HATE® Adhesion Tester is 0-3,500 psi.
HATE® Adhesion Tester
The HATE® Adhesion Tester is factory-calibrated.
You cannot verify nor change the calibration. You should send the adhesion tester back to the
manufacturer once every six months if it is used frequently (annually is sufficient for infrequent use)
and instruct them to verify the accuracy of the tester. They may need to create a calibration curve
for you. If so, the calibration curve that they create will enable you to convert the gage reading to
“actual pressure.”

Step 1: Prepare the Test Surface

Once you have selected a test area, you will need to prepare the surface. Ensure the area you selected
is free of grease, oil, dirt or chalking, water, protrusions, or other conditions that will interfere with
the attachment of a pull stub to the surface. The area you select must also be flat and rigid within a
1” diameter circle. Also, the ASTM standard recommends a minimum substrate thickness of ¼”. If
the test surface is very smooth or glossy, you may want to lightly roughen it using a fine grade of
sandpaper. If you abrade the surface, be sure to wipe away any fine dust that was created.

Step 2: Prepare the Test Pull Stub

The HATE® pull stub is a round, two-sided stainless steel fixture with a hole through the center. The
top of the pull stub has a larger diameter hole, while the bottom has a smaller diameter hole and a
smooth, flat contact surface. This bottom side is the contact area.

HATE® pull stub Top of HATE® pull stub Bottom of HATE® pull stub

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

9-22 www.kta.com
Because the surface of the pull stub is very smooth, you may
want to roughen it using a coarse sand paper. Wipe the pull stub
to remove any dirt or debris using a soft cloth. You can also
use some isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) to help remove
debris that may interfere with the attachment of a pull stub to the
surface. The manufacturer allows the reuse of pull stubs.

Roughen pull stub contact surface

Step 3: Select an Adhesive

There are a variety of adhesives that can be used to attach the pull stub to
the surface. The HATE® adhesion tester kit comes with Turbo Fuse, a single
component instant bonding super glue. This adhesive and other “quick-set”
adhesives are available and can be used. However, they may not be able to
withstand the pulling forces of the test device and may break before the coating
does at a relatively low force. Also, cyanoacrylate (Super Glue) adhesives may
soften or penetrate the coating film. Adhesives like Araldite or Hysol 907 are two-
component epoxy-type. These types of adhesives can usually withstand higher
pulling forces. If the adhesive you selected is two-component, mix it according
to the manufacturer’s directions. Also, a two-component adhesive will have a
maximum working time. Do not mix up more than you can use during the working
time.

Step 4: Attach the Pull Stub to the Surface

4-1 Insert a small diameter Teflon plug (supplied with the HATE® kit) through the top center hole of
the stainless steel pull stub until the small tip of the plug protrudes from the contact (bottom) surface
of the pull stub.

Small tip of teﬂon plug protrudes

from bottom of HATE® pull stub

Insert teﬂon plug through top

of HATE® pull stub

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-23
www.kta.com
Apply adhesive to pull stub contact surface

Attach pull stub to coated

surface Remove the teﬂon plug

4-2 Using the adhesive dispenser bottle or a wooden stick, apply an

even layer of adhesive to the entire contact surface of the pull stub (a
2-4 mil layer is adequate). Attach the pull stub to the coated surface
and gently push downward to displace any excess adhesive. Do not
twist or slide the pull stub during attachment, because you may
generate air bubbles in the adhesive. Carefully remove the excess
adhesive from the perimeter of the pull stub using a cotton swab or
other device. Remove the Teflon plug from the pull stub and remove
any adhesive that has accumulated on the end of the plug. Allow the
adhesive to fully cure before performing the adhesion test.

4-3 Carefully hold the pull stub in place and apply tape across the
head of the pull stub. Attach the tape to the test surface to hold the pull
stub in place until the adhesive cures.

Use tape to hold pull stub

in place
Step 5: Determine Whether Scoring is Required

ASTM standard test method D4541 does not recommend any type
of scoring around the base of the pull stub prior to testing unless it is
required by the specifier. Scoring may produce tiny fractures in the
coating, which can change the properties of the coating and result in
lower adhesion values. If the project specification requires you to score
the coating around the perimeter of the pull stub, then you will need
to use a razor knife, because there is no scoring device provided in
the HATE® adhesion kit. This must be done very carefully to avoid
contact with the sides of the pull stub.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

9-24 www.kta.com
Step 6: Perform the Adhesion Test

The HATE® adhesion tester consists of five basic components: A black, threaded hand lever, a
pressure indicator dial containing a black needle and a red “sweep” needle, a flexible hydraulic hose,
a stainless steel cylinder, and a “quick connect/disconnect” locking ring with a stainless steel pin
protruding from the center.

Insert pin through center Attach quick connect

hole in pull stub locking ring to pull stub
6-1 Attach the adhesion tester to the pull stub 6-2 Next, insert the center stainless steel pin
by rotating the black threaded hand lever through the center hole in the pull stub, then
counterclockwise to retract the stainless steel attach the quick-connect locking ring to the pull
pin. stub by pulling back on the snap-on ring and
locking the ring onto the outside rim of the pull
stub. Pull slightly upward on the adhesion tester
to ensure it is locked onto the pull stub. If it
does not lock onto the pull stub, there is a good
chance the adhesive has seeped into the hole and
has dried.

6-3 Rotate the red sweep needle on the gauge

dial to “zero.”

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-25
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The black hydraulic hose must remain straight during testing. Hold
the pressure dial of the instrument in one hand and rotate the black,
threaded hand lever clockwise. This will cause the center pin to
push against the coated substrate and the snap-on locking ring to
simultaneously pull upward on the pull stub. The black and the red
indicator needles will rotate on the scale as the force is increased
(Note: The black needle will return to “zero” when the pressure is
released, but the red “sweep” needle will hold the reading for you).
Increase the tension smoothly and evenly using a moderate speed (no
faster than 150 psi per second). Continue to increase the tension on
the head of the pull stub (with minimal stopping) until one of the three
“events” occurs (described below). You should complete the test in
100 seconds or less. Increase pressure by turning
hand lever clockwise

Step 7: Read the Scale and Record the Adhesion Value

The analog pressure dial of the adhesion tester contains two scales.
The red outer scale is pounds per square inch (psi) and the black inner
scale is in “Bar.” As we discussed in Step 6, the red sweep needle
will hold the reading for you until you return it to “zero.” When you
achieve the endpoint of the test (see the three possible events described
below), read and record the value from the scale, as indicated by the
red sweep needle (1,400 psi is shown). If you have the digital version, Read red sweep needle
the adhesion value is read from the display. (1,400 psi shown)

Three Possible Events

Event 1: The minimum psi required by the project specification is

exceeded and the test is discontinued. When this occurs, relieve the
tension by turning the black threaded hand lever counterclockwise
until the black needle points to “zero” on the pressure dial. Disconnect
the adhesion tester from the pull stub by lifting upward on the snap-on
ring. Remove the pull stub from the surface by tapping it on the side
with a hammer. Record the adhesion as “Pass: > X psi.” Return the
Digital display
red sweep needle to “zero” on the dial before you conduct additional
tests.

Event 2: The maximum psi of the adhesion tester has been achieved
and the pull stub is still attached. When this occurs, relieve the
tension by turning the black threaded hand lever counterclockwise
until the black needle points to “zero” on the pressure dial. Disconnect

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

9-26 www.kta.com
the adhesion tester from the pull stub by lifting upward on the snap-on
ring. Remove the pull stub from the surface by tapping it on the side
with a hammer. Record the adhesion as “> X psi.” Return the red
sweep needle to “zero” on the dial before you conduct additional tests.

Event 3: The force applied by adhesion tester causes the pull stub
to dislodge. When this occurs, read the scale as described in Step 7.
Return the red sweep needle to “zero” on the dial before you conduct
additional tests.

Step 8: Clean the Pull Stubs

The HATE® stainless steel pull stubs are reusable. A heat clamp is
included in the HATE® adhesion tester kit. Plug the heat clamp into a
110 volt receptacle and allow the clamp to heat-up for a few minutes.
Place the pull stub in the clamp. The pull stub will heat up and the
adhesive/coating on the contact surface will begin to soften. Carefully
scrape the contact surface with a knife blade or other scraping device
until it is clean. Use caution: The heat clamp and pull stub can
reach temperatures of 520°C (968°F).

Clean contact surface of HATE® pull stub

using heat clamp and knife blade

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-27
www.kta.com
Section 9-3 – meaSuRing adheSion uSing the
patti® quantum SeRieS analog adheSion
teSteR
The PATTI® Quantum Series Adhesion Tester (analog or
digital) can be used to test the pull-off strength of a coating or
coating system. PATTI stands for Pneumatic Adhesion Tensile
Testing Insturment. The PATTI® adhesion tester uses air
pressure inside a piston to slowly and constantly increase the
perpendicular force on a pull stub. This pressure is converted
to pounds per square inch (psi) or KiloPascals (KPa) by using
PATTI Quantum adhesion tester
a special burst pressure conversion chart.

The PATTI® Quantum Adhesion Tester is factory-calibrated. You cannot verify nor change the
calibration. You should send the adhesion tester and piston(s) back to the manufacturer once a year
and instruct them to verify the accuracy of the tester. If required, they will make any necessary
adjustments to ensure your instrument is producing reliable test results. They will also give you a
Certificate of Calibration.

Step 1: Prepare the Test Surface

Once you have selected a test area, you will need to prepare the surface. Ensure the area you select
is free of grease, oil, dirt, chalk, water, protrusions, or other conditions that will interfere with the
attachment of a pull stub to the surface. The area you select must also be flat and rigid within a 2"
diameter circle. Also, ASTM D4541 recommends a minimum substrate thickness of ¼". If the
test surface is very smooth or glossy, you may want to lightly roughen
it using a fine grade of sandpaper. If you abrade
the surface, be sure to wipe away any fine dust
that was created.

Step 2: Prepare the Test Pull Stub Bottom of PATTI®

pull stub
The PATTI® pull stub is a threaded, aluminum
fixture. The top of the pull stub is threaded, while
the bottom has a small, flat contact surface that
is pre-roughened. This bottom side is the contact PATTI® pull stub
area.

Wipe the pull stub to remove any dirt or debris

Clean pull stub prior to use
using a soft cloth and some isopropyl alcohol
©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.
9-28 www.kta.com
(rubbing alcohol) to help remove debris that may interfere with the attachment of the pull stub to the
surface. The manufacturer does not recommend reusing pull stubs.

Step 3: Select an Adhesive

There are a variety of adhesives that can be used to attach the

pull stub to the surface. The PATTI® adhesion tester kit comes
with Miller-Stephenson (MS) Epoxy 907, a 100% solids epoxy
adhesive. Araldite is another 100% solids epoxy adhesive that is
compatible with the PATTI® adhesion tester. These adhesives
require at least 24 hours at room temperature to cure. While other Miller-Stephenson Epoxy 907
adhesive
“quick-set” adhesives are available and can be used, they may
not be able to withstand the pulling forces of the test device, and
may break at a relatively low force without detaching the coating. Also, cyanoacrylate (Super Glue)
adhesives may soften or penetrate the coating film. Mix the adhesive you selected according to the
manufacturer’s directions. If the adhesive is two-component, it will have a maximum working time.
Therefore, do not mix more than you can use during the working time.

Step 4: Attach the Pull Stub to the Surface

Apply adhesive to contact surface of

pull stub
Attach pull stub to coated
surface

4-1 Using a wooden stick, apply an even layer 4-2 Attach the pull stub to the coated surface
of adhesive to the entire contact surface of the and gently push downward to displace any
pull-stub (a 2-4 mil layer is adequate). excess adhesive. Do not twist or slide the
pull stub during attachment, because you may
generate air bubbles in the adhesive, reducing its
strength.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-29
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Use tape to hold
pull stub in place
Slide plastic cut-off ring
over pull stub

4-3 Carefully slide a plastic “cut-off” ring 4-4 Apply tape across the top of the pull
(tapered side down) over the pull stub down stub. Attach the tape to the test surface to
to the coated surface. This cut-off ring will hold the pull stub in place until the adhesive
displace the excess adhesive from the perimeter cures. Allow the adhesive to fully cure before
of the pull stub. removing the tape and cut-off ring, and
performing the adhesion test.

Step 5: Determine Whether Scoring is Required

ASTM standard test method D4541 does not recommend any type of scoring around the base of the
pull stub prior to testing unless it is required by the specifier. Scoring may produce tiny fractures in
the coating, which can change the properties of the coating and result in lower adhesion values. If the
project specification requires you to score the coating around the perimeter of the pull stub, then you
will need to use a razor knife, because there is no scoring device provided in the PATTI® Quantum
adhesion kit. This must be done very carefully to avoid contact with the sides of the pull stub.

Step 6: Set-up and Perform the Adhesion Test

6-1 General – The PATTI® Quantum adhesion tester consists of three basic components: An
adhesion tester base component, an air hose and a piston. The adhesion testing base component
contains several ports and dials. The function of each of these ports and dials is indicated on page
9-31.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

9-30 www.kta.com
    
  
 

Front view Top view
Side view

Port/Dial
Position Function
Identiﬁcation
Piston Burst Pressure Dial contains black needle and red sweep needle that
Front, Left (1)
Dial measures piston burst pressure during testing.
Controls the rate of pull by regulating the amount of air
Top, Left (2) Rate Dial
entering the piston through the air hose.
Port for attaching blue air hose that traverses from the base
Top, Middle (3) “Piston” Port
component to the piston.
Port for attaching CO2 cartridge to energize base component
Top, Right (4) CO2 (“Air In”) Port
and piston.
Side (5) Compressed Air Port Inlet port for compressed air (200 psi max).
Pressure gage monitors internal air pressure available for
Front, Right (6) Air Supply Dial
conducting tests.
Deploys compressed air from the base component through
Front, Middle (7) Run Button
the blue air hose and into the piston.

The piston contains 3 parts: A round black base with a short “pigtail” hose and threaded female
connector, a silicone rubber gasket (inside the base) and a round black threaded top plate. There are
six pistons to choose from, as shown in the chart below. The two most commonly used pistons for
industrial coatings on steel are the F-4 and the F-8.

Piston Load Range (psi)

F-1 0-500
F-2 0-1000
F-4 0-2000
F-8 0-4000
F-16 0-8000
F-8/12 0-4000 / 0-10,000 Piston components

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-31
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Connect piston hose to blue air hose Connect blue air hose to piston port

6-2 Select a piston. Connect the “pigtail” hose 6-3 Insert the opposite end of the blue air hose
from the piston to the long, blue hose with the to the piston port (3, top middle) on the base
threaded male end. Hand-tighten the brass component.
connection.

Insert CO2 cartridge into holder Thread CO2 holder onto CO2 port

6-4 Insert the CO2 cartridge into the black 6-5 Hand-tighten the black holder until it is
holder. Thread the black holder containing the snug. Do not over tighten. The “air supply”
CO2 cartridge onto the CO2 port (4, top right) dial (6, front right) should read approximately
on the base component. You will here a hissing 200 psi (this pressure will decrease as tests
noise as the tip of the CO2 cartridge is punctured are performed). For compressed air, the “air
and pressurized carbon dioxide enters the base supply” dial should match the pressure on
component. Note that compressed air (regulated the regulator that controls the pressure of the
to 200 psi max) can be used instead of CO2 incoming air (200 psi max).
cartridges. The “IN” port is located on the side
of the base component (5, side).

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

9-32 www.kta.com
Remove plastic cut-off ring Position piston base over pull stub

6-6 Remove the plastic cut-off ring from the 6-7 Place the piston base over the threaded end
perimeter of the pull stub. of the pull stub until it sits flush on the coated
surface. Make sure the silicone rubber gasket is
seated inside the piston base.

Thread top plate onto pull stub Set the pull rate

6-8 Carefully thread the black plate onto the pull 6-9 Close the Rate dial (2, top left). Do not
stub until the top plate makes contact with the overtighten this dial, as it may break. Return the
piston base. red sweep needle on the “piston burst pressure
dial” (1, front left) to zero. You are now ready to
Loosen the black plate ¼ turn so that a small conduct an adhesion test.
gap is created between the piston base and the
black top plate.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-33
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Push and hold down run button
Open rate valve while pushing
run button

6-10 Depress and HOLD in the “Run” button 6-11 While the “Run” button is depressed,
(7 front middle). This deploys air from the base slowly open the “Rate” valve (turn counter-
component through the blue air hose and into clockwise) until the pressure increases at a rate
the piston base. of at least 2 psi/second. Do not exceed 6 psi/
second.

As the rate dial is opened (turned counter-clockwise), the air pressure enters into the piston base
through a small hole beneath the silicone rubber gasket inside the piston and causes it to rise up and
press against the underside of the black top plate. Since the top plate is attached (threaded) onto the
pull stub, a perpendicular force is generated. The black and the red indicator needles on the gage dial
will continue to monitor the piston pressure. When the piston pressure overcomes the adhesion of
the coating system or the adhesive, the pull stub will detach from the surface. Release the run button
and open the rate valve further until the black needle returns to zero. Close the rate valve. The red
“sweep” needle will hold the reading for you.

Step 7: Read the Scale and Record the Piston Burst Pressure

The pressure dial of the adhesion tester contains two scales.

The black outer scale is pounds per square inch (psi) and
the inner red scale is KiloPascals (KPa). Do not use the red
scale. As discussed in Step 6, the red sweep needle will
hold the reading for you until you return it to “zero.” When
you achieve the endpoint of the test (see the three possible
events described in Step 8), read and record the value from
the scale, as indicated by the red sweep needle. You will
need to convert this value to actual psi or KPa using a burst
Read black, outer gage dial (psi)
pressure conversion chart, since the pull stub surface contact
area is only ½ inch diameter.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

9-34 www.kta.com
Step 8: Convert the Piston Burst Pressure to Pull-off Strength

Locate the conversion charts included with the PATTI Quantum instruction manual. There are
two charts for each piston range. One chart converts the burst pressure to pull-off strength in US
Standard (psi) and the other chart converts the burst pressure to pull-off strength in metric (KPa).
Make sure you use the chart that matches the piston you used to conduct the test (top left of each
chart).

The left hand column on each chart contains bold numbers 10-100. The top row contains bold
numbers 0-9. You can use these values on the chart to plot the burst pressure from Step 6 and convert
it to pull-off strength.

Example: Let’s say that you used an F-4 piston and wanted the pull-off strength in psi. Locate the
Piston F-4 US Standard Conversion Chart. If the burst pressure was 46 psi, move down the left
column and locate the bold value “40.” Move across the top row and locate the bold value “6.”
Intersect the “40” and the “6” and record the psi value from the chart (937.3 psi).

U S STA N D A R D C O N V ER SIO N C H A R T
Piston F-4
B urstpressure (B P)conversion to pull-offstrength (psi)
(using 0.5 inch O .D .Pull-stub)
PU LL-O FF TEN SILE STR EN G TH
BP
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(psig)
10 202.6 223.0 243.4 263.8 284.2 304.6 325.0 345.4 365.8 386.2
20 406.7 427.1 447.5 467.9 488.3 508.7 529.1 549.5 569.9 590.3
30 610.7 631.1 651.6 672.0 692.4 712.8 733.2 753.6 774.0 794.4
40 814.8 835.2 855.6 876.0 896.5 916.9 937.3 957.7 978.1 998.5
50 1018. 1039. 1059. 1080. 1100. 1120. 1141. 1161. 1182. 1202.
60 1223. 1243. 1263. 1284. 1304. 1325. 1345. 1365. 1386. 1406.
70 1427. 1447. 1467. 1488. 1508. 1529. 1549. 1569. 1590. 1610.
80 1631. 1651. 1672. 1692. 1712. 1733. 1753. 1774. 1794. 1814.
90 1835. 1855. 1876. 1896. 1916. 1937. 1957. 1978. 1998. 2018.
100 2039.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-35
www.kta.com
If you used an F-4 piston and wanted the pull-off strength in KPa,
locate the F-4 piston metric chart. If the burst pressure was 46 psi,
move down the left column and locate the bold value “40.” Move
across the top row and locate the bold value “6.” Intersect the “40” and
the “6” and record the KPa value from the chart (6,462 KPa).

PSI TO M ETR IC C O N V ER SIO N C H A R T

Piston F-4
B urstpressure (B P)conversion to pull-offstrength (K Pa)
(using 0.5 inch O .D .Pull-stub)
PU LL-O FF TEN SILE STR EN G TH
BP
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(psig)
10 1397. 1537. 1678. 1819. 1959. 2100. 2241. 2382. 2522. 2663.
20 2804. 2944. 3085. 3226. 3367. 3507. 3648. 3789. 3929. 4070.
30 4211. 4352. 4492. 4633. 4774. 4914. 5055. 5196. 5337. 5477.
40 5618. 5759. 5899. 6040. 6181. 6322. 6462. 6603. 6744. 6884.
50 7025. 7166. 7307. 7447. 7588. 7729. 7869. 8010. 8151. 8292.
60 8432. 8573. 8714. 8854. 8995. 9136. 9277. 9417. 9558. 9699.
70 9839.9 9980.6 12121. 10262. 10402. 10543. 10684. 10824. 10965. 11106.
80 11247. 11387. 11528. 11669. 11809. 11950. 12091. 12232. 12372. 12513.
90 12654. 12794. 12935. 13076. 13217. 13357. 13498. 13639. 13779. 13920.
100 14061.

Three Possible Events

Event 1: The minimum psi required by the project specification is

exceeded and the test is discontinued. When this occurs, release the
“RUN” button and relieve the tension by disconnecting the piston
pigtail hose from the blue air hose. Carefully unthread the black top
plate from the pull stub and lift the piston base from the surface. If you
want to relieve the pressure from the base component, you will need
to depress the small needle valve inside the male connector end of the
blue hose. Make sure you return the red sweep needle to “zero” on the
dial before you conduct additional tests. Remove the pull stub on the

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

9-36 www.kta.com
surface by tapping it on the side with a hammer. Record the adhesion
as “Pass, > X psi.”

Event 2: The maximum psi of the adhesion tester has been achieved
and the pull stub is still attached. When this occurs, release the “RUN”
button and relieve the tension by disconnecting the piston pigtail hose
from the blue air hose. Carefully unthread the black top plate from
the pull stub and lift the piston base from the surface. If you want
to relieve the pressure from the base component, you will need to
depress the small needle valve inside the male connector end of the
blue hose. Make sure you return the red sweep needle to “zero” on the
dial before you conduct additional tests. Remove the pull stub on the
surface by tapping it on the side with a hammer. Record the adhesion
as “> X psi.” If you want to use a higher range piston, you should test
a different pull stub, as the coating beneath has already been stressed
and a false low reading may occur if the same pull stub is retested.

Event 3: The force applied by adhesion tester causes the pull stub to
dislodge. When this occurs, read the scale as described in Steps 7 and
8. Make sure you return the red sweep needle to “zero” on the dial
before you conduct additional tests.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-37
www.kta.com
Section 9-4 – meaSuRing adheSion uSing the
poSiteSt® at adheSion teSteR
The PosiTest® AT Adhesion Tester can be used to test the pull-off strength of a coating or
coating system.The PosiTest® AT uses hydraulic pressure to slowly and constantly increase the
perpendicular force on a pull stub. This pull-off strength is read directly from the digital display in
pounds per square inch (psi) or MegaPascals (MPa).

The PosiTest® AT adhesion test kit provides you with all of

the necessary supplies to generate pull-off adhesion values
for coatings on both concrete and steel. If you are testing
the adhesion of thick coatings on concrete, you may need to
use a special drilling template, which is not included in the
basic kit, but can be purchased separately.

The test kit includes:

PosiTest® AT adhesion tester
 A hydraulic load cell equipped with a digital display
 An actuator assembly with 20mm and 50mm stand-offs
 20 - 20mm and 12 - 50mm pull stubs
 Cutting tools for 20mm and 50mm test areas
 Adhesive with mixing pads and sticks
 Abrasive pads

The PosiTest® AT Adhesion Tester is factory-calibrated using a load cell. The tester is provided
with a Certificate of Calibration stating its 1% accuracy and NIST traceability. You cannot verify nor
change the calibration. If you feel the instrument requires calibration verification, you will need to
return it to the manufacturer.

Step 1: Prepare the Test Surface

Once you have selected a test area, you will need to prepare the
surface. Ensure the area you selected is free of grease, oil, dirt or
chalking, water, protrusions, or other conditions that will interfere
with the attachment of a pull stub to the surface. The area you select
must also be flat and rigid within a 3” diameter circle. Also, the
ASTM standard recommends a minimum substrate thickness of
¼”. If the test surface is very smooth or glossy, you may want to
lightly roughen it using the abrasive pad included with the kit. If
Lightly roughen surface
you abrade the surface, be sure to wipe away any fine dust that was with abrasive pad
created using isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol).

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

9-38 www.kta.com
Step 2: Prepare the Test Pull Stub

PosiTest pull stub Roughen pull stub using

abrasive pad

2-1 The PosiTest® AT pull stub is an aluminum 2-2 Remove any oxidation or contaminants from
fixture. The top of the pull stub is round, while the contact surface of the pull stub by rubbing it
the bottom is a flat. This bottom side is the across the abrasive pad (included with the kit)
contact surface. 4-5 times. Wipe the pull stub to remove any dirt
or debris using a soft cloth or paper towel. The
manufacturer does not recommend reusing pull
stubs.

Step 3: Select an Adhesive

There are a variety of adhesives that can be used to attach the pull
stub to the surface. The PosiTest® AT adhesion tester kit comes with
Araldite, a 100% solids epoxy adhesive. This adhesive requires at
least 24 hours at room
temperature to cure.
While other “quick-set”
adhesives are available
and can be used, they may
not be able to withstand
the pulling forces of the
test device, and may break
before the coating does at a relatively low force. Also, cyanoacrylate
type adhesives (Super Glue) may soften or penetrate the coating film.
Using the wooden stir stick and the cardboard palette included in the
kit, mix the adhesive according to the manufacturer’s directions. Since
the adhesive is two-component, it will have a maximum working time.
Do not mix up more than you can use during the stated working time.

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Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-39
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Step 4: Attach the Pull Stub to the Surface

Apply adhesive to pull stub Attach pull stub to

coated surface

4-1 Using the wooden stir stick, apply a uniform 4-2 Attach the pull stub to the coated surface
layer of adhesive to the entire contact surface of and gently push downward to displace any
the pull stub (a 2-4 mil layer is adequate). excess adhesive. Do not twist or slide the pull
stub during attachment, because you may
generate air bubbles in the adhesive.

Remove excess adhesive

Use tape to hold

pull stub in place

4-3 Carefully remove the excess adhesive 4-4 Apply tape across the rounded head of the
from the perimeter of the pull stub. Allow the pull stub. Attach the tape to the test surface to
adhesive to fully cure before performing the hold the pull stub in place until the adhesive
adhesion test. cures.

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Step 5: Determine Whether Scoring is Required

ASTM standard test method D4541 does not recommend any type of scoring of the coating around
the base of the pull stub prior to testing unless required by the
specifier. Scoring may produce tiny fractures in the coating or may
generate friction heat, which can change the properties of the coating
and result in lower adhesion values. If the project specification
requires you to score the coating around the perimeter of the pull
stub, then you will need to use the hand-scoring device included in
the PosiTest® AT adhesion test kit. However, this must be done very
carefully to avoid contact with the sides of the pull stub.

If you score around the perimeter, place the scoring device included
with the PosiTest® AT adhesion kit over the pull stub and rotate the
cutter using a back and forth motion. Make sure you score down Scoring coating around
through all coating layers to the substrate. You may want to consider perimeter of pull stub (if
specified)
scoring the coating before you attach the pull stub.

Step 6: Perform the Adhesion Test

There are two PosiTest Adhesion Tester models: A Manual Model (AT-M) and an Automatic Model
(AT-A). The PosiTest® AT-M adhesion tester consists of two basic components: An adhesion tester
base component and an actuator. The base component contains a hydraulic cylinder with a pressure
release valve, a lever and a pressure gauge.

Open pressure release valve

6-1 Verify that the pressure relief valve on the 6-2 Turn the tester on by depressing the
cylinder is completely open. Push the black green “on/Zero” button (D). Make sure the
actuator handle completely down into the LCD indicates “0.” Select the pull stub size
actuator assembly. (F) (20mm for coatings on steel; 50mm for
coatings on concrete), then the desired units of
measurement (G) (psi/MPa).

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Pump lever to increase hydraulic pressure
Position actuator onto pull
stub

6-3 Place the actuator assembly over the round 6-4 Begin pumping the lever above the cylinder
head of the pull stub and attach the quick until the digital display indicates pressure
connect coupling to the pull stub. Close the is being applied. The pull rate indicator (H)
pressure release valve on the pump tightly. illustrates the load rate as the test is being
performed. Continue pumping at a uniform rate
of no more than 150 psi (1 MPa) per second
until the actuator detaches the pull stub. The
display will hold the maximum pressure reading
for you. You should complete the test in less
than 100 seconds.

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PosiTest Model AT-A PosiTest Model AT-A Display

NOTE: If you are using the Model AT-A, follow these three steps:

Green “On/Start” Button (D) Pull Stub Size Selection Button (F) Unit of Measurement Selection
Button (G)

6-2A Turn the tester on by depressing the green “On/Start” button (D).
Make sure the LCD indicates “0.” Select the pull stub size (F) (20mm
for coatings on steel; 50mm for coatings on concrete), then the desired
units of measurement (G) (psi/MPa).

6-3A Place the actuator assembly over the round head of the pull stub
and attach the quick connect coupling to the pull stub.

6-4A Push the “On/Start” button (D). The pull rate indicator (H)
illustrates the load rate as the test is being performed. The load rate
is controlled by the instrument and will continue to be applied at a
constant rate until the actuator detaches the pull stub. The display will
hold the maximum pressure reading for you.

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Step 7: Read the Display and Record the Pressure

Read and record the maximum pressure from the display (in psi
or MPa). The value shown (A) is 1,457 psi. To store the value,
depress the “Memory” button (E). To zero the tester, depress
the “Power On/Zero” button (D) on the Model AT-M or the
“On/Start” button on the Model AT-A. You must zero the tester
before you conduct another adhesion pull test. Record pressure from display
(1,457 psi is shown)
Three Possible Events

Event 1: The minimum psi required by the project specification is

exceeded and the test is discontinued. When this occurs, relieve
the pressure by opening the pressure release valve on the hydraulic
cylinder. Make sure you “zero” the display before you conduct
additional tests. Remove the pull stub from the surface by tapping it on
the side with a hammer. Record the adhesion as “Pass, > X psi.”

Event 2: The maximum psi of the adhesion tester has been achieved
and the pull stub is still attached. When this occurs, relieve the
pressure by opening the pressure release valve on the hydraulic
cylinder. Make sure you “zero” the display before you conduct
additional tests. Remove the pull stub from the surface by tapping it on
the side with a hammer. Record the adhesion as “> X psi.”

Event 3: The pressure applied by adhesion tester causes the pull stub
to dislodge. When this occurs, read the display as described in Step 7.
Make sure you “zero” the display before you conduct additional tests.

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Section 9-5 – Special Requirements for
Tensile Adhesion Testing of Coatings on
Concrete

The procedures used to test the pull-off adhesion strength of coatings

on steel (described in Sections 9-1 through 9-4) are very similar to the
procedures used to test the pull-off adhesion strength of coatings on
concrete. However, there is a different ASTM standard test method
for testing coatings on concrete (ASTM D 7234), and there are a few
minor differences in the equipment and the procedures. This section
highlights the major differences between testing coatings on steel
and coatings on concrete, but does not provide the exact procedures
you need to use for each instrument. You should review the ASTM
standard prior to conducting testing coatings on concrete surfaces.

1. Thick film coatings (those greater than 20 mils) may have lateral
bond strength, which can produce misleading pull-off values.
Therefore, you will likely need to score the coating (down to the
concrete) prior to attaching the pull stub to the coated surface.
Scoring a coating on concrete that is less than 20 mils in thickness
may also be required. Scoring can be done by hand if the coating
is thin enough. For very thick coatings, a mechanical method of
scoring the coating may be required. Independent of the scoring
method you select, you will need to score the coating prior to
attaching the pull stub. Otherwise you may inadvertently shear-off
the pull stub.

2. When attaching the pull stub to the surface, make sure that any
excess glue does not flow into the score groove.

3. Unlike steel, concrete is a heterogeneous (non-uniform) substrate

that contains cement paste and aggregate. While you may
use any diameter pull stub, a 2” (50mm) diameter pull stub is
recommended so that you are testing the adhesion strength of the
coating over a more representative surface area. Square pull stubs
are used with some test devices.

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4. The load rate applied to the pull stub by the adhesion tester
should be approximately 30 psi per second, so that the test pull is
completed in 5 to 30 seconds.

5. Concrete has extremely high compressive strength (typically in

excess of 4000 psi), but relatively low tensile strength (typically
less than 400 psi). Therefore, it is quite possible that you will
obtain a relatively low value when you test coatings on concrete,
and the plane of fracture (the location of break) is typically within
the concrete substrate (the coating tensile strength exceeds the
concrete tensile strength). In this case, you can report the minimum
coating adhesion pull-off strength, but the actual coating adhesion
strength is unknown.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

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Section 9-6 – Tensile Adhesion Testing:
Record the Type and Location of Break

Independent of which adhesion tester you select, if “Event 3” occurs and an actual value is recorded,
then you will need to record the type of break that occurred and the location of the break. The type of
break can be described as “adhesion,” “cohesion,” or “glue.”

Type of Break Description

A distinct break between coating layers or a distinct

Adhesion
break between the substrate and the first coating layer.
Cohesion A split within a coating layer.

The adhesion/cohesion strength of the coating system

exceeds the strength of the glue used to attach the pull
Glue
stub. This may or may not require retesting, depending
on the actual value.

You should also record the identity of the coating layers where the break occurred and the
approximate percentage of each (e.g., 70% Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat; 30% Cohesion-Topcoat). The
table below provides an example of how to record the adhesion data. The example is based on three
test areas and triplicate pull stubs in each area.

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Measuring the Adhesion of Coatings 9-47
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Example Table of Adhesion Results:

Pull Adhesion Location of Break and

Location
Stub ID Value (psi) Percentage of Each

Area 1 1-A 300 100% Cohesion – Primer

Area 1 1-B 250 100% Cohesion – Topcoat

70% Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat;
Area 1 1-C 375
30% Cohesion – Topcoat
Area 2 2-A 400 100% Adhesion: Substrate/Primer

Area 2 2-B 340 100% Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat

70% Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat;
Area 2 2-C 425
30% Cohesion – Topcoat
Area 3 3-A 500 50% Cohesion – Primer; 50% Glue

Area 3 3-B 400 50% Cohesion – Topcoat; 40% Cohesion – Primer

Area 3 3-C 450 50% Glue; 40% Adhesion: Primer/Topcoat

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

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MEASURING COATING THICKNESS USING

8
THE TOOKE GAGE

The inspection gages we discussed in Module 6 all measure the dry

film thickness of a coating non-destructively. This is how you will
measure coating thickness the majority of the time. However, these
coating thickness gages have one rather significant limitation: they
cannot distinguish the thickness of individual layers after all of the
coats have been applied. They can only measure the “gap” between
the gage probe and the metal substrate. This gap is represented
by all of the layers applied to the substrate (e.g., primer,
The Tooke Gage:
intermediate coat and topcoat). That is why it is so important
to measure the thickness of each coat after it is applied, but
 Measures the thickness
before the next layer is applied. This way, you have some
of individual layers
indication that each layer was applied to the correct thickness.
 Contains three
Occasionally, you may need to measure the thickness of the
precision cutting tips
individual layers (e.g., primer, intermediate coat and topcoat)
after they have all been applied. The non-destructive gages
 Makes an incision into
won’t work for you here. In this case, you’ll need to measure
the coating film
the thickness of the layers destructively using a device called a
Tooke Gage. The Tooke Gage conforms to ASTM D4138.
 Requires that the
layers be alternating or
different colors What is a Tooke Gage?

 Does not require a The Tooke Gage was invented by Raymond Tooke of
metallic substrate MicroMetrics Company. It consists of a gage body (plastic or
aluminum) and battery compartment, a 50 power illuminated

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Measuring Coating Thickness Using the Tooke Gage 8-1
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microscope with a scale etched onto the lens, a focus adjustment for
the microscope and three tungsten carbide precision cutting tips. It is
perhaps the most accurate field method of measuring coating thickness.
You do not have to calibrate the Tooke Gage, and it is unaffected by
the type of substrate, the effect of the base metal, and surface profile.
The Tooke Gage is destructive, in that it makes an incision or groove
(about the width of a line drawn with a pencil) through the coating film
down to the substrate. The Tooke Gage can be used to measure coating
thickness up to 50 mils. Tooke Gage Model OG204

There are several versions and models of destructive coating thickness

gages like the Tooke Gage. You may hear them referred to as Paint
Inspection Gages or PIGs. The Tooke Gage Model OG204 is described
in this Module. Appendix 8-A describes the use of the Tooke Gage
Model OG204-U, which uses a universal microscope ocular. If you
have a Model OG204-U Tooke Gage, you will need to use a different
division-to-layer thickness conversion. The conversion chart for this
model is shown in Appendix 8-A.
Tooke Gage Model OG204-U
The Tooke Gage measures coating thickness using basic trigonometry.
By cutting a precision “V” groove into the coating system us-
ing one of the tungsten carbide cutting tips, a right triangle is
created. The angles of the right triangle are known. By mea-
suring the length of one leg of the triangle, you can calculate
the length of the other leg, which represents the coating thick-
ness. If the coating layers are different or alternating in color,
then each layer can be both seen and the thickness measured
through the Tooke Gage lens. The good news is that you do Cross-section of groove. Right triangles
are shown on left side.
not have to know trigonometry, nor do you actually have to
calculate the third angle. The cutting tips and the scale etched
on the microscope lens do the work for you. Let’s follow the steps be-
low (in order) so that you can be sure to use the Tooke Gage properly.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

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Step Operation
1 Determine the thickness range you will be measuring
2 Apply a benchmark on the top of the coating
3 Select a cutting tip
4 Position the cutting tip
5 Cut a groove into the coating ﬁlm using the cutting tip you selected in Step 3
6 Locate the groove through the illuminated, 50X microscope lens
Line-up the scale divisions etched on the microscope lens so that they are
7
parallel with the groove length
8 Count and record the number of layers on the surface
9 Count the number of divisions on the scale that overlay each layer
10 Convert the divisions to mils

We will look at each of these steps in greater detail.

Step 1: Determine the Thickness Range You Will Be Measuring

Before you select a cutting tip or blade to make an incision, you will need to have a general idea of
how thick the coating is. If you do not know, then you will need to measure the total thickness non-
destructively using one of the dry ﬁlm thickness gages we discussed in Module 6. Once you know
how thick the coating system is, then you will be able to select a cutting tip. This will become clearer
once we move on to Step 3, “Select a Cutting Tip.”

Example: Let’s assume that the total coating thickness was measured and is 12-15 mils.

Step 2: Apply a Benchmark on the Top of the Coating

Using a marker, pen or pencil, make a benchmark across the top

of the coating ﬁlm. The benchmark should be 1/8"-1/4" wide
and approximately 1" long. Wait a few seconds for the ink to
dry before proceeding to Step 4.

Apply a benchmark

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Step 3: Select a Cutting Tip

The Tooke Gage is supplied with three cutting tips. They are labeled, “1X, 2X and 10X.” The 10X
tip can be used to make an incision into a coating film that is 3 mils or less in total thickness. The 2X
tip can be used to make an incision into a coating film that is 3–20 mils in total thickness, and the
1X tip can be used to make an incision into a coating film that is 20–50 mils in total thickness. This
is why it is important for you to have a general idea of the coating thickness range prior to selecting
a cutting tip, as we discussed in Step 1. All three cutting tips are mounted on the side of the Tooke
Mark IV (green plastic body). The designation (1, 2 or 10) is stamped next to each tip.

Example: Based on a total coating thickness of 12-15 mils, select the “2X” cutting tip

Three cutting tips Tip designations

Cutting Tips and Thickness Ranges

Cutting Tip Coating Thickness Range
1X 20-50 mils
2X 3-20 mils
10X up to 3 mils

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Step 4: Position the Cutting Tip

Position the tip selected in Step 3 Tip and guide legs should be level

4-1 Since all three cutting tips are mounted in 4-2 Position the Tooke Gage on its side, so that
the Tooke Gage, you will need to make sure the the extended cutting tip and two guide legs are
tip you selected in Step 3 is mounted properly sitting on a ﬂat surface. Make sure the cutting
in the side of the gage. Using the allen wrench tip and guide legs form a level tripod. The gage
supplied with the gage, loosen the set screws is now ready to make an incision through the
and slide the tip you selected out of the gage coating ﬁlm.
body until it extends approximately 5/16". The
remaining two cutting tips should be pushed
inward. Tighten all of the set screws.

Step 5: Cut a Groove into the Coating Film using the Cutting Tip You Selected in Step 3

5-1 Position the Tooke Gage on its side, so that

the extended cutting tip and two guide legs are
sitting on the coated surface. Make sure that
the cutting tip is resting above the horizontal
benchmark created on the coated surface (Step
2). Using moderate pressure, pull the Tooke
Gage toward you, carefully dragging the cutting
tip perpendicularly across the benchmark. Use a
smooth, steady motion. Position cutting tip above benchmark

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5-2 The guide legs and cutting tip must remain
in contact with the coated surface at all times.
Do not tilt or rock the gage, otherwise you will
change the angle of the cutting tip. The total
length of the cut should be approximately 1".
Make sure the incision penetrates down to (and
even into) the substrate. If it did not, do not
attempt to retrace the cut. Make a new cut, but
increase the downward pressure on the gage.
You can now view the incision through the 50
power illuminated microscope.
Pull cutting tip across benchmark

Step 6: Locate the Groove Through the Illuminated, 50X Microscope Lens

Light switch
Light on scribe/
benchmark intersection

6-1 Turn the light on using the black on/off slide 6-2 Position the gage so that the light is
switch located on the top of the Tooke Gage. reﬂecting onto the incision where it intersects
the benchmark.

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Focus adjustment

View cut through

microscope

6-3 Look through the microscope lens. You may 6-4 To focus the image, turn the black thumb
need to move the gage slightly to position the wheel located at the bottom the gage next to the
incision in the center of the lens. Remember that light bulb.
the microscope reverses the image, so if you
reposition the Tooke Gage left, the image you
see through the lens will move right, and vice-
versa.

Step 7: Line-up the Scale Divisions Parallel with the

Incision

Align the scale etched on the lens by rotating the eyepiece of the
microscope. The divisions on the scale should be parallel with the
incision you made with the cutting tip.

View of incision through lens

Step 8: Count and Record the Number of Layers on the Surface

Look at the left side (the tapered side) of the cut through the microscope lens. The right side of the
cut was made by the backside of the cutting tip, which is not the precision cutting angle, so it can be
ignored.

Locate the interface between the substrate and the ﬁrst layer on the left side of the cut. Count the
number of paint layers. Start with the layer next to the substrate (ﬁrst coat or primer) and continue
moving left until you come to the benchmark. Since the benchmark was made on the top surface,
you can tell that there are no more layers. Record the number of layers and the color of each.

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Example: Four (4) Layers (Based on Image in Step 7)
Layer No. Color
1 Silver
2 Yellow
3 Brown
4 White

Step 9: Count the Number of Divisions on the Scale that Overlay Each Layer

The scale etched onto the microscope lens contains 100 black lines or divisions. Some of the
divisions have a number above them. These numbers do not correspond to any unit of measurement.
However, it is helpful to know that are 10 divisions between each of the numbered lines. Count the
number of lines that overlay each layer recorded in Step 8.

Example, continued: Four (4) Layers

Layer No. Color Divisions
1 Silver 5
2 Yellow 3
3 Brown 5
4 White 6

Step 10: Convert the Divisions to Mils (Model OG204; Standard Ocular)

To convert the divisions to mils, divide the number of lines for each layer by the number of the tip
you selected to make the incision. If you selected the 10X tip, divide the divisions in Step 9 by “10.”
If you selected the 2X tip, divide the divisions in Step 9 by “2.” If you selected the 1X tip, then
divide the divisions in Step 9 by “1.”

Example, continued: Four (4) Layers. Incision was made using the 2X
Cutting Tip
Layer No. Color Divisions Divisions ÷ Cutting Tip Mils
1 Silver 5 5÷2 2.5
2 Yellow 2 3÷2 1.5
3 Brown 5 5÷2 2.5
4 White 6 6÷2 3

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Appendix 8-A: Tooke Gage Model OG204-U

Tooke Gage Model OG204-U

with Universal Ocular

Model OG204-U Division-to-Thickness Conversion (Universal Ocular)

Unit 1X Cutting Tip 2X Cutting Tip 10X Cutting Tip
Mils 2 1 0.2
Micrometers 40 25 5
Millimeters (mm) 0.05 0.025 0.005

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MEASURING DRY FILM THICKNESS
NONDESTRUCTIVELY ON FERROUS AND

6
NON-FERROUS METAL SURFACES

The thickness of a single layer of coating, or the thickness of

each layer in a multiple coat system, is critical for coating system
performance. If a coating is too thin, it will not adequately protect the
underlying layers or the substrate. If a coating is too thick,
the solvents may not be able to evaporate from the film
Dry Film Thickness before the surface of the coating dries, causing entrapped
Gages: solvents. Also, the coating may crack or may not fully
cure if it is applied too thickly. Therefore, most coating
 Can be magnetic pull-off specifications for industrial projects and most coating
or electronic type manufacturer’s product data sheets indicate the minimum
and the maximum dry film thickness (or DFT) for each layer.
 Must be verified for This range represents the thickness of the coating film above
accuracy before and the peaks of the surface profile. In order to verify that the
after each use coating has been applied correctly, you will need to measure
the dry film thickness after the application of each layer.
 Are verified for accuracy
using coating thickness You can measure the dry film thickness nondestructively
standards or plastic using two basic types of coating thickness gages: magnetic
shims pull-off and electronic. There are advantages and limitations
to each type of coating thickness gage. The magnetic pull-off
 Can store data, perform gages are typically less expensive and a little more rugged
statistical analysis and than the electronic gages. However, the magnetic pull-off
download to a printer or gages can only be used to measure coating thickness on
upload to a computer ferrous (magnetic) surfaces like steel. The electronic gages
are less susceptible to vibrations, are more accurate, and can

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Measuring Dry Film Thickness Nondestructively on Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metal Surfaces 6-1
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take measurements faster than the magnetic pull-off type gages. The
electronic gages are also more versatile, since they can be used on both
ferrous (magnetic) and non-ferrous (non-magnetic) metal surfaces like
aluminum, brass, copper, and stainless steel.

Independent of whether you choose a magnetic pull-off or electronic

type of DFT gage, you will need to verify that the one you have
selected is accurate before and after each period of use (see adjustment
directions below). This is called verifying gage accuracy.

The terms Calibration and Adjustment are often used interchangeably.

This is not completely correct. Calibration is, “the controlled and
documented process of measuring traceable calibration standards and
verifying the results are within the tolerance of the gage.” Adjustment
is “the process of aligning and optimizing the gage’s readings to match
a known thickness within a specific thickness range.” This process
improves the reliability of the gage readings on a specific surface,
within a specific measurement range. We will be discussing both
Calibration and Adjustment as part of this module.

Some of the gages described in this Module can actually be adjusted in

the field, while some cannot. However, without verifying the accuracy
of the gage, you will not know whether the measurements you take are
representative of the true coating thickness. This module includes a
description of the proper procedures for both verifying the accuracy of
the gage you select, and for taking measurements of coating thickness.

There are two industry-recognized standards for measurement of

dry film thickness, including ASTM D7091, “Standard Practice for
Nondestructive Measurement of Dry Film Thickness of Nonmagnetic
Coatings Applied to Ferrous Metals and Nonmagnetic, Nonconductive
Coatings Applied to Non-Ferrous Metals” and SSPC-PA2,
“Procedure for Determining Conformance to Dry Coating Thickness
Requirements.” It is beyond the scope of this publication to provide
detail on these industry standards. However, if the specification
you are working to invokes one of these standards, you will need to
read and comprehend the standard before you begin taking dry film
thickness measurements.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

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Step 1: Selecting a Dry Film Thickness Gage

Before you measure the dry film thickness, you will need to choose
a gage. Because there are several different gages available, it is
important to ask yourself a few questions in order to make a more
informed decision.

Question 1: What type of substrate do I want to measure on?

Question 2: How thick is the coating that I want to measure?
Question 3: If the answer to Question 1 is steel, do I want a
magnetic pull-off or an electronic gage?
Question 4: If the answer to Question 4 is “a magnetic pull-off
gage,” do I want a manual or automated type?
Question 5: If the answer to Question 4 is “an electronic gage,” do
I want one that will measure coatings on ferrous metal
surfaces, non-ferrous metal surfaces, or both?
Question 6: If the answer to Question 4 is “an electronic gage,” do
I want one that will store the measurements in memory,
print-out the measurements or upload them into a
computer software program, or run a statistical analysis
of the measurements?

Example:
Question No. Answer

1 Steel

2 15 mils – 20 mils

3 Electronic Gage

4 NA

5 Ferrous metal surfaces only

6 No

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Step 2: Selecting a Gage Manufacturer and Model

Now that you have the answers to the six questions above, you will
need to select a gage manufacturer and a model. There are many gage
manufacturers to choose from. And each manufacturer has several
models to choose from, depending on the thickness of
the coating you want to measure. This module provides
you with the basic instructions for use of four models of
magnetic pull-off gages and three models of electronic
gages. There are a variety of makes and models of dry film
thickness gages on the market. This module represents
only a cross-section of the more common thickness gages
for measurement of industrial maintenance coatings. The
coating thickness range for each gage discussed in this
Magnetic pull-off and electronic coating
Module is listed in the table below. thickness gages

Magnetic Pull-Off Range Electronic Range

DeFelsko PosiTest® FM 0-80 mils DeFelsko Positector® 6000 FN 0-60 mils

Elcometer® 211 0-40 mils Elcometer® 456 FNF 0-60 mils
ElektroPhysik® Mikrotest III 0-40 mils Fischer DualScope® MPOR 0-80 mils
ElektroPhysik® Mikrotest IV 0-40 mils

After you select a gage, you will need to verify its accuracy by
comparing gage readings with standards of known thickness. The
procedure that you will use to verify the accuracy of a coating
thickness gage varies, depending on whether it is a magnetic pull-off
or an electronic type gage. We will discuss magnetic pull-off type
gages first.

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SECTION 6-1 – USING MAGNETIC PULL-OFF GAGES

Section 6-1 discusses the use of magnetic pull-off gages,

including three manual versions and one automatic
version.

Step 1: Verifying the Accuracy of the Magnetic pull-off gages

Magnetic Pull-Off Gage

If you select a magnetic pull-off gage, you will only be able to verify gage accuracy. You should not
adjust magnetic pull-off gages in the field. These gages should only be adjusted by the manufacturer.

There are two methods to choose from to verify the accuracy of magnetic pull-off gages. Method A
requires using steel coating thickness standards containing known film thicknesses; while Method
B requires using plastic, color-coded shims that are placed onto the prepared steel surface. Each of
these methods is described below.

Note: SSPC-PA2 does not allow the use of plastic, color-coded shims (Method B) when verifying
the accuracy of magnetic pull-off gages. Therefore, if the specification invokes SSPC-PA2 as the
coating thickness measurement standard and you want to use a magnetic pull-off gage, then you can
only use the coating thickness standards to verify gage accuracy (Method A). If the specification
invokes ASTM D7091 as the coating thickness measurement standard, or if no reference to a coating
thickness measurement standard appears in the specification, then you may use either Method A or
Method B to verify gage accuracy.

Verification of Accuracy Using Method A: Coating Thickness Standards

There are two types of coating thickness standards that can be

used to verify the accuracy of magnetic pull-off gages. One
type is manufactured by The National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST). These standards consist of steel blocks
containing known thicknesses of chrome. Since chrome is non-
magnetic, it is read as coating thickness by a DFT gage. NIST coating thickness standards

A second type of standard (proprietary standards; e.g., KTA coating

thickness standards) can also be used. Instead of a chrome layer,
these standards contain plastic films (of various thicknesses) that are
permanently attached to small steel coupons. There are 5 different
plates in a set of KTA standards, and 4 or 5 plates in the NIST
standards.
KTA coating thickness standards

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Accuracy Veriﬁcation Method A - Step 1:

Select a coating thickness standard that is close to the thickness of the

coating that you anticipate measuring. Then choose one lower and one
higher than the anticipated coating thickness. This will provide you
with a thickness range to verify the gage accuracy.

Accuracy Veriﬁcation Method A - Step 2:

If you are verifying the accuracy of a manual magnetic

pull-off gage (PosiTest FM, Elcometer 211 or Mikrotest
III), place the end of the instrument containing the
magnet on one of the thickness standards and rotate the
dial forward until the magnet makes contact with the Verifying accuracy of manual magnetic pull-off
standard. Slowly retract the dial until the magnet breaks gage
contact with the standard. Repeat this step on the other
two standards selected. If the readings from the dial scale
are within the combined tolerance of the gage and the standard (as
described below), then you can proceed to Step 2.

If the gage reading is outside of the combined accuracy of the coating

thickness standard (test block) and the manufacturer’s stated gage
accuracy, you should return the instrument to the manufacturer or
authorized agency for calibration. You should never adjust Type 1
coating thickness gages.

For example, if the gage accuracy is ± 5% and the accuracy of the

standard is ± 3% then the combined accuracy of the gage and the
standard is 6%, calculated by taking the square root of the sum of the
squares values:

For the gage to be in agreement with the standard, the

average thickness measured by the gage must be within
±6% of the standard’s thickness. If the average thickness
measured on a 10 mil reference standard is between 9.4
mils and 10.6 mils, the gage is considered accurate, even
though the reading does not exactly match the reference
standard. The minimum value of 9.4 mils is calculated as
10 mils minus 6% of 10 mils; the maximum of 10.6 mils
Verifying accuracy of automatic magnetic
is calculated as 10 plus 6% of 10 mils. pull-off gage

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If you are verifying the accuracy of a Mikrotest IV automatic magnetic
pull-off gage, place the end of the instrument containing the magnet
on one of the thickness standards and rotate the dial forward until the
magnet makes contact with the standard. Push in the counterweight
button on the underside of the handle. The dial will automatically
retract until the magnet breaks contact with the standard. Once this
happens, the gage will automatically stop. Repeat this step on the other
two standards selected, then verify that the gage readings are within
the combined tolerance of the gage and reference standard.

Accuracy Veriﬁcation Method A - Step 3:

Because the gage was verified for

accuracy on smooth steel,
you will need to determine
the effect that a roughened
(i.e., abrasive blast cleaned)
surface has on the coating
thickness gage. This is
known as the base metal
reading or BMR. The BMR Obtain a base metal reading (BMR)
is a correction factor that is
subtracted from the coating thickness measurements to determine the
true coating thickness above the peaks of the surface profile.

IMPORTANT: You are not measuring surface profile here, but rather
the effect of the surface roughness on a coating thickness gage. There
is no correlation between the two. Surface profile is the “total peak-to-
valley depth,” while the BMR is the effect of this surface profile on a
coating thickness gage.

Take a minimum of ten readings on the prepared substrate, then

average the readings. The mathematical average is the BMR. The
BMR is considered constant and you only need to measure it at the
beginning of a project. The BMR will not change significantly as long
as the same or similar blast cleaning equipment and abrasive size and
type are used, and the substrate itself is the same.

Example Base Metal Readings (mils)

0.8 0.6 0.2 1.0 0.6 0.7 1.0 0.3 0.4 1.2 Average 0.7 mil
The use of the BMR when measuring the DFT is explained later in Step 2.

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Accuracy Veriﬁcation Method B: Using Plastic Shims

If accuracy verification is conducted according to ASTM D7091, then

plastic shims may be used. There are two different sets of KTA plastic
shims, a low set and a high set. When a plastic shim is selected and
placed on the steel, it creates a known “gap” between the gage magnet
and the steel. The thickness of each shim and the corresponding color
of each shim are indicated below.

Low Set of Shims High Set of Shims

Color Thickness Color Thickness
Amber 1 mil Pink 15 mils
Red 2 mils Yellow 20 mils
Green 3 mils White 25 mils
Tan 4 mils Coral 30 mils
Blue 5 mils Clear 40 mils
Brown 10 mils Clear 50 mils
Clear 60 mils
Low and high range plastic shims

Accuracy Veriﬁcation Method B - Step 1:

Select a plastic shim that is close to the thickness of the coating that
you anticipate measuring. Then choose one lower and one higher
than the anticipated coating thickness. This will provide you with a
thickness range to verify gage accuracy. If you need a shim thickness
that is not provided in either the high or the low sets, then stack two
or more shims together to create the thickness you need. For example,
if you want to verify accuracy at 7 mils, stack a 5 mil (blue) and a 2
mil (red) together. You must place the shim(s) on top of a smooth steel
surface.

Accuracy Veriﬁcation Method B - Step 2:

If you are verifying the accuracy of a manual magnetic pull-off gage

(PosiTest FM, Elcometer 211 or Mikrotest III), place the end of the
instrument containing the magnet on one of the shims (laying on
the smooth steel) and rotate the dial forward until the magnet makes
contact with the shim. Slowly retract the dial until the magnet breaks
contact with the shim. Repeat this step on the other two shims selected.
Place shims on surface

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

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If the gage reading is outside of the combined accuracy
of the plastic shim and the manufacturer’s stated gage
accuracy, you should return the instrument to the
manufacturer or authorized agency for calibration. You
should never adjust Type 1 coating thickness gages.

For example, if the gage accuracy is ± 5% and the

accuracy of the plastic shim is ± 5%, then the combined
Verify gage accuracy using plastic calibration accuracy of the gage and the standard will be ± 7% as
shims
calculated by taking the square root of the sum of the
squared values:

For the gage to be in agreement with the shim, the average thickness measured by the gage must be
within ±7% of the shim’s thickness. If the average thickness measured on a 10 mil shim is between
9.3 mils and 10.7 mils, the gage is considered accurate, even though the reading does not exactly
match the shim. The minimum value of 9.3 mils is calculated as 10 mils minus 7% of 10 mils; the
maximum of 10.7 mils is calculated as 10 mils plus 7% of 10 mils.

If you are verifying the accuracy of a Mikrotest IV automatic magnetic pull-off gage, place the
end of the instrument containing the magnet on one of the shims and rotate the dial forward until
the magnet makes contact with the shim. Push in the counterweight button on the underside of the
handle. The dial will automatically retract until the magnet breaks contact with the shim. Once this
happens, the gage will automatically stop. Repeat this step on the other two shims selected.

Accuracy Veriﬁcation Method B - Step 3:

Because the gage was verified for accuracy on smooth steel, you will need to determine the effect
that a roughened (i.e., abrasive blast cleaned) surface has on the coating thickness gage. This is
known as the base metal reading or BMR. The BMR is a correction factor that is subtracted from
the coating thickness measurements to determine the true coating thickness above the peaks of the
surface profile.

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Step 2: Measuring the DFT using the Magnetic Pull-Off Gage

Examine magnet Rotate scale wheel forward first ()

2-1 Examine the magnet to make sure there is 2-2 If you are using a manual magnetic pull-off
no coating residue, magnetic filings, or other gage (PosiTest FM, Elcometer 211 or Mikrotest
contaminants on it. Place the gage on the coated III), use your finger or thumb to rotate the scale
surface to be measured. wheel forward (counterclockwise) until the
magnet makes contact with the surface.

Retract scale wheel until magnet

releases () Rotate scale wheel forward, then push in
counter weight button ()

2-3 Slowly and steadily turn the scale wheel 2-4 If you are using a Mikrotest IV automatic
backwards (clockwise) until the magnet breaks magnetic pull-off gage, place the end of the
contact with the surface. Stop turning the instrument containing the magnet on the
scale wheel immediately after the magnet coated surface and rotate the dial forward until
breaks contact. Read the coating thickness as the magnet makes contact with the surface.
the number on the scale that lines up with the Push in and release the counterweight button
vertical hairline on the plastic scale cover. on the underside of the handle. The dial will
automatically retract until the magnet breaks
contact with the surface. Once this happens, the
gage will automatically stop. Read the coating
thickness as the number on the scale that lines
up with the vertical hairline on the plastic scale
cover.

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Record the coating thickness from the gage and the Base Metal
Reading (BMR).

Here are two examples of adjusting coating thickness for the BMR.
Example 1 assumes the BMR was 0.7 mil. Example 2 assumes the
BMR was 0.3 mil.

Item Example 1 Example 2

Gage Dial Reading of Coating Thickness 6.5 mils 7.5 mils

BMR Correction -0.7 mil -0.3 mil

Actual Coating Thickness
6.5 - 0.7 = 5.8 mils 7.5 - 0.3 = 7.2 mils
(above the peaks of the surface profile)

Watch Out!
Here are some things that can affect your measurements when using a
magnetic pull-off gage:

1. Exposed magnets naturally attract iron filings, steel grit, etc. Assure that the magnet on your
gage is free of contamination, including paint.

2. Vibrations may prematurely lift the magnet from the surface, giving erroneous readings.
Make sure that the surface you are measuring is not vibrating.

3. Tacky or soft surfaces may prevent the magnet from lifting properly, and can contaminate
your magnet. If you want to take coating thickness measurements on a soft film, you can
take readings through a shim of known thickness that is placed on the surface. Subtract the
shim thickness from the gage reading to assess the actual coating thickness.

4. Magnetic pull-off gages that require you to manually turn the scale wheel backwards
(clockwise) until the magnet breaks contact with the surface are susceptible to human error
by continuing to turn the dial beyond the point the magnet lifts from the surface. Make sure
you stop turning the scale wheel immediately, or use an automatic version (Mikrotest IV).

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SECTION 6-2 – ADJUSTING AND USING THE
POSITECTOR® 6000
Section 6-2 discusses the use of the PosiTector® Model 6000 FN non-
destructive electronic coating thickness gage. You can use this gage
to measure coating thickness over both ferrous and non-ferrous metal
surfaces. You do not have to set-up the gage for ferrous (F) or non-ferrous
(N) surfaces. The gage automatically senses whether it should operate
using a magnetic principle (the gage display will indicate “F”) or using an
eddy current principle (the gage display will indicate “N”).

The PosiTector® Model 6000 gage is also available in “F” only and “N”
only models, with integral or remote probes, and with memory, data
print-out or downloading, statistical analysis and other features. We will
only be discussing the basic operation of the PosiTector® Model 6000 FN PosiTector® 6000
gage with an integral probe. If you want to learn more about some of the
advanced features of the gage, you’ll need to read the instruction booklet
supplied with the gage.

Step 1: Verifying Gage Accuracy

If you select a PosiTector® 6000 FN electronic coating thickness gage, you will be able to both
verify gage accuracy and adjust the gage, if necessary.

The PosiTector® 6000 FN can be verified for accuracy using plastic shims. NIST traceable plates
or other coating thickness standards can be used if you are going to measure coating thickness
over steel. However, this is not usually necessary unless the project
specification requires the use of traceable standards. If you choose
to use the coating thickness standards, then follow the step-by-step
instructions below, but substitute the standards for the plastic shims.
If you use coating thickness standards, you will need to measure and
subtract the Base Metal Reading (BMR) from the coating thickness
measurements. The procedure for obtaining a BMR is described in
Section 6-1, “Accuracy Verification Method A, Step 3” on page 6-7.

It is more common and more practical to verify the accuracy of the

PosiTector® 6000 FN using plastic, color-coded shims that are placed
onto the prepared surface. This method can be used for both ferrous
(magnetic) and non-ferrous metal surfaces. Verifying accuracy using
coating thickness standards
(need to measure and subtract
BMR)
©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.
6-12 www.kta.com
Veriﬁcation of Accuracy Using Plastic, Color-Coded Shims

There are two different sets of KTA plastic shims, a low set and a high
set. When a plastic shim is selected and placed onto the metal surface,
it creates a known “gap” between the gage probe and the metal. The
thickness of each shim and the corresponding color of each shim are
indicated below.

Low Set of Shims High Set of Shims

Color Thickness Color Thickness
Amber 1 mil Pink 15 mils
Red 2 mils Yellow 20 mils
Green 3 mils White 25 mils
Tan 4 mils Coral 30 mils
Blue 5 mils Clear 40 mils
Low and high range plastic shims
Brown 10 mils Clear 50 mils
Clear 60 mils

The PosiTector® 6000 FN is calibrated at the factory and actually

performs an automatic self-check each time it takes a measurement. If
you are measuring coating thickness on a smooth, ﬂat surface, the only
verification you normally need to do is a check to make sure the gage
is reading “zero” on the uncoated surface. However, if the surface
is rough (e.g., abrasive blast cleaned), it is best to verify accuracy
using plastic shims laid on the prepared surface. Gage readings are
inﬂuenced by the shape and composition of the substrate, as well as
the roughness of the surface. That is why gage adjustments are made
possible.

The PosiTector® 6000 FN can be adjusted using either a one-point or a

two-point procedure. If a procedure is not specified, use the one-point
method first. If you find that the gage is not reading the shim thickness
accurately after performing a one-point adjustment, then you’ll need to
use the two-point method.

The step-by-step procedures for conducting both a one-point and a

two-point adjustment are described below. The one-point method
involves four steps, while the two-point method involves ten steps.
Both of these procedures will prepare the gage to accurately measure
the thickness of the coating above the peaks of the surface profile, if
the surface has been abrasive blast cleaned.

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Procedure for Conducting a One-Point Adjustment

Place shim on surface

Step 1: One-Point Adjustment

Select a plastic shim that represents the anticipated coating thickness.

If you need a shim thickness that is not provided in either the high
or the low sets, then stack two or more shims together to create the
thickness you need. For example, if you want to verify accuracy at 7
mils, stack a 5 mil (blue) and a 2 mil (red) together. You must place the
shim(s) on top of the prepared metal surface.

Power-up gage

Examine gage probe

Step 2: One-Point Adjustment

Examine the gage probe to assure cleanliness. Turn the PosiTector®

6000 FN to the “On” position by depressing the center of the middle
button on the front of the gage. Access the main menu by pressing the
same button again.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

6-14 www.kta.com
Figure 1: Main Menu Figure 2: Cal Settings
Figure 3: 1 Pt Adjust

Step 3: One-Point Adjustment

While you are in the menu, navigate through the options using the top and bottom portions of the
center button until “Cal Settings” (Figure 2) is darkened on the display, then depress the center
button to select this option. Navigate through the next four options using the the top and bottom
portions of the center button until “1 Pt Adjust” is darkened on the display (Figure 3), then depress
the middle of the center button to select this option.

Step 4: One-Point Adjustment

The gage will now ask you how many “1st point” readings you want
to take (Figure 4). Enter the number of readings you want to obtain
by repeatedly depressing the “+” button. The display will show you
the number of readings you have requested. For example, let’s say
you depressed the “+” button twice. The display will reveal “ X = 3,”
indicating that you want to collect 3 readings.

Figure 4: Enter number of

readings desired

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Figure 5 Figure 6

Step 5: One-Point Adjustment

Once you enter the desired number of “1st point” readings you want
to take, place the instrument probe on the shim you selected (make
sure the shim is laying ﬂat on the prepared metal) and hold the gage
steady. The probe position illustration on the display will show you
when to pick the probe up off the shim (Figure 5) and when to set
it back down on the same shim (Figure 6). Lift the gage at least 2"
above the surface between measurements. The gage will beep twice
and the green LED will blink when a measurement is taken. Note that
the value will not be displayed until you have collected all of the “1st
point” readings.

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6-16 www.kta.com
Adjust value to match shim thickness

Figure 7

Step 6: One-Point Adjustment

After you have collected all of the “1st point” readings, the average
value will be displayed (Figure 7). If the value is acceptable, depress
the center of the middle button to enter the value. If you want to adjust
this value to match the thickness of the shim, lift the gage from the
surface, then depress the “+” or “—” buttons located on the front of
the gage. If you need to increase the reading, press and hold down
the “+” button until the desired reading is displayed. If you need to
decrease the reading, press and hold down the “—” button until the
desired reading is displayed. If you increase or decrease the reading
too far, just use the opposite button to create the value you desire on
the display. Once the correct value is displayed, depress the center of
the middle button to enter the value.

Procedure for Conducting a Two-Point Adjustment

Step1: Two-Point Adjustment

Select two plastic shims: one that is lower and one that is higher
than the anticipated coating thickness. This will enable you to
perform a two-point adjustment. If you need a shim thickness
that is not provided in either the high or the low sets, then stack
two or more shims together to create the thickness you need. For
example, if you want to verify accuracy at 7 mils, stack a 5 mil
(blue) and a 2 mil (red) together. You must place the shim on top
of the prepared metal surface.
Place shims on surface

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Figure 8: Power-up Gage

Figure 9: Main Menu Figure 10: Cal Settings Figure 11: 2 Pt Adjust

Step 2: Two-Point Adjustment Step 3: Two-Point Adjustment

Turn the gage to the “On” position by While you are in the menu, navigate through
depressing the center of the middle button on the options until “Cal Settings” (Figure 10) is
the front of the gage (Figure 8). Next, depress darkened on the display, then depress the center
the center button again. This will provide you button to select this option. Navigate through
with a menu of options (Main Menu; Figure the next four options using the top or bottom of
9). When you are in the menu mode, the top the center button until “2 Pt Adjust” is darkened
and bottom of the center button allows you to on the display (Figure 11), then depress the
navigate through the options, and the middle of middle of the center button to select this option.
the center button allows you to select an option.

Step 4: Two-Point Adjustment

The gage will now ask you how many “1st

point” readings you want to take (Figure 12).
Enter the number of readings you want to obtain
by repeatedly depressing the “+” button. The
display will show you the number of readings
you have requested. For example, let’s say you
depressed the “+” button twice. The display
will reveal “ X = 3,” indicating that you want to
collect 3 “1st point” readings.

Figure 12: Enter number of

readings deired
©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.
6-18 www.kta.com
Figure 15 Adjust value to match shim
Figure 13 Figure 14 thickness

Step 5: Two-Point Adjustment Step 6: Two-Point Adjustment

Once you enter the desired number of “1st point” After you have collected all of the “1st point”
readings you want to take, place the instrument readings, the average value will be displayed
probe on the lower of the two shim thicknesses (Figure 15). If the value is acceptable, depress
you selected (make sure the shim is laying the center of the middle button to enter the
ﬂat on the prepared metal) and hold the gage value. If you want to adjust this value to match
steady. The probe position illustration on the the thickness of the shim, lift the gage from the
display will show you when to pick the probe surface, then depress the “+” or “—” button
up off the shim (Figure 13) and when to set it located on the front of the gage. If you need to
back down on the same shim (Figure14). Lift increase the reading, press and hold down the
the gage at least 2" above the surface between “+” button until the desired reading is displayed.
measurements. The gage will beep twice and the If you need to decrease the reading, press and
green LED will blink when a measurement is hold down the “—” button until the desired
taken. Note that the value will not be displayed reading is displayed. If you increase or decrease
until you have collected all of the readings. the reading too far, just use the opposite button
to create the value you desire on the display.
Once the correct value is displayed, depress the
center of the middle button to enter the value.

Step 7: Two-Point Adjustment

The gage will now ask you how many “2nd point” readings you want to take. Enter the number of
readings you want to obtain by repeatedly depressing the “+” button. The display will show you the
number of readings you have requested. For example, let’s say you depressed the “+” button twice.
The display will reveal “ X = 3,” indicating that you want to collect 3 “2nd point” readings.

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Step 8: Two-Point Adjustment

Once you enter the desired number of “2nd point” readings you want
to take, place the instrument probe on the higher of the two shim
thicknesses selected (laying on the prepared metal) and hold the
gage steady. The display will show you when to pick the probe up
off the shim and when to set it back down on the same shim using a
probe position illustration. Lift the gage at least 2" above the surface
between measurements. The gage will beep twice and the green LED
will blink when a measurement is taken. Note that the value will not be
displayed until you have collected all of the “2nd point” readings. Place gage probe on high
shim

Figure 16: Adjust value to match shim thickness

Step 9: Two-Point Adjustment

After you have collected all of the “2nd point” readings, the average
value will be displayed (Figure 16). If the value is acceptable, depress
the center of the middle button to enter the value. If you want to adjust
this value to match the shim thickness, depress the “+” or “—” button
located on the front of the gage (just as you did in Step 6). If you need
to increase the reading, press and hold down the “+” button until the
desired reading is displayed. If you need to decrease the reading, press
and hold down the “—” button until the desired reading is displayed.
If you increase or decrease the reading too far, just use the opposite
button to create the value you desire on the display. Once the correct
value is displayed, depress the center of the middle button to enter the
value.

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Step 10: Two-Point Adjustment

Now that you have performed the two-point adjustment, verify that the
gage is accurately measuring the plastic shim thickness by placing the gage
down onto the lower and the higher shims. Take several readings on each
shim. The gage may not indicate the EXACT shim thickness, especially
if the metal surface beneath the shim is roughened (e.g., by abrasive blast
cleaning). As long as the displayed value is within 0.3 mil of the target
thickness, the gage is considered adjusted. You are now ready to measure the
thickness of the coating.

Do I need to “Zero” the gage?

The menu on the PosiTector 6000 FN gage provides an option to

“Zero” the gage on the uncoated metal. This is actually the preferred
adjustment method if you are measuring coating thickness on large,
ﬂat, smooth surfaces. But on roughened steel surfaces, it can be
difficult to “Zero” the gage and maintain a zero reading. Therefore,
verifying gage accuracy in the range of intended use (using plastic
shims laid on the prepared surface) is simpler and will provide coating
thickness values that are more consistent with readings taken with
other coating thickness gages. So for roughened surfaces, the gage is
not zeroed on the bare metal.

Do I need to measure and subtract the effect of the base

metal?

When gage accuracy is verified using plastic shims on the prepared

steel, you do not need to measure nor subtract any base metal reading
(BMR). By placing the shims directly onto the prepared surface, and
adjusting the gage to match the shim thickness, you essentially remove
the effect of the surface roughness, since the gage will recognize and
display only what is laying on top of the peaks of the surface profile.
This is an acceptable practice, since you are only interested in the
thickness of the coating above the peaks of the surface profile anyway.
However, if you choose to verify gage accuracy using smooth coating
thickness standards, the BMR applies.

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Step 2: Measuring the DFT using the PosiTector®
6000 FN

Examine the gage probe to make sure there is no coating residue or

other contaminants on it. Place the gage probe onto the coated surface
to be measured. The gage will beep twice and the green LED will
blink when a measurement is taken. The value is displayed. Lift the
gage at least 2" above the surface between measurements. If you set
the gage down onto the surface too slowly, the gage will sense the base
metal and display an erroneously high value. Disregard this value. You
may need to adjust your measuring technique (i.e., set the gage probe
down onto the surface quicker) if this occurs. Power down the gage by
selecting “Power Off” from the main menu, then press the center of the
middle button.
Examine gage probe

Power down gage

Measure the coating thickness

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

6-22 www.kta.com
SECTION 6-3 – ADJUSTING AND USING THE
ELCOMETER® 456 WITH PINIPTM PROBE

Section 6-3 discusses the proper use of the Elcometer® Model 456 non-destructive electronic
coating thickness gage equipped with a PINIPTM probe.

The Elcometer® Model 456 gage is available in ferrous (F) only, non-
ferrous metal (N) only and ferrous/non-ferrous metal (FNF) models, with
integral, separate and PINIP™ probes, and with memory, data print-out
or downloading, statistical analysis and many other features. We will
only be discussing the basic operation of the Elcometer® Model 456 F
basic gage with a PINIPTM F (ferrous) probe. If you want to learn more
about some of the advanced features of the gage, you’ll need to read the
instruction booklet supplied with the gage.

Elcometer® 456 with

PINIP™ probe

Step 1: Verifying Gage Accuracy

If you select an Elcometer® Model 456 electronic coating thickness gage, you will be able to both
verify gage accuracy and adjust the gage, if necessary.

The Elcometer® Model 456 can be verified for accuracy using plastic
shims. Coating thickness standards can be used if you are going to
measure coating thickness over steel. However, this is not usually
necessary unless the project specification requires the use of traceable
standards. If you choose to use the coating thickness standards, then
follow the step-by-step instructions below, but substitute the standards
for the plastic shims. If you use smooth standards, you will need to
measure and subtract the Base Metal Reading (BMR) from the coating
thickness measurements. The procedure for obtaining a BMR is
described in Section 6-1, “Accuracy Verification Method A, Step 3” on
page 6-7.
Verification of accuracy using
coating thickness standards (need
to measure and subtract BMR)

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring Dry Film Thickness Nondestructively on Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metal Surfaces 6-23
www.kta.com
It is more common and more practical to verify the accuracy of the Elcometer® Model 456 using
plastic, color-coded shims that are placed onto the prepared surface. This method can be used for
both ferrous (magnetic) and non-ferrous metal surfaces.

Accuracy Veriﬁcation using Plastic, Color-Coded Shims

There are two different sets of KTA plastic shims, a low set and a high set. When a plastic shim is
selected and placed onto the metal surface, it creates a known “gap” between the gage probe and the
metal. The thickness of each shim and the corresponding color of each shim are indicated below.

The manufacturer of the Elcometer® Model 456 recommends a two-point adjustment for coatings
applied to a roughened surface.

Low Set of Shims High Set of Shims

Procedure for Conducting a Two-Point Adjustment (rough surfaces)

Step 1: Two-Point Adjustment

Turn the gage to the “On” position by depressing the on/off button
on the front of the gage. There are 4 “soft keys” beneath the display.
The reason these are called soft keys is because they will perform
different functions depending on the gage mode that you are in.
When you “power-up” the gage, the four soft keys can be used to
activate the following four functions (starting with the far left soft
key and moving right): Turn the gage on

“CAL” “BATCH” “STATS” “MENU”

Soft Key 1 Soft Key 2 Soft Key 3 Soft Key 4

Soft keys 1 - 4 (L-R)

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

6-24 www.kta.com
In order to proceed with adjusting the gage, depress Soft Key 1:
“CAL” A second bar of soft key identifiers will appear:

“BACK” “” “” “Select”

Soft Key 1 Soft Key 2 Soft Key 3 Soft Key 4

Depress Soft Key 2 or 3: ““” or “” until “Calibrate Method” is

highlighted, then depress Soft Key 4, “Select.”

The “Cal Method” menu will appear on the display.

Depress the   soft key until “Rough/2 Point” menu item is

highlighted, then depress the “Select” soft key (Soft Key 4).

The display may ask you if you want to “Recalibrate now?” Depress
the “Yes” key (Soft Key 4) to continue.

The display will prompt you to set the gage probe onto the “Thick
“Foil” (high thickness shim) that has been placed on the prepared,
Place gage probe on uncoated metal surface. The thickness of the shim you select should be
high thickness shim slightly higher than the thickness of the coating you plan to measure.
Lift the probe from the surface after a reading is displayed and adjust
the reading as necessary using the   soft keys until the desired
reading is displayed, then press the “Set” key (Soft Key 4).

The display will prompt you to set the gage probe onto a “Thin Foil”
(low thickness shim) that has been placed on the prepared, uncoated
metal surface. The thickness of the shim you select should be slightly
lower than the thickness of the coating you plan to measure. Lift the
probe from the surface after a reading is displayed and adjust the
reading as necessary using the   soft keys until the desired reading
is displayed, then press the “Set” key (Soft Key 4).

The gage display will then inquire, “Do you wish to test the readings?”
Press the “Yes” key (Soft Key 4). Place the probe on the high thickness
shim—if the displayed reading is acceptable, press “OK” (Soft Key
4). If the displayed reading is not acceptable, press the “Cal” key (Soft
Key 1) and repeat the Cal process until the displayed readings are
acceptable.
Place gage probe on low
thickness shim

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring Dry Film Thickness Nondestructively on Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metal Surfaces 6-25
www.kta.com
Once the accuracy of the gage has been verified, press the “Back” key (Soft Key 1) until you return
to the opening display. You are now ready to take coating thickness measurements.

Do I need to “Zero” the gage?

The calibration menu on the Elcometer® Model 456 gage provides an option to zero adjust the
gage on uncoated metal (“Smooth”). This is actually the preferred adjustment method if you are
measuring coating thickness on large, ﬂat, smooth surfaces. But on roughened steel surfaces, it can
be difficult to “Zero” the gage and maintain a zero reading. Therefore, verifying gage accuracy in the
range of intended use (using plastic shims laid on the prepared surface) is simpler and will provide
coating thickness values that are more consistent with readings taken with other coating thickness
gages. So for roughened surfaces, the gage is not zeroed on the bare metal.

Do I need to measure and subtract the effect of the base metal?

When gage accuracy is verified using plastic shims on the prepared steel, you do not need to measure
nor subtract any base metal reading (BMR). By placing the shims directly onto the prepared surface,
and adjusting the gage to match the shim thickness, you essentially remove the effect of the surface
roughness, since the gage will recognize and display only what is laying on top of the peaks of the
surface profile. This is an acceptable practice, since you are only interested in the thickness of the
coating above the peaks of the surface profile anyway. However, if you verify gage accuracy using
smooth coating thickness standards, the BMR applies.

Step 2: Measuring the DFT using the Elcometer® 456

Examine the gage probe to make sure there is no coating residue or other contaminants on it. Place
the gage probe onto the coated surface to be measured. The gage will beep once and the green LED
on the front (top right) of the gage will blink when a measurement is
taken.

The instrument will automatically “power down” if it remains inactive

for 60 seconds. You can turn the gage “off” by depressing and holding
the on/off button on the front of the gage through a series of 4 “beeps.”

Measure the coating

Examine gage probe thickness
©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.
6-26 www.kta.com
SECTION 6-4 – ADJUSTING AND USING THE FISCHER
DUALSCOPE® MPOR
Section 6-4 describes the basic operation of the Fischer
Dualscope® MPOR non-destructive electronic coating
thickness gage. You can use this gage to measure coating
thickness over both ferrous and non-ferrous metal
surfaces. You do not have to set-up the gage for ferrous (F)
or non-ferrous (N) surfaces. It will automatically display
the type of surface you are measuring when the reading
is displayed. The gage offers the convenience of two
displays (one on the top of the gage and one on the side of
the gage).

The Fischer Dualscope® MPOR can be optimized using plastic shims.

Traceable coating thickness standards can be used if you are going
to measure coating thickness over steel. However, this is not usually
necessary unless the project specification requires the use of traceable
standards. If you choose to use the coating thickness standards, then
follow the step-by-step instructions below, but substitute the standards
for the plastic shims. If you use coating thickness standards, you will
need to measure and subtract the Base Metal Reading (BMR) from the
coating thickness measurements. The procedure for obtaining a BMR
is described in Section 6-1, “Accuracy Verification Method A, Step 3”
on page 6-7.

It is more common and more practical to optimize the Fischer

Dualscope® MPOR using plastic, color-coded shims that are placed
onto the prepared surface. This method can be used for both ferrous
(magnetic) and non-ferrous metals.

Step 1: Power-up the Gage

Remove the protective orange probe cover, then power-up the gage.
The MPOR does not have an on/off button. The instrument will
automatically power-up when it is placed on either a ferrous or a
non-ferrous metal surface. Never power-up the gage by pressing your
finger on the probe, as it may cause measurement errors. If the gage is Substrate
not placed on a ferrous or non-ferrous metal surface, the display will
indicate an error code (“Er6”), followed by four horizontal bars in the
display, rather than a measurement.
Using Coatings Inspection Instruments
Measuring Dry Film Thickness Nondestructively on Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metal Surfaces 6-27
www.kta.com
Step 2: Normalize and Optimize the Gage

After you have powered-up the gage, you will need to normalize it
to the substrate and optimize the gage to a known thickness. You
need to do this prior to measuring coating thickness, otherwise the
measurements you obtain will be questionable.

Step 2-1: Normalize the Gage

To normalize the gage, you will need access to bare metal. The metal
should be the same type, shape and roughness as the metal being
coated. You will notice that the gage is supplied with an uncoated,
base material. You should not use this material to normalize the gage,
since it is unlikely that it is representative of the metal surface on
which you intend to use the gage.

2-1.1 Without the gage probe in contact with the surface, press the
orange button for at least 2 seconds.  The ﬂashing message
“n0r” (for “normalization”) and the display message “Base”
will appear on the front display.

2-1.2 Place the gage onto the bare metal and obtain 5 measurements
( = bare metal). After each measurement, the
current reading will appear ﬂashing on the display (display
reading “0.1” is an example only).

2-1.3 After you obtain 5 measurements, lift the gage from the surface
and press the orange button within two seconds.  “CAL I”
and “STD 1” will appear on the display.  The gage is now
normalized to the base metal and is ready to be optimized to a
known thickness.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

6-28 www.kta.com
Step 2-2: Optimize the Gage

2-2.1 In order to optimize the gage, you will need access to an

uncoated portion of the surface and a set of plastic color-coded
shims. Select a color-coded plastic shim that represents the
middle of the thickness range of the coating you intend to
measure and place it onto the uncoated surface. A 3 mil shim is
shown as an example. Obtain a minimum of 5 measurements
on the shim.  The last reading will ﬂash on the display.

2-2.2 Wait a few seconds after the last reading is taken until the
symbol “” appears on the display. Using the orange button,
set the display number to the thickness value of the shim. Press
the button as often as you need to. If you have pressed the
button too often, or the last reading of Step 2-2.1 was actually
higher than the shim value, you will need to wait until the
symbol “  ” is displayed. This will occur automatically after
you wait a few seconds. Once the “  ” symbol is displayed,
press the orange button as needed to adjust the display to match
the shim value. 

2-2.3 When you have finished adjusting the display, wait a few
seconds and the display will indicate “0.0 mils.” The gage
is now optimized and is ready for use. If you intend to use
the gage to measure a coating that is substantially thinner or
thicker than the shim you selected in 2-2.1, then you will need
to re-optimize the gage using a shim that is representative of
the anticipated coating thickness.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments

Measuring Dry Film Thickness Nondestructively on Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metal Surfaces 6-29
www.kta.com
Step 3: Measure the Coating Thickness

If the gage has not powered-down (shut off), you can set it directly
on the coated surface. The thickness of the coating in that spot will be
shown on both the side and top displays of the gage. The displays will
hold the reading until another one is taken, or the gage powers down
(shuts off) because of non-use.

If the gage has powered down, simply place the gage probe on the
coated surface and wait for the audible signal. After the signal, the
coating thickness will be revealed by the displays. If you do not wait
for the audible signal before lifting the gage from the surface, the
display will indicate an error code (“Er6”), followed by four horizontal
bars rather than a measurement. If this happens, simply place the
gage probe on the surface again, and wait for the audible signal before
lifting the gage.

©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

6-30 www.kta.com
CALCULATING AND MEASURING

5
WET FILM THICKNESS

Most coating specifications indicate the dry film thickness or DFT

required for each layer of coating to be applied. But unless there is
no solvent in the coating material (100% solids), the applicator must
know how thick to apply the wet coating so that when the solvent
evaporates from the coating film into the air (known as film shrink-
age), the correct dry film thickness is achieved. In most cases though,
you cannot get the wet film thickness or WFT from the
specification, so you go to the coating manufacturer’s
To calculate wet ﬁlm thickness application instructions or product data sheets to find it
you need 3 values:
there.
 Target DFT
 % solids by volume (vol.) Unfortunately, the coating manufacturers do not always
 Amount of thinner added publish a wet film thickness value on their application
instructions, because it can vary depending on how
much thinner is added to the coating and the actual dry
Two formulas to remember:
film thickness that is specified. Therefore, it is important
that you know how to calculate a target wet film thick-
DFT ness for both unthinned and thinned coatings, as well
WFT =
% solids by vol. as know how to measure the wet film thickness during
application of a coating. This module on measurement
of wet film thickness will help you with both of these
WFT = DFT learning objectives.
( % solids by vol.
100% + % thinner )

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 5-1

Calculating and Measuring Wet Film Thickness
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Calculating the Target Wet Film Thickness

Before you measure the wet film thickness, you will need to calculate
the target wet film thickness for the applicator to shoot for by obtaining
three values. Without these values, the target wet film thickness (WFT)
remains unknown. Also, attempts to determine the WFT without the
help of a calculator can result in mathematical errors, so use your
calculator.

Value No. 1: The target dry film thickness (DFT)

Value No. 2: The solids by volume content of the coating material Calculator makes
Value No. 3: The amount of thinner that will be added to the coating calculating easier

Let’s look at each of these a little closer to determine where the three
values come from.

Step 1: Determine Value No. 1 – The Target Dry Film

Thickness

The target dry film thickness (DFT) is indicated in the project

Example: “The primer coat shall be applied to a dry film

thickness (DFT) of 2-4 mils.”
Write down: 2-4 mils DFT

Step 2: Determine Value No. 2 – The Solids by Volume

Content of the Coating Material

When the solids by volume content is indicated on the coating

Example: Solids by Volume: 47%

5-2 ©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.
www.kta.com
If the solids by volume content is not listed on the coating manufacturer’s product data sheet,
then you can use the value for the “theoretical coverage rate at 1 mil” on the product data sheet to
estimate the solids by volume content of the coating. This can be a little more challenging, so you’ll
need to follow these next few steps carefully and you’ll need to use your calculator.

1. Start with the standard rule of coating coverage: One US gallon of coating that is 100%
solids by volume will cover 1,604 square feet if it is applied exactly 1 mil thick.

2. Determine coverage rate at 1 mil. Locate the theoretical coverage rate and the dry film
thickness that the coverage rate is based on using the coating manufacturer’s product data
sheet. Multiply the two numbers together to determine the coverage rate at 1 mil.

Example: The theoretical coverage rate is 401 square feet per gallon at 3 mils. 401 x 3
= 1203 square feet per gallon at 1 mil dry film thickness.

3. Calculate the solids by volume content. Divide the theoretical coverage rate at 1 mil by
1,604.

Example: The theoretical coverage rate is 1,203 square feet per gallon at 1 mil.
1203 ÷ 1604 = 0.75

4. Convert the solids content to a percentage. Multiply the volume solids value by 100.

Example: 0.75 x 100 = 75% solids by volume

Step 3: Determine Value No. 3 – The Amount of Thinner that will be added to the
Coating

If the project specification and the coating manufacturer permit thinner to be added to the coating,
the amount of thinner that will be added must be taken into consideration when calculating a target
wet film thickness. This is because the thinner is part of the wet film that is applied to the surface,
but is not part of the dry film that remains on the surface (the thinner will evaporate into the air).

Coating manufacturers typically communicate the amount of thinner to add based on a percentage
of the total volume of coating mixed for application (e.g., 15%), or based on a certain volume (1
pint per gallon). Ultimately, you will need a “percent thinner” value for your calculation. If the
coating manufacturer provides the percentage of thinner to add, then no further work is required. If
the coating manufacturer indicates thinner addition by volume, then you will need to calculate the
percentage using some very basic units of measurement.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 5-3

Calculating and Measuring Wet Film Thickness
www.kta.com
a) There are 4 quarts in 1 US gallon. A quart is 25% (1/4) of 1 US Gallon
b) There are 8 pints in 1 US gallon. A pint is 12.5% (1/8) of 1 US Gallon

Example: The coating was thinned 1 pint per gallon, or 12.5%

Now that we have all three values (target DFT, percent solids by volume and percent thinner), we
can calculate the target WFT.

Step 4: Select a Formula

There are two formulas. Select only one of the two formulas when calculating a wet film thickness.
The formula you should select is based on whether or not the coating was thinned prior to use. Here
are the two formulas. Formula A is one step, while Formula B requires two steps.

Formula A (NO thinner addition)

DFT ÷ % solids by volume = WFT

Formula B (WITH thinner addition)

Step 1: % solids by volume ÷ (100% + % thinner added) = adjusted volume solids content
Step 2: DFT ÷ adjusted volume solids content = WFT

Step 5: Enter the Values into the Formula Selected in Step 4

Once you select a formula, enter the values into the formula to arrive at the wet film thickness range.
Remember, ALL percentage values must be converted to decimal format, simply by moving the
decimal point two places to the left. For example, 75% is 0.75

Example 1 – DFT range of 2-4 mils with no thinner added. The solids by volume is 75%. Use
Formula A:

2 mils DFT ÷ 0.75 solids by volume = 2.7 mils WFT

4 mils DFT ÷ 0.75 solids by volume = 5.3 mils WFT

Therefore, the applicator should strive to apply the coating within a range of 2.5 – 5.5 mils WFT.

Example 2 – DFT range of 2-4 mils with 12.5% thinner added. Use Formula B:

(0.75 solids by volume ÷ 1.125) = 0.67 adjusted volume solids content

2 mils DFT ÷ 0.67 solids by volume = 3.0 mils WFT
4 mils DFT ÷ 0.67 solids by volume = 6.0 mils WFT

Therefore, the applicator should strive to apply the coating within a range of 3-6 mils WFT. Even
with the addition of 12.5% thinner, the coating should “shrink” to 2-4 mils DFT.

5-4 ©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

www.kta.com
Measuring the Wet Film Thickness

Now that you have calculated the target wet film thickness,
you can measure the thickness of the wet coating film as it
is applied using a wet film thickness gage. While there are
a couple different types, we will be discussing the standard
stainless steel and the aluminum notch-type wet film thick-
ness gages.

Stainless steel and aluminum notch-type WFT gages

Low range WFT gage Mid-range WFT gage High range WFT gage
(½ to 20 mils) (4 to 60 mils) (10 to 500 mils)

Step 1: Select a Measuring Face

The standard aluminum and stainless steel wet film thickness gages
have four (4) measuring faces. Each face contains a different wet film
thickness range. The chart below provides the measuring ranges for
each of the four faces, for both the aluminum and stainless steel type
gages.

WFT Range on Each Face

WFT
Face 1 Face 2 Face 3 Face 4
Stainless Steel (low) ½ – 2 mils 2½ – 4 mils 5 – 8 mils 10 – 20 mils
Stainless Steel (mid-range) 4 – 10 mils 12 – 24 mils 28 – 40 mils 45 – 60 mils
Stainless Steel (high) 10 – 40 mils 50 – 80 mils 100 – 160 mils 200 – 500 mils
Aluminum 1 – 6 mils 7 – 12 mils 14 – 30 mils 35 – 80 mils

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 5-5

Calculating and Measuring Wet Film Thickness
www.kta.com
Each face is a series of teeth, with notches between the teeth. Each
tooth is numbered. The number corresponds to the wet film
thickness in mils.

Step 2: Take a Wet Film Thickness Measurement

Immediately after the wet coating film is applied, insert the

measuring face selected in Step 1 into the wet coating, perpen-
Close-up of one face
dicular to the surface. The longer you wait between application
and measurement, the less accurate are the results, because
solvents are escaping from the film, increasing the solids by volume
value used in the formula. The two “end teeth” on the face you select
must penetrate down to the previous layer, or the substrate if you are
measuring the thickness of the first coat.

Withdraw the gage from the wet film. The two end teeth that pen-
etrated down to the previous layer will be coated with paint. Observe
the numbered teeth between the two end teeth. The highest numbered
tooth containing wet paint is the wet film thickness.

Gage face with ends and all 4 teeth coated Gage face with only 2 ends coated
white. Need to use a higher range. white. Need to use a lower range.

Wet film thickness of 5 mils

5-6 ©2012 KTA-Tator, Inc.

www.kta.com
If all of the numbered teeth are coated, then you will need to choose
a face on the gage that represents a higher wet film thickness range.
However, if none of the numbered teeth are coated, then you will need
to choose a face on the gage that represents a lower wet film thickness
range. Clean the gage using a clean soft rag, then repeat this step in
several other areas. If the measured wet film thickness falls within the
targeted range, then no further measurements are necessary. If the wet
film thickness is outside of the target, then the application technique
must be altered or adjustments must be made to the equipment until
the target WFT is achieved.

Wipe teeth clean with rag

Step 3: Documenting the Wet Film Thickness

If the project specification requires a certain wet film thickness to be

applied (e.g., coatings on wood or concrete), then the actual wet film
thickness data must be recorded. However, if the project specification
only indicates the dry film thickness requirements, then the wet film
thickness may not have to be recorded, as it is simply a means to an
end.

Using Coatings Inspection Instruments 5-7

Calculating and Measuring Wet Film Thickness
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Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Industrial and Marine Protective

6
Coatings and Coating Systems

Introduction

As we described in Module 1, one of the primary means of corrosion

protection is the use of industrial protective coatings. These coatings
primarily protect the underlying substrate by barrier, galvanic and/or
inhibitive protection. While proper surface preparation and installation
of protective coatings is critical to long-term corrosion protection,
proper selection of a coating system, based on the prevailing or
projected service environment is equally important. That is, despite
how well a surface is prepared and how well a coating system is
applied and cured, the substrate may be unprotected if the coating
cannot withstand the environment.

It is acknowledged that the coatings inspector typically would not

be responsible for identifying service environments or selecting
coating systems for a project. In fact, these activities would typically
take place long before a coatings inspector becomes involved in a
project. However, it is important that a coatings inspector have a
working knowledge of protective coatings and coating systems, and
background information on why certain coating systems are used in
some environments and not in others. Also, by understanding how a
coating cures, an inspector can anticipate potential problems (based on
prevailing ambient conditions) and work with the contractor to ensure
proper curing of the applied film.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

This module begins with an introduction to the basic, primary

ingredients in industrial and marine coatings, and reviews the three
primary methods that coatings employ to protect the underlying
substrate (these were already described in Module 1). The module
continues with an explanation of the various methods that industrial
and marine coatings employ to convert from a liquid to a solid state,
once applied to a surface. These are called “curing mechanisms.” Five
curing mechanisms will be described, and examples of coatings that
cure using the various mechanisms are provided.

One of the key ingredients in most industrial and marine coatings is

solvent. Many solvents used in coatings react with solar radiation
(sunlight) as they evaporate from the coating and contribute to air
pollution. As a result, the type and amount of solvent that can be
used in a coating formulation and/or added to a coating in the field is
oftentimes regulated, based on the location where the work will take
place. These solvents are regulated as volatile organic compounds
or “VOC’s.” The inspector’s responsibilities relating to verifying
conformance to VOC regulations are described in this module.

A common challenge experienced by most coating specifiers is the

identification of the prevailing service environment (for existing
structures/facilities) or the anticipated service environment (for new
structures or facilities). This module provides guidance on methods
used to properly identify service environments, and provides examples
of ten common environments.

A chart listing twenty one (21) common coating types and their
inherent properties and characteristics is provided, along with
examples of how the chart can be used to select a coating material
based on the desired performance characteristics. For each of these
coating types, there are key inspection concerns that the quality
assurance/control inspector must consider. A chart listing generic
coating types and the key inspection concerns associated with each is
provided in this module.

There are a wide variety of coating systems that a specifier can

select from. These systems are typically “assembled” by the coating
manufacturer and oftentimes have a “track record” of successful
performance in a given service environment. This module contains a
series of eight (8) charts listing common generic coating systems used

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

by ten industries. Examples of how these charts can be used to select a

coating system are also provided.

Finally, independent verification of coating system performance based

on laboratory testing and/or field exposure is a critical component to
coating system selection. That is, all manufacturers of a single coating
system are not necessarily equal. Evaluations of coating system
performance prior to full-scale field application can be facility-specific,
industry specific and/or coating type specific. Each of these methods
and their inherent advantages and limitations will be described.

Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings Versus

Paint

A house paint and an industrial/marine protective coating can look

very much the same from the outside of the can. Therefore, it is what
is inside the can that makes the difference. When asked, “What is the
difference between house paint and an industrial/marine coating?”
some will respond, “About $30.00 a gallon!” While the per-gallon
cost of an industrial/marine protective coating is typically higher than
house paint, this is not the only difference. The main reason for the
added cost is related to the ingredients that are used to formulate a
coating, verses the ingredients used to formulate a house paint. Think
about the performance requirements of house paint verses that of a
coating. A house paint is used primarily to improve aesthetics, but
must have, say color and gloss retention properties (exterior paints)
and scrub resistance (interior paints). Conversely, an industrial/marine
protective coating may have to be resistant to immersion in water,
chemical exposure, impact and abrasion, as well as be able to retain
color and gloss.

Industrial/Marine Coatings: Components

There are many ingredients or raw materials that are used to formulate
an industrial/marine coating. They can be categorized as non-volatile
components and volatile components. Non-volatile components remain
in the coating and on the surface once applied. Conversely, the volatile
components evaporate from the coating into the air once the coating is
applied to the surface. The non-volatile components typically include
the resin or binder, the pigmentation and any additives that may be
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-3
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

incorporated into the formulation. The volatile component is the

solvent system used in the formulation that is a component to the wet
film, but not the dry film of the coating.

The diagram on the next page illustrates the basic components of

an industrial/marine protective coating. It divides a coating into
two major components: pigment and vehicle. The pigment (solid
component) typically consists of corrosion inhibitors, colorants and
extenders, although other raw materials may also be included. The
vehicle (liquid component) “carries” the pigment to the surface and
binds it into the coating film. The vehicle typically consists of the
resin or binder, solvents and any additives that may be included in
the formulation. The vehicle may also contain other raw materials to
provide additional or different performance characteristics.

Resin (Binder)

The resin or binder is a non-volatile component. That is, it is both part

of the wet film and the dry film. Oftentimes (but not always), a coating
is identified generically by the type of resin used in the formulation.
For example, a commonly specified coating system for the interior
of a potable water storage tank is a two or three-coat epoxy. In this
case, “epoxy” is used to describe both the coating type and the raw
material resin system used to formulate the coating. The resin system
is the film-forming component of a coating. It cohesively bonds the
pigmentation together and adhesively bonds the coating to the
underlying substrate or coating layer. It is essentially the “glue” of
the coating. In many cases, the resin system dictates the performance
properties of a coating.

Pigment

The pigment is also a non-volatile component of the coating

formulation. The pigment is essentially an insoluble raw material. That
is, it does not dissolve in the resin and solvent, but rather is suspended
in the vehicle. Many of us think that the pigment merely gives the
coating its color. While color is certainly a function of the pigment,
it is only one of several potential functions. The pigment gives the
coating its ability to “hide” the underlying surface. This is called
hiding power. A coating formulated with pigment that demonstrates
poor “hiding” may require the application of multiple coats, in order to

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Pigment Vehicle

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Inhibitors Colorants Extenders Resin Solvents Additives

Zinc Red Clay Acrylic Primary Secondary Thickeners

Chromate White Silica Alkyd UV Absorbers

Phosphate Blue Mica Oil Plasticizers

Borate Vinyl Catalysts

Epoxy Wetting Agents

Urethane

Siloxirane

6-5
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

cover over the previous coating layer. For example, if a white coating
is to be applied over a black coating, the coating must be formulated
with good hiding pigments. Otherwise the black will show through,
requiring multiple applications of the white overcoat. The level of
pigment, and to a lesser extent, the shape and size (e.g., fineness of
grind) of the pigment also determines the gloss level of a coating. For
example, a “flat” sheen level is created by formulating the coating
with more pigment than say a semi-gloss or gloss sheen level, which is
generated by using less pigment in the formulation.

The pigment in a coating may also provide corrosion protection. If

used, the pigment must be formulated into the primer layer (the layer
adjacent to the carbon steel substrate). Inhibitors like iron oxide and
barium, phosphorous and other compounds formulated into a primer
“inhibit” the corrosion process. And zinc powder added to a primer
in sufficient quantities galvanically protects the underlying carbon
steel. Certain pigments even provide barrier protection. That is, their
inherent shape and the way in which they orient themselves in the
dry film create a barrier to moisture penetration through the coating.
Examples include micaceous iron oxide and leafing aluminum
pigments. These raw materials are “lamellar,” which means they are
plate-like, lay flat in the coating film and cause any moisture that
penetrates the coating film the take a considerably longer pathway to
the substrate. Finally, extenders such as silica, mica and clay may be
incorporated into the formulation to improve film build, increase the
solids content of the coating and/or provide added barrier protection.

Additives

Finally any additives formulated into the coating also become part of
the dry film. Various quantities of additives are used by the formulator
to adjust the consistency, flow-out, surface wetting, color, ultraviolet
(UV) light (or solar radiation from sunlight) resistance and flexibility,
or to prevent settling in the can (suspending agents). For example,
polyurethane coatings are formulated with hindered amine light
stabilizers (HALS) to help preserve gloss and color upon exposure
to sunlight, and plasticizers formulated into a coating provide film
flexibility. There are many additives that a formulator can employ.
These are only examples.

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Solvents

The solvent system in a coating is the volatile component. While

the solvent system is part of the wet film during application, it is not
intended to be part of the dry film once the coating dries or cures. The
reason we refer to this component as a “solvent system” is that it is
very uncommon for a coating to be formulated with only one type of
solvent. Typically, a blend of solvents is used, and each type of solvent
in the blend may perform a different function. The flow chart we
looked at earlier divided solvents into two basic categories: primary
and secondary. As a general rule, primary solvents are formulated into
the coating to reduce the viscosity of the resin, pigment and additives,
so that the coating can be properly atomized through a spray gun, or
applied by brush and roller. Secondary solvents typically stay in the
wet coating film a little longer than the primary solvents (they are
slower evaporating solvents) and help the coating to flow-out and
knit together to form a uniform, continuous film. Solvents used to
formulate a coating should not be confused with thinner that may be
added to the coating by the applicator.

Many solvents systems in a coating (and thinners added to a coating

by the applicator) are categorized as “volatile organic compounds”
(VOC’s). Therefore, the type and amount of solvent(s) used in
an industrial coating may be regulated, because as these solvents
evaporate from the coating film into the air, they photochemically react
with sunlight and become a precursor to ozone (a component of smog).

Coatings are tested for VOC content according to ASTM D3960.

Water content is determined according to ASTM D4017 (Karl Fischer
Titration) and exempt solvents are detected according to ASTM
D6133. Exempt solvents and water are not considered detrimental
VOC’s, so their concentrations are deducted from the VOC content of
a coating formulation.

The VOC content of a coating is expressed in pounds per gallon or

grams per liter, and is reported on the manufacturer’s product data
sheet (PDS). Many manufacturers also recalculate the VOC content
of a coating after the addition of thinner. This information is also
commonly referenced on the PDS. As we learned in Module 4, to
convert from pounds/gallon to grams/liter, multiply pounds per gallon
by 119.8. To convert from grams/liter to pounds/gallon, divide grams/
liter by 119.8.

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When painting a structure in the field, the VOC limit is typically

dictated by the specification or the local air pollution agency for that
project. Conversely, fixed facilities like painting shops are sometimes
required to log the number of gallons of paint used over a specific
period (say 90 days) and the VOC content of each type. In this
manner, the total VOC emission can be calculated (e.g., 500 gallons of
coating “X” with a VOC content of 2.8 pounds/gallon = 1400 pounds
of solvent emission in 90 days). The local environmental agency
regulates the maximum quantity of VOC’s produced by the fixed
facility.

Coating manufacturers can formulate coatings to comply with

governing VOC regulations by using non-regulated solvents (like
water and acetone), or by increasing the non-volatile content of
the coating. Note, however, that the addition of thinner in the field
contributes to the VOC content of a coating. A coating that was
formulated and selected based on the VOC content “as manufactured”
may not be compliant once thinner added. In some cases, field thinning
is prohibited. If thinning is permitted, the amount of thinner added
must be carefully monitored, in order to avoid exceeding the allowable
VOC content threshold.

Curing Mechanisms

The method in which a coating converts from a liquid to a solid state is

known as the curing mechanism. Many liquid-applied coatings “dry”
by solvent evaporation, but cure by employing a separate chemical
reaction. In this introductory course five basic curing mechanisms are
discussed: solvent evaporation, coalescence, oxidation, polymerization
and moisture cure. Special curing mechanisms (heat and UV) are
briefly described.

Solvent Evaporation

Coatings that “cure” by solvent evaporation really only dry. That is,
the resin, pigment and additives are suspended in a solvent system.
When the solvent evaporates from the applied film into the air, the
resin, pigment and additives remain on the surface. Because there is
no subsequent curing reaction (i.e., no chemical change), the resin can
be redissolved by the solvent system that evaporated from the coating

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film. That is why a coating that cures by solvent evaporation should

not be overcoated with a coating containing strong solvents, since they
will dissolve the underling coating film. A vinyl lacquer is an example
of a coating that cures by solvent evaporation.

Coalescence

Waterborne acrylic coatings cure by solvent evaporation and form a

coating film by a process known as coalescence. Water (the primary
solvent in these coatings) first evaporates from the coating film. As
the water evaporates, a special coalescing solvent (e.g., propylene
glycol) aids in fusing the acrylic molecules together to form a solid
film. The coalescing solvent then evaporates from the coating film.
Without this coalescing solvent, the acrylic particles will not impinge
and fuse together, and can result in a poor performing coating film.
Note that the coalescing process typically requires a minimum 50oF
air temperature. Should the air temperature fall below 50oF before
the coalescing process is complete, curing may stop and may not
start again once the temperature recovers. This is a major concern
with industrial waterborne acrylic coatings, and should be carefully
considered by the specifier.

Oxidation

Drying oils in coatings that cure by oxidation actually react with

oxygen (air) to form a film. This oxidation process never stops, as
along as the coating is exposed to oxygen. For example, alkyd coatings
(which typically contain unsaturated oils, pigments and driers) cure by
oxidation. Many aged alkyd systems (those that have been in service
for many years) become very brittle, as the resin continues to oxidize
long after the coating is fully cured. Coatings that cure by oxidation
are also sensitive to excess film build and may wrinkle or crack.

Polymerization

Polymers and co-polymers are formulated into resin components

and the components are packaged by the coating manufacturer
separately. It is only when these components are blended together (in
the correct proportions) that a chemical reaction occurs, generating
a very resilient, coating layer. The chemical reaction that occurs
is known as polymerization. Coatings that cure by polymerization

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are multi-component (typically two or three containers). Prior to

application, these components are blended together in the correct ratio
(or complete kits are blended). Once blended, the chemical reaction
begins. Coatings that cure by polymerization have a pot life. The
blended components must be used before that pot life expires. The
pot life will vary from a few minutes to several hours, depending on
the formulation and temperature of the coating. Many coatings cure
by polymerization; epoxy coatings and aliphatic acrylic or polyester
polyurethane coatings are a few of the more common.

Moisture Cure

The reaction of a coating with moisture (in order to cure) is known as

hydrolysis. Only a few industrial coatings “hydrolize” in the curing
process. These include moisture-cure urethanes and ethyl silicate-
type inorganic zinc-rich primers. These coatings require a minimum
amount of moisture to cure. In this process, moisture-cure urethanes
release carbon dioxide (CO2), and inorganic zinc-rich primers release
ethyl alcohol. The result is a very resilient coating layer, similar to that
achieved by polymerization.

Heat and UV Cure

Some coatings require exposure to heat or ultraviolet light to attain a

complete cure after application. The heat or UV light reacts with the
resin causing a chemical reaction and subsequent cure of the coating
film.

Identifying the Service Environment

One of the most difficult tasks for a coating specifier is properly

identifying the prevailing service environment (for existing structures/
facilities) or the projected service environment (for new structures or
facilities). Stated more simply, once the coating system is installed,
what will it be subjected to? For a new structure (and even for an
existing structure) this can be a little like gazing into a crystal ball
to see the future. Service environments can be both predictable
and unpredictable (a 1000oF spike on an exhaust stack designed to
operate at 500oF). When attempting to identify or predict the service
environment, there are several conditions to consider, including these
ten (10) examples.

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1. Interior verses exterior.

2. Atmospheric verses immersion, verses gaseous. If immersion,
constant or intermittent (i.e., splash), or condensation. If gaseous,
the type and pressure.
3. If immersion, the medium (potable water, waste water, salt water,
solvent, acids, caustics, fuels, etc.) and the pH.
4. Vapor phase of a partial immersion environment
5. Temperature (normal operating and upset conditions).
6. Likelihood and type of physical damage (i.e., impact damage
from river debris on a set of dam gates).
7. Surrounding operations (i.e., adjacent chemical plant).
8. Prevailing environment (coastal airborne sea salt water mist).
9. Biological life.
10. The type and concentration of product that will be stored/trans-
ported in tank cars or vessels.

The specifier should consider these and other potential environments

before selecting a coating system. The coating manufacturer will
almost certainly request this type of information before recommending
a coating system. Note also that there may be multiple service
environments for a given structure, as is commonly the case with
chemical plants. Interviewing facility owners and plant maintenance
personnel may provide added insight into the actual service
environment that may not be obvious.

Characteristics by Coating/Lining Type

A chart listing twenty-one (21) common coating/lining types and their

inherent properties and characteristics is shown on the next page. An
explanation of the chart design and an example of how the chart can
be used to select a coating material (based on the desired performance
characteristics) follows.

The left column of the chart contains twenty-one (21) industrial

coating types. Note that within a coating type category, there can be
subcategories that are not shown. For example, the category of organic
zinc-rich primer includes an epoxy-zinc, urethane-zinc, vinyl-zinc,
etc. This list is not exhaustive, but rather contains some of the more
common coating and lining types. The top row on the chart contains
seventeen (17) common characteristics. Like the coating type column,
it too is not exhaustive.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-11
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Using the Chart

Once the service environment (described earlier) is identified and the

intended use of the coating is determined, the specifier can review
which generic categories of coatings are available. For example, if the
specifier is considering overcoating, there are six coatings that can be
considered for his application (alkyd, acrylic, calcium sulfonate alkyd,
epoxy mastic, moisture cure urethane and coal tar). However, if the
overcoat material must also demonstrate abrasion resistance, then only
two candidates remain (epoxy mastic and moisture cure urethane), as
the other three do not possess abrasion resistant properties. If single
pack is desirable, then the specifier can select a moisture cure urethane
from these two, as the epoxy mastic is multi-component.

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Coating and Lining Characteristics Chart

mp.*
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Acid
Alkyd • I • • • A F • • • 250° F
Silicone Alkyd • • I • F • • 250° F
CSA • • • • • • • 250° F
Epoxy • • • • • • • • 250° F
Epoxy Mastic • • • • • • • • • • 250° F
Coal Tar Epoxy • • • • • • • 250° F
Vinyl • • • • • • • • • • • 250° F
Urethane (aliphatic) • I • • • • • • • 250° F
MCU • • I • • • • • • • • • 250° F
Inorganic Zinc-Rich • • • • • 750° F
Organic Zinc-Rich • • mcuz • • Binder Dependent
Waterborne Acrylic • I • • • • • • 250° F
Polyurea (aliphatic) • I • • • • • • • • 350° F
Polysiloxane • I • • • • • • • 200-1400°F

Polyester • I • • • • • • • 220° F
Vinyl Ester • • • • • • • • 350° F
Baked Phenolic • • • • • • • • 250° F
Epoxy-Modified Phenolic • • • • • • • 250° F
Coal Tar • I • • • • • • • • 150° F
Anti-foulings I • • • • NA
TSC • • • • • • WD • Wire Dependent

*Consult PDS
MCU: Moisture Cure Urethane
CSA: Calcium Sulfonate Alkyd
TSC: Thermal Spray Coating
mcuz: Moisture Cured Urethane Zinc
WD: Wire Dependent
I: Initially
F: Formulas Available
A: Aged

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Key Inspection Concerns by Coating/Lining Type

A chart, similar to the one just discussed lists twenty-one (21) common
coating/lining types and their corresponding key inspection concerns.
An explanation of the chart design and an example of how the chart
can be used by quality control/assurance personnel follows.

The left column of the chart contains the same twenty-one (21)
industrial coating types described earlier. Some of the sub-categories
of coatings are shown as well. The top row on the chart contains 18
key inspection concerns. Based on the types of coatings specified
for a given project, quality control/assurance personnel can quickly
reference the chart and become aware of the key inspection points
to consider after final surface preparation and during mixing and
application of the coating(s).

Using the Chart

The project involves the application of an epoxy mastic primer and

an acrylic polyurethane topcoat. Based on these two generic product
categories, there are eight (8) key inspection points for the epoxy
mastic and for the polyurethane, as shown in the table below:

Epoxy Mastic Acrylic Polyurethane

Key Inspection Point
Primer Topcoat
Thickness • •
Recoat Interval • •
Intercoat Cleanliness • •
Ambient Conditions • •
Mixing • •
Potlife • •
Amine Blush •
Curing Conditions • •
Outgassing •

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Key Inspection Concerns Chart

osity)
or por
s
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Comp
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ons

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Soft F

Mixin

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Dry S
Thick

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Amin

Pot A
Pot L
Coati

Surfa

WFT
Alkyd • • • • • •
Silicone Alkyd • • • • • •
CSA • • • • • • •
Epoxy • • • • • • • • • •
Epoxy Mastic • • • • • • • • • •
Coal Tar Epoxy • • • • • • • • • •
Vinyl • • • • • • •
Urethane (aliphatic) • • • • • • • • • •
MCU • • • • • • • • •
Inorganic Zinc-Rich • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
Organic Zinc-Rich • • • • • • • • (not • •
mcuz)
Waterborne Acrylic • • • • • •
Polyurea (aliphatic) • • • • • • • • •
Polysiloxane • • • • • • • • •
Polyester • • • • • • • • •
Vinyl Ester • • • • • • • • •
Baked Phenolic • • • • • • •
Epoxy-Modified Phenolic • • • • • • • • •
Coal Tar • • • • • •
Anti-foulings • • • • • • • •
TSC • • • • • •
MCU: Moisture Cure Urethane
CSA: Calcium Sulfonate Alkyd
TSC: Thermal Spray Coating. Special inspections described in SSPC CS 23.00.
mcuz: Moisture Cured Urethane Zinc

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Coating Systems Defined

The coatings listed in the Coating and Lining Characteristics Chart

described earlier can, in some cases be combined to create a coating
system. A coating system is defined as the surface preparation and the
application of one or more coats. If multiple coats of the same product
are specified, contrasting colors are sometimes employed to assist the
applicator in assuring coverage.

The level of surface preparation to be performed is an integral

component to the coating system. For example, there is little point in
applying a zinc-rich primer to a marginally-prepared surface, since
the zinc must maintain intimate contact with clean steel to provide
galvanic protection. Conversely, applying a surface tolerant coating
to a surface prepared to SSPC-SP5/NACE 1, “White Metal Blast”
is also of little use. While the coating will perform well, equivalent
performance could be achieved over a much lesser degree of cleaning
(at a much lower cost).

A coating system oftentimes consists of a primer and topcoat. In many

instances, an intermediate coat may be specified. However, there are
single coat systems, and four and five coat systems that are employed
to protect industrial structures. When multiple coatings are used to
create a system, they must be compatible with one another. Also, each
coating layer has a function that is performed at a given thickness.
Accordingly, one cannot make up for an inadequate zinc primer
thickness by adding an extra few mils of an epoxy intermediate coat.
Each layer should be applied at the optimum thickness (not too thick
or too thin), and verified for proper thickness prior to the application of
subsequent layers.

Primer Function

The function of the primer is to bond the coating system to the

substrate. The primer also provides corrosion protection of the
steel substrate using barrier, inhibitive, or galvanic protection, or a
combination of them. The primer must also be tolerant of the level of
surface preparation performed and must be compatible with the next
layer applied, when applicable. If the primer is the only layer (as with
a single coat system), it must be resistant to the service environment.

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Intermediate Coat Function

An intermediate coat is typically incorporated into a coating system for

the purpose of adding barrier protection. The intermediate coat must be
compatible with both the primer and the topcoat.

Topcoat Function

The topcoat or finish coat is the first line of defense in a corrosion

protection system. It must also be aesthetically pleasing, and should
be able to maintain color and gloss levels for long periods of time.
Naturally, the topcoat must be resistant to the service environment, and
must be compatible with the underlying layer (primer or intermediate
coat, as appropriate).

Coating System Selection

There are a wide variety of coating systems that a specifier can select
from. Several of these systems are recognized by the coatings industry
as having a track record of successful performance in a given service
environment. These systems are “assembled” (according to product)
by the coating manufacturer. Note that in many cases, a given system
can be used in a multitude of industries and service environments.
For example, a zinc-rich primer/epoxy intermediate coat/acrylic
polyurethane topcoat can be used to protect bridge steel, the exterior of
a storage tank, and structural steel in chemical and power generating
plants.

A coating system is selected based on the prevailing service

environment, the intended life of the structure, the level or degree of
surface preparation possible, the intended service life of the coating,
access, and any economical restraints. Once selected, several coating
manufacturers of the coating system can be solicited to submit bids,
based on the estimated quantities required for the project (described
earlier in this module).

A series of eight (8) charts listing common generic coating systems

used by thirteen (13) industries follows. When applicable, each
chart includes common service environments within a given facility/
structure and candidate coating systems for each. It should be
noted that these charts represent a cross-section of industries and

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coating systems, and are not meant to be exhaustive. The Journal of

Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL) publishes an annual coating
systems buying guide that lists many coating systems and suppliers for
a variety of service environments. The guide is a more comprehensive
source for this information. Charts were developed for the purpose of
this training course for the following industries:

Chart CS-1: Coating Systems for Highway Bridges

(new construction and maintenance)
Chart CS-2: Coating Systems for Water Storage (interior/exterior)
and Tank Lining
Chart CS-3: Coating Systems for Waste Water Treatment Facilities
Chart CS-4: Coating Systems for Power Generating Facilities
(coal-fired plants)
Chart CS-5: Coating Systems for Power Generating Facilities
(nuclear power)
Chart CS-6: Coating Systems used in Pulp & Paper Facilities, Lock
& Dam Structures, Chemical Plants and Buried Pipeline
Chart CS-7: Coating Systems for Marine and Offshore
Chart CS-8: Coating Systems used in Food and Beverage
Manufacturing Facilities

Using the Charts

Following are two examples of how the charts can be used to help
select candidate systems. Note that system selection is dependent
on proper identification of the service environment, and may be
influenced by the degree of surface preparation possible, the intended
service life of the coating, access, and other conditions or economical
restraints.

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Example 1:
Replace interior lining and exterior coating system on existing ground
potable water storage tank in southern Nevada

Reference Chart: CS-2

Reference Columns: Water Storage (interior) and Water Storage (exterior)
Possible Lining Systems: 1. Polyamide Epoxy (2- or 3-coat)
2. Organic (epoxy) Zinc-Rich Primer and Two Coats
Polyamide Epoxy

Possible Coating Systems: 1. Organic (epoxy) Zinc-Rich Primer/Polyamide Epoxy/

Polysiloxane Topcoat
2. Organic (epoxy) Zinc-Rich Primer/Polyamide Epoxy/
Acrylic Polyurethane Topcoat
3. Alkyd Primer/Silicone Alkyd Topcoat
4.
Organic (epoxy) Zinc-Rich Primer/Waterborne Acrylic
Topcoat
Note: Moisture cure coatings were not considered candidates due to traditionally low humidity
in southern Nevada.

Example 2:
Replace coating system on structural steel in pulp & paper plant.
Service environment pH is > 4.

Reference Chart: CS-6

Reference Column: Pulp & Paper; pH >4
Possible Lining Systems: Epoxy Mastic Primer/Polyamide Epoxy/Acrylic
Polyurethane Topcoat

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CS-1: Coating Systems Used in the Bridge/Highway Industry

Highw ay Highw ay Bridges Highw ay Bridges

Coating System
Bridges (New ) (Maintenance-1) (Maintenance-2)

Inorganic Zinc-Rich
Primer/Polyamide Epoxy/Acrylic
Polyurethane

Organic Zinc-Rich
Primer/Polyamide Epoxy/ Acrylic
Polyurethane

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy/Polysiloxane

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy/Fluoropolymer

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/ Polyurea

Moisture Cure Urethane Zinc-Rich

Primer/Moisture Cure Urethane/
Moisture Cure Urethane

Moisture Cure Urethane Zinc-Rich

Primer/Moisture Cure Urethane/
Acrylic Polyurethane

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Waterborne Acrylic

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Waterborne Acrylic

Thermal Spray Coating/Sealer

Epoxy Sealer/Epoxy Mastic/Acrylic

Polyurethane

Epoxy Mastic /Acrylic Polyurethane

Epoxy Mastic/Waterborne Acrylic

Moisture Cure Urethane Sealer/

Moisture Cure Urethane/ Moisture
Cure Urethane

Moisture Cure Urethane/Moisture

Cure Urethane/Acrylic Polyurethane

Alkyd/Silicone Alkyd

Calcium Sulfonate Alkyd (2 coats)

Maintenance 1: Total removal and replacement of existing system
Maintenance 2: Spot repair and overcoat

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CS-2: Coating Systems Used in the Water Storage Industry

Tank/Vessel Linings

Water Storage Water Storage Tank/Vessel

Coating System
(interior)1 (exterior) Linings2

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/Polymide

Epoxy/Polysiloxane

Moisture Cure Urethane Zinc-Rich

Primer/Moisture Cure Urethane/
Moisture Cure Urethane

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/ Waterborne

Acrylic

Thermal Spray Coating

Moisture Cure Urethane/Moisture

Cure Urethane.Acrylic Polyurethane

Alkyd/Silicone Alkyd

Polyamide Epoxy (2-3 cts)

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/ Polyamide

Epoxy/Polyamide Epoxy

Baked Phenolic

Baked Phenolic/Polyamide Epoxy

Polyester

Vinyl Ester

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer

1 1NS F51approval
approvalrequired
required for
for potable
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food processing,
processing, chemical,
chemical, etc.
etc.
Railcar, food

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

CS-3: Coating Systems Used in the Waste Water Treatment Industry

Severe Damp Mild Mild Elevated

Coating System Submerged
Atmospheric Exterior Interior Temperature

Epoxy Mastic/Acrylic Polyurethane

Alkyd (3 cts.)

Alkyd/Silicone Alkyd

Polyamide Epoxy (2-3 cts.)

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy/Polyamide
Epoxy

Coal Tar Epoxy

Waterborne Acrylic (3 coats)

Moisture Cure Urethane (3 coats)

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer/Silicone

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

CS-4: Coating Systems Used in Power Generation (Coal)

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Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy/Acrylic
Polyurethane

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Waterborne Acrylic

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Waterborne Acrylic

Alkyd (3 cts.)

Alkyd/Silicone Alkyd

Polyamide Epoxy (2-3 cts.)

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy/Polyamide
Epoxy

Polyester

Vinyl Ester

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer

Coal Tar Epoxy

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Silicone

Phenolic Epoxy

Silicone

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

CS-5: Coating Systems Used in Power Generation (Nuclear)

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Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer/
Polyamide Epoxy/Acrylic
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Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy/Acrylic
Polyurethane

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Waterborne Acrylic

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Waterborne Acrylic

Alkyd (3 cts.)

Alkyd/Silicone Alkyd

Polyamide Epoxy (2-3 cts.)

Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/

Polyamide Epoxy/Polyamide Epoxy

Polyester

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer

Coal Tar Epoxy

Phenolic Epoxy

Thermal Spray Coating/Polyamide

Epoxy

Thermal Spray Coating/Phenolic

Epoxy

Epoxy Sufacer/Polyamide Epoxy

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

CS-6: Coating Systems Used in Pulp and Paper, Petrochemical, Lock and Dam,
Buried Pipeline, and Chemical Plants

Coating System Pulp & Pulp & Lock & Buried Chemical
Paper Paper Dam Pipeline Plants
(pH<5) ( pH>4) Structures (see Note)
Epoxy Mastic/Amine Adduct
Epoxy/Polyester Polyurethane √

Epoxy Mastic/Polyamide Epoxy/Acrylic

Polyurethane √
Moisture Cure Urethane Zinc-Rich Primer/
Moisture Cure Urethane/Moisture Cure √
Urethane
Thermal Spray Coating/Sealer √
Polyamide Epoxy (2-3 cts.) √
Coal Tar Epoxy √
Polyamide Epoxy/Acrylic Polyurethane √
Organic Zinc-Rich Primer/Vinyl √
Coal Tar √
Fusion Bonded Epoxy √
Polyethylene √
Polypropylene √
Tapes √
Heat Sleeves √

Note: Service environments are highly variable (e.g., mineral acids, organic acids, caustics, high
temperature, corrosive salts, solvents, gases, weather extremes). No panacea coating system.
Common generic coating types include zinc-rich primers, epoxies, polyurethanes and aluminum
filled silicones (for high temperature resistance).

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

CS-7: Marine and Offshore (Oil Platforms)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

CS-8: Food Manufacturing Facilities

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Performance Evaluation of Protective Coating

Systems

Independent verification of coating system performance based on

laboratory testing and/or field exposure is a critical component to
coating system selection. For a given coating system, there may be
ten or more manufacturers. It is not safe to assume that all coating
systems within a given generic category are created equal. Therefore,
careful evaluation of coating system performance prior to full-scale
field application can be employed to determine which of the candidate
systems will perform the best. These performance evaluations can be
facility-specific, industry specific or coating type specific. Each of
these evaluation methods and their inherent advantages and limitations
are described below.

Facility-Specific Performance Evaluations

Many facility owners (particularly chemical plants) cannot rely

100% on industry-generated performance data, since it may be too
generalized and not address specific service environments or upset
conditions unique to a given plant. And few, if any, rely on coating
manufacturer-generated data because of perceived bias. Therefore,
many facilities establish their own coating/lining system performance
testing program, which often includes actual plant site exposure of
candidate systems applied to test panels.

The advantage of this type of performance evaluation is that, if

designed properly, it can closely approximate the actual service
conditions of the facility. However, if the testing is not based on
existing ASTM test procedures and custom testing facilities or
equipment is required, the testing may be expensive and it may be
difficult to locate laboratories that can generate the data.

Industry-Specific Performance Evaluations

An industry-specific coating performance evaluation program

generates performance data based on testing that represents (as close
as possible) the service environment of that industry. Once the data is
generated, it can be uploaded into a central database so that all member
agencies in that industry can access the information and establish their
own qualified products list.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Coating System-Specific Performance Evaluations

The final method to evaluate the performance of a protective coating/

lining system is employing an industry standard testing procedure
designed specifically for a type of coating. An example of this type
of performance evaluation is SSPC’s Paint Specification No. 36,
“Two-Component Weatherable Aliphatic Polyurethane Topcoat,
Performance-Based.” These types of specifications give the coating
manufacturer wide latitude in the selection of raw materials used
in the manufacturing process, and focus on the performance of the
formulated product rather than dictate the ingredients. In fact, the
only raw material requirement referenced in “SSPC Paint 36” is that
the curing agent be an aliphatic polyisocyanate and that the minimum
polyisocyanate content be 17% by weight. Instead, the specification
gives requirements for package stability, application properties and
weathering requirements (gloss and color retention properties). The
focus is on the performance of the formulated product.

The advantage to this type of performance testing is that it establishes

minimum performance requirements for a given type of coating that
can be readily adopted by many industries. There are no significant
limitations to this type of performance evaluation.

Employing Multiple Performance Evaluation Methods

Some facility owners and agencies may choose to employ a

combination of the performance evaluation methods listed above.
For example, a bridge owner may subscribe to the AASHTO NTPEP
SSC Datamine (industry-specific performance evaluation) and may
also suspend or mount racks of test panels containing candidate
coating systems from a bridge structure (facility-specific performance
evaluation) and rate them every 6 months for corrosion and/or
aesthetics.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Summary

Despite how well a coating system is applied and cured, the substrate
will be protected only for a short period of time if the coating cannot
withstand the environment. Therefore, selection of a coating system
must give primary consideration to both the type of substrate and the
service environment. One of the most difficult tasks for a coating
specifier is to properly identify the prevailing service environment (for
existing structures) and the projected service environment (for new
structures). Module Six has provided guidance on methods used to
identify different service environments and examples of ten common
environments.

Module Six begins by describing the differences between ordinary

household paints and industrial/marine protective coatings. One
notable difference is the increased cost of protective coatings, another
is the reason behind the higher costs. The performance requirements
of industrial/marine coatings are much higher than those of house
paints, which are used primarily to improve aesthetics. Protective
coatings, on the other hand, may have to withstand immersion in
water, chemical exposure, impact and abrasion, as well as provide
aesthetics.

There are many different ingredients or raw materials that are used to
formulate an industrial/marine coating. This curriculum divides them
into two categories: 1. volatiles and non-volatiles, and 2. pigment and
vehicle. In the first category, volatiles are part of the wet film, but
evaporate into the air once the coating is applied to the surface, while
non-volatiles are part of the wet and dry film and remain on the surface
once the coating is applied.

In the second category for coating components, pigment and vehicle,

the vehicle “carries” the pigment to the surface and binds it into the
coating film. The vehicle typically consists of the resin or binder,
solvents, and any additives that may be included in the formulation.
While part of the vehicle evaporates (the solvents) once the coating

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

is applied, other components, like the resin, remain behind as part of

the dry film. The resin system cohesively bonds the pigmentation
together and adhesively bonds the coating to the underlying substrate
or coating layer. In fact, the resin is so significant that the type of resin
in the formulation is often used to generically identify the coating. In
many cases, the resin system dictates the performance properties of a
coating.

Additives are also a part of the vehicle that remains on the surface.
Additives are added to coating formulations to improve flow-out,
surface wetting, and flexibility. Additives can also be used to adjust
the consistency of a coating, to resist ultraviolet light, and to prevent
settling in the can.

In the category of pigment and vehicle, the pigment gives the coating
the ability to hide the underlying surface. Pigments also give coatings
their color and gloss, but pigments may also provide corrosion
protection. Pigments like iron oxide or barium can be formulated into
a primer to inhibit the corrosion process. Pigments like zinc powder
can be added to the primer in sufficient quantities to galvanically
protect the underlying carbon steel. Still other pigments, like
micaceous iron oxide and leafing aluminum pigments provide barrier
protection. These pigments are plate-like, and the way they position
themselves in the coating film forces any moisture that penetrates the
coating film to take a longer path to reach the substrate.

Extenders are pigments like clay, silica, and mica, which can be
incorporated into the formulation to improve film build. Extenders
also increase the solids content of a coating and provide added barrier
protection. Remember that all pigments, regardless of their individual
functions in the coating, remain on the surface and become part of the
dry film.

When coating components are divided into volatiles and non-volatiles,

the solvent system is the volatile component. While it is part of the
wet film during application, it is not intended to be part of the dry film
once the coating dries or cures. Typically, a blend of solvents is used
in the formulation of a coating and each type of solvent in the blend
performs a different function. As a general rule, primary solvents
reduce the viscosity of the resin, pigments and additives, so the coating
can be properly atomized through a spray gun or applied by brush or
roller. Primary solvents evaporate from the coating film first, while
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-31
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

secondary or coalescing solvents typically remain in the wet film a

little longer to help the coating flow-out and knit together to form a
uniform, continuous film.

Many solvent systems (and thinners) are categorized as “volatile

organic compounds” or VOC’s. The amount of VOC’s that can be
legally emitted into the atmosphere varies from location to location.
Some densely populated areas have very strict regulations, while less
populated areas typically are less restrictive. In the field, the VOC
limit is usually dictated by the specification or the local air pollution
agency for that project. Fixed facilities like paint shops, however, are
sometimes required to log the number of gallons of paint used over a
specific period, as well as the VOC content of each type. The local
environmental agency regulates the maximum quantity of VOC’s
produced by fixed facilities.

Coating manufacturers can formulate coatings to comply with VOC
regulations by using non-regulated solvents, like water and acetone,
or by increasing the non-volatile content of the coating. Since adding
thinner in the field may increase VOC levels, the amount of thinner
added must be carefully monitored.

The method in which a coating converts from a liquid to a solid
state is known as the curing mechanism. In this module, five basic
curing mechanisms were discussed: solvent evaporation, coalescence,
oxidation, polymerization and moisture cure. Two others (heat and
UV) were briefly described.

Solvent evaporation is perhaps the most commonly understood coating
cure. In this process, the solvent in the coating evaporates into the air
after application, while the resin, pigment, and additives remain on the
surface to form the dry film. There is no second step or subsequent
curing reaction, so the resin can be redissolved by the same solvent
system that was used in the blended coating. Coatings that cure by
solvent evaporation should not be overcoated with a coating that
contains strong solvents.

Coalescence also involves evaporation of solvents from the coating
film, but in this case there are primary solvents which evaporate first
and coalescing solvents (secondary solvents) which remain in the film
a little longer (to help fuse the molecules together to form a solid film).
After the film has been formed, the secondary solvents also evaporate
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-32
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

from the film. This type of cure typically requires a minimum air
temperature of 50°F.

Oxidation is a third method of coating cure. Components in the
coating (drying oils) react with oxygen (from the surrounding air) to
form a film. One problem with this method of cure is that the process
of oxidation never really stops as long as the coating is exposed to
oxygen. Alkyds, which cure by this method, can become very brittle
after many years of service, since the resin continues to oxidize long
after the coating is fully cured.

A fourth method of cure or polymerization is more complex than the
first three. Different resin components are carefully measured by the
manufacturer and packaged separately, so that when these components
are properly blended a chemical reaction occurs, generating a new,
resilient coating. The components must be blended in the correct
ratios (complete kits) for the chemical reaction (or polymerization)
to produce the correct blend. Coatings that cure by this method are
multi-component, and once they are blended together, the pot life
begins. The pot life may vary from a few minutes to several hours.
A few of the more common coatings that cure by polymerization are
epoxies, aliphatic acrylics, and polyester polyurethanes.

Moisture cure is the fifth method of coating cure discussed. The
coating components react with moisture and require a minimum
amount of moisture to cure. Moisture-cure urethanes cure this way
and release carbon dioxide (CO²) during the process, while inorganic
zinc-rich primers also cure by moisture cure, but release ethyl alcohol
during the process. The result is a very resilient coating layer, similar
to that produced by polymerization.

Some coatings require post-application curing using an external source

of heat or ultra-violet (UV) light.

Properly identifying the service environment is another challenge
to the specifier. As the curriculum has pointed out, even when the
substrate is prepared according to the specification and the coating
is applied properly, the substrate will not be protected if the coating
cannot stand up to the service environment. Therefore understanding
what the coating system will be subjected to, once applied, is critical.
The problem is that service environments aren’t always predictable.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

For example, when an exhaust stack that was designed to operate at

500°F, undergoes a 1000°F spike, will the coating system fail?

There are a number of questions to answer about a service

environment before a coating system is selected. Will the coating be
subjected to immersion service? If so, will the immersion be constant
or intermittent (i.e., splash)? Will the immersion be in potable water,
waste water, salt water, solvent, acids, etc.? What is the likelihood and
type of physical damage that the coated substrate might sustain (i.e.,
the impact damage from river debris on a set of dam gates)?

Questions on service environments must be answered prior to selecting
a coating system. And it should be noted that there may be multiple
service environments for a given structure, for example the interior of
a chemical plant.

Once all the background questions are asked and answered, specifiers
can look at the history and performance records of coating systems
that have been commonly used in specific industries and service
environments.

Module Six includes a series of charts to guide participants through a

multitude of questions on commonly specified coatings:
The Coating and Lining Characteristics Chart can answer:
1. Which coatings are easy to apply?
2. Which coatings are flexible?
3. Which coatings are lower in cost (by comparison to others)?
4. Which coatings have good chemical resistance?
5. Which coatings have good color and gloss?
6. Which coatings are surface tolerant?
7. Which coatings are not surface tolerant?
8. Which coatings can be used in immersion service?
9. Which coatings can be modified?
10. Which coatings are available in low VOC formulations?
11. Which coatings can withstand high temperatures?

The Key Inspection Concerns Chart can answer:

1. Which coatings are highly dependent on surface profile.
2. Which coatings may dry spray.
3. Which coatings are sensitive to variations in thickness.
4. Which coatings may out gas.
5. Which coatings require pot agitation.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-34
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

6. Which coatings are sensitive to package stability.

The information provided in the referenced charts on individual

coatings is very useful. However, coatings are typically specified in
“systems,” which consists of the specified surface preparation and the
application of one or more coats. Specifiers may recommend multiple
layers of the same product, or specify one coating to be used as the
primer, another to be used as the midcoat and still another to be used
as the topcoat. If the coatings applied are different formulations, they
must be compatible with each other.

In addition, each layer must be able to perform the function intended

for that layer. For example, the function of the primer is to bond the
coating system to the substrate. The primer may also be selected to
provide corrosion protection to the substrate. The primer must be
equally compatible with the level of surface preparation beneath it and
the coating directly above it.

The intermediate coat is typically part of the coating system for the
purpose of adding barrier protection. It must also be compatible with
the primer and the topcoat.

The topcoat is the first line of defense against corrosion and must be
resistant to the service environment. Typically, the topcoat must also
be aesthetically pleasing (good color and gloss) and be compatible
with the underlying coating layer.

Selecting a coating system is based on the prevailing service

environment, the intended service life of the structure, the level of
surface preparation possible, the intended service life of the coating,
access to the structure to be coated, and economical restraints
and considerations. Once a coating system is selected, coating
manufacturers can be solicited to submit bids. Module Six provided
charts on coating systems that are commonly used in eight different
industrial categories:

Chart CS-1: Coating Systems for Highway Bridges

Chart CS-2: Coating Systems for Water Storage and Tank Linings
Chart CS-3: Coating Systems for Waste Water Treatment Facilities
Chart CS-4: Coating Systems for Power Generating Facilities
Chart CS-5: Coating Systems for Power Generating Facilities

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Chart CS-6: Coating Systems Used in Pulp & Paper Facilities,

Petrochemical Plants, Lock and Dam Structures,
Chemical Plants and Buried Pipeline
Chart CS-7: Coating Systems for Marine and Offshore Facilities
Chart CS-8: Coating Systems Used in Food Manufacturing
Facilities

Another consideration for the specifier when selecting a coating
system for an industry is past performance and testing. There are
industry specific coating performance evaluations that generate data
based on testing that represents the service environment. Once this
data is generated, coating manufacturers can access the information
and establish their own qualified products lists. The advantage of this
type of performance evaluation is that many agencies within a given
industry can access performance data with little or no associated costs.

An additional method to evaluate the performance of a protective

coating or lining system is to employ an industry standard testing
procedure designed specifically for a type of coating. The focus of this
type of testing is on the performance of the formulated product, not
the individual ingredients of the coating. Therefore, the specification/
testing includes functions like package stability, application properties,
weathering properties, and color and gloss retention.

And a final method to evaluate a coating system prior to specifying

that system is to employ a combination of the performance evaluations
described above. A bridge owner, for example, may refer to industry
specific coating performance evaluations, while they simultaneously
conduct their own testing for a variety of coating systems on panels of
the substrate at the actual site of a future project.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC 6-36
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

1
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-37
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

2
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-38
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Components of an
Vehicle: The Resin (con’t.)
Industrial/Marine Coating
n  The resin: See Page 6-3 in the Student Manual
Ø  is the film forming component of a
coating
Ø  “cohesively” bonds the pigments
together
Ø  “adhesively” bonds the coating to the
substrate or the underlying coating layer
Ø  often dictates the performance
properties of a coating

Pigment Functions of the Pigment

n  Non-volatile n  Provides hiding
n  Insoluble raw material n  Determines gloss level
Ø  Does not dissolve in the resin and solvent Ø  Flatsheen: more pigment
Ø  Remains suspended in the vehicle Ø  Semi-gloss or gloss sheen: less pigment
Ø  Shape & size (grind) affects gloss

Functions of the Pigment Functions of the Pigment

n  When formulated into the primer the n  Extenders (silica, mica and clay) may be
pigment may provide corrosion incorporated to:
protection:
Ø  improve film build
Ø  Iron oxide & barium, phosphorous, others
“inhibit” the corrosion process Ø  increase the solids content
Ø  Zinc (in sufficient quantities) provides Ø  provide added barrier protection
galvanic protection
Ø  Micaceous iron oxide and leafing
aluminum provide barrier protection

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2010 SSPC
3
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-39
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-40
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-41
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-42
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-43
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-44
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems
Module 6 - Industrial and Marine Protective Coatings and Coating Systems

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC 6-45
Module 7: Specialty Inspection Projects

Specialty Inspection Projects

7 Introduction

Non-routine inspection projects can pose special challenges to the

coatings inspector. While the classification of a project as “non-
routine” or “specialty” is relative to the experience of the inspector,
for the purpose of this Module, inspection of shop painting, thermal
spray coatings (metallizing), powder coatings and galvanized systems
(coating of galvanized surfaces), overcoating, and the disturbance
of coatings containing toxic metals are considered to be specialty
inspection projects.

Inspecting the surface preparation and coating application in a steel

fabrication shop is very similar to inspection in the field; however
some of the inspection check points invoked by a field painting
specification are not required in the shop. This module describes
shop painting operations, industry certification programs and special
inspection procedures that may be invoked for work conducted in a
fabrication shop, or a blast & paint shop.

Application of thermal spray coatings (TSC) or metallizing requires

close attention to surface preparation and oftentimes invokes special
inspection procedures for verifying coating thickness. This module
describes the metallizing processes and the unique inspection
procedures associated with thermal spray coatings.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
7-1
©2013 SSPC
Module 7: Specialty Inspection Projects

The use of powder coatings has become more common for new
construction, particularly in light of VOC regulations pertaining to
the application of liquid-applied products in the shop. This module
highlights the special inspection requirements relating to powder
coating applications.

Liquid coatings are applied to galvanized steel to provide additional

barrier protection, for safety coding or to improve the aesthetics
of the galvanizing. These are known as galvanized systems. The
special inspection procedures associated with galvanized systems are
described in this module.

Maintenance painting strategies range from “do nothing,” to “spot

touch-up and overcoat” to complete removal and replacement of the
existing coating system. Inspecting overcoating projects presents
the inspector with special circumstances, since much of the existing
coating will be salvaged, and another coating layer or layers will
be applied. This module describes the benefits and risks associated
with overcoating, and explains the special inspection requirements
associated with overcoating projects.

Many existing industrial steel structures have been painted with

coatings that contain toxic metals, including lead, chromium and
cadmium. The hazards associated with the removal, handling and
disposal of coatings containing toxic metals must be controlled. The
inspector may have responsibility for verifying proper set-up and
maintenance of containment and ventilation systems; assuring proper
worker protection; monitoring air, soil and water quality; and assuring
proper handling and disposal of hazardous waste streams. This
module describes methods for assessing whether existing coatings
contain toxic metals and the possible role of inspection personnel on
projects involving disturbance of toxic coatings.

Learning Outcomes

Successful completion of Module 7 will enable the participants to:

1. Describe the special inspection procedures associated with

shop painting

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

7-2
©2013 SSPC
Module 7: Specialty Inspection Projects

2. Describe the special inspection procedures associated with

thermal spray coatings, powder coatings and galvanized
coating systems.
3. Describe the unique aspects of performing coatings inspection
on an overcoating project
4. Describe what the inspector’s role might include on projects
involving disturbance of coatings containing toxic metals

Coatings Inspection in the Steel Fabrication Shop

The majority of shop painting operations are for new steel members
and plates, or for ships, railcars, cranes or other types of equipment
or vessels that have been shop fabricated and
primed or fully coated prior to shipment and field
installation. However, some shops also prepare
and coat steel members (or other components
such as hand railings, etc.) that have been
disassembled in the field and shipped to a facility
that removes the existing coatings and applies a
new system. These are often referred to as “blast
& paint shops.”

The advantages of shop surface preparation

Enclosed Shop
and coating verses field surface preparation and
coating can include control over the environment
and better access to the steel members before they are erected.
However, depending on the type of shop (listed below), controls over
the environment may not always occur.

Shops are categorized by SSPC and the American

Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) through the
certification programs they maintain for fabrication
shops that perform surface preparation and painting
work. SSPC’s Qualification Procedure 3 (QP3) and
AISC’s Sophisticated Painting Endorsement (SPE)
categorize shops into one of four types: Covered
Shop, Enclosed Shop, Open Shop and Field.

Covered Shop

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Coating inspection activities include examination of the steel surfaces

prior to surface preparation (known as pre-surface preparation), and
inspections of surface preparation and coating application. Most of
the inspection check points that are commonly performed for shop
work were already described in Modules 3 and 5. Therefore, this
section only addresses one new inspection checkpoint that is common
to application of coatings in the steel fabrication shop: applying
coatings to slip-critical connection points and installation of protective
coverings.

Applying Coatings to Slip-Critical Connection Points and

Installing Protective Coverings in the Shop

Specifications for coating of beams for buildings, bridges

and other structures containing load-bearing members
often require the application of primer to the connection
points. Depending on the engineering and design of the
Slip Coefficient Test structure, the selected primer may be required to have
a certain resistance to slip. This is known as the Slip
Coefficient. Once the beams are bolted together (using
gusset plates or other structural steel connectors) and
the bolts are torqued, the connections cannot slip under
load; otherwise the bolts may shear and the connection
may break. Coatings help give these connections added resistance to
slip. Traditionally, zinc-rich primers were used on these slip-critical
connections; however other coatings
have been developed with similar
slip resistant properties. Prior to
application in the shop, the specific
manufacturer and product must be
tested in a laboratory for resistance
to slip. Testing is performed
according to Appendix A of the
Specification for Structural Joints
Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts,
prepared by the Research Council
on Structural Connections. Some
project specifications will require
the primer to maintain a Class B
slip rating (minimum 0.50 slip
Tension Creep Test

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coefficient), while others will allow a lower rating (Class A, minimum

0.33 slip coefficient).

There are two concerns for an inspector when inspecting the coatings
applied to these slip-critical connections. First, the thickness, the
type and amount of thinner, and the minimum cure time prior to
bolting, are all critical
variables. These
variables are included
in the testing and
certification processes,
and are reported on
the Certificate. The
inspector must verify
that these same
variables are used
during the application Masked areas at bolted connection points
of the coating in the
shop to the slip critical connection points. The same type and amount
of thinner (if any) identified on the certification must be used, and the
thickness of the applied film must be carefully controlled according
the specification requirements (which often require a lower film build
in the joints). Application of a build-up coat or reducing the applied
thickness by sanding or “screening” in these areas should not be
permitted. When the thickness of the primer in these areas does not
conform to the specification, it should be removed and reapplied. The
primer must be allowed to cure for the minimum amount of time listed
on the certification or the project specification (whichever is longer),
prior to bolting connections. The inspector should verify that all of
these procedures are carefully followed by the fabrication shop.

Secondly, once these connection points are primed, the specification

will typically require that the connection points be protected from
subsequent applications of intermediate or finish coats. The inspector
should verify that protective covering are properly installed in these
areas and that they are maintained throughout the finishing process.

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Inspection of Thermal (Metallized) Spray Coatings

(TSC)

The terms metallizing or metallized spray may be used to describe

the coating. Metallizing may be used as a noun to refer to the type
of coating, or as a verb to refer to the application method for the
coating. Metallized is used as an adjective for the process (spray
method) or type coating. There are three basic forms of metallized
spray, including flame spray, electric arc spray and plasma spray.
Plasma arc spray is not generally used for coating of structural steel
or concrete. Arc spray is the most common (and most productive) of
the three methods, and is typically the method employed in the shop
or field for metallizing both new and existing industrial structures.
Metallizing can be applied to both steel and concrete surfaces. In
general, a metal wire or metal powder is fed into an application device
(spray gun), melted, then atomized and blown to the surface of the
structure using compressed air. The wire or powder can be made from
a variety of metals and is selected based on the service environment
and intended level of performance (the same way liquid-applied
coatings are selected). The metals and alloys most commonly used on
industrial structures (for corrosion protection) include zinc, aluminum,
and an 85% zinc and 15% aluminum alloy. SSPC, NACE and the
American Welding Society (AWS) developed a “tri-society” guide
(SSPC CS 23.00/AWS C 2.23M/NACE No. 12, “Specification for the
Application of Thermal Spray Coatings (Metallizing) of Alumunum,
Zinc, and Their Alloys and Composites for the Corrosion Protection
of Steel”), which describes the requirements of metallizing and
provides guidance on inspection procedures that are employed on
projects incorporating metallized spray. Brief descriptions of the three
metallizing processes are provided in this section. The SSPC Painting
Contractor Certification Program (PCCP) Qualification Procedure
6 (QP6), “Standard Procedure for Evaluating the Qualifications of
Contractors Who Apply Thermal Spray (Metallizing) for Corrosion
Protection and Steel and Concrete Structures” qualifies contractors
performing metallizing work, which may be a prerequisite requirement
of eligibility to bid a metallizing project. Note that the installation
of metallizing can be more labor intensive and more costly than
traditional liquid-applied coatings and linings. Metallizing is not a
forgiving coating and may fail catastrophically if the surface is not
prepared properly (a “White Metal Blast” per SSPC SP 5/NACE 1 is

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specified for marine and immersion service, along with a minimum

64 µm (2.5 mil) angular surface profile). Any residual dust or debris
on the surface, an inadequate surface profile depth or a peened surface
texture, or poor quality compressed air can cause delamination
of the metallized film. Flexibility (bend) testing and tensile (pull-
off) adhesion testing (described later in this module) are routinely
performed as part of the inspection process to help assess proper
installation. There is no wet film measurements or solvent emissions
from metallizing. The dry film thickness must be routinely measured
using electronic gages (described later in this module) during the
application, as soon as the surface cools.

Electric Arc Spray Metallizing

Electric arc spray metallizing uses

relatively high electrical amperage to
melt wire, rather than a flame. Two
wires are fed from individual spools
into a spray gun. Each wire is given
an opposing electrical charge between
375 and 400 amps. As the wires feed
into the gun, they contact, arc and melt.
Compressed air atomizes the molten
metal wire and blows it onto the surface.
The spray fan is wider than that of flame
spray, and is generally more productive.
Electric Arc Spray

Arc Spools Arc Spray Gun

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Flame Spray Metallizing

Flame spray metallizing employs an oxygen-acetylene

generated flame to melt a spool- driven wire (as it exits the
spray gun). Once the wire is melted, compressed air atomizes
the molten metal wire and blows it onto the surface. The spray
fan is only approximately 50 cm (2 inches) wide, and the
spray distance is typically maintained at 200 cm (4 inches),
making flame spray application very labor intensive (and
oftentimes cost-prohibitive) for large projects. Flame spray can
be economical for metallizing small areas and for repairing/
rebuilding metal components subject to cavitation erosion.

Measuring the Thickness of Thermal Spray

Coatings

Measuring the thickness of thermal spray coatings (TSC) is somewhat

different than for liquid-applied coatings. While the same types of
gages (Type 1 or Type 2) are used to measure thermal spray coatings,
the frequency of measurements and the number and location of
individual gage readings is different.

Section 6.2 of the tri-society guide (SSPC CS 23.00/AWS C 2.23M/

NACE No. 12, described earlier in this module) provides a thickness
measurement schedule for thermal spray coatings. The thickness
is measured by employing a “measurement line” for flat surfaces
and a “measurement spot” for complex geometries and geometry
transitions. These measurement procedures are illustrated in the
figure below. For flat surfaces, a minimum of five individual gage

Line and Spot Measurements

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readings are taken in line at 2.5 cm (1 inch) intervals. The individual

gage readings are averaged to generate a line reading. The line
measurement technique measures the inherent “peaks and valleys”
of the TSC. For complex geometries and geometry transitions, a
minimum of five individual gage readings are taken in a spot, with
an area of approximately 10 cm2 (1.6 inches2). The individual
gage readings are averaged to generate a spot reading. The spot
measurement technique may not measure the inherent “peaks and
valleys” of the TSC. One line or spot measurement is obtained every
10 to 20 m2 (100-200 ft2) of applied TSC.

The thickness of the TSC should be specified as a range. If the

thickness of the TSC is less than the minimum required by the contract
documents, then the applicator must apply additional TSC to meet the
thickness requirements. If the thickness of the TSC is greater than
the maximum allowed by the contract documents, the information
should be recorded by the inspector and the owner notified of the non-
conforming areas. TSC thickness in excess of 150% of the maximum
specified thickness should be recorded. If these areas are damaged
during loading, transport, unloading or erection, they must be repaired
using procedures described in ANSI/AWS C2.18.

Inspection of Powder Coatings

Powder coatings films are created when finely pulverized plastics

(that are different from conventional liquid coatings) are applied
to prepared steel surfaces and fused together by heat. The powders
may be thermoplastics or thermosets. Thermoplastics melt, flow
and form a film with no change in chemical composition. They
are often applied as thick films. Examples include polyethylene,
polypropylene, nylon, polyvinyl chloride and thermoplastic polyesters.
Conversely, thermosets melt, flow and cross-link during curing. They
can be applied as thinner films. Examples include epoxy, acrylic,
polyurethane and hybrids. Perhaps the most common thermoset
powder coating is the fusion-bonded epoxy, or FBE. Powder coatings
are applied using fluidized beds, electrostatic spray, hot flocking and
thermal spray, and are used to protect appliances, outdoor furniture,
farm implements, lamp housings, rebar, piping and building products.

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Inspection of powder coating application includes the powder

material itself, surface preparation, curing, appearance, thickness
and discontinuity (holiday/pinhole detection). For thick film powder
coatings applied to pipe and other substrates that may be subject to
impact damage, a hardness test may be required.

The inspector typically verifies proper storage of the powder material,

just as he would liquid coatings, including clean and dry areas that are
maintained within the manufacturer’s specified ranges for temperature
and humidity. The manufacturer and type of powder, and the batch or
lot no. should be recorded. The currency of the shelf life of the batch
should also be verified prior to use.

The coatings inspector will also verify that the degree of surface
cleanliness (e.g., ISO Sa 2 ½ or SSPC-SP10/NACE No. 2) and the
depth of surface profile (1-3 mils; 25-75 µm) meets the requirements
of the project specification (if abrasive blast cleaning is required by
the contract documents). These inspection procedures were described
in Module 3. Conversion coatings such as iron phosphate, zinc
phosphate, and certain chromates can be used to enhance the adhesion
of powder coatings and/or to provide corrosion protection. The
coatings inspector may be required to monitor the application of the
conversion coatings prior to application of the powder coating.

The coatings inspector may verify conformance to the powder

manufacturer’s curing procedures, including oven dwell time and
temperature, the substrate type and the temperature of the coated
part. Specially formulated thermosetting powder coatings may use
ultraviolet (UV) light, rather than heat to cure the film.

Finally, the powder coated item can be visually inspected for

overall appearance (uniformity of color and gloss, texture, handling
damage, etc.), coating thickness (per SSPC-PA 2 or ASTM D 7091);
discontinuities, holidays or pinholes (per ASTM D 5162 or NACE
RP0188) and Durometer hardness (ASTM D 2240) on powder coated
pipe and other substrates subject to impact damage during installation.
Other methods for assessing cure (pencil hardness per ASTM D 3363)
may also be invoked by the powder coating manufacturer or the
contract documents. These inspection procedures were described in
Module 5.

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Inspection of Galvanized Systems

Galvanizing is a coating comprised of nearly 100% zinc. It can be

applied to steel surfaces by a variety of methods including hot dip,
electrodeposition and tumbling (limited primarily to fasteners).

Hot-dip galvanizing is done in a galvanizing shop. Prepared steel is

dipped into a molten bath of 98% pure zinc with a layer of flux floating
on the top of the liquid. The temperature of the bath is maintained
at 850oF. The thickness of the galvanizing layer deposited on the
piece is based on the dwell time in the bath. The thickness of hot dip
galvanizing can be measured with a non-destructive dry film thickness
gage (galvanizing is conductive, but it is not magnetic). Typically the
deposition rate is 2.1-2.9 ounces per square foot, which equates to
approximately 3.5-5.0 mils. Approximately 50% of the layer is zinc
metal, while the other 50% is a zinc-iron alloy.

As soon as a galvanized surface is exposed to the atmosphere, the

surface begins to change to form a zinc oxide layer. When moisture is
present, the layers change to zinc hydroxide. When the zinc hydroxide
reacts with carbon dioxide in the air, a layer of zinc carbonate forms.
This layer is tightly bonded to the underlying galvanizing. The
condition of the galvanizing layer dictates the level of preparation
prior to applying a liquid coating. Thoroughly weathered galvanizing
only requires minor hand or power tool cleaning to remove rough
areas, and perhaps pressure washing to remove loose zinc oxide. These
conditions are considered optimum for applying a liquid coating to
galvanizing.

New galvanizing or galvanizing that has not had an opportunity to

weather is very difficult to coat, as the solvents in the coating cannot
penetrate the galvanizing layer and no mechanical bond is formed.
A chromate layer may also be present (to preserve the galvanizing),
which can inhibit adhesion of a liquid coating. Attempts to wash the
surface with vinegar are futile. Careful sweep blasting using a mildly
aggressive abrasive in accordance with SSPC SP 16 (also known as
dust blast cleaning) to roughen (but not remove) the galvanizing layer
is often required (effectively creating an etched surface to produce
a mechanical bond). The application of chemical treatments and/or
conversion coatings which etch the galvanizing are also employed,

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but may be less practical and pose certain health hazards. Polyvinyl
butyral wash primers were widely used in the past; however these
products are high in volatile organic compounds (VOC) and contain
toxic pigments (chromium), so their use has declined in recent years.

Some consider coating of galvanizing as a “belt and suspenders”

approach to corrosion control. However, the application of a liquid
applied coating to the galvanizing is analogous to topcoating a zinc-
rich primer. The coating provides the primary protection, while the
galvanizing provides secondary protection as the liquid coating
deteriorates over time. The galvanizing is the “last line of defense”
against corrosion of the underlying steel. This system is called a
“galvanized system.” In addition, requirements for the use of safety
colors and improved aesthetics (appearance) are accomplished by
coating the galvanized surfaces.

The most common coating systems for application to properly

prepared galvanized surfaces include epoxy primers (with
polyurethane finish coats for exterior service) and two-coat waterborne
acrylic systems. Other types of coatings may be able to be used,
however the coating manufacturer must be included in the decision-
making process to ensure compatibility with the galvanizing and to
provide any special requirements for surface preparation. SSPC Guide
19, Selecting Coatings for Use Over Galvanized Substrates, assists
owners and specifiers in selecting an appropriate coating for protection
of galvanized surfaces exposed to aggressive environments.

Inspection of coatings for galvanizing (and related surface preparation)

is similar to that described in Modules 3 and 5. The inspector may
be responsible for verifying removal of grease and oil contamination
(per SSPC-SP1), monitoring blast pressure during sweep blasting
using a hypodermic needle pressure gage (to ensure that the pressures
are not too aggressive), and may visually inspect the surfaces for the
degree of roughening. The mixing, thinning and application inspection
procedures associated with the liquid-applied coating system are no
different than described in Module 5. Note however that all Type 1
and Type 2 dry film thickness gages will include the thickness of the
galvanizing when measurements of the liquid-applied coating are
obtained. The inspector will need to obtain base measurements of the
galvanizing layer (after surface preparation), or measure the thickness
of the coating using a destructive gage. One Type 2 gage manufacturer
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(Fischer Technology, Inc.) manufactures a gage that will display the

thickness of the galvanizing layer and the coating layers individually
when assessing the thickness of a galvanized system.

Inspecting Overcoating Projects

Overcoating is defined by SSPC Technology Update No. 3

(Overcoating) as the practice of painting over an existing coating
as a means of extending its useful service life. Overcoating can be
a cost-effective alternative to total removal and replacement of the
coating system, particularly when the existing system contains toxic
metals like lead, cadmium or chromium. There are risks associated
with overcoating that should be carefully considered by the facility
owner before preparing a project specification and bidding the work.
For example, if the existing system has marginal or poor cohesive or
adhesive strength, it may not be able to withstand the stresses imparted
by additional coating layers and may catastrophically fail. Therefore,
adhesion testing (described in Module 5) should be undertaken prior
to determining the maintenance strategy. Other factors should also
be considered, including the condition of the substrate, the thickness
of the existing system and the amount of repair work required prior
to overcoating. Finally, the generic type of the existing system
should be identified, so that a compatible overcoating material can be
selected. In some cases, test patches of various coating systems and
types of surface preparation are installed, aged for as long as feasible
(preferably 6 to 12 months to include weather cycles), then examined
for defects (e.g., delamination, peeling, blistering, cracking, checking,
corrosion, etc.) and tested for adhesion of the coating layers to one
another and to the substrate. Installation of test patches is described in
SSPC Guide 9 and in ASTM D5064.

The decisions regarding the maintenance strategy and coating system

selection are outside the responsibilities of the coating inspector, and
are oftentimes made long before an inspector becomes involved with
a project. If overcoating is the strategy selected by the facility owner/
specifier, then the inspector may need to perform certain non-routine
check points, since the existing system will become part of the new
system. This section only describes those inspections that would
not normally be required on total coating removal and replacement
projects, or on projects involving new steel. Routine inspection
check points like measurement of ambient conditions and surface
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temperature, and witnessing of mixing, thinning and application

techniques must be performed, independent of the maintenance
strategy invoked by the specification. These inspection check points
are not described in this section, since they were already covered in
previous modules.

Surface Preparation

Various types and degrees of surface preparation are invoked by

specifications for overcoating projects. Independent of the surface
preparation method(s) specified, the inspector should first verify
that all visible grease and oil contamination has been removed in
accordance with SSPC-SP1. Areas on the structure exhibiting peeling,
flaking coating or areas of corrosion are typically repaired on a spot
basis. Hand or power tool cleaning (ISO St2/St3 or SSPC-SP2/
SP3) may be required to remove loose rust or paint. Commercial
Grade Power Tool Cleaning (SSPC-SP15) or Power Tool Cleaning
to Bare Metal (SSPC-SP11) may be invoked if the specifier desires
a cleaner surface, or if a surface profile is required in the repaired
areas. Abrasive blast cleaning may be specified for spot repair, with
recognition that there is the potential for overblast damage from stray
abrasive. The areas of sound coating adjacent to the repair areas
should be feathered to provide a smooth transition for the touch-up
and overcoat materials, and to prevent lifting of the existing coating
along the edges of the spot repairs. Feathering can be accomplished
by hand sanding, or using various power tools described
in Module 3. Once the spot repairs are completed, the
inspector should verify that the specified degree of surface
cleanliness has been achieved (using the SSPC Visual
Standards), and that feathering has been performed in the
spot repair areas.

Areas of intact coating can be roughened by brush-off

Feathered Coating abrasive blast cleaning (SSPC-SP7/NACE No. 4) or
light blast cleaning (ISO Sa1), then visually inspected using ISO
8502 or SSPC VIS 1. However, there is a chance that the existing
coating may be fractured during the blast cleaning operation, which
may lead to failure once the overcoat system is applied. Therefore,
the contractor may be required to lower blast pressures, extend the
nozzle-to-surface distance, and use a minimally-aggressive abrasive to

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prepare the existing surfaces. The inspector may be required to verify

that the correct blast pressures and abrasive type are being used by
the contractor. Blast pressure can be measured using a hypodermic
needle pressure gage described in Module 3. If brush-off or light
blast cleaning is specified, the inspector must carefully examine the
prepared areas for fracturing or other defects that may compromise the
overcoating strategy. Post-blast adhesion testing may also be required
to assess the integrity of the existing coating.

The specification may invoke pressure washing (SSPC-SP WJ/NACE

WJ Waterjet Cleaning Standards 1 Through 4) using water pressures
up to 35 MPa (5000 psi) to remove chalking, loose paint, dirt, bird
droppings and other surface debris from the existing coating. In
this case, the inspector will need to touch the surface and perform a
visual inspection to verify that these materials have been adequately
removed from the surfaces, and not simply transferred to a different
location on the surface. Oftentimes the surface must be wiped or
brushed during the washing process to remove dirt and chalking paint,
just like a sponge is used when washing a car to aid in removal of the
surface dirt, rather than relying solely on water pressure for cleaning.
When washing coatings that contain toxic metals, the wash water
and debris will typically be collected. The wash water can be filtered
and reused, or filtered and sent to a publicly owned water treatment
works (POTW) for disposal. Hazardous landfills will not accept liquid
waste. Water and debris from pressure washing operations may not be
permitted to contact water or soils surrounding the project site, or enter
storm sewers. The inspector may be responsible for verifying proper
containment and handling of pressure washing waste. Additional
information on inspecting projects involving disturbance of toxic metal
coatings is provided later in this module.

If the existing coating was exposed to chemicals, salt deposits

from a coastal environment or deicing materials during service,
the specification will typically require soluble salt extractions and
analysis (after surface preparation) to verify adequate removal of the
salt contamination. Methods of extracting and analyzing samples

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for soluble salts (chloride, ferrous ion, sulfate and/or nitrates) were
described in Module 3.

Measuring the Thickness of the Existing Coating

Since the majority of the existing coating will remain on the

structure, the inspector may be required to obtain thickness
measurements on the existing coating, so that the thickness of
the overcoat can be isolated from the thickness of the existing
coating when using nondestructive dry film thickness gages.
Oftentimes however, the thickness of the existing coating is
highly variable, and would require mapping to identify the area
and the corresponding thickness in that area. This process can
be quite time consuming and may not provide the degree of
accuracy needed. Alternatively, the thickness of the new coating can
be measured at locations of bare steel that are integrated throughout
the existing coating. Other methods of isolating the thickness of the
overcoat material from the thickness of the existing coating (like the
Tooke Gage described in Module 5) are destructive to the coating film,
but are more reliable.

Measurement of Wet Film Thickness

If the thickness of the existing coating is highly variable

and if destructive coating thickness measurements
are not desired, then the contractor and inspector may
have to rely on wet film thickness measurements of the
overcoat material to determine conformance to the project
specification. Use of a notch-type wet film thickness gage
was described in Module 5. Since wet film thickness will
be the only indicator of film build, the inspector should ensure that the
target wet film thickness is properly calculated (based on the target
dry film thickness, the volume solids content of the overcoat and the
quantity of thinner added to the overcoat material). These formulas
were described in Module 5. Even if dry film thickness measurements
will be taken, the applicator should monitor the wet film thickness
of the overcoat, just as he would during any coating application
operation.

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Measurement of Dry Film Thickness

The dry film thickness can be measured nondestructively or

destructively. If nondestructive gages are employed, the gage will
indicate the thickness of the existing coating and the overcoat, since
these gages cannot distinguish coating layers. Therefore, the thickness
of the existing coating in each area must be known and deducted
from the gage reading to isolate the thickness of the overcoat, or
the thickness readings taken on areas where bare steel was exposed
prior to overcoating. If the coating is inspected using nondestructive
methods, the gage must be verified for accuracy (in the range of use,
which includes the existing coating and the overcoat thicknesses) prior
to and after use. The frequency of thickness measurements should
conform to SSPC PA 2 or ASTM D7091 if either of these test methods
is invoked by the project specification.

For greater accuracy, the thickness of the overcoat material can be

measured using a Tooke Gage or other brand of destructive coating
thickness gage. Use of a Tooke Gage was described in Module 5.
Note that the overcoat material must be a different color than the
topcoat of the existing coating system, otherwise the coating layers
may be indistinguishable. While the standard that governs the use
of the Tooke Gage (ASTM D4138) does not prescribe a frequency
for measurements, the frequency prescribed by SSPC PA 2 may
be adopted. Note that it may not be necessary to obtain three gage
readings at each spot, since the number of incisions through the
coating should be minimized. Also, it is not necessary to scribe down
through all coating layers to the substrate, since the goal is to assess
the thickness of the overcoat application and not the entire system.
This will minimize damage and prevent possible corrosion of the
exposed steel in the cut area. Independent of the depth of the incisions,
the cut areas should be touched-up (typically by brush application)
once the measurements are made. The inspector should verify that the
scribed areas are touched-up prior to the contractor demobilizing from
the project site.

Assessing Adhesion

The project specification may require the inspector to assess the

adhesion of the overcoat material to the existing coatings (and the
entire system to the substrate) to verify that the adhesion is similar

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to that obtained in a pre-job the test patch, or to verify adequate

adhesion if a test patch was not installed and evaluated. Adhesion can
be assessed using the knife/tape method (ASTM D3359), the knife
method (ASTM D6677) or the pull-off method (ISO 4624 or ASTM
D4541 for steel or ASTM D7234 for concrete). Since adhesion testing
is destructive to the coating, the number of tests should be minimized
and the test areas should be touched-up by the contractor. The
procedures for assessing the adhesion of coatings were described in
Module 5.

Inspecting on Projects Involving

Removal of Toxic Metal Coatings

Older structures are often painted with coatings

that contain toxic metals. These toxic metals
typically include lead, cadmium and hexavalent
chromium. Lead and hexavalent chromium
were used as corrosion inhibitors in coating
formulations, and cadmium provided coatings
with bright color. These metals can pose a hazard to humans and to
the environment when they are disturbed during maintenance painting
operations. Specifications for projects involving the disturbance
of toxic coatings require the contractor to control the hazards
during surface preparation operations. This includes installation
and maintenance of containment and ventilation systems, worker
protection and medical surveillance, environmental monitoring and
hazardous waste management. It is beyond the scope of this course
to provide comprehensive training on each of these items. SSPC
offers a 32-hour curriculum on deleading of industrial structures
(SSPC C3) and offers annual refresher training (SSPC C5) for
those already qualified through the SSPC C3 program. This section
provides a brief overview of worker and environmental protection
and monitoring on projects involving coatings that contain toxic
metals.

The contractor is responsible for providing a trained “competent

person” on the project site for controlling the hazards associated with
the disturbance of toxic metal coatings. The contractor’s competent
person is responsible for worker protection, environmental protection
and management of the waste streams. The competent person is
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ultimately responsible for implementing the written, site-specific

compliance program throughout the course of the project.

As an inspector, if you are trained and if it is part of your scope

of services, you may be responsible for verifying the adequacy of
the containment system, for verifying that the contractor and his
personnel are complying with the site plans they developed to meet the
regulations, and for verifying that the hazardous waste being generated
on the project is being properly handled, stored and transported.

Containment and Ventilation

Containment systems are used on structures to prevent the

debris that is generated during surface preparation activities
from contaminating the air, soils and water surrounding
the project site - to protect the public health and welfare.
Since the debris is concentrated inside the containment,
ventilation systems are employed to protect the workers
Containment on Dam Gate
inside the containment. Ventilation is recognized as an
engineering control to reduce worker exposures to toxic metals. SSPC
Guide 6 on containment and ventilation describes four “classes” of
containment for each of two removal methods (dry abrasive blast
cleaning, and wet abrasive blast cleaning/water jetting) and three
containment classes each for power tool cleaning and chemical
stripping. The components of the containment and ventilation systems
for each of the four classes and removal methods are described in
SSPC Guide 6. The guide also provides information on the methods
used to verify the effectiveness of the containment, including air,
soils and water sampling and analysis. The tables which display the
various containment
and ventilation
components for each
class are appended
to this module.
An SSPC Class 1
containment provides
the highest level
of environmental
protection, while
Air Handling Unit/Dust Collector

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an SSPC Class 3 or 4 containment provides the lowest level

of protection. The specification will dictate the level of
containment and ventilation required.

As an inspector, you may be required to verify that the

containment (as built) and the air movement inside the
containment meet the requirements of the project specification.
Containment under negative pressure The project specification may also invoke monitoring of the air,
soils and/or water on the project site to verify the adequacy of
the containment during cleaning and painting operations. Inspectors
are sometimes required to collect pre- and post-project water and
soil samples, and to operate high volume air samplers during surface
preparation activities. Since the inspector will not routinely be
inside the containment during surface
preparation, he may be required to monitor
the exterior of the containment for visible
emissions.

The higher classes of containment

often invoke negative pressure as a
Magnehelic Gage
means to prevent dust from exiting the
containment. Specifications may require
measurements of negative pressure using a magnehelic gage, which
detects and displays the pressure differential between the inside and
outside of the containment. A typical negative pressure specified for
Class 1 containments is 0.03 inches water column relative to ambient
conditions. The inspector may be responsible for verifying negative
air pressure, or visually verifying that the containment walls are drawn
inward when the dust collection system is operational.

Rotating Vane Air flow inside the containment can be measured using rotating
Anemometer
vane anemometers. Proper ventilation includes properly sized dust
collectors and adequate make-up air entryways (ports). Ventilation
rates vary, but cross-draft ventilation of 30 meters (100 feet)/minute
or down draft ventilation of 18 meters (60 feet)/minute are often
specified.

Air quality outside of the containment can be monitored using high

volume air monitors, by conducting visible emissions monitoring,
or both. There are two types of high volume air monitors: ones that
sample respirable particulate (aerodynamically 10 µm and smaller
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in diameter) using a size-selective inlet known as PM-10 monitors;

and ones that sample total airborne particulate, known as Total
Suspended Particulate or TSP monitors. These monitors are sited
around the project area, and their placement is based on prevailing
wind direction, height and length of the structure, proximity of the
structure to sensitive receptors such as schools, day care centers and
residential housing and other factors. The monitors are fitted with a
filter about the size of a sheet of paper and a known volume of air is
drawn across the filter. Airborne
particulate is collected on the filter
paper. The filter is removed from the
air monitor daily and shipped to a
TSP Monitor qualified laboratory (with a properly
completed chain-of-custody) for
analysis. PM-10 filters are typically
analyzed gravimetrically for weight
gain, while TSP filters are typically
analyzed for lead. The results of
the analysis are compared to the
specification requirements for the PM10 Monitor
maximum amount of particulate matter
or toxic metals allowed. Background
monitoring (before a project begins) is oftentimes
conducted to establish “normal” levels of particulate or
toxic metals in the air.

Pre- and post-project soil sampling and analysis may be

conducted to determine whether paint removal operations
contributed to background levels of toxic metals already
in the soil. A 0.1 square meter (1 square foot) template is
used to collect 5 soil plugs (one from each corner and from
Soil sampling the center, 0.5” deep x 0.75” diameter) which comprise a
single soil sample. The post-project soil samples must be
collected from the exact same location as those collected before the
project begins, otherwise the post-project results cannot be compared
to the background levels. Soil samples are sent to an approved
laboratory (with a properly completed chain-of-custody form) and
analyzed for the toxic metals of interest. If the inspector collects or
witnesses the collection of soil samples, the date of collection and
the sample collection sites must be recorded. Oftentimes a site map
is drawn with the location of the soil samples plotted. Alternatively,
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because of the variability in test results depending on where the

samples are taken as well as the nature of the sample (e.g., a small
paint chip in the sample can skew the results), visual inspections have
become more common. In this case, the work site is evaluated visually
for the presence of paint
chips or surface preparation
debris, which is removed
by the contractor prior to
demobilization.

Similarly, water and

sediment can be visually
assessed, or samples may
Water sampling
be collected and analyzed to
determine whether paint removal operations contributed to background
levels of toxic metals already in the water. Water sampling is of little
use in a stream or river unless the water is slow moving and very
shallow. Otherwise any debris that was deposited in the water will
be carried off by the current long before post-project water samples
are obtained. Water samples must be collected using clean containers
(e.g., glass jars) containing a small amount of nitric acid to keep any
metals suspended in the water sample. Water samples are sent to an
approved laboratory (with a properly completed chain-of-custody
form) and analyzed for the toxic metals of interest. If the inspector
collects or witnesses the collection of water samples, the date of
collection and the sample collection sites must be recorded.

Many specifiers require the contractor to prepare and submit a site-

specific environmental protection program, which must be reviewed
and accepted prior to commencing work. The inspector may be
required to verify the contractor’s compliance to the written plan
throughout the project.

Worker Protection

Exposure monitoring is conducted early in the project to measure

airborne levels of toxic metals generated by the paint removal
operations. The results of the exposure monitoring dictate the level
of respiratory protection required, after all engineering controls and
Worker properly work practices are implemented. Establishment of a regulated area,
protected

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medical surveillance, hygiene facilities, protective clothing, training,

and written compliance programs are also required of the contractor.
Many specifiers require the contractor to prepare and submit a
site-specific worker protection program, which must be reviewed
and accepted prior to
commencing work. The
inspector may be required
to verify the contractor’s
compliance to the written
plan throughout the
project.

The inspector should not

Regulated Area
enter the containment to
perform inspection of surface preparation until it is well-ventilated.
Even then, protective clothing and respiratory protection should be
worn. The inspector should never eat, drink or use tobacco products in
the regulated area, and should use the hand wash and shower facilities,
as applicable, on the project site.

Managing Hazardous Waste

The contractor is often required to properly

handle, store and transport hazardous waste that
is generated on a painting project. Waste includes
spent abrasive and paint debris, empty paint cans,
spent solvent, contaminated containment or ground
tarps and disposable protective clothing. The project
specification will indicate the requirements for
Waste Storage Area
storage and transport of waste materials generated
on the project site. Many specifiers require the contractor to prepare
and submit a site-specific waste management program, which must
be reviewed and accepted prior to commencing work. The inspector
may be required to verify the contractor’s compliance to the written
plan throughout the project, including all waste handling procedures
(hazardous and non-hazardous) and maintenance and security of the
waste storage area.

Samples of abrasive/paint debris are collected by the contractor and

shipped to a laboratory to determine whether the debris is hazardous.

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The laboratory analyzes the samples for leachable toxic metal

content using the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)
test. Samples are analyzed for eight different toxic metals. If the
concentration of any of the eight metals exceeds EPA limits, then the
waste is categorized as hazardous and must be properly transported,
treated and disposed of. Other characteristics of the waste such as
ignitability, corrosivity, and reactivity are also used to classify a waste
as hazardous.

Hazardous waste can only be transported by licensed haulers and can

only be treated and disposed of by licensed hazardous waste treatment
facilities. The inspector may be required to ensure waste drums are
properly labeled and waste manifests are properly completed. The
facility owner is the generator, but the contractor can be named as a
co-generator of the waste. One or both parties have “cradle-to-grave”
responsibility for the waste, and can be heavily fined or imprisoned for
violating hazardous waste regulations.

Note that the contractor may elect to use (or the specification may
require the use of) proprietary additives (sprayed onto the surface
prior to abrasive blast cleaning or combined with the abrasive by the
supplier) which can render the waste stream non-hazardous by the
TCLP test procedure. SSPC Guide 7 on disposal provides additional
guidance on hazardous waste management procedures.

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Summary

In Module 7, we have described the special inspection requirements

involved with shop painting, thermal spray coatings (metallizing),
powder coatings and galvanized coating systems, overcoating projects
and projects involving the disturbance of coatings containing toxic
metals.

Surface preparation and coating application inspection in a steel

fabrication shop or a “blast & paint” shop is similar to field inspection.
SSPC QP3 and AISC SPE categorize shops into four types—Covered
Shop, Enclosed Shop, Open Shop and Field—and both qualification
and certification programs require implementation of quality control
procedures and documentation. Special inspection procedures for
inspecting the application of primers to slip-critical connections and
the installation of protective covering were also described.

Metallized spray incorporates a wire or a powder that is melted using

an oxygen-acetylene flame (flame spray) or electric arc (arc spray).
The molten metal is then atomized and transferred to the surface
using compressed air. SSPC, NACE and AWS have developed a guide
(SSPC CS 23.00/AWS C 2.23M/NACE No. 12) for application of
metallized coatings and SSPC has established a contractor certification
procedure (QP 6) for metallizing application companies. Metallizing
is not a “surface tolerant” coating and requires a White Metal
Blast (SSPC-SP5/NACE No. 1) for immersion or severe exposure
environments and a 64-75 µm (2.5-3 mil) angular surface profile for
proper adhesion. A “Near-White” blast (SSPC-SP10/NACE No. 2)
is normally adequate for non-severe environments. Flexibility and
adhesion testing are inspection check points which are often invoked
above and beyond the normal inspection check points associated with
a coating installation.

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Powder coatings films are created when finely pulverized plastics

(that are different from conventional liquid coatings) are applied to
prepared steel surfaces and fused together by heat. The powders may
be thermoplastics or thermosets. The coatings inspector may verify
surface preparation (cleanliness, roughness or pretreatment processes),
and conformance to the powder manufacturer’s application and curing
procedures. Powder coated items are visually inspected for overall
appearance, thickness, discontinuities, and hardness.

New galvanizing or galvanizing that has not had an opportunity to

weather is very difficult to coat. Careful sweep blasting using a mildly
aggressive abrasive to roughen the galvanizing layer is often required.
The application of a liquid applied coating to the galvanizing provides
the primary protection, while the galvanizing provides secondary
protection as the liquid coating deteriorates over time. This system is
called a “galvanized system.” The inspector may be responsible for
verifying removal of grease and oil contamination, monitoring blast
pressure during sweep blasting, and may visually inspect the surfaces
for the degree of roughening. Traditional dry film thickness gages will
include the thickness of the galvanizing when measurements of the
liquid-applied coating are obtained. One Type 2 gage will display the
thickness of the galvanizing layer and the coating layers individually.

Overcoating is a maintenance strategy that can be employed by a

facility owner to reduce costs by extending the life of the existing
coating system, versus the cost of totally removing and replacing the
coating. There is risk associated with overcoating, so the existing
coating system must be carefully evaluated to assess whether it is a
candidate for overcoating. The assessment includes tests for substrate
condition, amount of corrosion and deterioration present, the thickness
and adhesion of the existing coating, and the generic type of the
existing coating. Test patches can be applied and evaluated prior to
full scale overcoating when the condition of the existing coating is
marginal. Surface preparation inspection includes verification of oil/
grease removal per SSPC-SP1, and inspection of spot touch-up areas
for cleanliness, roughness (if required) and proper feathering of the
existing coating for a smooth transition. The remaining surfaces may
be brush blasted or pressure washed. These surfaces must be inspected
to ensure the existing coating was not severely fractured, and that
surface dirt, chalk and other debris has been adequately removed.

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Testing for chemical contamination may also be required, if soluble

salts were deposited onto the surfaces while in service. The inspector
may be required to measure and map the thickness of the existing
coating, and may be required to measure the wet film thickness of the
overcoat material during application. The final dry film thickness can
be measured either nondestructively or using a destructive gage. If a
nondestructive gage is used, the thickness of the existing system must
be deducted from the measurements in order to isolate and document
the thickness of the overcoat, or the readings taken in spots where the
existing coating had been totally removed. Adhesion of the overcoat
to the existing system may be assessed to ensure that the overcoat
is properly bonded, and is similar to the adhesion characteristics of
the coating system on a test patch, if one was prepared. Areas where
destructive coating thickness and/or adhesion testing were performed
should be touched up by the contractor to prevent premature rusting in
these areas.

The inspector’s role on projects involving removal of coatings

containing toxic metals (primarily lead, cadmium and hexavalent
chromium) can include inspecting the effectiveness of the containment
system by monitoring the air, soils and water around the project site,
and by performing visible emissions (VE) monitoring during surface
preparation activities. Air quality is monitored by VE observation, or
by employing high volume air sampling for total suspended particulate
or respirable particulate. Soil and water quality is monitored by
collecting and analyzing pre- and post-job samples, or visually. The
inspector may also be responsible for verifying that the contractor and
his personnel are conforming to their site plan for complying with the
recommended comprehensive health standard(s) for the toxic metal(s)
in the coating, including the implementation of engineering controls,
work practices and respiratory protection to control the hazard. The
inspector may also evaluate the effectiveness of the ventilation system
by measuring air movement inside the containment. Likewise, the
inspector should follow the same rules as the contractor’s personnel
regarding protective clothing, respiratory protection and use of hygiene
facilities on the project site.

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Finally, the inspector may be responsible for verifying that the

contractor is handling and storing all of the waste (hazardous and
non-hazardous) properly, and that the waste is tested by an approved
laboratory and hauled from the site by a licensed transporter. The
inspector may be asked to review the contractor’s site-specific, written
worker protection, environmental protection and waste management
compliance plans prior to production work, and may be required to
verify conformance to the written plans during production work.

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Module Seven Introduction

n  Non-routine or specialty coating inspection projects
can present special challenges
n  “Non-routine or specialty” is relative to the
Specialty Inspection Projects inspector’s experience
n  Module addresses:
Ø  Special inspection procedures relating shop painting
Ø  Inspection of thermal spray coatings (TSC)
Ø  Inspection of powder coatings
Ø  Inspection of galvanized coating systems
Ø  Inspection of overcoating projects
Ø  Inspection on projects involving toxic metal coatings

Module Seven Learning Coatings Inspection in the

Outcomes Steel Fabrication Shop
n  Comprehension of Module Seven will enable the n  Shop painting
participant to: operations generally
for new steel, or ships,
Ø  Describe the special inspection procedures railcars, vessels, etc.
associated with shop painting
Ø  Describe the special inspection procedures
associated with TSC, powder coatings and n  Some shops prepare
galvanized coating systems and coat components
Ø  Describe the unique aspects of performing removed from the field
coatings inspection on an overcoating project
(“blast & paint shops”)
Ø  Describe what the inspector’s role might
include on projects involving disturbance of
coatings containing toxic metals

Coatings Inspection in the Coatings Inspection in the

Steel Fabrication Shop Steel Fabrication Shop
n  SSPC and AISC categorize shops n  SSPC QP3 and AISC SPE require:
through certification programs Ø  Qualified QC personnel
(SSPC QP3 and AISC SPE) Ø  Inspection equipment
n  Four types of shops
Ø  Written and implemented procedures for
Ø  Covered inspection and documentation
Ø  Enclosed
Ø  Open
Ø  Field

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Coatings Inspection in the Applying Coatings to Slip-

Steel Fabrication Shop Critical Connection Points
n  Coating inspection activities include: n  Specifications for coating of building beams,
Ø  Pre-surface preparation inspection bridges, etc. (load-bearing members) often
require primer at connection points
Ø  Surface preparation inspection
n  Selected primer may be required to be
Ø  Coating application inspection
resistant to slip (slip coefficient)
Ø  Described in Modules 3 & 5
n  Once bolted and torqued, connections
cannot slip (or bolts may shear)
n  Some coatings help resist slip under load

Applying Coatings to Slip- Applying Coatings to Slip-

Critical Connection Points Critical Connection Points
n  Lab Test: n  Application of build
n  Coating (often zinc-rich) must be tested for slip coats and screening
coefficient
n  Specification for Structural Steel Joints using typically prohibited
A325 or A490 Bolts (appendix A) n  Once primed, verify
n  Field Test: connection points
n  Inspector must verify: are protected
Ø  Thickness of coating (masked)
Ø  Amount and type of thinner used (if any)
Ø  Minimum cure time prior to bolting

n  All listed on certification supplied by coating

manufacturer

Thermal Spray Coating

Thermal Spray Coatings
Standards
n  A coating (noun) and an application method (verb) n  SSPC-AWS-NACE Tri-Society Specification
n  Flame Spray
SSPC CS 23.00/AWS C 2.23M/NACE No. 12
n  Electric Arc Spray (most common)
n  Plasma Spray (not common)
n  For Steel and Concrete n  SSPC PCCP QP6 (thermal spray coating
Wire or powder selected
n 
contractor qualification) (shop or field)
n  Melted, atomized and blown to surface
n  Common wire for industrial/marine structures
Ø  Zinc
Ø  Aluminum
Ø  85%/15% Zinc/Aluminum Alloy

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Thermal Spray Coatings Thermal Spray Coatings

n  Typically more labor intensive and costly n  Flexibility (bend tests) and adhesion
than liquid-applied coatings
n  Not a “forgiving” coating testing routinely performed
n  SSPC-SP5 White Metal Blast (marine & n  No wet film thickness measurements
immersion service); minimum 64 µm (2.5
mil) angular surface profile n  No solvent emissions
n  Dust, debris or peened surface profile can n  Dry film thickness measurements as
cause delamination
soon as surface cools
n  Clean, dry compressed air required for
atomization

Thermal Spray Coatings Limitations of Flame Spray

n  Flame spray n  Distance to work surface cannot
Ø  Single wire fed into exceed 100 mm (4 inches)
spray gun
Ø  Acetylene/oxygen
n  Spray pattern relatively small (50 mm,
flame melts wire or 2 inches)
Ø  Compressed air
n  Slow
blows melted metal
onto surface n  Can be useful for rebuilding eroded
metal

Measuring Thickness of
Thermal Spray Coatings
Thermal Spray Coatings
n  Electric arc spray n  Thickness of TSC measured differently
Ø  Two wires fed into spray
gun
than liquid-applied coatings
Ø  Wires are given Ø  Same gages (Type 1, Type 2)
opposing electric Ø  Frequency and number of readings
charges (375-400 amps)
varies from SSPC PA2
Ø  Wires cross, arc, melt
Ø  Compressed air blows Ø  Thickness measurement schedule in
melted metal onto Section 6.2 of tri-society guide (SSPC CS
surface 23.00/AWS C 2.23M/NACE No. 12)

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Measuring Thickness of Measuring Thickness of

Thermal Spray Coatings Thermal Spray Coatings
n  Measurement “Line” for flat surfaces n  Measurement “Spot” for complex
Ø  Minimum 5 gage readings obtained in surfaces
line (2.5 cm or 1 inch intervals) Ø  Minimum 5 gage readings obtained in
Ø  Average of 5 readings is a line spot (area of 10 cm2 or 1.6 in2)
measurement Ø  Average of 5 gage readings is a spot
Ø  Line measurement technique assesses measurement
inherent “peak/valley” of TSC Ø  Spot measurement technique does not
assess inherent “peak/valley” of TSC

Measuring Thickness of Measuring Thickness of

Thermal Spray Coatings Thermal Spray Coatings
n  TSC thickness should be specified as a
range
n  Thickness less than specified: apply
additional TSC
n  Thickness greater than specified: record
thickness and locations; notify owner
n  Thickness > 150% of maximum requires
repair if damaged (ANSI/AWS C2.18)

Inspection of Powder Inspection of Powder

Coatings Coatings
n  Powder coatings: n  Inspection checkpoints:
Ø  Pulverized plastics applied and fused Ø  Powder material storage and condition
with heat or UV light Ø  Shelf life verification
Ø  Thermoplastic and thermosetting Ø  Record of batch no’s.
Ø  Applied by fluidized bed, electrostatic Ø  Surface cleanliness and profile depth
spray, hot flocking and thermal spray Ø  Monitor application of conversion coatings
(if used) prior to powder coating

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Inspection of Powder Inspection of galvanized

Coatings (con’t.) Systems
n  Inspection checkpoints: n  Galvanizing
Ø  Verifycuring procedures (dwell time; n  Applied by:
temperature; substrate type and Ø  Electro-deposition
temperature) if heat is employed Ø  Hot dip (shown)
Ø  Appearance of finish Ø  Tumbling
(fasteners)
Ø  Coating thickness

Ø  Discontinuities (holidays/pinholes)

Ø  Hardness and cure (if required)

The Changing Surface of

Hot-Dip Galvanizing Galvanizing
n  Performed in a shop n  Exposure to atmosphere causes formation
n  Prepared steel dipped in molten zinc bath of zinc oxides (ZnO2)
(454oC/850oF) n  Moisture changes ZnO2 to zinc hydroxide
n  Thickness determined by bath “dwell time” (ZnOH)
n  Thickness measured using nondestructive n  ZnOH reacts with CO2 and changes to zinc
magnetic DFT gage carbonate
n  Deposition Rate: 2.1-2.9 oz./sq. ft. Ø  Tightly bonded to underlying galvanize layer
Ø  89-127 microns (3.5-5.0 mils)

Coating Systems for

Preparing Galvanizing for
Galvanizing (SSPC Guide
Coating
19)
n  Weathered galvanizing: n  Known as “galvanized system”
Ø  Hand or power tool cleaning
Ø  Pressure washing
n  Coating provides primary protection
Ø  Considered “optimum” surface for coating n  Galvanizing provides secondary
n  New galvanizing: protection as primary protection
Ø  Difficult to coat deteriorates
Ø  Requires sweep blasting
Ø  Chemical treatments/conversion coatings n  Liquid coatings provide color for safety
available and/or aesthetics
Ø  Wash primers rarely used today

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Coating Systems for

Inspection of Coating
Galvanizing (SSPC Guide Application to Galvanized Steel
19)
n  Common coating systems: n  Removal of grease/oil (SSPC-SP1)
Ø  Epoxy primer (with polyurethane finish n  Monitoring blast pressure (for sweep
for exterior service) blasting)
Ø  Two-coat waterborne acrylic
n  Verify proper roughening
Ø  Others (consult with coating
n  Mixing, thinning and application of
manufacturer for compatibility and
surface preparation requirements) liquid coatings

Inspection of Coating Inspecting Overcoating

Application to Galvanized Steel Projects
n  Measuring dry film n  Overcoating defined by SSPC TU 3
thickness of
Ø  The
practice of painting over an existing
galvanized systems
Ø  Most gages indicate coating as a means of extending its
combined thickness useful service life
Ø  Measure coating
n  Can be cost-effective when existing
thickness
destructively coatings contain toxic metals
Ø  Fischer Technology
gage displays
individual layers

Inspecting Overcoating Inspecting Overcoating

Projects Projects
n  Risk associated with overcoating: n  Install test patches, when feasible:
Ø  Adhesive/cohesive strength of existing Ø  Age 6 to 12 months
coating is poor
Ø  Examine for defects
Ø  Substrate contains mill scale or extensive
rusting Ø  Test adhesion

Ø  Excessive thickness of the existing system Ø  Installation per SSPC Guide 9 and ASTM

Ø  Amount of repair work required is

D5064
extensive
Ø  Incompatible overcoat

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Inspecting Overcoating Inspecting Overcoating

Projects Projects
n  Maintenance strategy decisions not n  Surface Preparation
typically the inspector’s role Ø  Verify grease/oil removal (per SSPC-SP1)
n  If overcoating is the strategy, special Ø  Verify repair areas prepared per
inspection checkpoints may be invoked specification
n  SSPC-SP2/SP3 (ISO St2/St3)
n  The existing coating becomes part of
n  SSPC-SP11/SP15
the new system n  May invoke abrasive blast cleaning
Ø Potential for over blast damage

Inspecting Overcoating Inspecting Overcoating

Projects Projects
n  Intact coating can be n  Surface Preparation, con’t.
brush blast cleaned
(ISO Sa 1;SP7/NACE 4) Ø  Specification may invoke pressure washing
n  May fracture aged (SSPC-SP WJ/NACE WJ Waterjet Cleaning
coating Standards 1 through 4)
Ø  Special abrasives Ø  Verify removal of dirt, chalking, loose coatings
Ø  Monitor nozzle distance and rust, bird debris
Ø  Lower blast pressures Ø  Surfaces may require agitation during washing
Ø  May require post-blast
adhesion testing Ø  Wash water may require collection and filtration
n  Spot repaired areas Ø  Specification may invoke surface soluble salt
may require feathering extraction and analysis prior to overcoating

Inspecting Overcoating Inspecting Overcoating

Projects Projects
n  Measure existing n  Measuring Wet Film
coating thickness
Ø  Often highly variable
Thickness
Ø  May require mapping Ø  Use notch-type
(time consuming) gage
Options:
Ø  Verify WFT target is
Ø 
–  Measure thickness of
applied coating in calculated properly
repair areas (no
Ø  Measure WFT even
existing coating)
–  Measure thickness if DFT will be
using destructive measured
gages (e.g., Tooke
Gage)

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Inspecting Overcoating Inspecting Overcoating

Projects Projects
n  Measure Dry Film n  Measure Dry Film
Thickness Thickness
Ø  Deduct existing coating Ø  Use Tooke Gage (ASTM
thickness, or D4138)
Ø  Measure where bare Ø  Layers must be different
steel was exposed colors
(repair areas) Ø  Scribe through overcoat
Ø  Verify gage accuracy only
Ø  Measure per SSPC PA2 Ø  Frequency per SSPC PA2
or ASTM D7091 or ASTM D7091
Ø  Document thickness Ø  Document thickness
data data
Ø  Verify repair of cut
areas

Inspecting on Projects
Inspecting Overcoating
Involving Removal of Toxic
Projects Metal Coatings
n  Assess Adhesion n  Older structures may
Ø  Verify similar to test patch contain toxic metal
or acceptability (if no test
patch installed) coatings
Ø  Knife/tape (ASTM D3359) Ø  Lead
Ø  Knife (ASTM D6677) Ø  Hexavalent chromium
Pull-off (ISO 4624, ASTM
Ø  Cadmium
Ø 
D4541 or D7234)
Ø  Verify repair of test areas n  Pose a hazard to
workers, the public
and the environment

Inspecting on Projects
Involving Removal of Toxic Containment & Ventilation
Metal Coatings
n  Containment systems
n  Specifications require control of hazards prevent debris from
contaminating environment
Ø  Installation of containment & ventilation systems (protect public health &
Ø  Worker protection & medical surveillance welfare)
Ø  Environmental monitoring
Ø  Hazardous waste management n  SSPC Guide 6
Ø  Classes of containments
n  Comprehensive training provided in SSPC C3 for various surface
preparation methods
and C5 courses Ø  Class dictated by
specification
n  Contractor responsible for providing trained Guide 6 includes methods
“competent person”
Ø 
to evaluate effectiveness of
containment
n  Inspectors may have responsibility for Ø  Tables appended to
verification of adequate worker, environmental Module 7
protection and proper waste handling

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Containment & Ventilation Containment & Ventilation

Containment & Ventilation Worker Protection

n  If inspector is required to verify proper n  OSHA has comprehensive health standards
containment and ventilation, for lead, hexavalent chromium and cadmium
inspectors should be trained in SSPC n  Potential for worker exposure during surface
C3 or similar course preparation operations
n  OSHA requires implementation of
engineering controls, work practices and
respiratory protection when airborne levels
exceed the Action Level

Worker Protection Worker Protection

Inspector should not
n  OHSAS 18001 n 
enter containment until
Ø  Developed to be compatible with the ISO well-ventilated
Wear respiratory
9001 (Quality) and ISO 14001 n 
protection & protective
(Environmental) management systems clothing
standards, in order to facilitate the n  Never eat, drink or
smoke inside regulated
integration of quality, environmental and area
occupational health and safety n  Use hygiene facilities
management systems by organizations after inspections and
end of shift

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Summary Summary (con’t.)

n  Reviewed special inspection requirements n  Shop Coatings Inspection

for: Ø  Listed
classifications of shops
Ø  Shop painting
Ø  Describedrequirements for application of
Ø  Thermal spray coatings
coatings to slip-critical connections
Ø  Powder coatings

Ø  galvanized coating systems

n  Inspection of Thermal Spray Coatings
Ø  Overcoating projects
Ø  Described application methods
Ø  Projects involving disturbance of coatings
containing toxic metals Ø  Reviewed inspection check points

Summary (con’t.) Summary (con’t.)

n  Inspection of Powder Coatings n  Overcoating Projects
Ø  Described application processes
Ø  Reviewed inspection check points Ø  Described the advantages and risks
associated with overcoating
n  Inspection of galvanized Systems Ø  Described inspection check points
Ø  Described hot-dip galvanizing associated with overcoating projects
Ø  Described procedures used to prepare galvanizing
for coating
Ø  Listed common coating systems used over
galvanizing
Ø  Reviewed inspection check points

Summary (con’t.) Summary (con’t.)

n  Projects involving disturbance of Ø  Describedthe hygiene and personal

coatings containing toxic metals protection rules for inspection personnel
Ø  Described the inspector’s role
Ø  Described the requirements for waste
Ø  Described the purpose of containment
handling
and ventilation systems
Ø  Described methods for verifying
containment effectiveness
Ø  Described methods to verify ventilation
effectiveness

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Module 8: Coating Failures: Consequences and Case Studies

Coating Failures: Consequences

8
and Case Studies

Introduction

Protective coatings are the principal materials used on many industrial

structures for corrosion protection. It should be recognized though that
all protective coatings have a finite service life, and that independent
of how well the coating system was originally applied, coating
breakdown will eventually occur. Oftentimes the service life of a
protective coating system can be extended by performing maintenance
painting once the onset of deterioration takes place, reducing life cycle
costs.

The aspect to consider then should be “time to failure,” not whether

the system will fail. Some coating systems fail long before the
anticipated service life is over. These are known as premature coating
failures. Premature coating failures can be caused by improper surface
preparation or coating application procedures, improper coating
system selection, improper formulation or poor quality raw materials,
or the design of the structure itself. When a premature failure occurs,
an investigation can be undertaken to uncover three important
discoveries:

1. The cause of the premature coating failure,

2. The party was responsible for the failure, and
3. The level of repair required to ensure corrosion protection and
integrity of the facility/structure.

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This module describes the consequences of coating failure, the field

and laboratory investigative processes undertaken to diagnose coating
failures, and explores several case studies, including the cause, the
parties responsible, and repair/replacement options. Most importantly,
the role of the coatings inspector in failure avoidance is described for
each case history described. The participants learning outcome for
this module is to describe how coatings inspection can help prevent
premature coating failure

Consequences of Coating Failures

There are many consequences of coating

failure, not the least of which is the
financial impact on all parties involved.
In many cases, some form of litigation
is involved, which impacts all parties,
independent of fault or the outcome of
the litigation. Some of the more technical
consequences are listed and described
below.

Substrate replacement or repair

When a coating failure goes unnoticed, the substrate may be exposed

to the prevailing environment for extended periods of time, which may
cause the substrate to corrode and result in possible section loss. If
the coating failure goes unnoticed for extended periods of time, the
integrity of the structure may be compromised. The cost to repair the
substrate adds to the cost of the coating failure

Costly rework and downtime

The costs associated with remobilization, surface preparation,

coating application and inspection of the repair or rework can be time
consuming and costly, especially when shop-coated steel has already
been erected in the field, since many shops are not equipped to conduct
field surface preparation and painting, and may be located thousands
of miles from the project site. Determining the extent of the rework
can also be problematic. While a knee-jerk reaction may indicate total
removal, it is possible that the system can undergo spot repair. The
owner must carefully weigh how the extended downtime associated
with total replacement affects operations.

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Aesthetics

The poor appearance of a coating may not reduce the service life, but
may be undesirable from an owner’s perspective. Examples include
runs and sags, orange peeling, blushing, color shift, loss of gloss, etc.
The impact of aesthetics on site personnel (e.g., in a plant) and the
public (a water tank in a neighborhood) must be considered.

The Role of the Coatings Inspector in Failure

Avoidance

How can an inspector prevent coating failures from occurring? The

coatings inspector can play a key role in helping to prevent premature
coating failure. The opportunity for failure is significantly reduced
when a properly trained and equipped coatings inspector verifies that
each step in the surface preparation and coating/lining installation
process meets the requirements of the project specification. The
knowledgeable inspector identifies deficiencies as they occur, then
works with the contractor to bring the deficient areas into conformance
with the specification before additional work progresses. These are
known as hold point inspections. The purpose of hold point inspections
was described in Module 2 of this course. In addition, a knowledgeable
coatings inspector will identify “problem areas” on a structure that are
prone to coating failure despite the efforts put forth by the contractor.
Alternative methods of corrosion protection can then be explored by
the facility owner/specification writer (i.e., caulking of crevices) to
help avoid premature breakdown of the coating.

The Role of the Coatings Inspector in a Failure

Investigation

Despite efforts put forth by all parties on a coatings project (the

owner/specifier, the contractor, the coating material supplier and
the inspector), coating failures occur. A coatings inspector can play
a key role in helping to determine the cause of the failure, as well
as what can be done to prevent the failure from reoccurring. The
coatings inspector will not typically investigate the failure, but
rather cooperate during the investigative process. The importance of
thorough, complete inspection documentation was discussed earlier
in this course. These inspection records will be scrutinized during the
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failure investigative process, and may become a key component to the

litigation process. Conversely, incomplete or inaccurate records can
be a detriment to the investigative process and can reflect poorly on the
coating inspector. For example, if the failure is related to incorrectly
manufactured batches of coating and the inspector’s records do not
indicate batch numbers, or do not reflect what batch was used on
what portion(s) of the structure, the failure investigation may become
increasingly difficult. Or simply recording that ambient conditions
“met” the specification requirements without actually recording the
temperatures, conditions, date and time will be essentially useless in
the failure investigation.

The failure investigator will often interview the coatings inspector

and request copies of inspection records, photographs and other
project documents to aid in the investigative process. The value of
these documents is directly related to their inherent completeness and
accuracy.

A coatings inspector must realize that inspection records, photographs,

and written correspondence with the contractor, owner and material
supplier are all “discoverable” items in the legal process. The
inspector may be required to give a deposition and may need to
testify and be subject to cross-examination in court if a coating failure
is litigated. The quality of the inspection on the project and the
completeness and accuracy of inspection records is a direct reflection
on the credibility of the coatings inspector.

Case Studies of Coating Failure

Each of the following case studies describes a coating failure. The

background information is presented and the cause, responsible party
and repair procedures are described. The role of the inspector in
helping to prevent the failure from occurring is also discussed for each.

Case Study Failure 1

A contract was let to remove and replace the existing lead-based

coating system on a large bridge structure. The specification
required abrasive blast cleaning to achieve a near-white blast (SSPC-
SP10), followed by two coats of a polyamide epoxy and one coat of
polyurethane topcoat. Six months after the contract was completed,

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corrosion was observed as illustrated in

the photograph.

Cause:
Corrosion products remained on
the back side of the rivets that were
not subjected to direct impact by
the abrasive stream during blast
cleaning. The coating was also
applied from one direction, causing
thin areas on the back side of the rivets and the adjacent flat
areas of the steel plate. Inadequate attention was given to the
coating along the edges.

Responsibility:
Painting contractor

Repair:
The repair recommendation included power tool cleaning
of corroded areas and subsequent touch-up. Abrasive blast
cleaning may cause damage to the surrounding coating that
remains in good condition.

Avoidance Through Inspection:

The inspector should have carefully examined the “difficult
access” areas after surface preparation and application of each
coating layer. As a general rule, if the inspector has difficulty
accessing the areas, then the contractor’s personnel likely had
difficulty as well. Proper use of an inspection mirror would
have revealed the missed areas. Stripe coat application in these
areas would likely have helped to protect the edges.

Case Study Failure 2

The project specification required abrasive blast cleaning (to achieve

a near-white blast per SSPC-SP10) and the application of a single coat
of an inorganic zinc primer to piping. Surface preparation and coating
application were performed in the shop. Once the piping was installed
in the field, damaged areas (caused by the installation) were abrasive
blast cleaned and touched-up with an organic (epoxy) zinc-rich primer,
as illustrated by the darker gray patches in the photo. All of the touch-
up areas performed well. Within one year, the piping showed extensive

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pinpoint rusting and rust-through. A closer examination of the pipe

(second photo) shows one of the rusted areas, with the edge of a repair
area also shown (top left). As illustrated, the repair area is performing
well, but the surrounding area is exhibiting rusting.

Cause:
When repairing damaged areas, the laborer failed to start and
stop the flow of abrasive from the blast nozzle when moving
from one damaged area to another. Instead, the blast nozzle
was moved to the next location while the abrasive was still
flowing at maximum pressure, which caused considerable
damage to the coating. This is apparent in the second photo,
where a round patch of coating had been effectively removed
by the abrasive impact, with the surrounding area
nicked by the abrasive. Since the zinc primer is
essentially the same color as the steel, the damage
went unnoticed until the electrolyte (water) contacted
the surface and caused the formation of corrosion.

Responsibility:
Field painting contractor who performed the repairs

Repair:
The repair recommendation included cleaning the pipe by
pressure washing and the rusted areas repaired by hand or
power tool cleaning per SSPC SP2/SP3. Application of a full
overcoat to all piping will help prevent formation of additional
corrosion products.

Avoidance Through Inspection:

The Contractor’s QC inspector should have observed the
abrasive blast cleaning operations, recognized the potential for
over blast damage and discussed the issue with the foreman
prior to the laborer continuing the work.

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Case Study Failure 3

The project specification required

abrasive blast cleaning (to achieve a
near-white blast per SSPC-SP10) and
the application of an inorganic zinc
primer to structural steel I Beams in
the fabrication shop. Application
of the intermediate coat was also
performed in the shop, while the topcoat was scheduled for application
in the field after erection and bolting of the steel. The fabricator’s
quality control specialist kept documentation revealing that they had
conformed to the thickness and recoat times recommended by the
coating manufacturer’s technical representative, who visited the shop
during coating application activities. The steel was loaded onto trucks
and shipped to the site. Spontaneous cracking of the coating along
the fillet weld (where the web and flange are joined) was evident, as
illustrated by the photograph.

The second photo illustrates the spontaneous cracking

and lifting along the fillet, and the poor adhesion
of the coating system on the web. Examination of a
disbonded coating chip revealed the presence of zinc
primer on the back side of the chip and on the steel
surface, indicating that the location of break was
cohesive within the zinc primer.

Cause:
Ethyl silicate type inorganic zinc-rich primers require moisture
to cure. In this case, an insufficient length of time was allowed
before the application of the epoxy midcoat. Once the epoxy
was applied, no more moisture could react with the primer,
since it was effectively sealed off by the epoxy. The zinc
primer remained in a dry, but uncured (and weakened state).
The solvents from the epoxy midcoat penetrated the uncured
primer, and the contractive curing stresses imparted by the
epoxy caused the zinc primer to cohesively split. Since the
web and flange are adjacent to one another, the thickness of
the epoxy was slightly higher along the fillet weld area. The
higher thickness exacerbated the problem and resulted in the
cracking and detachment. When other areas were evaluated, it
became evident that the entire system was at risk for failure.

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Responsibility:
The fabrication shop (for the excessive thickness along
the fillet weld and for recoating too soon) and the coating
manufacturer (for allowing the shop to recoat the zinc primer
too soon). Even though the fabricator had records showing that
they complied with the recoat time, the curing conditions inside
the shop did not match those on the product data sheet. During
periods of low humidity (e.g., winter months), the shop floor
or the primer itself must oftentimes be wetted down with clean
water a few hours after application, in order to increase the
humidity in the shop and hydrolyze the zinc-rich primer. This
recommendation is sometimes listed on the PDS. Note that
this practice only applies to inorganic zinc-rich primers. Other
coatings may be harmed by an increase in humidity levels or
the application of water mist to the coating while in the curing
stages.

Repair:
The repair procedures can take either of two approaches. The
areas exhibiting spontaneous failure can be repaired by hand
or power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP2/SP3) followed by the
application of the epoxy to the repair areas. This assumes
that once the steel is erected and is left undisturbed, additional
detachment will not occur. If this approach was selected,
then maintenance painting work over the following few years
would be necessary. The other approach is to totally remove
and replace the existing coating system. The owner may
exercise this option if he does not want to take a “wait and see”
approach and face monitoring performance and the potential
for maintenance painting work on the structure for several
years to come (based on the rate of failure).

Avoidance Through Inspection:

Inorganic zinc-rich primers dry very quickly, however they
may not cure for hours or even days if the humidity is too
low within the prevailing environment. The key is to verify
the cure, rather than relying on cure time tables provided by
the coating manufacturer, as they cannot address every curing
condition variable on a PDS. Inspection could have included
a curing test specifically designed for the type of coating
described by this case study (ASTM D4752, Measuring MEK
Resistance of Ethyl Silicate (inorganic) Zinc-Rich Primers by

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Solvent Rub). Once a resistance rating of “4 or 5” is achieved

(burnished appearance in the rubbed area or no effect after 50
double rubs), the zinc-rich primer can be considered cured and
ready for recoating. Additionally, measurement of coating
thickness in accordance with SSPC-PA2 may have detected the
excess coating thickness along the fillet weld area.

Case Study Failure 4

The project specification required abrasive blast cleaning to achieve

a Commercial Blast (SSPC-SP6/NACE No. 3) and the application of
a single coat of alkyd primer in the joist
fabrication shop. The joists were shipped
to the project site, where they were stored
outdoors (on the ground) for six months.
Corrosion was visibly evident within six
months.

Cause:
SSPC-SP6/NACE No. 3 requires removal of all mill scale.
The surfaces may have staining from mill scale (provided it
does not exceed 33% of each 9 square inches). In this case,
the “pock marks” in the photo clearly indicate that mill scale
was left on the surface and coated over. The “hollow” areas
represent those locations where the mill scale was removed,
while the surrounding areas contain mill scale. The areas
containing mill scale exhibit corrosion products. In a mild
environment (and with the proper thickness), this system
should have lasted longer than six months. However, the
application of a thin film alkyd primer combined with damp
storage conditions lead to water permeation of the alkyd. The
result was the formation of a corrosion cell at the mill scale/
steel interface. Mill scale is cathodic to steel, which means
that the base steel becomes the anode in the corrosion cell and
begins to deplete, generating the corrosion products.

Responsibility:
The joist fabricator is responsible for the failure, since it did
not comply with the specification to remove the mill scale prior
to primer application. Note however that even if the mill scale
was completely removed, some deterioration may have been
evident due to the storage conditions and length of storage

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prior to installation. This is beyond the responsibility of the

fabricator.

Repair:
The existing alkyd primer and the mill scale must be removed
by abrasive blast cleaning to achieve the specified level of
cleaning (SSPC-SP6/NACE No. 3), and the alkyd primer
reapplied.

Avoidance Through Inspection:

Careful visual inspection of the steel surfaces after surface
preparation (in conjunction with the use of SSPC VIS 1) would
have revealed the presence of mill scale, which is not permitted
by the specified cleanliness standard. Additional surface
preparation prior to application of the primer would have
required additional labor and more abrasive, but could have
been done at a significantly lower cost than the cumulative
costs associated with the failure investigation, transportation
of the joists back to the fabrication shop (and then back to the
project site once the rework is done), the material and labor
costs associated with re-application of the primer, and potential
for liquidated damages due to project schedule delays.

Case Study Failure 5

During the anniversary inspection of the

interior of a water storage tank, an area of
rust was visible evident along one of the
weld seams. The substrate was prepared
to achieve a Near-White blast (SSPC-
SP10/NACE No. 2) and the application
of two coats of an approved polyamide
epoxy system.

Cause:
A poor quality weld that could not be properly coated caused
the rusting in that area. The weld “roll” should have been
removed by grinding, followed by re-welding as necessary
prior to surface preparation and painting. Most thin film
coatings (less than 20 mils) cannot penetrate and seal crevices.

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Responsibility:
The painting contractor should have either ground the area,
or alerted the owner of the condition so it could be prepared
by another party if the responsibility goes beyond the scope
of work bid by the contractor, especially if re-welding was
necessary.

Repair:
The area should be ground and re-welded (if necessary), and
the two-coat system reapplied to the area. Welding will cause
damage to the coating system in the adjacent area, so additional
surface preparation of the adjacent surfaces may also be
required.

Avoidance Through Inspection:

Careful visual inspection may have revealed the weld roll after
surface preparation was complete. Low voltage, wet sponge
holiday testing after application of the coating system (and prior
to placing the tank into service), especially along the weld seams
could have revealed the “holiday” beneath the weld roll.

Case Study Failure 6

Galvanized and coil coated, corrugated white

metal roofing was installed on a new low rise
motel in the southeast. Within a few weeks
of installation, excessive pinpoint rusting was
visible. During the investigation, solvent
was used to clean an area of the coated
surface. Substantial rubbing of the coating
with the solvent revealed a small area of bare
galvanizing beneath the coil coating. The
galvanized layer was in excellent condition,
with no indication of red rusting.

Cause:
This was not a coating failure at all. In fact, the coating itself
was in good condition. The presence of pinpoint rusting was
a surface phenomena caused by the presence of iron filings
that had collected in the “troughs” of the roofing and rusted
when contacted by moisture. The iron filings were generated

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by the cutting and drilling operations during installation of the

roof. The hot metal shavings on the hot metal roof attached
themselves to the coating, so that did not become dislodged by
rain water.

Responsible:
The installation contractor should have employed better
housekeeping to remove the iron filings daily during the roof
installation.

Repair.
Since there is nothing wrong with the surface preparation or the
coating, the roof can be thoroughly scrubbed to remove the rust
staining.

Avoidance Through Inspection:

While an inspector may be present in the coil coating shop
to verify proper electro-galvanizing and application of the
coil coating, it is highly unlikely that inspection would have
been employed during the installation of the corrugated
roofing. Therefore, this “aesthetics” problem would likely
have occurred anyway. However, this case demonstrates
that quality is everyone’s responsibility. Daily visual
inspection and subsequent removal of the iron filings by the
installation contractor would have saved the cost of the failure
investigation and the cleaning procedures that were eventually
employed.

Case Study Failure 7

The project specification for the

interior of a fire water storage tank
required a “White Metal” blast
(SSPC-SP5/NACE No. 1) and the
application of a three-coat vinyl
system. The vinyl coating was
applied during cold weather (35-
40°F), but within the allowable range stated on the PDS. The tank
was placed back into service within 24 hours, in the event that a fire
quenching water was required. The interior of the tank was examined
a few months later and extensive blistering was evident. Blister caps
were removed, revealing properly prepared steel beneath the blisters.

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Cause:
While vinyl coatings can be applied in cooler temperatures,
they require an extended dry time to allow ample time for the
solvents to evaporate from the film. Most vinyl coatings are
formulated with 60% or more solvent. In this case, residual
solvent in the coating film (which was water soluble) pulled
water through the coating film (by osmotic forces) causing a
build-up of water and pressure beneath the coating, resulting in
blistering of the lining.

Responsibility:
The tank owner, who refilled the tank too soon was responsible
for the coating failure.

Repair:
The entire coating system inside the fire water tank had to be
removed by abrasive blast cleaning and replaced. In some
cases, blistered areas can be repaired. However, the blistering
in this tank was too extensive for repair. By putting the tank
back into service too quickly, the tank was actually out of
service much longer due to the failure investigation and the
rework required. Costs also escalated much higher than
budgeted for the project because of the rework.

Avoidance Through Inspection:

Even if inspection was implemented and performed properly,
the coatings inspector may not have had any authority to say
when the tank can be placed back into service. This was the
owner’s decision. Further, since the coating cures by solvent
evaporation, a solvent rub cure test would not have provided
any indication of cure. A dry time test (per ASTM D1640) may
have revealed inadequate drying. Ultimately, the manufacturer
of the coating should have been engaged to prepare a written
statement regarding the length of curing (drying) required
prior to service, based on the site conditions, size of the tank,
ventilation, availability of forced heat, etc. Ventilation of the
tank during the drying process (ambient or force drying) is also
critical when high concentrations of solvent are present in an
enclosed space.

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Case Study Failure 8

The underside of a viaduct containing an aged lead alkyd coating

(first photo) was brush-off abrasive blast cleaned to remove loosely
adhering corrosion and paint (according to SSPC-SP7/NACE No. 4),
followed by the application of an epoxy mastic overcoat. The second
photo illustrates the condition of the coating prior to abrasive blast
cleaning. The third photo illustrates lifting of the old alkyd by the
epoxy mastic overcoat. The number “10” is written on the coating is
in an area where the epoxy mastic was applied directly to the steel,
rather than the aged lead alkyd. Directly beneath that area is an area
where the mastic had lifted the alkyd, and was removed by scraping
during the failure investigation. The area beneath the hand in the same
photo represents epoxy mastic applied over the aged lead alkyd. This
area was not probed during the investigation.

Cause:
The aged lead alkyd coating was in poor condition, as
illustrated by the second photo. While brush-off abrasive blast
cleaning removed the loosely adhering materials, the impact of
the abrasive on the “intact” alkyd weakened (fractured) it, but
did not affect it sufficiently that it would be considered “loose.”
Application of the epoxy mastic imparted curing stresses that
proceeded to weaken the cohesive strength of the aged lead
alkyd, causing it to lift and disbond from the surface.

Responsibility:
The specification is responsible for the failure. Despite all
efforts afforded by the contractor, the existing coating was not
salvageable, and should not have been considered a candidate
for overcoating. Prior to preparing the specification, a coating
condition assessment should have been conducted, which
would have revealed poor adhesion of the aged lead alkyd. The

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specification should have required removal and replacement of

the coating system.

Repair:
The entire coating system (the remaining aged lead alkyd and
the epoxy mastic overcoat) must be removed by abrasive blast
cleaning, followed by the installation of a new coating system.

Avoidance Through Inspection:

Since the inspector does not have the authority to change the
specification, this project was doomed from the minute the
work was awarded. Even though the inspector may have
questioned the specification, it is doubtful that it would have
been altered by the owner unless the fracturing of the aged lead
alkyd was visible, and the inspector informed the owner of the
damaged coating.

Case Study Failure 9

A new steel gusset plate was fabricated

and shipped to the field for installation,
abrasive blast cleaning and coating. The
specification required abrasive blast
cleaning to achieve a near-white blast
(SSPC-SP10), followed by one coat of a
gray epoxy mastic and. Six months after
the contract was completed, corrosion was
observed as illustrated in the photograph. The pattern of the failure is
erratic. At first glance, it appears as if the coating was applied from
one direction. However upon closer examination, this may not be
accurate, since the failure on the side of the nut does not correlate
to the failure on the plate (it is on the opposite side). For example,
the first nut in the second row does not show failure on the left side,
but failure is evident to the right of the nut. In contrast, the third nut
shows failure on the left side of the nut and to the right of the nut.

Cause:
The coating was in fact applied from one direction (left to
right). The nut shadowed the application to the plate, leaving
bare steel on the plate, which was not discovered until the
rusting was evident, since the blast cleaned steel and the

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gray epoxy mastic were similar in color. The erratic failure

pattern was caused by tightening of the nuts after the coating
was applied. Stripe coating of the nuts, bolt ends and areas
between the nuts would have provided additional protection. It
is unknown whether stripe coating was specified, but may be
considered good painting practice for this type of configuration.

Responsibility:
Painting contractor.

Repair:
Since the failure is localized, the repair recommendation
included power tool cleaning of corroded areas and subsequent
touch-up with the epoxy mastic coating. If the failure was
widespread, then abrasive blast cleaning and recoating all
surfaces may be more efficient.

Avoidance Through Inspection:

Careful visual inspection of all surfaces (especially those that
are intricate) by a knowledgeable inspector would likely have
revealed the holidays, which could have been repaired. It is
unlikely that the specification would have invoked holiday
detection for this type of structure, which is why a careful
visual inspection (with the aid of an inspection mirror and
flashlight) is so critical.

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Summary

Coatings can fail for a variety of reasons. When a coating failure

occurs, an investigation is often performed to determine the cause,
determine the party responsible and assess the degree of repair
necessary to ensure the integrity of the substrate. The consequences of
coating failure can include substrate repair or replacement, cost rework
and down time, and aesthetics. Coatings inspection aid in coating
failure avoidance by detecting problems and nonconformities (and
verifying they are corrected) prior to putting the coating or lining into
service. Coatings inspection however cannot aid in failure avoidance
when a coating is improperly formulated or when a faulty specification
is generated and work is completed based on the faulty contract.

The role of the coatings inspector can be critical in a failure

investigation. Well-prepared, thorough records and photographic
documentation can greatly help to narrow the cause of the failure.

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Module 9: Coatings Inspector Safety

Coatings Inspector Safety

9 Introduction

Module 9 presents a range of safety-related information for the

coatings inspector. It covers general safety and health exposures and
controls involved in coatings inspection including falls, respiratory
hazards, visual impairment and noise, toxic metal exposures, chemical
exposures and confined space hazards.

Completion of Module 9 on Inspector Safety will enable the coatings

inspector to:

1. List potential safety hazards associated with coatings inspection

2. Describe the common personal protective equipment used by a
coatings inspector

Additional information on inspector safety and general safety on

painting projects can be found in SSPC Publication 03-14 (The
Inspection of Coatings and Linings) and in SSPC Painting Manual
Volume 1 (Good Painting Practice), Chapter 26.0 - Safety and Health
in the Protective Coatings Industry as well as SSPC Guide 17 “Guide
to Developing a Corporate Safety Program for Industrial Painting and
Coating Contractors.”

There are organizations outside of SSPC: The Society for Protective

Coatings that can provide worker safety information Domestically,

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OSHA provides awareness on occupational safety and health. When

working outside the United States, you can get worker awareness
information from document 18001 by OHSAS.

General Safety Responsibilities of the Coatings

Inspector

Coatings inspectors are frequently classified as “workers” and held

by law to be responsible, as far as is reasonable, for their own safety.
To protect themselves and to help assure safe working conditions, all
inspectors should:

• Participate in construction safety training.

• Become informed about relevant safety and health issues, and
remain current by reading industry publications and journals.
• Obtain copies of safety-related documents referenced by
specifications.
• Discuss safety issues/concerns at the pre-job conference or at
site meetings whenever possible and whenever safety problems
arise. Inspectors should make efforts to clarify their role and
the safety-related duties expected of them before beginning to
work at any location.
• Become familiar with the location of medical facilities,
telephones, hazard warning systems, escape practices, etc., and
obtain any site-specific safety training that is required.
• Recognize the hazards they are exposed to, be conservative and
avoid unnecessary risks.

Inspectors can take these steps to protect themselves, but what

responsibility do they carry to protect the other workers around
them and the general public? The answer is that the inspector and
all other workers share in some level of responsibility for their
collective safety and the safety of the public. They should recognize
the need to be aware of safety hazards, and take reasonable care to
reduce risks wherever possible. Everyone at the jobsite should keep
a look-out for unsafe acts or operations and report them to their
respective supervisors or to the engineer in charge of the project.
Inspectors should obtain specific guidance on their role relative to
safety issues from their employer and/or counsel. Inspectors that
observe an imminent hazard likely to cause death or serious injury to

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another worker should take immediate action to prevent the accident.

Otherwise, unless observation of safety hazards is explicitly within
the inspector’s scope of services (and the inspector is qualified to
perform the task), inspectors should not routinely address matters
involving the safety and health of workers employed by others or the
public. If the inspector recognizes a hazard that might result in serious
injury, it should be brought to the attention of the project supervisor
for resolution and documented in the daily log on a one-time basis.
Beyond this, inspectors should obtain specific guidance on their role
relative to safety issues from their employer and/or counsel.

Inspector Medical Surveillance

An inspector may become exposed to hazardous materials during

the course of inspection activities. Pre- and post-project medical
surveillance (e.g., blood or urine testing, chest x-rays, etc.) can assess
the level of selected toxic materials the body has absorbed during the
project (if any).

Besides medical surveillance for hazardous materials, fitness for duty
and drug/alcohol testing may be required. Some companies require
inspectors to pass regular fitness tests, proving their ability to see
(visual acuity), hear, maintain balance, climb stairs and ladders, and
wear respiratory protection. Most companies now have written drug
policies and may require inspectors to be tested for alcohol and other
substances regularly.

Safety Monitoring

Coatings inspectors are often employed on construction sites where

safety is left under the control of the (Painting) Contractor and/or the
General Contractor (GC). However, in permanent facilities such as
refineries, chemical plants steel fabrication shops or a marine terminal,
there may be a safety officer or safety department responsible for
supplying additional information, support and guidance to workers
about the hazards of the facility’s operations (i.e., the hazards created
by ongoing facility operations as opposed to the hazards of the
construction work). Facility safety officers may also be responsible

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for monitoring the safety of construction work for recognized hazards

and/or to ensure that all workers comply with facility’s safety rules.
Unless covered by the Contractor’s or Facility’s safety program, the
inspector will need to independently monitor the construction site to
identify hazards and ensure adequate controls are in place to minimize
any risk of personal exposure. This may include coordination with
utilities or other agencies.

Risks

The coatings inspector can face general risks, personal risks and legal
risks. None of these risks can be eliminated entirely. The inspector’s
main responsibility is to know what the risks are, and to take
reasonable steps to avoid or to minimize them. In any case, a better
understanding of the risks allows them to be controlled or eliminated.

General Risks

General risks not only affect the inspector, but other workers and
perhaps the general public. General risks include risks like explosion,
particularly from flammable solvents in enclosed space, because of the
potential to impact anyone on or near the job site. Other general risks
include:
• A hazardous atmosphere, through release of solvents or toxic
dust to the environment.
• A dangerous scaffold structure that could collapse, leading
to injury to persons working on the structure as well as those
passing by.
• Inadequate hazard warnings around exclusion zones (i.e., areas
restricted to properly trained and protected workers).

Personal Risks

Personal risks are particular to the individual. The inspector may face
the same personal risks as a worker, including:
• Entering a hazardous environment, such as an inadequately
ventilated enclosed space
• Falling from a height
• Breathing toxic materials, such as dusts or solvent vapors

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Personal risks may at times become compounded. For example,

breathing solvent vapors can cause disorientation, leading to another
problem such as falling, or they may have a slow and cumulative
effect, leading to long term illness. In any event, personal risks, such
as falling objects, inadequate access, or insecure staging are always
a factor, and inspectors should never work where they feel unsafe. If
there are any doubts as to the safety of the work environment, the
only safe action is to avoid the area until the doubt is eliminated,
by whatever means necessary. Usually this involves notifying the
Contractor responsible for control of the work area and requesting that
the hazards of concern be eliminated or controlled.

Legal Risks

Legal risks can be classified as secondary risks, arising from failure

or neglect on the part of an individual or company to provide services
the standard of care customary for the industry. The importance of
legal risks has to be emphasized, since the increasing tendency is
for litigation to arise from any incident which could conceivably
have been avoided. Everyone, even the inspector at the jobsite, is
vulnerable to legal action in the event of an incident. Although this is
not the prime justification for working safely, it can be a significant
factor in the work environment.

Types of Hazards

Coatings inspectors are exposed to the same hazards as painters,

although the magnitude or duration of exposure may be less. In
addition, the coatings inspector often works in or near inherently
hazardous operations, such as oil and gas production or storage, fuel
storage facilities, sewage treatment plants, and enclosed spaces such as
tanks or pipelines. On-the-job hazards for coatings inspectors may be
classified as:

Hazardous Materials
• Cleaning solvents
• Abrasives and dusts
• Toxic metals
• Coating components

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• Thinners
• Chemical strippers
• Acidic and caustic solutions
• Asbestos (e.g., lagging on utility lines)
• Other hazardous materials

Hazardous Environments
• Heights
• Confined spaces
• Electrical hazards
• Energized equipment
• Fire and explosion hazards
• Heat/steam
• Working over water
• Other hazardous environments

Hazardous Activities
• Solvent cleaning
• Abrasive blast cleaning
• High and ultra high-pressure water jetting
• Power tool cleaning
• Airless spraying
• Other site-specific hazardous activities

Hazardous Materials

The World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations (UN)

maintain registers of hazardous chemicals. The effect of hazardous
materials on an inspector’s health depends the level, duration and route
of exposure. For example, the body reacts differently to inhalation
and ingestion (direct entry into the body) of dusts and vapors than it
does to skin contact. The amount of material entering the body and the
timeframe over which the exposure occurs also influences the effect
on the body. An individual’s reaction to various exposures cannot
be accurately predicted. The effect of hazardous materials on an
individual inspector’s health also depends on the individual’s tolerance
level. When exposure exceeds the tolerance level, adverse health
consequences can occur.

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Safety Data Sheets (SDSs)

Safety data sheets (SDSs) provide safety-related information for

materials and their ingredients. SDSs must accompany products
wherever they are stored or used. In addition, when coating materials
are transported by road or rail, in whatever quantity, detailed labeling
is required on each individual container and the shipping container,
providing data that can be used in any emergency situation such as a
spill.

The SDS informs workers about the health hazards of a material’s
components and provides safeguards for handling (e.g., personal
protective equipment required) and proper actions in the event of an
emergency. The revised Hazard Communication Standard requires the
following 16-section chronological format:

Section 1: Identification
Section 2: Hazards Information
Section 3: Composition/Information on Ingredients
Section 4: First-Aid Measures
Section 5: Fire-Fighting Measures
Section 6: Accidental Release Measures
Section 7: Handling and Storage
Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection
Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties
Section 10: Stability and Reactivity
Section 11: Toxicological Information
Section 12: Ecological Information
Section 13: Disposal Considerations
Section 14: Transport Information
Section 15: Regulatory Information
Section 16: Other Information, Including Date of Preparation or Last
Revision

A sample SDS from the OSHA web site is appended to this Module.

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Organic Solvents

Most solvents are toxic to some degree, depending upon the magnitude
and duration of exposure and may burn when exposed to an ignition
source. Solvents may enter or affect the body in three ways. The most
frequent way solvents affect the body is by skin contact. When a
solvent is allowed to contact the skin, even for a short period of time,
it will start to damage the skin by stripping its natural oils, causing
dermatitis (reddening and swelling of the skin). Depending upon the
solvent, it may trigger a response from the immune system (e.g., not
unlike poison ivy) or pass through the skin and be transported by the
blood to damage other areas of the body. A second route of entry of
solvents into the body is by breathing, or inhalation. Once solvents are
inhaled, the vapors can pass from the lungs directly to the blood. The
solvent may irritate the respiratory tract and/or cause adverse health
effects to other body systems such as the central nervous system. The
third route of entry of solvents into the body is by ingestion. Ingestion
of solvents occurs when eating, drinking or consuming tobacco
products with contaminated hands or clothing, and may affect the
gastrointestinal tract as well as other body organs.

Inspectors can refer to SSPC TU 8 “The Use of Isocyanate-Containing

Paints as Industrial Maintenance Coatings” for more information on
hazards associated with isocyanate-containing paints and SSPC TU
6 “Chemical Stripping of Organic Coatings from Steel Surfaces” for
more information on chemical stripping.

Coating Components

Coatings are made from chemical formulations of solid powdered

materials (pigments and fillers) dispersed in a film-forming liquid
vehicle (resin and solvents). Information on toxicity and/or other
hazards is found on Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) and product
data sheets provided by the coating manufacturer. Organic solvents
were discussed earlier in this module.

Pigments and Binders

Most heavy metals are potentially hazardous. This has had an

immediate impact on some of the ingredients used by coating
formulators, particularly corrosion inhibitive pigments such as lead

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and zinc chromate. Other pigments used in coatings may be classified

as suspected toxins, carcinogens and/or environmental pollutants. Even
zinc, a mineral that is needed by the human body to maintain good
health can be toxic in high doses.

The binders used in some coatings are potentially hazardous. For

example, polyurethane coatings are formed by reactions involving
highly reactive isocyanate compounds that are strong irritants and
sensitizers (i.e., cause allergic reactions of the skin and/or respiratory
system). Typical effects include skin reactions, eyes watering,
respiratory difficulties and possibly other long term effects. Great care
must be taken to select the proper respiratory protection when applying
coatings containing isocyanates. Manufacturers specify the type of
personal protective equipment on their MSDS.

Other Hazardous Materials Encountered by

Inspectors

Acids/Caustics

In certain industries, e.g., pulp and paper mills, food and beverage
processing plants, and water and wastewater treatment plants, the
inspector may become exposed to strong acids and/or caustics used
to prepare concrete/steel surfaces for coating. Both acids and caustics
will cause eye damage and burn skin upon contact. Appropriate
personal protective equipment (PPE) including respiratory protection,
gloves, eye protection and skin protection should be used whenever
working with or near acids or caustics. The PPE required can be
determined by consulting the product MSDS.

Dusts

Airborne dust is generated during surface preparation activities and

during blow down of surfaces prior to coating. Blast cleaning abrasives
are generally chosen in part for their surface preparation performance
characteristics. However, recent studies have demonstrated that
certain generic types of abrasives can contain toxic materials that are
released as the particles become fractured upon impact. It is generally
accepted that the smallest particle size that is visible to the unaided
eye is 50 µm. Respirable dust is 10 µm and smaller. As a result, an

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

inspector may be inhaling harmful dust particles without awareness,

since the dust that can make it into the deep regions of the lungs (i.e.,
respirable) is too small to see. Breathing too much of any fine dust,
(independent of its inherent toxicity) can irritate the linings of the
throat and lungs, leading in extreme cases to irreversible long-term
effects. Other chronic lung diseases are also possible. For instance,
use of silica sand as a blast cleaning abrasive is prohibited in many
parts of the world due to the potential of silicosis, a deadly lung
disease. Respirators equipped with High Efficiency Particulate Air
(HEPA) filtration cartridges must be fitted properly and worn to help
avoid dust inhalation.

Toxic Metals

Many aged coatings contain lead, chromium and other

toxic metals. These metals pose no hazard to humans
while they are part of an intact coating system, but become
hazardous when they are “disturbed” during maintenance
painting activities, including surface preparation
operations. Once these metals become fractured and the
dust becomes airborne, they pose an inhalation hazard.
Once in the body, the toxic metals can affect the lungs,
blood forming system, and/or nervous system damage
among other problems. The metals can also enter the body
Hand Wash Station through ingestion if the inspector does not wear gloves, or
does not wash their hands and face before eating, drinking
or using tobacco products. Basic personal hygiene, respiratory
protection and protective clothing can prevent the hazards associated
with these metals from affecting the health of the inspector.

Hazardous Environments

Working at Heights

Falls on construction sites continue to be a leading cause of fatalities

and injuries every year. Inspectors should therefore understand and use
of personal fall protection systems whenever exposed to unprotected
fall hazards. Fall protection can be provided with guardrails, safety
nets, personal fall arrest systems, positioning devices and/or warning

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

line systems. Where work platforms with guardrails are not feasible,
personal fall arrest systems must be used.

A personal fall arrest system frequently consists of a lifeline connected

to secure anchorage points, and a harness worn by the worker
connected to the lifeline by a shock absorbing lanyard using specially
designed clamping devices. The most appropriate harnesses are
fastened across the chest and shoulders and around the legs, and attach
to a lanyard in the upper part of the back.

Safety harnesses should be checked at regular

intervals to ensure that they are not chafed, cut, or
worn. When in use, they should be protected from
chafing or exposure to harmful materials, such as
solvents, and always kept clear of any obstructions
so that they may operate properly in the event of
a fall. A harness must be connected to a properly
designed support system (e.g., lifeline), rather than
to the access structure itself (e.g., scaffolding).

If there are any doubts as to the safety of the access arrangements,

the only safe action is to avoid access until the doubt is eliminated,
by whatever means necessary. A difficult situation may arise when an
inspector has to use staging that painters are using, which the inspector
considers to be unsafe. The safe option is to establish the adequacy of
the fall protection controls before using any doubtful access structure.
It is better to risk some delay of the work than to risk a fall.

Confined Spaces

A coatings inspector may be required to work in confined spaces such

as storage tanks. A confined space is defined as a space that:
• Is large enough and so configured that an employee can bodily
enter and perform assigned work,
• Has limited or restricted means for entry or exit (for example,
tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults, and pits),
and
• Is not designed for continuous occupancy

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Hazardous conditions a coatings inspector may encounter when

working in confined spaces include:
• Flammable gas, vapor, or mist in excess of 10% of its lower
explosive limit (LEL), where the LEL is defined as the lowest
concentration of the vapor in air that might explode if a source
of ignition were presence,
• Airborne combustible dust at a concentration that meets or
exceeds its LEL,
• Atmospheric oxygen concentrations below 19.5% or above
23.5%,
• Atmospheric concentrations of substances in excess of the
permissible exposure limits (PEL), where PEL is a legally
enforceable airborne concentration to which workers may be
exposed which may be based upon an 8 hour time weighted
average exposure, a 15 minute short-term exposure limit, and/
or an instantaneous maximum ceiling limit, dependant upon the
chemical,
• Mechanical or electrical hazards from equipment connected
to or inside of the confined space (e.g., blades inside a large
mixing tank).

Confined spaces can be classified as non-permit or permit required.

Permit-required confined spaces are those that:
• Contain or have the potential to contain a hazardous
atmosphere,
• Contain a material that has the potential to engulf an entrant,
• Has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be
trapped or asphyxiated, or
• Contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard.

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Prior to entering a confined space, the inspector should verify that

it has been tested and cleared for entry, and that proper personal
protective equipment is employed, including in some cases supplied-
air respirators. Detailed confined space entry training is always
required before entering any confined space.

Electrical Shock

In facilities such as electrical generating stations and on ordinary

construction sites, the inspector may be exposed to the risk of
electrical shock. In such cases, appropriate lockout/tagout procedures
must be observed. Lockout involves blocking the flow of energy
from the power source to the equipment with a padlock or chain, or
by removing a component such as a fuse or circuit breaker. Items
typically locked out include electrical connections, steam lines, valves,
and moving parts such as agitators, gears and pistons, high-voltage
motors, breaker cabinets, transformers, overhead cranes, transmission
structures, etc. Tags are placed on each locking device to identify
the party(s) locking out the power source. Some electrical hazards
cannot be easily locked or tagged. Energized third rails on a train
or subway line and overhead electrical transmission wires may be
encountered near the work area. In such instances, the inspector must
take particular caution to avoid contact with live electrical loads while
accessing a structure or the work area. High-voltage holiday detectors
may pose an additional hazard to inspectors, particularly if they are
working at a height when any surprise may cause a fall to occur.

Other Hazardous Environments

Some of the other hazardous environments that the coatings inspector

may encounter are:
• Slippery or obstructed walkways (causing falls)
• Excessive heat (causing heat stress/exhaustion) or cold
(causing hypothermia)
• Inadequate lighting (causing trips and falls)*
• Noise (causing long term hearing loss)
• Vehicular (struck-by hazard)
• Drowning (when working near water)
• Animal borne risks (e.g., insect or snake bites, bird droppings,
etc.)
* Refer to SSPC Guide 12 “Guide for Illumination of Industrial Painting Projects”
for further information on lighting.
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Hazardous Activities

At times, the inspector may work in the vicinity of hazardous

activities. For example:

• Abrasive blast cleaning is a dangerous operation. The high-

pressure compressed air through the system and the air-
propelled abrasive from the nozzle can cause serious injury.
Abrasive blast cleaning presents additional hazards when
nuisance dusts and/or toxic dusts (from toxic coatings and/
or the abrasive) are released into the atmosphere. Loud
noise from blast nozzles and compressors may also impede
communication and cause hearing loss over time.

• High- and ultra-high pressure water jetting may use pressures

as high as 345 MPa (50,000 psi) and water volumes as low as
8 to 56 liters (2 to 15 gallons) per minute. Since high-pressure
water can cut through concrete or even steel, the hazard to
inspectors in the vicinity of the work cannot be over-stressed.
• Airless spray uses high pressure (e.g., 3000-6000 psi or higher)
to atomize a coating. Placing hands or fingers in front of the
spray tip can cut the skin and inject paint beneath the skin and
into the blood stream. An inspector should never be near an
applicator during airless spray application unless the applicator
is notified in advance of his presence. Similarly, it is also a
hazard to check spray guns and tips while the system is under
pressure.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protection is a must for safety. The coatings inspector should

wear suitable safety equipment and clothing. Generally, the inspector
is exposed to a lower level of hazards than workers, since the inspector
is seldom in the work area continuously. Nevertheless, the hazards are
similar, and a wise inspector adopts at least the same level of personal
protection as necessary for the other workers.

Material safety data sheets (MSDSs) are the primary means for
determining the type and level of personal protective equipment
required. The MSDS should always be consulted when chemical
products are used. The MSDS will list the component ingredients of
the product, and will also indicate the personal protective equipment
recommended to safely work with or around the product.

Respiratory Protection

It is likely that inspectors will be required to wear some type

of respiratory protection during the inspection of surface
preparation and coating operations, particularly when the
contractor is removing paint containing toxic metals (e.g.,
lead) or applying coatings containing toxic materials. While
a containment on a structure protects the environment, high
concentrations of solvent vapors, organic vapors or toxic
metal dusts can occur inside the contained area, even when
the ventilation system is operational. An inspector should not
enter a containment that is not properly ventilated. Even when
Half-face Respirator respiratory protection is worn, the ventilation system should be
allowed to clear the area for several minutes before an inspector
enters to perform an inspection in order to reduce the airborne
concentration of contaminants to within the protection factor of the
respirator.

In general there are two basic types of respirators. Air purifying

respirators remove particulates from the air in the breathing zone by
filtering it prior to inhalation. Supplied air respirators supply breathing
air from outside the work environment. The proper respirator must be
selected based upon the hazards of the specific chemicals involved, the
likely level of exposure and other factors.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

In a hazardous environment, particularly in an

enclosed space such as a tank or vessel, respiratory
protection is required in the form of air-purifying
(filtering face masks) or air-supplied respirators.
Inspectors wearing tight-fitting face pieces must
not have any facial hair that interferes with the
face-to-mask seal. Fit testing is necessary for all
tight-fitting respirators and must be repeated at
least annually to ensure that the face mask fits.
Training on respirator use must also occur at least
Powered Air Purifying Respirator (PAPR)
annually.

If air purifying respirators are used, a cartridge change schedule must

in place to ensure that the cartridges are changed before they become
saturated, resulting in the atmospheric contaminants passing through
the filter to the inspector. Air-supplied respirators should be fed with
fresh air, preferably from a remote area, upwind of the job site, so that
there is no possibility of the site contaminants (solvents, diesel fumes,
etc.) entering the inlet. In addition, air lines should pass through
charcoal filters to clean any contaminants that may be incorporated
in the air supply, and the supply should be monitored for carbon
monoxide.

Sight Protection

Wrap-around or goggle safety glasses should be worn

whenever there is a risk of eye injury. Separate side
protection pieces can be used by those who normally
wear prescription safety eyeglasses.

Hearing Protection

Protective equipment against noise

exposure may take the form of muffs,
ear plugs, and canal caps. Inspectors
will typically wear ear plugs for
hearing conservation.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Protective Clothing and Equipment

Inspectors should be protected from hazards with appropriate

protective clothing. This may include a long-sleeve coverall, gloves,
work boots and a hard hat. Other safety devices include life vests when
working over water and traffic vests when working on bridge and
highway structures where a vehicular hazard is present, or steel toed
shoes when crushing hazards exist (e.g., in a fabrication shop).

Potential Hazards Regarding Inspection Equipment

Any electrically operated inspection equipment used in hazardous

environments (i.e., greater than 10% of the Lower Explosive Limit)
must be “intrinsically safe.” Most battery-operated inspection
equipment is not, and should not be used in a hazardous environment
without an appropriate permit. This rule applies to all equipment with
batteries and a switch, including flashlights, cameras and cellular
telephones, holiday detectors, electronic psychrometers and surface
temperature thermometers, electronic surface profile gages, electronic
dry film thickness gages, destructive dry film thickness gages, etc.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Summary

Coatings inspectors are frequently classified as “workers” and held

by law to be responsible, as far as is reasonable, for their own safety.
Everyone at the jobsite should keep a look-out for unsafe acts or
operations. An inspector who is aware of a serious safety violation but
fails to report it to the effected workers’ supervisor may put themselves
at risk of legal action if an accident occurs. The coatings inspector
can face general risks, personal risks, and legal risks. The inspector is
responsible to know what the risks are, and to take reasonable steps to
avoid them.

The coatings inspector can encounter hazardous materials, hazardous

environments and hazardous activities on a project. Hazardous
materials include cleaning solvents, abrasives and dusts, toxic metals,
coating components, thinners, chemical strippers and acidic and
caustic solutions. Hazardous environments include heights, confined
spaces, electrical, fire and explosion hazards, slippery or obstructed
walkways, excessive heat, inadequate lighting, noise, vehicles and
moving heavy parts on cranes, etc. Hazardous activities include
solvent cleaning, abrasive blast cleaning, high pressure water jetting,
power tool cleaning and airless spraying.

Safety Data Sheets (SDS) are the primary document that describes
the hazards associated with the chemicals used on a project and the
personal protective equipment required to safely handle the product.

While the inspector receives a shorter duration of exposure to hazards

than workers, the hazards themselves are similar and coatings
inspector should wear similar, suitable safety equipment and clothing.
Personal protective equipment for an inspector typically includes
a hard hat and safety glasses, ear plugs in a noisy environment,
respiratory protection, a fall harness and shock absorbing lanyard (if
working from heights), work boots and long sleeved coveralls.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Most battery-operated inspection equipment is not “intrinsically safe”

and should not be used in a hazardous environment (greater than 10%
of the LEL) without the appropriate permit.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Chemical Stuff
(GHS MSDS Example)

GHS SAFETY DATA SHEET

1. Identification

Product Name: Chemical Stuff

Synonyms: Methyltoxy Solution
CAS Number: 000-00-0
Product Use: Organic Synthesis
Manufacturer/Supplier: My Company
Address: My Street, Mytown, TX 00000

General Information: 713-000-0000

Transportation Emergency Number: CHEMTREC: 800-424-9300

2. Hazards Identification

GHS Classification:
Health Environmental Physical
Acute Toxicity - Category 2 (inhalation), Aquatic Toxicity - Flammable Liquid -
Category 3 (oral/dermal) Acute 2 Category 2
Eye Corrosion - Category 1
Skin Corrosion - Category 1
Skin Sensitization - Category 1
Mutagenicity - Category 2
Carcinogenicity - Category 1B
Reproductive/Developmental - Category 2
Target Organ Toxicity (Repeated) - Category
2

GHS Label:
Symbols: flame, skull and crossbones, corrosion, health hazard
Hazard Statements Precautionary Statements
DANGER! Do not eat, drink or use tobacco when using this product.
Highly Flammable Liquid and Vapor. Do not breathe mist/vapors.
Fatal if inhaled. Keep container tightly closed.
Causes severe skin burns and eye damage. Keep away from heat/sparks/open flame. - No smoking.
May cause allergic skin reaction. Wear respiratory protection, protective gloves and eye/face protection.
Toxic if swallowed and in contact with skin Use only in a well-ventilated area.
May cause cancer. Take precautionary measures against static discharge.
Suspected of damaging the unborn child. Use only non-sparking tools.
Suspected of causing genetic defects. Store container tightly closed in cool/well-ventilated place.
May cause damage to cardiovascular, Wash thoroughly after handling.
respiratory, nervous, and gastrointestinal
systems and liver and blood through prolonged
or repeated exposure.
Toxic to aquatic life.

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3. Composition / Information on Ingredients

Component CAS Number Weight %

Methyltoxy 000-00-0 80
(See Section 8 for Exposure Limits)

4. First Aid Measures

Eye: Eye irritation. Flush immediately with large amounts of water for at least 15 minutes. Eyelids should
be held away from the eyeball to ensure thorough rinsing. Get immediate medical attention.

Skin: Itching or burning of the skin. Immediately flush the skin with plenty of water while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes. Get immediate medical attention. Wash contaminated clothing before
reuse.

Inhalation: Nasal irritation, headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, heart palpitations, breathing difficulty,
cyanosis, tremors, weakness, red flushing of face, irritability. Remove exposed person from source of
exposure to fresh air. If not breathing, clear airway and start cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Avoid
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

Ingestion: Get immediate medical attention. Do not induce vomiting unless directed by medical personnel.

5. Fire Fighting Measures

Suitable Extinguishing Media: Use dry chemical, foam, or carbon dioxide to extinguish fire. Water may be
ineffective but should be used to cool fire-exposed containers, structures and to protect personnel. Use
water to dilute spills and to flush them away from sources of ignition.

Fire Fighting Procedures: Do not flush down sewers or other drainage systems. Exposed firefighters must
wear NIOSH-approved positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus with full-face mask and full
protective clothing.

Unusual Fire and Explosion Hazards: Dangerous when exposed to heat or flame. Will form flammable or
explosive mixtures with air at room temperature. Vapor or gas may spread to distant ignition sources and
flash back. Vapors or gas may accumulate in low areas. Runoff to sewer may cause fire or explosion
hazard. Containers may explode in heat of fire. Vapors may concentrate in confined areas. Liquid will float
and may reignite on the surface of water.

Combustion Products: Irritating or toxic substances may be emitted upon thermal decomposition. Thermal
decomposition products may include oxides of carbon and nitrogen.

6: Accidental Release Measures

Keep unnecessary people away; isolate hazard area and deny entry. Stay upwind; keep out of low areas.
(Also see Section 8).

Vapor protective clothing should be worn for spills and leaks. Shut off ignition sources; no flares, smoking
or flames in hazard area. Small spills: Take up with sand or other noncombustible absorbent material and
place into containers for later disposal. Large spills: Dike far ahead of liquid spill for later disposal.

Do not flush to sewer or waterways. Prevent release to the environment if possible. Refer to Section 15 for
spill/release reporting information.

7. Handling and Storage

Handling

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Do not get in eyes, on skin or on clothing. Do not breathe vapors or mists. Keep container closed. Use only
with adequate ventilation. Use good personal hygiene practices. Wash hands before eating, drinking,
smoking. Remove contaminated clothing and clean before re-use. Destroy contaminated belts and shoes
and other items that cannot be decontaminated.

Keep away from heat and flame. Keep operating temperatures below ignition temperatures at all times. Use
non-sparking tools.

Storage
Store in tightly closed containers in cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from heat, sources of ignition and
incompatibles. Ground lines and equipment used during transfer to reduce the possibility of static spark-
initiated fire or explosion. Store at ambient or lower temperature. Store out of direct sunlight. Keep
containers tightly closed and upright when not in use. Protect against physical damage.

Empty containers may contain toxic, flammable and explosive residue or vapors. Do not cut, grind, drill, or
weld on or near containers unless precautions are taken against these hazards.

8. Exposure Controls / Personal Protection

Exposure Limits

Component, Methyltoxy - TWA: 3 ppm (skin) - STEL: C 15 ppm (15 min.)

Engineering Controls: Local exhaust ventilation may be necessary to control air contaminants to their
exposure limits. The use of local ventilation is recommended to control emissions near the source. Provide
mechanical ventilation for confined spaces. Use explosion-proof ventilation equipment.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Eye Protection: Wear chemical safety goggles and face shield. Have eye-wash stations available where eye
contact can occur.

Skin Protection: Avoid skin contact. Wear gloves impervious to conditions of use. Additional protection
may be necessary to prevent skin contact including use of apron, face shield, boots or full body protection.
A safety shower should be located in the work area. Recommended protective materials include:Butyl
rubber and for limited contact Teflon.

Respiratory Protection: If exposure limits are exceeded, NIOSH approved respiratory protection should be
worn. A NIOSH approved respirator for organic vapors is generally acceptable for concentrations up to 10
times the PEL. For higher concentrations, unknown concentrations and for oxygen deficient atmospheres,
use a NIOSH approved air-supplied respirator. Engineering controls are the preferred means for controlling
chemical exposures. Respiratory protection may be needed for non-routine or emergency situations.
Respiratory protection must be provided in accordance with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.134.

9. Physical and Chemical Properties

Flashpoint: 2oC (35oF)

Autoignition Temperature: 480oC (896oF)
Boiling Point: 77oC (170.6oF) @ 760 mm Hg
Melting Point: -82oC
Vapor Pressure: 100.0 mm Hg @ 23oC

Vapor Density(Air=1): 1.7; air = 1

% Solubility in Water: 10 @ 20ºC

Pour Point: NA

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Molecular Formula: Mixture

Odor/Appearance: Clear, colorless liquid with mild, pungent odor.

Lower Flammability Limit: >3.00%

Upper Flammability Limit: <15.00%
Specific Gravity: 0.82g/ml @ 20oC
% Volatile: 100
Evaporation Rate (Water=1): 5(Butyl Acetate =1)
Viscosity: 0.3 cP @ 25oC
Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient: log Kow: 0.5
pH: 7, 8% aqueous solution
Molecular Weight: Mixture

10. Stability and Reactivity

Stability/Incompatibility: Incompatible with ammonia, amines, bromine, strong bases and strong acids.

Hazardous Reactions/Decomposition Products: Thermal decomposition products may include oxides of

carbon and nitrogen.

11. Toxicological Information

Signs and Symptoms of Overexposure: Eye and nasal irritation, headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting,
heart palpitations, difficulty breathing, cyanosis, tremors, weakness, itching or burning of the skin.

Acute Effects:

Eye Contact: may cause severe conjunctival irritation and corneal damage.

Skin Contact: may cause reddening, blistering or burns with permanent damage. Harmful if absorbed
through the skin. May cause allergic skin reaction.

Inhalation: may cause severe irritation with possible lung damage (pulmonary edema).

Ingestion: may cause severe gastrointestinal burns.

Target Organ Effects: May cause gastrointestinal (oral), respiratory tract, nervous system and blood effects
based on experimental animal data. May cause cardiovascular system and liver effects.

Chronic Effects: based on experimental animal data, may cause changes to genetic material; adverse effects
on the developing fetus or on reproduction at doses that were toxic to the mother. Methyltoxy is classified
by IARC as group 2B and by NTP as reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen. OSHA regulates
Methyltoxy as a potential carcinogen.

Medical Conditions Aggravated by Exposure: preexisting diseases of the respiratory tract, nervous system,
cardiovascular system, liver or gastrointestinal tract.

Acute Toxicity Values

Oral LD50 (Rat) = 100 mg/kg
Dermal LD50 (Rabbit) = 225-300 mg/kg
Inhalation LC50 (Rat) = 200 ppm/4 hr., 1100 ppm vapor/1 hr

12. Ecological Information

LC50 (Fathead Minnows) = 9 mg/L/96 hr.

EC50 (Daphnia) = 8.6 mg/L/48 hr.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Bioaccumulation is not expected to be significant. This product is readily biodegradable.

13. Disposal Considerations

As sold, this product, when discarded or disposed of, is a hazardous waste according to Federal regulations
(40 CFR 261). It is listed as Hazardous Waste Number Z000, listed due to its toxicity. The transportation,
storage, treatment and disposal of this waste material must be conducted in compliance with 40 CFR 262,
263, 264, 268 and 270. Disposal can occur only in properly permitted facilities. Refer to state and local
requirements for any additional requirements, as these may be different from Federal laws and regulations.
Chemical additions, processing or otherwise altering this material may make waste management
information presented in the MSDS incomplete, inaccurate or otherwise inappropriate.

14. Transport Information

U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT)

Proper Shipping Name: Methyltoxy
Hazard Class: 3, 6.1
UN/NA Number: UN0000
Packing Group: PG 2
Labels Required: Flammable Liquid and Toxic

International Maritime Organization (IMDG)

Proper Shipping Name: Methyltoxy
Hazard Class: 3 Subsidiary 6.1
UN/NA Number: UN0000
Packing Group: PG 2
Labels Required: Flammable Liquid and Toxic

15. Regulatory Information

U.S. Federal Regulations

Comprehensive Environmental Response and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA):
The reportable quantity (RQ) for this material is 1000 pounds. If appropriate, immediately report to the
National Response Center (800/424-8802) as required by U.S. Federal Law. Also contact appropriate state
and local regulatory agencies.

Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA): All components of this product are included on the TSCA
inventory.

Clean Water Act (CWA): Methyltoxy is a hazardous substance under the Clean Water Act. Consult
Federal, State and local regulations for specific requirements.

Clean Air Act (CAA): Methyltoxy is a hazardous substance under the Clean Air Act. Consult Federal, State
and local regulations for specific requirements.

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) Title III Information:

SARA Section 311/312 (40 CFR 370) Hazard Categories:

Immediate Hazard: X
Delayed Hazard: X
Fire Hazard: X
Pressure Hazard:
Reactivity Hazard:

This product contains the following toxic chemical(s) subject to reporting requirements of SARA Section

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

313 (40 CFR 372)

Component CAS Number Maximum %

Methyltoxy 000-00-0 80

State Regulations

California: This product contains the following chemicals(s) known to the State of California to cause
cancer, birth defects or reproductive harm:

Component CAS Number Maximum %

Methyltoxy 000-00-0 80

International Regulations

Canadian Environmental Protection Act: All of the components of this product are included on the
Canadian Domestic Substances list (DSL).

Canadian Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS):

Class B-2 Flammable Liquid
Class D-1-B Toxic
Class D-2-A Carcinogen
Class D-2-B Chronic Toxin
Class E Corrosive

This product has been classified in accordance with the hazard criteria of the Controlled Products
Regulations and the MSDS contains all the information required by the Controlled Products Regulations.

European Inventory of Existing Chemicals (EINECS): All of the components of this product are included
on EINECS.

EU Classification: F Highly Flammable; T Toxic; N Dangerous to the Environment

EU Risk (R) and Safety (S) Phrases:
R11: Highly flammable.
R23/24/25: Toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.
R37/38: Irritating to respiratory system and skin.
R41: Risk of serious damage to eyes.
R43: May cause sensitization by skin contact.
R45: May cause cancer.
R51/53: Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.
S53: Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions before use.
S16: Keep away from sources of ignition - No Smoking.
S45: In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek medical advice immediately (show the label where
possible).
S9: Keep container in a well-ventilated place.
S36/37: Wear suitable protective clothing and gloves.
S57: Use appropriate container to avoid environmental contamination.

16. Other Information

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Ratings: This information is intended solely for the use of
individuals trained in the NFPA system.

Health: 3
Flammability: 3
Reactivity: 0

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Revision Indicator: New MSDS

Disclaimer: The information contained herein is accurate to the best of our knowledge. My Company
makes no warranty of any kind, express or implied, concerning the safe use of this material in your process
or in combination with other substances.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Module Nine Learning

Module Nine Outcomes
n  Comprehension of Module Nine will enable
the participant to:
Ø  List potential safety hazards associated with
Coatings Inspector Safety coatings inspection
Ø  Describe the common personal protective
equipment used by a coatings inspector

General Safety
Safety References
Responsibilities
n  SSPC Guide 17 n  Participate in construction safety training
n  OSHA n  Become informed/remain current about relevant
safety and health issues
(US worker safety)
n  Obtain copies of safety-related documents
n  OHSAS 18001
n  Discuss safety issues at the pre-job conference or
(International worker safety) at site meetings
n  Make efforts to clarify inspector position and safety-
related duties; obtain site-specific training
n  Become familiar with the location of medical
facilities, telephones, hazard warning systems,
escape practices, etc.
n  Be conservative and avoid unnecessary risks

Inspector Responsibility Inspector Responsibility

for Safety for Safety (con’t.)
n  Inspectors share in safety of others n  Obtain guidance on role regarding
n  Everyone on site should watch for safety safety from employer/counsel prior to
violations and report them project start-up
n  Obtain specific guidance on safety role
n  Should not routinely address safety &
n  Take immediate action if safety violation can
health issues unless:
cause death/serious injury
Ø  Part of scope of services
n  Report to project supervisor & document
Ø  Qualified

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Pre-project Inspector Inspector Medical

Safety “Inventory” Surveillance
n  Is required safety training current n  Pre- and post-project medical
n  Is lead training required/current surveillance to assess net affect of
n  Availability of site decontamination facilities jobsite hazards
n  Specific PPE Ø  Blood, urine, chest x-ray, etc.
n  Fall protection equipment and compatibility
with site conditions n  Fitness for duty
n  Is confined space training required/current n  Drug/alcohol screening/testing
n  Hand wipes, eye wash, first aid kit, bags for
contaminated clothing

Safety Monitoring Safety Risks

n  Construction sites n  General Risks (affect inspectors,

Ø  Safety monitoring/control is the responsibility of workers, public)
controlling contractor
Ø  Hazardous environment (explosion,
Ø  May require coordination with utilities/other
agencies solvent release, dust/toxic metals)
Ø  Improper erection of access structure
n  Permanent facilities
(collapsing scaffolding)
Ø  Safety department/safety officer
Ø  Often provide safety training/written rules
Ø  Lack of hazard warnings and/or barriers
regarding safety policies

Safety Risks (con’t.) Safety Risks (con’t.)

n  Personal Risks (affect individual n  Legal Risks

inspectors, workers) Ø  Failure or neglect from individual who
Ø  Entering a hazardous environment should know the rules
Ø  Falling Ø  Can result in litigation when an accident

Ø  Breathing toxic materials (solvent occurs (and could have been avoided)
vapors, dusts, etc.) Ø  Everyone at the jobsite is vulnerable to
legal action

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Types of Hazards Types of Hazards

n  Inspectors subjected to same hazards n  Hazardous Materials

Cleaning solvents
as painting contractor (lesser duration) Ø 
Ø  Abrasives and dusts
n  Inspectors work in same “inherently Ø  Toxic metals

dangerous” environments Ø  Coating components

Ø  Thinners
Ø  Refineries, sewage treatment, tanks, etc.
Ø  Chemical strippers
Ø  Acidic and caustic solutions
Ø  Asbestos (lagging on utility lines)
Ø  Others

Types of Hazards Types of Hazards

n  Hazardous Environments n  Hazardous Activities

Ø  Heights Ø  Solvent cleaning
Ø  Confined spaces
Ø  Abrasive blast cleaning
Ø  Electrical
Ø  High & ultra-high pressure water jetting
Ø  Energized equipment

Ø  Fire and explosion Ø  Power tool cleaning

Ø  Heat/steam Ø  Airless paint spraying

Ø  Working over water Ø  Other site-specific hazards
Ø  Others

Hazardous Materials Hazard Communication

n  WHO and UN maintain registers n  Container labeling

n  Effect of hazard on inspector based on: n  Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
Ø  Level of exposure
Ø  Formerly MSDS; revised according to Hazard
Ø  Duration of exposure
Communication Standard
Ø  Route of exposure (e.g., inhalation vs. skin
exposure) Ø  Must accompany shipment

Ø  Tolerance level Ø  Inform workers of health hazards

Ø  Provides safeguards for handling (PPE)

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Content of SDS: 16
Section Format Content of SDS (con’t.)

n  Section 1: Identification n  Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

n  Section 2: Hazards Identification n  Section 7: Handling and Storage
n  Section 3: Composition/Information on n  Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal
Ingredients Protection
n  Section 4: First-Aid Measures n  Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties
n  Section 5: Fire-Fighting Measures n  Section 10: Stability and Reactivity
n  Section 11: Toxicological Information

Content of SDS (con’t.) Organic Solvents

n  Section 12: Ecological Information n  Toxic to humans

n  Section 13: Disposal Considerations n  Burn when ignited
n  Section 14: Transport Information n  Respirators equipped
n  Section 15: Regulatory Information with organic vapor
n  Section 16: Other Information, Including Date cartridges
of Preparation or Last Revision

Organic Solvents Coating Components

Toxicity based on exposure
n 
magnitude and duration n  Pigments
n  Routes of entry: Ø  Most heavy metals are toxic
Ø  Skin contact
Ø  Inhalation Ø  Some metals are carcinogenic
Ingestion
Ø  Even zinc can be toxic in high doses
Ø 
n  Health effects:
Ø 
Ø 
Dermatitis
Respiratory tract irritation
n  Binders (resins)
Ø  Organ damage Ø  e.g.,
isocyanate in polyurethane coatings
Ø  Central nervous system damage
Ø  Gastrointestinal tract damage Ø  Skinand respiratory tract irritants
SSPC TU 8 & TU 6 describe hazards
Ø  Wear proper PPE (based on MSDS)
n 
for isocyanates & chemical strippers

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Other Hazardous Materials Other Hazardous Materials

Encountered by Inspectors Encountered by Inspectors
n  Acids/Caustics n  Dusts
Ø  Surface preparation and blow down
Ø  Cause eye damage and skin burns
Ø  Abrasives can contain toxic materials
Ø  PPE includes: Ø  Respirable dust is 10 μm and smaller
–  Respiratory protection n  Health effects
–  Gloves Ø  Lung & throat irritation
–  Eye protection Ø  Chronic lung disease (e.g., silicosis)
–  Skin protection n  Respiratory protection
–  Reference MSDS Ø  HEPA filtration cartridges

Other Hazardous Materials

Hazardous Environments
Encountered by Inspectors
Toxic Metals
n 
Ø  Aged coatings contain
n  Working at Heights
lead, chromium, etc. Ø  Falls leading cause of fatalities/injuries
Ø  Become airborne once
fractured Ø  Fall protection includes:
Ø  Routes of Entry
–  Inhalation –  Guardrails
Ingestion
– 
–  Safety nets
Ø  Prevention
–  Basic hygiene –  Personal fall arrest systems
PPE
–  Positioning devices
– 
•  Respiratory protection
(HEPA)
•  Protective clothing
Portable hand wash station –  Warning line systems

Working at Heights Confined Spaces

n  Personal fall arrest system n  Inspector may need to access tanks
Ø  Lifeline connected to
anchorage points and other confined spaces
Ø  Harness
Ø  Shock absorbing lanyard n  Confined space is defined as:
connected to independent
lifeline Ø  Large enough to enter & perform work
Ø  Check regularly for wear, cuts, Ø  Limited means of ingress and egress
etc.
Ø  Protect from solvents Ø  Not designed for continuous occupancy
n  Never access a structure on
unsafe equipment

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Confined Space Entry for the

Confined Spaces
Coatings Inspector
n  Hazardous conditions: n  Verify space has been tested and
Ø  Flammable gas, vapor, mist cleared for safe entry
Ø  Airborne combustible dusts
Ø  Oxygen depleted (<19.5%) n  Employ proper PPE (may include
Ø  Oxygen enriched (>23.5%) supplied air respirator)
Atmospheric substances in
n  Participate in confined space entry
Ø 
excess of PEL
Ø  Mechanical/electrical training

Other Hazardous
Electrical Shock
Environments
n  Risk in power generating stations and n  Slippery/obstructed walkways (falls)
construction sites n  Excessive heat (heat stress/exhaustion)
Ø  Observe lockout/tagout procedures n  Excessive cold (hypothermia)
n  Risk of contacting live electrical transmission n  Inadequate lighting (trips/falls)
wires or energized third rails during access n  Noise (long term hearing loss)
to structure
n  Vehicular (struck-by hazard)
Ø  Contacting Miss Utility
n  Drowning (working near water)
n  Risk of shock from high voltage holiday n  Animal borne (insect/snake bites, bird debris)
detector (may cause fall)

Hazardous Activities Hazardous Activities

n  Abrasive blast cleaning n  High & ultra-high
Ø  High pressure air pressure water jetting
propelling abrasive
Ø  Potential for laceration
Ø  Nuisance dusts/toxic
or dismemberment from
dusts
water lance
Ø  Noise
n  Inspectors should not n  Inspectors should not
be in the immediate be in the immediate
area during abrasive area during water
blast cleaning jetting operations

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Personal Protective
Hazardous Activities
Equipment (PPE)
n  Airless spray n  A “must” for a safe coatings inspector
Ø  Paint injection n  Hazards similar to workers (lower level)
Ø  Skin laceration n  MSDS indicate PPE for chemical exposures
Ø  Paint enters blood
stream n  Inspector PPE includes:
Ø  Respiratory protection
n  Inspectors should not
Ø  Fall protection (if working at heights)
be in the immediate
Ø  Sight protection
area during airless
Ø  Hearing protection
spray application
Ø  Protective clothing and gloves
Ø  Life vests (if working over water)
Ø  Type 1, 2, 3 safety vests (if struck-by hazard exists)
Ø  Steel toed shoes (if crushing hazard exists)

Respiratory Protection Respiratory Protection

n  Protection from: n  Respiratory protection required in enclosed
Ø  Toxic metals (confined) spaces
Ø  Dusts
Ø  Solvent vapors n  No facial hair that interferes with seal of
Ø  Organic vapors tight-fitting respirators
n  Air purifying n  Respirator use requires medical clearance,
n  Supplied air fit testing, fit checks and annual training
n  Selection based on hazards n  Change-out schedule ensures cartridges are
and concentrations
not being used after saturation
Ø  See MSDS

Respiratory Protection Sight Protection

n  Air supplied n  Wrap-around goggles

respirators must be n  Safety glass with side
fed with clean fresh shields
air n  Side shield
n  Breathing air: attachments for
Ø  Filtered prescription eyewear
Ø  Monitored for CO

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Protective Clothing/
Hearing Protection
Equipment
n  Ear muffs/plugs often required n  Long-sleeve
to preserve hearing coveralls
n  Gloves
n  Work boots
n  Hard hat
n  Other
Ø  Life vests
Ø  Traffic vests
Ø  Steel toed shoes

Potential Hazards Regarding

Summary
Inspection Equipment
n  Inspection instruments n  Camera n  Coatings inspectors are responsible for
must be “intrinsically n  Flashlight
safe” in hazardous n  Holiday detectors
their own safety
environments
n  Electronic: n  Coatings inspectors can face general,
n  Most are not
n  Any instrument that
Ø 
Ø 
Psychrometers
Surface temperature
personal and legal risks from working
uses batteries and has a gages unsafely
switch creates a “spark” Ø  Surface profile gages
when energized Ø  Coating thickness gages n  Project hazards are generated by
n  Others materials, environments and activities
Ø  Cellular telephones

Summary (con’t.) Disclaimer

n  SDSs are primary document used to n  Module 9 provided non-comprehensive
communicate chemical hazards and inspector safety “awareness” training
PPE
n  Participation in separate safety training
n  Coatings inspectors should wear
and site-specific training often required
suitable PPE and clothing
n  Inspector may be required to show
n  Many inspection instruments are not
“proof of training”
intrinsically safe

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Navigating Coating

10
Specifications

Introduction

The coatings specification is the inspector’s “rule book” for a coatings

project. It describes the scope of work and requirements of the
project, and lists the inspection requirements that the inspector will
be responsible for. The importance of a properly prepared coatings
specification and the general format and components of a specification
are described in this module. A sample specification is attached, which
will be used for the Module 10 workshop, as well as Modules 11 and
12. Note that bolded information in areas demarcated by two rows of
“*” should be disregarded. These are notes to the specification editor.

Learning Outcomes

Completion of Module 10 on navigating coating specifications will

enable the coatings inspector to:

1. Describe the purpose and function of a coating specification

2. List the various methods in which coatings are specified for use
3. List the basic components of a coating specification
4. Locate inspection check points in a coatings specification

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Purpose of a Coatings Specification

Independent of the type of industrial or marine coating project, a

properly prepared specification is a key component to its success. A
coatings specification describes the project and the objective of the
coating system. It also describes the materials required to complete
the work, the intended appearance of the completed work and lists the
inspection hold points/check points to help assure that the work is done
according to the requirements of the specification. A specification that
is ambiguous, vague, or that references the use of incorrect materials
will lead to problems, including job site disputes, litigation and
possible coating failure. The coating specification for a project should
be read and understood by all parties involved in the project (before
the project begins), including the facility owner’s representatives,
the coating manufacturer, the inspector and the contractor personnel
assigned to the project.

The facility owner typically prepares the project specification,

or contracts an outside engineering firm to prepare it. The
manufacturer(s) of the coatings that will be used on the project should
be involved in the specification development process to ensure that the
correct coatings are being specified and that the cleaning and painting
requirements are suitable for their products.

A coating specification is a legally binding document. It is a contract

between the owner and the contractor. When the project goes well,
the legal aspects of a coatings specification rarely come into play.
However, in the event that the project does not go well and legal
actions are pursued, the specification becomes a critical document in
the suit.

While a coatings specification is a legal document, it must be workable

and understandable, with minimal use of “legalize” language. The
legal aspects of the specification are important, but the specification
should be written so that the project manager, foreman and workers
can understand what is required. The best specifications use simple
language and are well organized so that all involved parties can
understand it.

A coating specification should be practical, so that the owner can

effectively communicate the desired outcome, including the project
schedule. The specification should not be unreasonably restrictive, but

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

should anticipate problem areas that the contractor may encounter and
must overcome to successfully complete the contract. A well-prepared
coating specification acts as a clearly written guidance document for
both the facility owner and the contractor’s crew, and is written in a
non-adversarial tone to foster teamwork between the owner, contractor,
material supplier and the inspector to achieve the end goal: corrosion
protection, and perhaps aesthetics.

Many coating specifications are prescriptive in that they provide the

contractor with the means and methods to accomplish the work, rather
than simply indicating the desired end result. This can be a mistake,
in that the contractor’s hands are tied regarding the use of innovative
methods in which to accomplish the work. While some directions are
required (i.e., the contractor shall dry abrasive blast clean the steel
using a recyclable abrasive to achieve SSPC-SP10, Near-white Blast
and a 50-87 μm (2‑2.5 mil) angular surface profile), the means and
methods of achieving this level of surface preparation (abrasive size,
nozzle size, air pressure, distance from nozzle to surface, blast nozzle
angle, etc.) should be left to the contractor. Another risk in developing
a prescriptive specification is that if the prescribed means and methods
do not achieve the end result, claims against the owner and project cost
overruns can occur.

The words “shall,” “should,” and “may” are all used in coating
specifications, but infer different requirements. When the term “shall”
is used, it indicates a requirement (e.g., “The contractor shall prepare
the surfaces to a near white condition per SSPC-SP10.”). The term
“should” indicates a strong recommendation or preference (e.g., “The
contractor should consider measurement of wet film thickness during
application.”). When the term “may” is used, it indicates an acceptable
alternative (e.g., “The contractor may use hand or power tools to
prepare the surfaces.”).

There are two general types of specifications for coating work: those
involved with new construction and those involved with maintenance
painting of existing structures. The content of the specification
documents will be different in both cases. Coating specifications for
repairing or replacing an existing coating system can be quite complex,
as the existing coating will likely be in varying states of deterioration,
and cleaning of remnants from the service environment (e.g., chemical
contamination, soluble salt contamination, oil/grease, etc.) must be
addressed. Control of environmental emissions and protection of the

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

public must often be included in specifications for repainting existing

structures. If the entire existing coating system will not be removed,
then compatibility of the new system with the existing system must
be carefully considered and addressed, including the level of cleaning
necessary prior to application. In contrast, specifications for new
construction do not have to address these complex issues.

It should be evident that the preparation of a well-written, thorough

coating specification is not a simple task, and should be done with
great care to avoid contract disputes and coating failure.

Inspecting Against a Poorly Prepared Specification

We are describing the content and purpose of a properly prepared

coatings specification, and the workshop at the conclusion of this
module represents a thorough, well-prepared project document.
However, many project specifications are not clearly written, and may
contain vague language, contradictory requirements and may even
disregard key aspects of a coatings project. The question becomes,
how does an inspector verify the quality of the work when the contract
document does not contain or properly describe requirements? This
can result in a very difficult situation, since the contractor has already
bid the project based on the prevailing specification. When this
occurs, it is not the role of the inspector to change the specification or
enforce their own set of rules. Rather, the inspector should carefully
review the specification and prepare a list of inquiries/clarifications
that are needed in order for the inspector to do his/her job. These
inquiries should be passed along to the facility owner/engineer for
clarification prior to the pre-construction conference, then clarified
during the conference. If there is no pre-construction conference, then
the request for clarifications (and the resolutions) should be distributed
to all parties involved in the project, including the contractor and
coating material supplier before the project begins.

Inspecting When There is No Specification

Perhaps an even more challenging situation arises when there is

no specification for a coatings project. Once again, the inspector
cannot enforce their own set of acceptance criteria, but rather
should ask the facility owner whether the coating manufacturer’s
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
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©2013 SSPC
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications

product data sheets should become the governing documents. This

situation too is problematic, since a product data sheet is prepared
to address many industries and service environments, and contains
only recommendations for the user. However, in the absence of any
project-specific contract documents relating to quality, the product data
sheets become the best alternative. Similar to the process described
above, the inspector should carefully review the product data sheets
and prepare a list of inquiries/clarifications that are needed. These
inquiries should be forwarded to the facility owner/engineer for
clarification prior to the pre-construction conference, then clarified
during the conference. If there is no pre-construction conference
scheduled, then the request for clarifications (and the resolutions)
should be distributed to all parties involved in the project before it
begins.

Specifying Coating Systems

There are a number of ways that coating system can be specified

for use on a project. Some specifications are written around specific
product trade names, and some are written as “trade name or equal.”
Others are based on a pre-established “Qualified Products Lists”
(QPL), or are based on a set of performance standards. While
infrequent, a coating system can also be specified based on a coating
formulation or set of formulations. The principle advantages and
limitations of each are listed below.

Specifying Coatings by “Trade Name”

Advantages:

• High rate of success if use is based on past experience and

performance.
• Facility owner has full knowledge of the material based on past
use.
• Manufacturer stands behind product and provides advice/
guidance to help assure proper installation.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Limitations:

• Potentially high material costs (no competition).

• Problematic on projects involving public funding (government
agencies), since sole sourcing is difficult to achieve.

Specifying Coatings by “Trade Name or Equal”

Advantages:

• If “or equal” product is truly equal in performance, competitive

pricing can be established.

Limitations:

• Determining “or equal” should be based on performance

testing or historical use of the product/system in the same/
similar service environment. Acquiring this data can be time
consuming and evaluating “or equal” status can be subjective.

Specifying Coatings by “Qualified Products Lists”

Advantages:

• Establishes “equivalent” performance based on successful field

use and/or laboratory testing in advance.
• Competitive pricing established with little risk of acquiring
sub-standard product.

Limitations:

• Time period required to establish a QPL.

• Cost of testing to attain QPL status may be passed on to facility
owner by the coating manufacturer via higher material costs.

Specifying Coatings by “Performance”

Advantages:

• Any coating that meets/exceeds performance requirements can

be selected for use. This avails the facility owner to potentially
more options for corrosion prevention than the other methods.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

• Specified performance standards are typically prepared by

industry trade organizations as consensus standards (e.g., SSPC
Paint 36), indicating that they have been developed by a mix
of owners, vendors, engineers, and contractors across many
industries.

Limitations:

• Testing prescribed by the performance standard may be short

term laboratory testing and may not mimic the prevailing
service environment.
• Field exposure testing of candidate coating systems to assess
performance can be costly and time consuming.

Specifying Coatings by “Formulation”

Advantages:

• Formula specifications prepared by industry trade organizations

as consensus standards (e.g., SSPC Paint 20), indicating
that they have been developed by a mix of owners, vendors,
engineers, and contractors across many industries.
• Various coating manufacturers can supply formula-based
products conforming to pre-established industry standards,
since the formula is published.
• Many formulas have a history of successful use in various
service environments.

Limitations:

• Coating manufacturer follows formula and does not conduct

performance evaluations to verify performance. Once the
product passes to the facility owner, the manufacturer has no
responsibility for performance provided it was formulated
according to specification.
• Formulation may have been developed based on laboratory
testing verses field performance.
• Formulations are antiquated and can not keep up with
new technology or improved formulations – they do not
take advantage of the R&D money being spent by coating
manufacturers to improve products.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

• Raw materials used to formulate coatings may be inferior, but

still conform to the minimum requirements of the specification.

Components of a Coating Specification

There are a variety of formats that can be employed by the

specification writer. The Construction Specifiers Institute (CSI)
format is common. Some owners rely on “standard specifications”
(that may remain unchanged for years) that are supplemented with
Special Provisions or “Special Notes” that are specific to the project or
structure being prepared and coated. In this manner, the specification
can be customized to the project without needing to rewrite certain
portions of the specification that are standard and remain in effect
independent of the location of the structure and the scope of work.
Many Departments of Transportation rely on standard specifications
with special provisions supplements.

Most coating specifications contain three basic components: General;

Products (materials); and Execution. One approach for addressing
each of these sections is described below. It is based on the content of
the NAVFAC coating specification attached to this module.

Part 1: General

The General section of a coating specification describes the project,

the type(s) of structure(s) involved, the scope of the work required
(e.g., abrasive blast cleaning and the installation of a three-coat
system consisting of an organic zinc-rich primer, polyamide epoxy
intermediate coat and aliphatic acrylic polyurethane finish), the service
environment of the installed coating/lining system and the desired
outcome. Surfaces to be prepared and coated (and surfaces NOT to be
coated) should be clearly defined. For maintenance painting work, it is
critical that the General section indicate whether the existing coatings
contain toxic metals or other hazardous ingredients (e.g., asbestos), so
that the contractor can address control of these hazards during surface
preparation and coating installation activities.

The General section also lists any and all references in the coating
specification, including references to ISO, ASTM, NACE, SSPC, etc.,
as well as any definitions used throughout the specification, such as
the particular names of structural components involved in the project.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

In most cases, a list of submittals required for the project is listed in

the General section, although these may be listed in an Appendix to
the project specification. Submittals include project schedules, the
contractor’s work plan, quality control plans, worker safety and health
and environmental monitoring/protection plans, waste management
plans, material certifications, and qualifications of various parties
involved with the project, including contractor and inspector
certifications, laboratory certifications, laborer certifications, etc.

The general section can also detail the quality assurance requirements
of the project, including contract errors, omissions and other
discrepancies, corrective action procedures, the coating work plan
and design related information including access to the structure and
methods for controlling the environment during surface preparation
and coating application operations (as appropriate), quality test
report requirements for the abrasive and/or coating materials, and
the qualification requirements of various project personnel. The
requirement and schedule of any pre-construction meetings are also
described in the general section. Delivery and storage of products to
be used on the project are described, as are the hazards and control
requirements for the material storage area/facilities. The work
sequence can be described in the general section, and any jobsite-
specific references that are unique to a project should be indicated.

Part 2: Products

The specific products to be employed on the project are listed in

the Products (materials) section of the specification. This includes
any cleaners, abrasive media, caulking materials or sealants and the
coating materials (each product that comprises the coating system).
Any test kits that are required to test surfaces after surface preparation
or coating installation should also be listed. The owner may elect to
list the inspection equipment and supplies required for the project
in the Products section, and should designate who is responsible for
supplying the inspection equipment (and who will retain ownership
once the project is completed).

Part 3: Execution

The Execution section of the specification is arguably the most

important and most difficult to prepare. The content of the Execution
section will vary considerably based on the scope and complexity of

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

the work to be performed and the procedures to be employed by the

contractor to achieve the scope.

The Execution section may contain requirements for field sample

collection of abrasive and coatings for batch verification testing by
an approved laboratory prior to initiating work. This section may also
address any specific procedures to prepare the structure for work,
including tank cleaning, confined space clearance, containment and
ventilation system installation, lighting installation, environmental
control (temperature, dehumidification/humidification, air exchanges,
etc.), and the use of protective coverings. The execution section
should clearly identify the surface preparation requirements, including
the level of surface cleanliness and surface profile depth required.
The method of surface preparation should also be clearly identified,
unless it is at the discretion of the contractor. The method may include
pressure washing, solvent cleaning, hand tool cleaning, power tool
cleaning (to various degrees), dry or wet abrasive blast cleaning, or
non-traditional methods. If abrasive blast cleaning is specified, the
type of abrasive should be indicated unless it is at the discretion of the
contractor. If a specific type of abrasive is prohibited from use (e.g.,
silica sand), then the specification should so indicate. If interim-project
testing of the abrasive is required, the testing protocol and frequency
should be clearly defined. Finally, the surface preparation-to-primer
application interval should be clearly defined, and the steps required
if the window is exceeded, or if the surface deteriorates within the
allotted window.

Requirements for mixing, thinning and application of each coat

should be described in the Execution section, including minimum and
maximum thickness requirements for each coat, measuring frequency
(e.g., as described in SSPC-PA2), minimum and maximum recoat
intervals and cleanliness between coats. The appearance of the finished
coating system should be described, including limits on the type and
amount of coating defects permitted (e.g., runs, sags, pinholes, etc.).
Any requirements for post-application testing, such as holiday/pinhole
detection, cure and others (prior to placing the coating system into
service) should be listed. The time required for the coating to post-cure
before being placed into service should be indicated, if appropriate.
Some coating systems require an extended curing time before putting
them into service (e.g., tank interior).

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Requirements for inspection (quality control and quality assurance),

the inspection hold points/check points, the frequency of testing and
the methods and frequency of reporting are included in the execution
section. Procedures for documenting non-conforming work and the
resolution processes associated with non-conformities are frequently
described.

Methods for identifying the level of surface preparation and the

coating system installed on the structure (in the form of stenciling)
are often described at the end the Execution section, as it is perhaps
one of the last steps in the process. Site clean-up requirements and
demobilization procedures may also be included.

Finally, if the existing coatings contain toxic metals or other

hazardous ingredients, the specification will contain another part or
parts describing worker protection, environmental emissions control
requirements, and waste handling and disposal requirements. In
some cases, this information is so lengthy and detailed that a separate
environmental, safety and health and waste management specification
is prepared and attached as a supplement to the coating specification.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Summary

A properly prepared specification is a key component to project

success. A coatings specification describes the project and the
objective of the coating system. It also describes the materials required
to complete the work, the intended appearance of the completed work
and lists the inspection hold points/check points to help assure that
the work is done according to the requirements of the specification.
Most coating specifications contain three basic components: General;
Products (materials); and Execution.

A coating specification is a legally binding document. It is a contract

between the owner and the contractor. While a coatings specification is
a legal document, it must be workable and understandable. A coating
specification should also be practical, so that the owner can effectively
communicate the desired outcome, including the project schedule.
The specification should not be unreasonably restrictive, but should
anticipate problem areas that the contractor may encounter and must
overcome to successfully complete the contract.

There are a number of ways that coating system can be specified

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

1
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
10-13
©2013 SSPC
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications
Module 10 - Navigating Coating Specifications

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

2
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
10-14
©2013 SSPC
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications
Module 10 - Navigating Coating Specifications

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3
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
10-15
©2013 SSPC
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications
Module 10 - Navigating Coating Specifications

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4
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
10-16
©2013 SSPC
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications
Module 10 - Navigating Coating Specifications

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

5
Protective
©2010 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training
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©2013 SSPC
Module 11: Specification Review and Pre-Construction Conference; Inspection Plan Development for the Inspection of
“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

Specification Review and Pre-Construction

Conference; Inspection Plan Development

11
for the Inspection of “Bottomless” Tank
Lining Installation

Introduction

Now that you have had the opportunity to navigate through a coatings
specification and locate key information, you will have the opportunity
to attend a pre-construction conference and to develop an inspection
plan based on the project specification and any outcomes of the pre-
construction conference. An agenda of discussion items for the pre-
construction conference, and Product Data and MSDS for the coatings
selected for the project are provided in this module.

The two course instructors represent the facility owner and the
coating manufacturer, respectively. The facility owner will run the
pre-construction conference. You will take on the role of the coatings
inspector.

Learning Outcomes

Completion of Module 11 will enable the coatings inspector to

participate in pre-construction conferences and prepare an inspection
plan/procedure.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

11-1
©2013 SSPC
Module 11: Specification Review and Pre-Construction Conference; Inspection Plan Development for the Inspection of
“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

Pre-Construction Conference Agenda

“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

1. Self Introductions

2. Project Overview (facility owner)

3. Review of Project Specifications (facility owner)

4. Contractor’s Proposed Operation, including Equipment &

Personnel (contractor)

5. Work Schedule (contractor)

6. Access and Safety (contractor)

7. Quality Assurance and Quality Control (facility owner &

contractor)

8. Review of Inspection Checkpoints (facility owner &

contractor)

9. Lighting (contractor)

10. Ventilation (contractor)

11. Review of Surface Cleaning (solvents, abrasives, etc.)

Materials (contractor)

12. Review of Coating Materials (coating manufacturer)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

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©2013 SSPC
Module 11: Specification Review and Pre-Construction Conference; Inspection Plan Development for the Inspection of
“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

Inspection Plan Development

“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

Based on the “bottomless” tank project specification, prepare an

inspection plan (using the attached forms) listing the inspection
checkpoints, the method of inspection and the acceptance criteria
established by the project specification. This inspection procedure
must be submitted with the results of your inspections obtained in
Module 12.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

11-3
©2013 SSPC
Module 11: Specification Review and Pre-Construction Conference; Inspection Plan Development for the Inspection of
“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

11-4
Name _____________________________________ Company ___________________
Module 11
MODULE 11
Inspection
INSPECTION PLAN FOR FUELPlan for “Bottomless”
TANK INTERIOR TankLINING
Lining INSTALLATION
Inspection Checkpoint Instrument/Technique Acceptance Criteria

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC
Module 11: Specification Review and Pre-Construction Conference; Inspection Plan Development for the Inspection of
“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

11-5
Name _____________________________________ Company ___________________
Module 11
MODULE 11
Inspection
INSPECTION PLAN FOR FUELPlan for “Bottomless”
TANK INTERIOR TankLINING
Lining INSTALLATION
Inspection Checkpoint Instrument/Technique Acceptance Criteria

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC
Module 11: Specification Review and Pre-Construction Conference; Inspection Plan Development for the Inspection of
“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

11-6
Name _____________________________________ Company ___________________
Module 11
MODULE 11
Inspection
INSPECTION PLAN FOR FUELPlan for “Bottomless”
TANK INTERIOR TankLINING
Lining INSTALLATION
Inspection Checkpoint Instrument/Technique Acceptance Criteria

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC
Module 11: Specification Review and Pre-Construction Conference; Inspection Plan Development for the Inspection of
“Bottomless” Tank Lining Installation

Name ___________________ Company _

11-7
Module 11
MODULE 11
Inspection
INSPECTION PLAN FOR FUELPlan for “Bottomless”
TANK INTERIOR TankLINING
Lining INSTALLATION
Inspection Checkpoint Instrument/Technique Acceptance Criteria

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Simulated QA/QC Inspection of

12
“Bottomless” Tank
Lining Installation

Introduction

Now that you have had the opportunity to navigate through the
“bottomless” tank lining specification and locate key information
(Module 10), and attend a pre-construction conference and develop
an inspection plan based on the project specification and the
manufacturer’s product data sheets (Module 11), you will have an
opportunity to conduct inspections of surface preparation and coating
operations on a simulated project.

Learning Outcome

Completion of Module 12 will enable the coatings inspector to

perform coatings inspection, document inspection data, and compare
inspection results to specification requirements.

Workshop Instructions

Eight (8) stations have been set-up around the perimeter of the training
room. Each station contains inspection equipment and testing surfaces
that represent the “Bottomless” tank. Your role is to use the inspection
equipment and inspect the work performed by the painting contractor,
document the results on the SSPC inspection forms attached, and note

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any non-conformities. The inspection plan you developed in Module

11 can be used to help assess whether the results of your inspections
conform to the requirements of the specification.

If this were a real project, you would perform the inspections on your
own as the work proceeded, in a specified sequence. However, in order
to prevent bottlenecks and to optimize the workshop time, perform
the inspections in any order on this simulated project with your group.
That is, each group should proceed to any inspection station that is
unoccupied, perform the inspection and document the results. We
will reconvene once each group has completed each of the stations to
review the results of your inspections, and to answer any questions that
may have arisen during the workshop.

While you will be working in groups, each participant is responsible

for completing the inspection forms. There will not be sufficient time
for each person in the group to collect individual data at each station.
However each person in the group should perform a portion of the
inspection at each station, rather than having one or two individuals
dominate the group.

There are brief instructions for each of the eight (8) stations below,
and there are charts to help you understand exactly what should be
recorded. Be certain to document the information directly on the
inspection forms, or record the information and transfer the data to the
inspection forms.

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Station 1 – Ambient Conditions, Surface Temperature and Illumination

Sling Psychrometer and Analog Surface Temperature Thermometer

Electronic Psychrometer

Condition Reading
Date
Time of day
Air Temperature (Ta)
Relative Humidity (RH)
Dew Point Temperature (Td)
Surface Temperature (Ts)
Spread between dew point and surface temperature (p)

Lightmeter (Record Lux or Foot Candles)

Amount of Light
Area Amount of Light (Foot Candles)
(Lux)
1
2
3
4
5
Average

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Station 2 – Compressed Air Cleanliness Test; Surface Oil Detection;

Abrasive Test

Compressed Air Cleanliness Test

Blotter Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Date & Time of Test

Blotter A
Blotter B

Surface Oil Detection Test

Test Procedure Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Date & Time of Test

Water Break

Abrasive Test

Test Procedure Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Date & Time of Test

Conductivity
Oil Content
Conformance to SSPC-AB1

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Station 3 – Surface Profile Depth

Surface Profile (replica tape)

Test Surface Profile

Place Tape Here
Surface/Measurement (mils)

A (1)

A (2)

A (3)

Station 4 – Surface Chloride

Test Area Chloride (µg/cm2)

Calculate surface concentration (µg/cm2) using the following formula:

PPM reading from Quantab strip X Volume of water used for extraction/Area of latex cell.

Convert surface concentration (µg/cm2) to conductivity using the following formula:

S = 2 X E X (A/V), where:

S = Conductivity (µS/cm)
A = Area of Latex Cell (12.25 cm2)
E = Chloride (µg/cm2)
V = Volume of Water Used for Extraction

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Station 5 – Surface Cleanliness (SSPC VIS 1)

Surface Cleanliness Achieved?

Test Area Initial Condition
(Yes/No)

Station 6 – Mixing and Thinning of Topcoat; Calculating Wet Film

Thickness

Information

The contractor has mixed 10 gallons (two-5 gallon containers) of the specified topcoat and has
thinned it 10%. The mix ended at 10:00 am. The mixed paint temperature is 73° F. The coating
will be applied by airless spray. Record the information requested in the chart below and/or on the
inspection forms.

Coating Manufacturer
Product No.
Maximum thinner permitted
Batch Number Part A
Amount of Part A Added to the Mix
Batch Number for Part B
Amount of Part B Added to the Mix
Paint Temperature
Induction Time
Potlife
Thinner No.
Thinner Batch Number
Amount of Thinner Added (in ounces)

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Calculating Wet Film Thickness

Calculated WFT of primer (thinned 10%)

Calculated WFT of finish coat (thinned 10%)

Station 7A – Measurement of Dry Film Thickness of Primer (Type 1 Gage)

The “Bottomless” tank is 18 meters (60 feet) high with a roof diameter of 30 meters (100 feet).
Determine the total number of square meters (square feet) assuming that the interior of the roof and
walls are all flat.

Total area of all interior surfaces: ______________________________________________________

Number of coating thickness measurements per coat: _______________________________________

Measure and record the thickness from the center of the coated plates, assuming that they represent
100 square feet of coated surface. (Each panel represents a spot)

Spot 1 Spot 2 Spot 3 Spot 4 Spot 5

Ave: Ave: Ave: Ave: Ave:

Area Average: _____________________

The specified dry film thickness is 3.0-5.0 mils when measured in accordance with SSPC-PA 2 Level
3. Does the thickness of the primer conform to the specification?_____________________________

Station 7B – Measurement of Dry Film Thickness of Primer + Topcoat

(Type 2 Gage)

Measure and record the thickness from the center of the coated plates, assuming that they represent
100 square feet of coated surface. (Each panel represents a spot)

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Spot 1 Spot 2 Spot 3 Spot 4 Spot 5

Ave: Ave: Ave: Ave: Ave:

Area Average: _____________________

The specified cumulative dry film thickness is 8.0-15.0 mils when measured in accordance with
SSPC-PA 2 Level 3. Does the cumulative thickness of both coats conform to the specification?

Station 8 – Low Voltage (wet sponge) Pinhole Detection

Pinholes Detected
Test Area Date & Time of Test
No Yes

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Paint Inspection
Project Documentation Record
Project: Project #: Copy to:
Location: Office Estimating
QC Sup HSO
Company Name: Start Date: Proj Mgr Inspector
Contact: Finish Date: Other
Record receipt of all documentation and acknowledge verification of receipt
Date Documentation, Specifications, Prints, and Revisions Issued to Date Issued Recipient Acknowledgement Date

SSPC QCS 2-03 Revision 1 09/2005

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Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #:
Daily Coating Inspection Report
Copy to:
Inspector: QC Super Owner

Project/Client: Contr

Location: Attachments:
Description: DFT Sheet NCR/CAR

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Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

SSPC QCS 2-07 Revision 1 09/2005

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Dry Film Thickness Gage

Project Calibration Record
Project: Instrument: Pg of
Location: Serial #:
Issued to: Verification Frequency:
Issued by: Verification Procedure: SSPC-PA 2
Record all as required
NIST or Required Magnetic Adjusted Total DFT DFT Record
Date Person Gage Actual Read- Total DFT
Plastic Shim # Thickness DFT This Base Metal Reading Previous Sheet #
Verified Verified by Serial # ing This Coat
Coat Reading +/– Coat

SSPC QCS 2-15 Revision 1 09/2005

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Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #:
Daily Work Log
Copy to:
QC Super Owner
Inspector:
Contr
Project/Client:
Location: Attachments:
DFT Sheet Daily Insp
Description:
Requirements:
Contractor: Spec #: Revision #:
Area and Work Performed

Sq Footage/Remarks
Surface Prep:
Paint/Primer:
Paint/Topcoat:
Equipment Workers Onsite
Type Size Quantity Used Condition Time In Time Out Name/Activity

If necessary, use back of form to list additional workers onsite

Inspector Signature:
Date:
SSPC QCS 2-09 Revision 1 09/2005

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Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Description of Nonconformance Item Description of Nonconformance

Referenced Spec/Procedure/Standard Action Level

Discussion and Recommendations

Approval and Corrective Actions

Corrective Actions Follow-Up

Final Approval
Authorized Contractor Signature: Inspector Signature:
Title: Date: Date:
SSPC QCS 2-08 Revision 1 09/2005

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13
IMO Requirements

Introduction

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a specialized

agency of the United Nations that is responsible for measures to
improve the safety and security of international shipping and to
prevent marine pollution from ships. Essentially, it is a group of
167 countries that sign treaties regarding building, operation, and
maintenance of sea-going vessels.

The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)

is the part of IMO with the main objective of specifying minimum
standards for the construction, equipment, and operation of ships,
compatible with safety.

The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) is a

group of ten class societies from different countries. Classification
societies are organizations that establish and apply technical standards
related to design, construction, and survey of marine-related facilities,
including ships and offshore structures.

IMO mandated the standard IMO PSPC (Performance Standard

for Protective Coatings) MSC.215(82), “Performance Standard for
Protective Coatings for Dedicated Seawater Ballast Tanks in All Types
Of Ships and Double-Side Skin Spaces Of Bulk Carriers” (hereafter
referred to as “the Standard”) which took effect on July 1, 2008. It

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applies to the dedicated seawater ballast tanks on all ships of for not
less than 500 gross tons for which the building contract was placed on
or after 1 July 2008; or in the absence of a building contract, the keels
of which were laid on or after 1 January 2009. The standards also
apply to double-side skin spaces of bulk carriers of 150 m or greater
length.

The American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), an IACS member, has

prepared a detailed document “Guidance Notes on the Inspection,
Maintenance, and Application of Marine Coating Systems”, (Third
Edition, 2007 available on ABS web site). This document provides
useful information in the understanding and implementation of the
Standard.

This portion of the coating inspector training course summarizes the

major requirements of the Standard, and each of its bold print headings
references in brackets the numbers of major paragraphs of this
document which are addressed. It should be noted that all of the actual
technical requirements are those printed in the Standard itself.

Learning Outcome

Completion of Module 13 on IMO Requirements will enable the

coatings inspector to:

1. Define the paint specification requirements as laid out in the

IMO PSPC MSC.215, Performance Standard for Protective
Coatings for Dedicated Seawater Ballast Tanks in All Types of
Ships and Double-Side Skin Spaces of Bulk Carriers.

Purpose of Standard [Paragraph 1]

This Standard provides technical requirements for protective coatings

in the applicable seawater ballast tanks and double-side skin spaces on
or after the dates referred to in SOLAS regulation II-1/3-2 as adopted
by resolution MSC.216(82).

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Definitions [Paragraph 2]

Definitions of the specialized terms, as used in the Standard, are

included to ensure their complete understanding. Some form a part of
a requirement and so are defined and used in this Unit.

General Principles [Paragraph 3.1-3.333]

The general principles of the Standard include:

• Optimum coating performance depends upon quality materials,

steel surface preparation, application, inspection, and mainte-
nance.
• Coating performance can be improved by structural design fea-
tures that permit better access and easier cleaning and coating
application.
• Inspection of surface preparation, procedures, and different
steps in the total process must be agreed upon by ship owner,
shipyard, and coating manufacturer and reviewed/approved by
the Administration*. It must provide clear, written evidence of
conformance to the requirements of the Standard. This infor-
mation is to be included in the Coating Technical File (de-
scribed below). This inspection is essential to ensure that the
target useful life (i.e., 15 years) for which the coating system is
designed.

* Administration is the government of the state under whose

authority the ship is operating.

Coating Technical File [Paragraph 3.4]

A coating technical file (CTF) must be prepared to record all

of the shipyard’s and ship owner’s coating work, with detailed
documentation of the criteria for coating selection, job specifications,
inspection, maintenance, and repair for the ship. It must be reviewed
by the Administration and updated as new information becomes
available. The CTF should be kept on board the ship and maintained
(updated) throughout the life of the ship.

At the new construction stage, the CTF must be delivered by the

shipyard and contain all required items relating to the Standard. The

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CFT must include, but is not limited to, the manufacturer’s Statement
of Product Compliance or Type Approval Certificate and the product’s
Technical Data Sheet. The Technical Data Sheet must, at a minimum,
include the following:

• Product name and identification mark and/or number

• Materials, components, and their compositions and colors
• Surface preparation cleanliness and profile requirements
• Minimum and nominal maximum dry film thickness (NDFT)
requirements
• Recommended application methods, tools, and/or machines
• Ambient environmental (temperature and humidity) require-
ments for product application and curing

The CTF should also contain shipyard work records for coating
application. These should include:

• Actual applied space and area (in square meters) for each com-
partment
• Coating system applied
• Time of application, coating thickness, number of coats, etc.
• Ambient conditions during application
• Method of surface preparation

The CTF should contain procedures for inspection and repair of non-
conformities during construction. It should also contain a coating
log prepared by the inspector stating that the finished products
met specifications to the satisfaction of the coating manufacturer’s
representative and identifying any deviations from specification and
how they were satisfactorily addressed. Examples of the daily log and
non-conformity report are included in Annex 2 of the Standard.

The CTF should also contain the shipyard’s verified inspection report
which should include:

• Inspection completion date

• Findings of inspection
• Supplemental remarks, if any
• Inspector signature

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Information on in-service maintenance, repair, and partial re-coating

and on its full recoating should also be recorded in the CTF.

Coating Standard [Paragraph 4.1-4.3]

The Standard is based on specifications and requirements which were

prepared to provide a target useful coating life of 15 years, which is
considered to be the time period, from initial application, over which
the coating system is expected to remain in “GOOD” condition (with
only minor spot rusting). The actual useful coating service life will
vary, depending on numerous variables, including the actual conditions
that the coatings will encounter in service.

In addition to coating all integral parts of the ship steel structure,

including stiffener depths, within the designated spaces, it is
recommended that, to the extent possible, all non-integral items in the
spaces (rails, ladders. etc.) also receive protective coatings.

Basic Coating Requirements [Paragraph 4.4]

The basic requirements for coatings to be applied by shipyards in

accordance with the verified manufacturer’s product data sheets and
its own verified application procedures are included in Table 1 of
IMO PSPC MSC.215. These requirements are associated with four
general characteristics/standards: Design of coating, Primary surface
preparation, Secondary surface preparation, and Miscellaneous items.

Design of coating requirements include:

• Selection of coating system. Consideration by all parties

involved of the product’s suitability for anticipated service
and maintenance conditions; methods of approval by IACS
described in Appendix B; the manufacturer to not only provide
the Technical Data Sheets but also provide technical assistance,
as needed by the shipyard; data on this assistance to be includ-
ed in CTF.

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• Coating type. Epoxy or other coating system approved by the

annex 1 test procedure; contrasting colors for adjacent coats
and a light-colored finish coat recommended to facilitate initial
and in-service inspection.
• Coating pre-qualification test. Prior approved epoxy sys-
tem; all others to be tested according to procedure in Annex 1
or equivalent or which have documentation of 5 years of field
exposure with no less than a “Good” condition.
• Job specification. Two stripe coats and two spray coats,
except as noted; manufacturers’ recommended surface prepara-
tion and application instructions to be followed.
• Nominal dry film thickness (NDFT). NDFT of 320 µm with
90/10 rule* for epoxies; other systems use manufacturers’
recommendations.

* 90% of all thickness measurements shall be no less than the

NDFT (320 µm), and none of the remaining 10% shall be be
low 90% of the NDFT (288 µm).

Primary surface preparation (PSP) requirements, usually part of an

automated system, include:

• Blasting cleanliness and profile. Sa 2 1/2 and profile between

30 and 75 µm (determined using a visual comparator gage), to
be checked after blasting and before priming; relative humidity
not above 85% and steel surface temperature at least 3oC (5oF)
above the dew point.
• Water-soluble salt limit equivalent to sodium chloride. No
more than 50 mg/m2 (ft2) as determined by Bresle cell extrac-
tion and surface conductivity measured in accordance with ISO
8502-9.
• Shop primer (prefabrication or preconstruction primer).
Inorganic zinc-rich coating or equivalent coating that is con-
firmed by manufacturer to be compatible with main coating
system.

Secondary surface preparation (prior to application of topcoats)

requirements include:

• Steel condition. Preparation of steel surfaces, including

removing sharp edges and weld spatter, and grinding of weld
beads and as specified for other areas, so that coating can be
distributed uniformly at required NDFT.

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• Surface treatment. Sa 2 ½ on damaged primer and welds;

treatment of shop primer varies with its type and type of
topcoat.
• Surface treatment after erection. Butts St 3 or better (Sa
2 ½, where practical); small damages (up to 2%) St 3; larger
damaged areas Sa 2 ½; feather coating overlaps.
• Profile requirements. For partial or full blasting, 30-75 µm;
otherwise as recommended by coating manufacturer
• Dust contamination. ISO 8502-3 rating of “1” for dust size
classes of “3”, “4”, or “5” plus removing any remaining finer
visible dust.
• Water-soluble salt limit equivalent to sodium chloride. No
more than 50 mg/m2 (ft2) as determined by the Bresle cell and
conductivity method measured in accordance with ISO 8502-
9:1998.
• Oil contamination. No oil contamination detected on cleaned
steel surfaces using standard test methods.

Requirements for miscellaneous items include:

• Adequate ventilation. As recommended by coating manufac-

turer for proper application and curing.
• Environmental conditions. No application when humidity
exceeds 85% or surface temperature exceeds 3oC above dew
point; also, environmental limitations in manufacturer’s speci-
fication.
• Testing of coating. NDFTs to be measured after each coat and
total system using SSPC-PA 2 gages and the schedule present-
ed in Annex 3.
• Repair. All visual defects in coatings (pinholes, bubbles,
voids, etc.) must be marked up, appropriately repaired,
re-checked, and documented.

Coating Inspection Requirements (Paragraph 6)

IACS-approved coating inspectors (described in Appendix B) are

required to conduct inspection tests of the surface preparation and
coating application to ensure complete compliance with the basic
coating requirements in Table 1 of the Standard. The inspectors’
results are to be recorded using the daily log and non-conformity
report in Annex 2 and to be included in the CTF. Methods of
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©2015 SSPC 13-7
Chapter 13: IMO Requirements

correcting non-conformities are also to be included in the CFT.

Minimum inspection test requirements for conformance to the
Standard for different construction stages are listed below:
• Primary surface preparation. Relative humidity and dew
point before blasting and at times of sudden weather changes;
soluble salt concentrations, and absence of oil and visible
surface contaminants; level of steel surface cleanliness; confor-
mance of shop primer to Standard.
• Coating thickness. Measurements of thickness and curing of
inorganic zinc-rich primer for conformance to Standard.
• Block assembly. Before secondary surface preparation, in-
spection for steel surface treatment, including edge treatment
and visible contamination; after secondary surface prepara-
tion, inspection of prepared surface and levels of soluble salts;
monitor relative humidity/dew point and surface temperature
during application and curing (usually indoors under controlled
conditions) and each step in coating process; measure thickness
of coating system for conformance to the Standard.
• Erection. Visual inspection for conformance to requirements
of Table 1; measure and record relative humidity/dew point and
surface temperature during coating application and each step in
coating application process.

The Standard references the inspection test methods.The Classifcation

Society, acting on behalf of the Administration will verify that all
relevant documents required by the Standard are included in the CTF
for the vessel. The attending Classification Society surveyor will
monitor the implementation of the coating inspection requirements
on a sampling to ensure the use of correct equipment, techniques,
and reporting methods and determine that all deviations have been
satisfactorily addressed. An Interim Class Certificate and/or Safety
Construction certificate will not be issued until all corrective actions
have been resolved to the satisfaction of the surveyor.

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Module Thirteen:
Module Thirteen Learning Outcomes
IMO Requirements n  Define the paint specification
requirements as laid out in the IMO
PSPC

Performance Standard for

Introduction
Protective Coatings
n  This module will provide an overview n  What is the Coating Performance
of the IMO PSPC MSC.215, Standard?
Performance Standard for Protective n  What are its aims?
Coatings for Dedicated Seawater n  Who does it affect?
Ballast Tanks in All Types of Ships and
n  What are the main elements?
Double-Side Skin Spaces of Bulk
Carriers

Performance Standard for Performance Standard for

Protective Coatings Protective Coatings
n  The Performance Standard for Protective Coatings n  Aims of the PSPC:
(PSPC) provides the technical requirements for
–  To provide a 15-year life for ballast tank coatings
protective coatings in dedicated sea water ballast
over which it is defined as in being ‘good’ condition
tanks of all types of ships of 500 gt and greater and
double-sided skin spaces on bulk carriers of 150m –  ‘Good’ condition is defined in resolution A.744(18)
and greater in length. and is “condition with only minor rust spotting”
n  It is mandatory and included as amendments to –  (Note: This is different from IACS definition re:
SOLAS regs II-1/3-2 and XII/6. good/fair/poor re: ballast tank assessments.)
–  Better coating systems with reduced maintenance
n  It is also recommended to be applied where
possible to items not integral to the structure e.g., –  Improved safety at sea
ladders, platforms.

Performance Standard for Performance Standard for

Protective Coatings Protective Coatings
n  The proposals were adopted at the n  The proposals apply to the
Marine Safety Committee (82) meeting aforementioned types of vessels:
on December 8th 2006 –  For which the building contract was
placed on or after 1st July 2008, or
–  In the absence of a building contract, the
keels of which were laid or which were at
a similar stage of construction on or after
1st January 2009, or
–  The delivery of which is on or after 1st
July 2012

Performance Standard for Performance Standard for

Protective Coatings Protective Coatings
n  Affected Parties n  Main Elements of the PSPC:
–  Ship-owners/operators of all vessels > 500 –  Pre-Job agreement
gt and bulkers in the prescribed size range –  Design of a specification and coating system
–  New building shipyards/contractors –  Coating system approval
–  Coating manufacturers –  Production of a Coating Technical File (CTF)
–  Administration or Recognized Organizations that records all aspects of the process
–  Paint coating specification
–  Definition of inspection procedures
–  Verification of compliance

Pre-Job Requirements Pre-Job Requirements

n  The PSPC requires that the Classification n  It may be that at the time of the pre-
Society is presented with a copy of the pre- job agreement the inspection bodies
job agreement for review and that the and their personnel have not been
Classification Society verifies that the
inspector is qualified in accordance with the
named, in which case their agreement
PSPC paragraph 6.1.1 will not be possible at that time. There
n  The shipbuilder is to supply all the required should, however, be scope for review
documentation which should be available for of the pre–job agreement before
the pre-job agreement coating work is started

Pre-Job Pre-Job

n  It is expected that the pre-job –  Number of tests to be carried out, e.g., salt
meeting/agreement will as a minimum tests, profile assessment, dust tape tests,
contain: etc.
–  Confirmation of the coating supplier(s) if not –  Applicator working procedures and
already agreed equipment including supervision organization
–  Coating specification
chart, experience of supervisors and
operatives, access to surfaces (staging/
–  Treatment of fixtures and fittings, if not
lighting/equipment), capacities and
included in the coating specification
availability, etc.
–  Inspection stages and standards

Pre-Job Pre-Job
–  Applicator QC procedures (ambient conditions/ - Procedures for reporting non-conformities
ventilators/pre-official inspections for surface and achieving satisfactory repair
preparation cleaning, etc.)
- Appointment of the inspection body or
–  Communications, including procedures for calling bodies (i.e., shipyard/coating supplier/ship
for inspections (e.g., minimum acceptable owner/independent or combination of two or
advance notice and acceptable hours including
more)
weekends/holidays/evenings). Also procedures for
informing about forthcoming inspections - Clarification on how many inspections will be
–  Reporting procedures and report formats required

Pre-Job Pre-Job Work Records

–  Assistance to be given to the inspectors n  With the exception of the shop primer,
–  Name and qualifications of inspectors working records will be agreed before coating
(copies of current certificates including work is started
information to allow traceability and n  The format of reports may vary as agreed
confirmation will be required) between the shipyard, ship-owner, and the
approved inspector but must comply with the
–  Procedures for the settlement of disputes
requirements of the PSPC
–  Health and safety –  Shop Priming Plant Verification
–  Shop Priming Plant Daily Application
–  Preparation & Application Progress

Pre-Job Work Records Design of a Specification

–  Block Report - Secondary Surface Preparation & n  Primary and secondary surface
Cleaning Inspection
preparation standards
–  Pre-Erection Joint Report - Secondary Surface
Preparation & Cleaning Inspection n  Steel profile range
–  Hull Stage Erection Joint & Damages Report - n  Cleanliness of surfaces prior to coating
Secondary Surface Preparation & Cleaning
Inspection n  Soluble salt limits
–  Block Report- Coating Inspection n  Steel condition
–  Block Pre-erection/Hull Stage - Coating Inspection
–  Pre-Delivery Inspection (Completion Report) n  Thickness and number of coats

–  Non-Conformance Report n  Environmental conditions allowed

Selection of a Coating Selection of a Coating

System System
n  Selection of an approved coating system –  When choosing the coating system the
- including shop primer if appropriate - to relevant parties should be aware of the
meet the in-service conditions criteria listed in the PSPC - Table 1.1
n  This may require and include:
–  Track records
–  Lab tests, etc.
Note: The approval under Annex 1 does not mean that
the approved coating is acceptable for all conditions.
Evidence must also be produced relating to the in-service
conditions, e.g., if the coating in question is to be subject
to ballast and gray water as in cruise ships

Selection of a Coating Selection of a Coating

System System
n  The selection of the coating system shall be n  The paint specification applies to the
considered by the parties involved with coating system that has been selected
respect to the service conditions and planned
n  Selection of the coating system takes into
maintenance. The following aspects, among
account the service conditions and
other things, shall be considered:
planned maintenance
–  location of space relative to heated surface
frequency of ballasting and de-ballasting n  All coatings to be epoxy-based or
operations equivalent and:
–  required surface conditions –  consist of multi-coat systems (minimum 2
–  required surface cleanliness and dryness coats) of contrasting color
–  supplementary cathodic protection, if any –  use a light-colored top coat

Coating System Approval Coating System Approval

n  All coatings to be pre-qualified by: n  A copy of type

–  A method corresponding to a specified approval certificate
test procedure or equivalent (Annex 1) issued by Class or
administration should
–  Documented field exposure with a final
be included. A
condition of “GOOD” after 5 years
sample type approval
n  A Statement of Compliance or Type certificate is shown.
Approval Certificate to be issued by a
third party - independent of the
coating manufacturer

Coating System Approval Coating Technical File

n  A copy of Product Technical n  The PSPC demands that a Coating Technical
Data Sheet (PTDS or PDS)
should be included for all the
File (CTF) is compiled by the shipbuilder for
coating products in the each new-building to which the PSPC
selected coating system. The regulations apply
PTDS (PDS) should have
already been approved by n  A copy of the completed CTF is to be held
Class or by the administration. onboard for the life of the vessel. The file is
The Table here shows
technical details recommended
also to contain procedures for in-service
for inclusion in the PTDS maintenance, the requirements of which are
(PDS). to be developed by the IMO

Coating Technical File Coating Technical File

n  Production of a Coating Technical File (CTF) n  Ballast Tank Description and Drawings
which records all aspects of the process and
contains: to be included
–  Statement of compliance or Type approval of coating n  The list of tanks to be coated shall be
–  Documented performance records of the coating
–  Technical data sheet supplying all data needed
designated by:
–  Shipyard work records - location, times, surface –  Tank numbers
preparation, environmental conditions, etc. –  Block number(s)
–  Inspection procedures and repair of coating during
construction (and also in-service maintenance) –  Location (by frame numbers)
–  Coating log issued by the coating inspector –  Area in m2 (f2)
–  Shipyard’s inspection report
–  Location in relation to heated surfaces

The PSPC The PSPC

n  The paint specification covers all the n  The painting process at each stage can
processes and defines the standards be separated into the following simple
from: processes:
–  Cleaning the surface
Shop Primer Application –  Preparing the surface
–  Coating the surface
Block Painting

Post Erection Repairs & In-situ/Hull Stage

Shop Primer Shop Primer

n  Four items are defined –  The standard of surface preparation of the
–  The standard of surface preparation of the bare steel (ex. the steel mill is to be Sa2½
bare steel - determines ‘cleanliness’ as defined in ISO 8501-1)
–  The ‘profile’ of the steel - determines adhesion –  This process is carried out in an automated
–  The maximum level of water soluble salts on plant using, typically, round steel shot
the surface prior to application - determines
resistance to blistering
–  Achieving this standard on a well-maintained
plant is normally not a problem
–  The shop primer type (the thickness of shop
primer is not specified but will be given on the
product [technical] data sheet)

Shop Primer Surface Shop Primer Surface

Preparation Preparation
Grade A – intact mill-scale Grade B – weathered mill-scale
–  Sa2½ as defined in ISO 8501-1 is
“When viewed without magnification, the
surface shall be free from visible oil, grease
and dirt, and from mill scale, rust, paint
coatings and foreign matter. Any remaining
traces of contamination shall show only as
slight stains in the form of spots or stripes”

All the standards have pictorial references

Shop Primer Surface Shop Primer Surface

Preparation Preparation
Grade C - rust Grade D – pitted rust
Grade A Sa 2 1/2

Grade A Sa 2½

Grade A Sa3

Shop Primer Surface Shop Primer Non-Visible

Profile Contaminants
–  Surface profile to be between 30-75 microns –  Water Soluble Limit on the surface prior to
and its measurement is defined in the coating to be less than or equal to 50 mg/m²
standard ISO 8503-1/3 (or 5µg/cm²)

–  The measurement is by a comparator of –  This is measured by a conductivity method

according to ISO 8502-9
known roughness and size
n  A
known volume of water is used to extract any
soluble material from a known area and the
conductivity of that solution is measured and
converted to a mg/m²

Shop Primer Ambient

Shop Primer
Conditions
–  Shop Primer is to be a zinc containing,
inhibitor free zinc silicate or equivalent (its – There is also a statement stating that
compatibility with the main coating system blasting should not be carried out
to be confirmed by the coating when:
manufacturer) n  The relative humidity is > 85%
n  The surface temperature of the steel is <
3°C (5°F) above the dew point

Shop Primer Application Shop Primer

–  The application of shop primer is a carried out in
an enclosed automated plant and is a continuous
process
–  Usually once the plant is set up it is left to run
with only spot checks being made
–  There is no mention of any of the shop primer Prime line
details being required for the CTF but records of
the ‘coating application’ are requested

Block Stage Block Stage

n  The block stage is the application of the n  The specification at block stage covers:
main coating system. In some yards the –  The condition of the actual steel work - to
coating of ballast tanks is carried out in-situ prevent premature breakdown of the coating
- after erection - but the vast majority of system
new building yards coat the ballast tanks at –  Surface preparation and profile requirements -
the ‘block stage’ determines coating life and adhesion
–  Thickness of the coating and number of coats -
n  The part of a ballast block that is common determines protective properties
to the outer shell is also painted at this time –  Stripe coats - to prevent premature breakdown
–  Cleanliness/contamination - to prevent
premature breakdown

Block Stage Surface

Block Stage
Preparation
n  The specification at block stage n  Block stage:
covers: –  The steelwork should be prepared so that the
coating can be applied evenly in accordance with
–  Soluble salt levels - to prevent blistering ISO 8501-3 grade P2.
–  Environmental conditions - to prevent –  This involves removing sharp edges, weld
premature breakdown spatter, etc. Most coatings flow away from
sharp edges leaving an inadequate thickness for
protection.
–  Edges of stiffeners are also to be rounded to a
radius of 2 mm - or subject to ‘three-pass
grinding’ or equivalent.

n 

Welding missing

Weld repair in a block

Block Stage Surface Block Stage Surface

Preparation Profile
–  “Sa2 removing at least 70% of intact shop primer”
is not a standard!!
–  Steel profile is specified as 30-75 microns or
–  Sa2 refers to bare steel!
that recommended by the coating
manufacturer and is according to ISO
–  Is it 70% by area or volume?
8503-1/3 as per the shop primer specification
n  If the shop primer has passed a pre-qualification
test as part of the epoxy system it may remain but
should be cleaned by sweep blasting, high-
pressure washing or equivalent
n  Many yards sweep blast the shop primer anyway
when preparing the welds as it is quicker and more
productive

Block Stage Surface Block Stage Surface

Contaminants Contaminants
–  Cleanliness and contamination on a surface prior –  ISO 8502-3 uses clear adhesive tape that is
to coating are defined in the specification as: pressed onto a surface and after removal is
n  No oil or other visible contamination to be present placed on a ‘display board’ of contrasting color
on the surface to the dust. The tape is then compared against
n  Dust quantity rating “1” for dust size class 3, 4, or standards – 1 (minimum) to 5 (maximum) for
5 as stated in ISO 8502-3. Lower particle sizes to volume of dust
be removed if visible without magnification
–  The dust is also classified by size:
–  Any particles embedded in a coating are also to n  Class0 particles (not visible under 10x
be removed magnification) and class 5 ( particles clearly
visible in normal vision of up to 5 mm in
diameter)

Block Stage Surface Block Stage Surface

Contaminants Contaminants

– IACS states: –  Soluble salt levels on the steel after surface

n  “If
dust is visible anywhere on the preparation but before painting are specified
block then it should be removed to to be less than or equal to 50 mg/m²
the satisfaction of the inspector. The –  This is to be measured according to ISO
whole block shall be to the 8502-9 as per shop primer application and in
satisfaction of the inspector” at least one location per block

Block Stage Surface Block Stage Ambient

Contaminants Conditions
–  The environmental conditions under which
–  Soluble salt levels on the steel after surface
the coating may be applied are to be in
preparation but before painting are specified to be
accordance with the manufacturer’s
less than or equal to 50 mg/m²
recommendations but the specification
–  This is to be measured according to ISO 8502-9 as states that coatings shall not be applied:
per shop primer application and in at least one n  If
the relative humidity is > 85% or
location per block n  Thesurface temperature is < 3°C ( 5°F) above
–  What happens if it is 51 mg/m² ? the dew point

Block Stage DFT Stripe Coating

–  Paint thickness and number of coats are
specified as follows:
n  Nominal DFT - 320 microns (13 mils) in total
n  This is to be achieved in a minimum of 2 coats
and 2 stripe coats
n  Typical specs will be 2 x 160 microns (6 mils)

n  Stripe coats by brush or roller to be applied to

edges, welds, etc. (roller to be used for scallops
and rat holes only)
–  Second stripe coat may be omitted on welds
if the NDFT can be met by the coats applied

Block Stage DFT Block Stage DFT

–  The paint thickness specification has upper – The paint thickness specification has
and lower limits: upper and lower limits:
n  NDFT of 320 microns but with a “90/10” rule n  NDFT of 320 microns but with a “90/10” rule
n  At least 90% of all thickness measurements will
be greater or equal to the NDFT and none of the
remaining percentage (up to 10%) to be below
0.9 of the NDFT, i.e., a minimum thickness of
288 microns
n  Upper limit to be defined by the coating
manufacturer

Block Stage DFT Block Stage DFT

–  The PSPC also advises on where to check for DFT COATING INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS
and the number of readings to be taken (This is in n  Dry Film Thickness Measurement to be measured as per
Annex 3 and is referenced in the standard ISO the annex of PSPC, and as shown specifically in the areas
19840. This covers calibration, correction values for shown below
steel profile.)
–  Thickness measurements are to be taken after each
coat for quality control purposes and the total DFT
confirmed on completion.

n  These are specifically a guide only and are to be the

minimum

Block Stage Application Block Stage

–  Other parameters such as the drying, curing, and –  Most block stage work is
over coating times are to be given by the carried out under cover
manufacturer and will be found on the data sheet in blasting and painting
cells
–  The method of application will also be specified by
the manufacturer as will any repairs of defective
areas
–  Appropriate ventilation is also required as
recommended the manufacturer

Post Erection and Surface Post Erection and Surface

Preparation Repairs Preparation Repairs
n  Post-erection surface preparation and n  Small damages - up to 2% of the total area are
to be prepared to St3 standard prior to coating.
repairs are specified as follows:
n  Contiguous damage over 25 m² or over 2% of
–  Butts (‘join ups’) to be prepared prior to
the total area of the tank should be prepared to
coating to ‘St3 or better or Sa2½ where Sa2½ (note that open blasting in a confined
practical’ as per ISO 8501-2 space can lead to over-blast damage)
–  St3 is a visual standard for non-blasted n  All coating repairs to be ‘feathered’ in the
surfaces overlap

Note: There is no profile requirement in St3

standard – this may be an issue subsequently

Post Erection and Surface

Preparation Repairs Feathering

Area of repair

Burn damaged
Coating Coating

Areas with no paint Steel

application

Feathering Inspection

n  Definition of inspection procedures:

–  Qualification required for inspectors
Area of repair (SSPC PCI, FROSIO Level III, NACE Level
II, or equivalent)
Coating Coating –  Stages of the process when inspection
and/or monitoring is required
Steel
–  Recording of inspection details

Inspection Before Work

Daily Inspection Log
Starts
n  A daily log will list all scheduled inspections for –  All documentation required to satisfy the
each day and the outcome i.e. either accepted PSPC and the CTF (Coating Technical file)
or rejected
–  Approved inspector has been chosen
n  It is likely that shop primer application will
already have started prior to the pre-job –  Inspection procedures have been agreed
agreement. Verification of application conditions between ship yard / Ship owner / main
by the shop primer supplier, ship-yard and coating supplier
Classification Society can take place before the
agreement. The shipyard will then be able to –  Shop primer plant has been approved
present the main coating supplier’s acceptance
as part of the agreement

Inspection During the Work Inspection During the Work

Approved inspector to demonstrate to Class that
Approved inspector to demonstrate to Class inspections are carried out according to CTF
that inspections are carried out according to ü Logs from shop primer line are containing records as
follows:
CTF.
q  Speedof plates/profiles
ü All reports are filled out correctly
q  Ambientconditions
q  Shop primer line
q  Cleanliness (Sa 2½ according to ISO 8501-1)

q  At block stage q  Anchor profile ( 35µm – 70µm Testex tape or micrometer)
q  Salt level (conductivity test maximum 50 mg/m2)
q  Pre-erection stage q  Dry film thickness (measured on a smooth plate)

q  In building dock or Slipway q  Time and date

Remember that checks on shop primer line to be random checks also

from manufacture (shipyard) QC only 1/3 of plates primed are for
ballast tanks.

Inspection During the Work Inspection During the Work

Approved inspector to demonstrate to Class that inspections are
carried out according to CTF Approved inspector to demonstrate to Class that inspections are
carried out according to CTF
ü  Logs from Block stage preparations are containing records as
follows: ü Logs from in - situ (inside the ballast tank) preparations are
q Contamination prior to blasting (Oil, Grease) containing records as follows:
q Steel preparation (Edge preparation, Welding quality, and other steel q  Contamination prior to blasting (Oil, Grease)
defects, according to ISO 8501-3 P2) q  Steel preparation (Edge preparation, Welding quality, and other steel
q Ambient conditions defects, according to ISO 8501-3 P2)
q Cleanliness (Sa2½ according to ISO 8501-1; 70 % removal, depend q  Extent of damage (maximum 2%)
on Shop primer approval) q  Ambient conditions
q  Anchor profile (35µm – 70µm replica tape or micrometer) q  Cleanliness (St 3 according to ISO 8501-1)

q  Salt level NaCl (conductivity test maximum 50 mg/m2 [ft2]) q  Anchor profile (35µm – 70µm replica tape or micrometer)
q  Dust level (maximum level 1 according to ISO 8502-3) q  Salt level NaCl (conductivity test maximum 50 mg/m2 [ft2])
q  Paint used (Name, product code for base & agent and consumption) q  Dust level (maximum level 2 according to ISO 8502-3)
q  Wet film thickness q  Paint used (Name, product code for base & agent and consumption)

q  Dry film thickness q  Wet film thickness

q  Application time and date q  Dry film thickness
q  Application time and date

Inspection After Completion

Verification of Compliance
and Prior to Delivery
n  Class to Verify: n  Verification of compliance to confirm:
n  Shipyard has completed the CTF in accordance with –  Data sheet and Statement of Compliance certificate of
PSPC coating or type approval certificate complies with PSPC
–  The approved inspector has signed all the relevant –  Coating supplied is consistent with above
reports confirming the standards comply with the –  Inspectors are qualified
PSPC and PTDS (Product Technical Data Sheets) and –  Reports of the surface preparation/application process
that the job was carried out to the paint are compliant with data sheet and certificate of type
manufacturer’s representative’s satisfaction approval/statement of compliance
–  The owner has been given the CTF and placed it –  Monitoring of implementation of inspection
onboard. requirements
–  CTF
NOTE: CTF SHOULD CONTAIN A MAINTENANCE SPECIFICATION

Summary
n  The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a
specialized agency of the United Nations that is
responsible for measures to improve the safety and
security of international shipping and to prevent
marine pollution from ships. IMO mandated the
standard IMO PSPC, Performance Standard for
Protective Coatings for Dedicated Seawater Ballast
Tanks in all Types of Ships and Double-Side Skin
Spaces of Bulk Carriers in 2008 in order to provide
a 15-year life for ballast tank coatings, improving
safety at sea.

15
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC 13-23
Appendix A: Comparison of SSPC and ISO Surface Preparation Standards for Power- and Hand-Tool Cleaned Steel

TABLE 4A
COMPARISON OF SSPC AND ISO SURFACE PREPARATION STANDARDS
FOR POWER- AND HAND-TOOL CLEANED STEEL

Surface Preparation
Standard Initial Condition of Steel Reference Photographs

* = no photograph
1
SSPC VIS 3 contains photographs for SP 11, SP 15, SP 3, and SP 2.
2
The United Kingdom Standard BS 7079 Part A1 is equivalent to ISO 8501-1 and depicts the degrees of cleanliness of
unpainted steel. BS 7079 Part A2 is equivalent to ISO 8501-2 and depicts the same degrees of cleanliness of previously
painted steel.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

TABLE 4B
COMPARISON OF SSPC AND ISO SURFACE PREPARATION STANDARDS
FOR BLAST CLEANED STEEL

Surface Preparation
Standard Initial Condition of Steel Reference Photographs
Rust
SSPC/NACE ISO1 Condition Description SSPC-VIS 12/SSPC-VIS 5 ISO 8501-1
A SP 5, A SP 5-N1, A SP 5-N2,
A SP 5-N3
A intact mill scale A Sa 34
A SP 5-M1,
A SP 5-M2,A SP 5-M33
SP 5/NACE No. 1 B partially rusted mill scale B SP-5 B Sa 34
White Metal Blast Sa 3 C 100% rusted, no pits C SP-5 C Sa 34
Cleaning D rusted and pitted D SP-5 D Sa 3
G1 SP 5, G2 SP 5, G3 SP 5,
deteriorated paint over mill G1 SP 5 P, G1 SP 5 H, G1 SP 5 L,
G *
scale G1 SP 5 D, G3 SP 5 P, G3 SP 5 H,
G3 SP 5 L, G3 SP 5 D
A intact mill scale A SP 10 A Sa 2 1/2
B partially rusted mill scale B SP-10 B Sa 2 1/2
SP 10/NACE No. 2
Sa 2 C 100% rusted, no pits C SP-10, C WAB-105 C Sa 2 1/2
Near-White Blast
1/2
Cleaning D rusted and pitted D SP-10, D WAB-10 D Sa 2 1/2
deteriorated paint over mill
G G1 SP 10, G2 SP 10, G3 SP 10 *
scale
A intact mill scale * *
B partially rusted mill scale B SP-6 B Sa 2
SP 6/NACE No. 3
C 100% rusted, no pits C SP-6, C WAB-6 C Sa 2
Commercial Blast Sa 2
Cleaning D rusted and pitted D SP-6, D WAB-6 D Sa 2
deteriorated paint over mill
G G1 SP 6, G2 SP 6, G3 SP 6 *
scale
A intact mill scale * *
B partially rusted mill scale * *
SP 14/NACE No. 8
C 100% rusted, no pits * *
Industrial Blast
Cleaning D rusted and pitted * *
deteriorated paint over mill
G G1 SP 14, G2 SP 14, G3 SP 14 *
scale
A intact mill scale * *
B partially rusted mill scale B SP-7 B Sa 1
SP 7/NACE No. 4
C 100% rusted, no pits C SP-7 C Sa 1
Brush-Off Blast Sa 1
Cleaning D rusted and pitted D SP-7 D Sa 1
deteriorated paint over mill
G G1 SP 7, G2 SP 7, G3 SP 7 *
scale
* no photograph
1
ISO standards Sa 3, Sa 2 1/2, Sa 2, Sa 1, St 2 and St 3 approximate the corresponding SSPC standards.
2
SSPC-VIS 1 contains photographs for SP 5, SP 6, SP 7, SP 10, and SP 14.
3
Alternate non-metallic abrasives: A SP 5-N1, A SP 5-N2, A SP 5-N3
Alternate metallic abrasives: A SP 5-M1, A SP 5-M2, A SP 5-M3
4
ISO 8501-1 photographs (1978 through 1989 printing) may not adequately illustrate the corresponding SSPC surface preparation
ISO photograph illustrating B Sa 2 shows dark areas that could be interpreted as mill scale and, therefore, represents SSPC-SP 14
and does not represent SSPC-SP 6.
ISO photographs illustrating A Sa 3, B Sa 3 and C Sa 3 do not adequately illustrate the surface texture of typically blast cleaned steel.
The United Kingdom Standard BS 7079 Part A1 is equivalent to ISO 8501-1 and depicts the degrees of cleanliness of unpainted steel.
BS 7079 Part A2 is equivalent to ISO 8501-2 and depicts the same degrees of cleanliness of previously painted steel.
5
SSPC-VIS 5 photographs of wet abrasive blast cleaning are indicated by WAB.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

July 2015

40 24th Street, Sixth Floor

Pittsburgh, PA 15222 - 4656
Phone: 412-281-2331
Fax: 412-281-9993
Online: www.sspc.org
Copyright 2015 SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings

Version 1, May 2005

SSPC Protective Coatings Inspector (PCI)

Program Workshop Booklet

July 2015

40 24th Street, Sixth Floor

SSPC offers you:

Abrasive Blasting Program (C7)

Standards and Publications

Annual Conference

Online Services
www.sspc.org

Monthly Journal
Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings

For more information call SSPC toll-free in the U.S. at 877-281-7772; outside of the U.S. at 412-
281-2331; or visit us online at www.sspc.org.

SSPC training programs are copyrighted world-wide by SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings.
Any photocopying, re-selling, or redistribution of this training program by printed, electronic, or any
other means is strictly prohibited without the express written consent of SSPC: The Society of Protec-
tive Coatings and a formal licensing agreement.
Protective Coatings Inspector (PCI)
Attestation
To uphold and advance the honor and dignity of being an SSPC Certified Protective Coatings Inspector,
and in keeping with the high standards of ethical and professional conduct that I am expected to uphold,
I acknowledge the following:

I. Fundamental Principles

I recognize that all my actions reflect my own professionalism and my employer. When performing
coating inspection duties on industrial steel structures, I not only represent myself and my employer but
also the SSPC PCI Program. In all my actions, I fully realize that I am an extension of all those entities
and I owe them the best job that I can perform. My personal integrity and ethics therefore must be
beyond reproach.

II. Specifics

A. Impartiality
I pledge that I will be impartial while performing all coatings inspection and related activities on
behalf of my employer. Impartiality is critical to the coating inspector's mission. I will perform all
coating inspection on industrial steel facilities that provides confidence to all personnel whose safety
and well-being are dependent upon me doing the best job possible job, that I have done due
diligence.

B. Objective
I pledge that I will be objective in completing my assigned tasks. Objective means conflicts of
interest either do not exist or are resolved with my superior and the responsible facility owner
representative prior to performing inspection and related duties. I pledge that I will inspect all work
as it is presented and make my assessment and document my findings based on applicable contract
requirements and governing standards. My assessments and documentation of inspections and tests
will not be influenced by external sources or be based on emotion. They will be based on applying
my professional competence to evaluate the facts at hand.

C. Conflicts of Interest
I pledge to declare all conflicts of interest, actual, potential or perceived, to my superior and the
responsible facility owner representative. I also agree to willingly recuse or disqualify myself from
any assignment deemed by my superior or the responsible facility owner representative to be a real

Version No. 2, May, 2010

1
or potential conflict of interest. Examples of conflicts of interest are: (1) if I have done any work for
the prime or subcontractor within the previous two years if I’m inspecting on behalf of the facility
owner or, (2) are friends or are related to a key person that works for the prime or subcontractor or
consults for the prime or subcontractor or, (3) have been assigned to inspect a competitor or a joint
venture partner of an entity I’ve been associated with within the previous two years.

D. Diligence and Reasonable Care

I pledge to be diligent and take reasonable care when I perform my inspection tasks. This includes
but is not limited to:

• Performing my duties on each project with accuracy, dedication, perseverance, fairness,

timeliness and honesty, and within the limits of my authority as specified by my employer and the
responsible facility owner representative.

• Strictly adhering to any stated inspection criteria and the governing specification and applicable
industry standards.

• Documenting, and notifying appropriate persons of any nonconformities

• Coordinating with the contractor’s production personnel to schedule adequate time to perform
inspections.

• Working inside my certified inspector credentials and qualifications as established by my

employer and the SSPC PCI Program.

• Carrying out my inspection duties in a professional and courteous manner.

• Avoiding socializing in any way with personnel employed by or working for the prime or sub
contractor whose work I am inspecting on behalf of the facility owner.

• Avoiding accepting any gifts, money, favors, meals, services or anything else that threatens
impartiality.

• Avoiding telling a contractor how to do its work.

• Reporting any attempted bribes or threats against myself or others to my superior and the
responsible facility owner representative immediately.

• Avoiding taking anyone's word for an item that must be inspected or tested in order to determine
conformance.

• Reporting any complaints about my inspections to my superior and the responsible facility owner
representative.

• Refraining from endorsing or critiquing any proprietary product, any equipment item, any service,
any project person, any contractor or engineer, any facility owner official, another inspector, or
consultant.

Version No. 2, May, 2010

2
• Reporting any conditions to my superior and the responsible facility owner representative that
prevents me from performing and completing required inspection and related tasks.

• Contacting my superior and the responsible facility owner representative immediately if any of
the personnel working for the prime or sub-contractor's who's work I'm inspecting become
evasive, or refuse to provide required information or tools or access, or becomes verbally abusive.
I will also document the event in writing citing who, what, when, where, and how.

• Reading and understanding the specification and contract documents, industry standards, product
data sheets (PDS), Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), and other technical references applicable
to the job I'm inspecting.

• Treating all proprietary and security-related information as confidential and pointing out any and
all known safety violations observed while at the job site to the appropriate contractor supervisor
or authorized safety professional. Reporting imminent danger situations immediately to the
appropriate supervisor directing the work force or authorized safety professional.

III. Maintain Professional Qualifications

I also pledge to:

• Obtain and maintain required certifications and licenses and obtain the training required to maintain
my qualification as an SSPC Protective Coatings qualified or certified coatings inspector.

• Maintain a library of current quality and inspection-related industry standards (e.g. SSPC, ASTM,
NACE, MPI, AWWA).

I agree to abide by the principles described above and I understand that if I'm found to have violated any
of the aforementioned principles, disciplinary action will be brought against me by SSPC, following
appropriate due process described in the Disciplinary Action Criteria.

Signature Date

Version No. 2, May, 2010

3
Module 1: Protecting Metal Surfaces From Corrosion: The Role of High Performance Coatings

SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 1 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. Corrosion is defined as the ___ of _

____________________________.

2 Carbon steel ____________________ energy during the corrosion process.

3. The use of _____ _ is the most widely used

method of corrosion control.

4. List four elements of a corrosion cell:

________________________________ ______________________________
________________________________ ______________________________

5. Which of the four elements in question 4 does a protective coating prevent from contacting
the steel? _____________________________________________

6. When corrosion occurs, the ______________ depletes or decays.

7. If a copper pipe is connected to an aluminum pipe without an insulator, which metal

represents the anode? _______________________________

8. List two dissimilar metals that are intentional coupled in the protective coatings industry as a
method of corrosion prevention?
_________________________ and _________________________

9. What type of chemical will deteriorate uncoated weathering steel? _______________

10. ___________________ pigments form plate-like layers and provide barrier protection to
steel surfaces.

11. What two elements are prevented from contacting the steel when a barrier-type coating is
employed? _____________________ and ________________________.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

12. Zinc-rich primers protect the steel by and ______

protection.

13. Thermal spray metallizing and galvanizing protect the steel by ______________ and
____________________ protection.

14. Borates, chromates, phosphates and other pigments protect the steel by _________________
_____________.

15. Cathodic protection can be in the form of _______ _ or

____________________ current.

16. ________________________ is considered passive cathodic protection.

17. _________________________ is considered active cathodic protection.

18. Cathodic protection is used in conjunction with _ .

19. ___ and are metals that form a protective

oxidation layer.

20. When corrosion occurs, the steel is _____________________ energy.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Module 2b Workshop: Ethics

As a group, review each of the scenarios below and discuss and answer the questions. Have a group
spokesman prepared to discuss your group’s answers at the end of the session. (Note: This section is
to be performed by U.S. students only.)

SCENARIO 1:

You are performing part-time third party Quality Assurance services for the Owner. The contractor
blast cleaned and painted while you were not on-site. When you arrive on-site, the Owner hands you
a piece of paper that says “Tuesday, surface preparation ok. Ambient ok, 100 gallons primer applied,
okay.” He asks you to record this information on a dated inspection report and to sign it.

Question 1: Do you record the information?

Question 2: If yes, how do record it “ethically?”

Question 3: If no, what action(s) should you take?

SCENARIO 2:

You are hired by a facility Owner to provide third party QA. You’ve been assigned out-of-town and
are living in the same hotel as the contractor’s workers. You often see them in the hotel bar. Every
time you are at the bar, the contractor pays for your drinks.

Question 1: Is it okay to accept the “free” drinks?

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Question 2: If no, how might you prevent this from occurring or handle it ethically?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

SCENARIO 3:

The coating manufacturer is on-site passing out free hats.

Question 1: Is it okay to accept the “free” hat?

SCENARIO 4:

You’ve been working as the facility Owner’s QA on the same out-of-town project with the same
contractor for over a year. You have a good working relationship. Your vehicle breaks down and
you cannot replace it. The contractor allows you to use the company pick-up truck. He also gives
you his credit card to use for gas.

Question 1: What are the potential risks to this arrangement?

Question 2: List 3 potential ethical breaches related to this scenario?

SCENARIO 5:

You are the contractor’s QC. You measure the ambient conditions prior to the start of painting with
an epoxy primer and they comply with the specification. However, during painting you notice that
the weather is changing and obtain additional ambient measurements that indicate the dew point
temperature has now fallen below the surface temperature. You advise the foreman, who tells you
that his application is underway and that he’s going to finish painting, regardless of the conditions.
He tells you to ignore it, to not record the additional measurements, and just let him finish the job.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Question 1: Should you record the conditions?

Question 2: If yes, what then?

Question 3: If no, why?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Question 4: What other actions should be taken by the QC?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 2 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. _ ___ is performing observations and tests, and

documenting that the work meets/exceeds the specification requirements.

2. ____ is the contractor’s responsibility.

3. ____ is the process to verify the quality of work

performed as reported by quality control personnel.

4. __ is performed by the or a

________________ _____________________ on behalf of the __________________.

5. When an _ performs QA with his direct staff, he has a ___

_____ _________________________ with the contractor and can exert control.

6. When an _____________ __________ performs QA for the owner, he does not have
______________________ _________________________ with the contractor and can only
_________________ and document, and advise the __________________ QC.

7. Independent of whether ___ personnel are on-site, the

contractor remains responsible for __________________ _____________________.

8. When work is halted for an inspection, it is known as a ___

inspection.

9. List six common hold point inspections:

10. Which party should inspect the completed work first, QA or QC? ______________

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11. If the inspected area is deficient, which party should inspect the surface first after the rework
is completed, QA or QC? _____________________

12. ___________ observations and test results typically supersede those of __________.

13. Prior to a pre-construction conference an inspector should ______________ the

______________________________.

14. List seven topics that should be discussed at a pre-construction conference:

15. An inspection plan can contain three columns, titled as:

_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________

16. The content of the “acceptance criteria” section for an inspection plan comes from the
_________________________________

17. A Work Plan should cover the individual _________________ of a project, including both
_________________________ and ___________________________.

18. A Work Plan is also known as a

_____________________________.

19. One of the most important responsibilities of a coatings inspector is to ______________ the
results of _______________________.

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Module 3: Case Study

Surface Preparation of the Interior and Exterior of

the Sun Spree Township Elevated Potable Water
Storage Tank

Project Description

The Sun Spree Township Municipal Authority (a suburb of Ft.

Lauderdale, FL) commissioned a coating condition survey of their 50
year old elevated potable water storage tank. The engineering firm’s
report recommended total removal and replacement of the lining on the
interior of the tank, as well as removal of the coating on the exterior
of the tank, which contains both lead and chromium pigmentation in
the existing coating. The exterior surfaces (underside of the bowl) also
contain high levels of chloride (range of 50 to 100 µg/cm2), which is
likely due to the proximity of the tank to the beach front.

Sun Spree Township awarded the surface preparation and coating

application work to Smith Bros. Contracting, a local firm that
specializes in industrial surface preparation and painting. Smith Bros.
is responsible for providing a trained specialist to perform quality
control throughout the project. You are employed by Sun Spree
Township as the resident corrosion specialist, and will be performing
quality assurance oversight on the project.

The information provided below was excerpted from the project

specification and only pertains to surface preparation activities:

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Abrasive Recyclable steel grit (conforming to SSPC-

AB 2 and AB 3)
Surface Cleanliness of Interior Surfaces SSPC-SP10/NACE No. 2
Surface Cleanliness of Exterior Surfaces SSPC-SP6/NACE No. 3
Cleanliness of Compressed Air Per ASTM D 4285 (once/shift)
Minimum Blast Nozzle Pressure 758 KPa (110 psi)
Surface Profile of Interior and Exterior Surfaces Angular; 50-87.5 microns (2-3.5 mils);
Minimum peak count: 34/cm
Minimum Lighting for Surface Preparation 500 Lux (47 foot-candles)
Minimum Lighting for Inspection 2000 Lux (186 foot-candles)
Minimum Chloride, Ferrous Ion, and Sulfate Levels 10 µg/cm2
Environmental Conditions Surface temperature a minimum of 3°C
(5°F) above dew point
Maximum Time Between Surface Preparation and 8 hours
Primer Application

Work together in your teams to address each of the quality-related issues described below. Elect
a team spokesperson to present your answers to the class and be prepared to defend them if
questioned.

1. As the quality assurance inspector, how would you determine whether the abrasive the
contractor has mobilized on the project site conforms to SSPC-AB3?

2. The contractor spent extra time preparing the exterior surfaces, and even exceeded the specified
level of cleanliness (approached level SSPC-SP10). However, the surface began to rust bloom
before the primer could be applied. By coincidence, the amount of rust bloom did not exceed
33% of the surface. The contractor is claiming that the surface meets the minimum level of
cleanliness required by the specification and wants to proceed with primer application. The
surface preparation-to-primer application time is within the 8-hour window. Explain how you
would respond.

3. The cleanliness of the compressed air was assessed by the quality control specialist upstream
of the moisture and oil extractor. Comment as to whether this test was performed properly.

4. The blast nozzle pressure was reportedly measured by the quality control specialist before
production blast cleaning was initiated and was recorded as 862 KPa (125 psi). During
production abrasive blast cleaning, you ask the quality control specialist to re-measure the blast

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

nozzle pressure, and the gage read 620 KPa (90 psi). Based on this information, answer the
following:

Does the “during production” pressure reading conform to the specification?

What may be causing the difference in the two pressures?

5. The interior steel surfaces of the tank contain pitting of the steel. Inspection of the surfaces
after abrasive blast cleaning revealed trace amounts of paint residue in the bottom of the pits.
However, the residue is only visible using a 10X illuminated magnifier. Is the presence of this
residue cause for re-blasting of the surfaces?

6. The quality control specialist tested the condition of the recycled abrasive and recorded that the
abrasive samples collected contained 2% of non-abrasive residue. Does the abrasive meet the
requirement for non-abrasive residue under SSPC-AB2?

7. After 5 hours of production blast cleaning on the interior of the tank, the surface profile depth
was measured by the quality control specialist and recorded as 107 µm (4.2 mils), with a peak
count of 40/cm.

Does the surface roughness meet the requirements of the project specification?

If no, describe what steps the contractor may take to correct the non-conformance.

If no, describe what the contractor could have done to avoid the non-conformance.

8. The quality control specialist assessed the amount of light inside the tank prior to surface
preparation operations. The amount of light was measured and recorded as 600 Lux (56 foot-
candles). Does this conform to the project specification?

The same amount of light was available when he assessed the surface cleanliness. Is this
acceptable? Explain.

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9. The quality control specialist measured the ambient conditions and surface temperature prior
to abrasive blast cleaning. The surface temperature was 2°C (3ºF) above the dew point, but the
conditions appeared to be improving, so the quality control specialist allowed the contractor to
proceed. Was this acceptable? Explain.

10. The quality control specialist reported the following levels after assessing the cleanliness of the
exterior surfaces. Do the surfaces meet the requirements of the project specification?

Meets Specification
Chemical Level
Yes No
Chloride 7 µg/cm2
Ferrous Ion 10 µg/cm2
Sulfate 17 µg/cm2

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Summary Table of Surface Cleanliness Standards

SSPC NACE What Must Be What Can

Title
Designation Designation Removed? Remain?
Grease and oil No visible grease
SSPC-SP 1 None Solvent Cleaning1
contamination & oil
Loosely adhering Tightly adhering
SSPC-SP 2 None Hand Tool Cleaning
materials materials2
Power Tool Loosely adhering Tightly adhering
SSPC-SP 3 None
Cleaning materials materials2
All mill scale, rust &
SSPC-SP 5 NACE 1 White Metal Blast Nothing
paint
All mill scale, rust &
SSPC-SP 6 NACE 3 Commercial Blast Up to 33% stains3
paint
Loosely adhering Tightly adhering
SSPC-SP 7 NACE 4 Brush-off Blast
materials materials2
Grease, oil, dirt, mill
SSPC-SP 8 None Pickling Nothing
scale and rust
Near-White Blast All mill scale, rust &
SSPC-SP 10 NACE 2 Up to 5% stains3
Cleaning paint
Power Tool Nothing4. Must
All mill scale, rust &
SSPC-SP 11 None Cleaning to Bare have minimum 1
paint
Metal mil profile
Preparation of
SSPC-SP 13 NACE 6 NA NA
Concrete
Up to 10% intact
rust, paint or mill
Loosely adhering
SSPC-SP 14 NACE 8 Industrial Blast scale. Stains on
materials
remaining surface
permitted2,3
Up to 33%
Commercial
All mill scale, rust & stains3,4. Must
SSPC-SP 15 None Grade Power Tool
paint have minimum 1
Cleaning
mil profile
Brush-Off Blast
Cleaning of Visible oil, grease,
Coated and dirt, dust, metal Intact, tightly
adherent coating2.
Uncoated oxides (corrosion
SSPC-SP 16 None Must have
Galvanized Steel, products), and minimum 1 mil
Stainless Steels, other foreign profile
and Non-Ferrous matter.
Metals
Free of all visible
Waterjet Cleaning Discoloration of
rust, dirt, previous
SSPC-SP WJ-1 NACE WJ-1 of Metals to Bare the surface may
coatings, mill scale,
Substrate be present
and foreign matter

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Summary Table of Surface Cleanliness Standards

SSPC NACE What Must Be What Can

Title
Designation Designation Removed? Remain?
Staining or tightly
Waterjet Cleaning Free of all visible adherent
SSPC-SP WJ-2 NACE WJ-2 of Metals Very oil, grease, dirt, and matter is limited
Thorough Cleaning rust to a maximum of
5% of the surface
Staining or tightly
adherent matter is
Waterjet Cleaning Free of all visible
limited to
SSPC-SP WJ-3 NACE WJ-3 of Metals Thorough oil, grease, dirt, and
a maximum
Cleaning rust
of 33% of the
surface
Free of all
Any residual
Waterjet Cleaning visible oil, grease,
material shall be
SSPC-SP WJ-4 NACE WJ-4 of Metals Light dirt, dust, loose mill
tightly
Cleaning scale, loose rust,
adherent
and loose coating
1
Prerequisite to all methods of surface preparation if deposits are visibly present
2
Remaining materials considered tight if they cannot be loosened with a dull putty knife
3
Unit of surface area is 9 square inches
4
Slight residues from paint and rust can remain in the bottom of pits if the original surface is pitted

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2015 SSPC W3-6
Name ____________________________________ Score _____________________________
Date _____________________________________

©2015 SSPC
Complete the chart below by placing an “X” in the appropriate column(s). Each correct entry is worth 1 point. If you
put an “X” where it doesn’t belong, or if you do not put an “X” where it does belong, you lose 1 point each time.
NOTE: By placing an “X” in a column, you indicate that it is true 100% of the time.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Characteristics SP1 SP2 SP3 SP4 SP5 SP6 SP7 SP9 SP10 SP11 SPWJ SP14 SP15
Allows intact mill scale to remain
Invokes the dull putty knife as the inspection tool
Allows up to 10% intact material to remain
Requires a minimum 1 mil surface profile
Permits only staining to remain
Allows material to remain in the pits
Addresses non-visible contamination
Automatically invokes SSPC-SP1
Invokes a maximum of 33% staining
Invokes a maximum of 5% staining
Requires removal of loose coating
Is a cancelled SSPC surface cleanliness standard
Is evaluated with the help of magnification
Indirectly invokes abrasive cleanliness
Indirectly invokes compressed air cleanliness
Module 3 Workshop A: Surface Preparation Standards

W3-8
Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection
Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

Module 3 Workshop B: Using Instruments and Standards

for Inspection of Surface Preparation

Students should refer to the instrument supplement at the end of

Modules 3 in the student manual for the step-by-step instructions for
these workshops.

Station 1 – Light Meter

Record the ambient level of lighting in the training room using the light meter. Determine whether
there is adequate lighting to perform inspection activities according to the minimum guidelines
provided by SSPC Guide 12.

Area Amount of Light (Lux) Amount of Light (Foot Candles)

1
2
3
4
5
Average

Based on the minimum guidelines provided in SSPC Guide 12, is the average level of lighting
adequate for inspection activities? __________________________________

Station 2 - Surface Profile Comparator (surface profile depth)

Test surface “A” was prepared using coal slag abrasive. Select the correct comparator disc and
measure and record the surface profile depth.

Abrasive Used Disc Selected Surface Profile Depth

Test surface “B” was prepared using steel shot abrasive. Select the correct comparator disc and
measure and record the surface profile depth.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC W3-10
Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

Abrasive Used Disc Selected Surface Profile Depth

Station 3 - Measuring Surface Profile

Measure surface profile per Method B and C of ASTM D4417.

Test Surface A and B for the profile using a profile depth micrometer. Insert your results below.

Surface Profile
Test Surface Surface Profile (mils)
(micrometers)

"A"

"B"

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Choose the correct tape and measure and record the surface profile on Test Surfaces A and B. The
specified surface profile depth for Test Surface A is 25-50 microns (1-2 mils). The specified surface
profile depth for Test Surface B is 50-87.5 microns (2-3.5 mils).

Test Surface Surface Profile (mils) Place Tape Here

Station 4A - SSPC-VIS 1, “Visual Standard for Abrasive Blast Cleaned

Steel”

Record the initial condition, the SSPC surface cleanliness code and the reference photograph
designation from the visual standard in the table below for each of the five (5) scenarios:

Scenario 1: The surface contains both mill scale and rust and a Brush-off Blast is specified.

Scenario 2: The surface is completely rusted and the specification requires a Commercial Blast.

Scenario 3: The surface contains a weathered coating system over mill scale and moderate pitting
is present. The specification requires a White Metal Blast.

Scenario 4: The surface contains a weathered coating system over mill scale and extensive
pinpoint rusting is present. The specification requires an Industrial Blast.

Scenario 5: The surface is rusted and pitted, and the specification requires a White Metal Blast.

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Station 4A Data Table

Initial Surface Visual Standard

Scenario
Condition Cleanliness Code Reference
1
2
3
4
5

Station 4B: Evaluating Surface Cleanliness Using SSPC VIS 1

Using the SSPC VIS 1 guide, examine the test plates provided and record the initial condition and
the degree of surface cleanliness achieved for each one.

Station 4B Data Table

Test Plate Code Initial Condition Degree of Surface Cleanliness Achieved

Station 5A – SSPC-VIS 3 “Visual Standard for Power- and Hand-Tool

Cleaned Steel”

Record the initial condition, the SSPC surface cleanliness code, the power tool code and the
reference photograph designation from the visual standard in the table below for each of the five (5)
scenarios:

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Scenario 1: The surface contains a zinc-rich primer. Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal is
specified.

Scenario 2: The surface contains a weathered paint system applied over mill scale. The
specification requires Power Tool Cleaning. The contractor is using a power wire
brush.

Scenario 3: The surface is rusted and pitted. The specification requires Hand Tool Cleaning.

Scenario 4: The surface contains a light colored coating applied to an abrasive blast cleaned
surface. The specification requires Commercial Grade Power Tool Cleaning.

Scenario 5: The surface contains both mill scale and rust. The specification requires Power Tool
Cleaning. The contractor is using a sanding disc.

Station 5A Data Table

Surface Visual
Initial Power Tool
Scenario Cleanliness Standard
Condition Code
Code Reference
1 NA
2
3 NA
4 NA
5

Station 5B: Evaluating Surface Cleanliness Using SSPC VIS 3

Using the SSPC VIS 3 guide, examine the test plates provided and record the initial condition and
the degree of surface cleanliness achieved for each one.

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Station 5B Data Table

Initial
Test Plate Code Degree of Surface Cleanliness Achieved
Condition

Station 6A - SSPC-VIS 4/NACE VIS 7, “Guide and Reference Photographs

for Steel Surfaces Prepared by Water Jetting”

Record the initial condition, the SSPC surface cleanliness code, the flash rust code (if required) and
the reference photograph designation from the visual standard in the table below for each of the five
(5) scenarios:

Scenario 1: The surface contains a zinc-rich primer. Very thorough cleaning by water jetting is
specified.

Scenario 2: The steel surface contains a weathered paint system. The specification requires light
cleaning by water jetting.

Scenario 3: The surface is rusted and pitted. The specification requires thorough cleaning by
water jetting. Light flash rusting is permitted.

Scenario 4: The surface contains a light colored coating applied to an abrasive blast cleaned
surface. The specification requires water jetting to expose 100% of the bare steel.

Scenario 5: The surface contains rust but no visible pitting. The specification requires thorough
water jetting. Medium flash rusting is permitted.

Station 6A Data Table

Surface Visual Standard
Initial Flash Rust
Scenario Cleanliness Reference (with Flash
Condition Code
Code Rust Code if Applicable)
1 NA
2 NA
3
4 NA
5

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Station 6B: Evaluating Surface Cleanliness Using ISO 8501-1 Standard

Determine the ISO Surface Cleanliness Code for the following scenarios:

Scenario 1: The specification requires removal of all poorly adhering materials by hand and power
tools.

Scenario 2: The specification requires only staining to remain on the surface. The surface should be
prepared by abrasive blast cleaning.

Scenario 3: The specification requires that the steel surface that contains adhering mill scale is abra-
sive blast cleaned to a "visually clean" level.

Station 6B Data Table

Scenario Surface Cleanliness Code
1
2
3

Station 7A - SSPC-VIS 5/NACE VIS 9, “Guide and Reference Photographs

for Steel Surfaces Prepared by Wet Abrasive Blast Cleaning”

Scenario 1: The surface contains rust but no visible pitting. A Near-White Blast using wet
abrasive blast cleaning is specified. Light flash rusting is permitted.

Scenario 2: The surface is rusted and pitted. The specification requires a Commercial Blast using
wet abrasive blast cleaning. Medium flash rusting is permitted.

Scenario 3: The surface is rusted and pitted. A Near-White Blast using wet abrasive blast cleaning
is specified. No flash rusting is permitted.

Scenario 4: The surface contains rust but no visible pitting. The specification requires a
Commercial Blast using wet abrasive blast cleaning. Heavy flash rusting is permitted.

Scenario 5: The surface is rusted and pitted. The specification requires a Commercial Blast using
wet abrasive blast cleaning. No flash rusting is permitted.

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Station 7A Data Table

Surface
Initial Flash Rust Surface Cleanliness Code
Scenario Cleanliness
Condition Code with Flash Rust Code
Code
1
2
3 NA NA
4
5 NA NA

Station 8 – Surface Chloride Detection, pH Measurement and Ferrous Ion

Detection Using the Latex Patch Sampling Procedure

Using the Bresle PatchTM, Quantab Titrator® Strip, pH strip and ferrous ion strip, collect a sample
from the surface and test it for chloride and ferrous ion content, and pH.

Station 8 - 8A Data Table (chloride)

Entry Result
PPM (from Quantab® conversion chart) _________ PPM
Quantity of Water Used in Syringe 2 mL
PPM x Quantity of Water Used _______________ micrograms of chloride
Area Tested 12.25 cm2
Micrograms of chloride ÷ Area Tested _______________micrograms/cm2 chloride

Station 8 - 8B Data Table (ferrous ion)

Entry Result
PPM (from conversion chart) _________ PPM
Quantity of Water Used in Syringe 2 mL
PPM x Quantity of Water Used _______________ micrograms of ferrous ion
Area Tested 12.25 cm2
Micrograms of ferrous ion ÷ Area Tested _______________micrograms/cm2 ferrous ion

pH of test solution ____________________ Place Quantab here:

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Station 9 – Conductivity Measurement

Verify the accuracy of the conductivity meter, then measure and record the conductivity of the test
solution collected in Station 8.

Conductivity: ___________________________

Station 10 - Ambient Conditions

Measure and record the prevailing environmental conditions.

Condition Reading
Date
Time of day
Dry Bulb Reading (air temperature or “t”)
Wet Bulb Reading (t’)
Depression of the Wet Bulb Thermometer (t-t’)
Relative Humidity
Dew Point Temperature
Surface Temperature
Note: Use the shaded areas to record the dry and wet bulb readings as they stabilize (i.e., every
20-30 seconds). Base the depression (t-t’), relative humidity and dew point measurements on the
stabilized readings in the un-shaded blocks.

Station 11 – Surface Dust Assessment

Assess the amount of dust present on the test plate according to the test procedure described in ISO
8502-3. The tape and 10X magnifier are provided. Thumb pressure is adequate for attachment of the
tape to the surface (the spring tensioned roller is not required).

Test Plate Code Dust Quantity Rating Dust Size Class

Module 3, Workshop B Completion

Transfer the data from Stations 1, 3B, 4B (first entry), 8B, 9, 10, and 11 onto the SSPC Inspection
Documentation form (attached). Compare the results recorded on the documentation form to the
abbreviated project specification (attached) and assess whether the results of your inspections
conform to the requirements of the specification.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC W3-18
Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #: Copy to:
Daily Coating Inspection Report Inspector: QC Super Owner

Contr
Project/Client:
Location: Attachments:
DFT Sheet NCR/CAR
Description:
Requirements:
Contractor: Spec #: Revision #:
Description of Areas and Work Performed Hold Point Inspections Performed
1. Pre Surface Preparation/Condition and Cleanliness
2. Surface Preparation Monitoring
3. Post Surface Preparation/Cleanliness and Profile
4. Pre Application Prep/Surface Cleanliness
5. Application Monitoring/Wet Film Thickness (WFT)
6. Post Application/Application Defects
7. Post Cure/Dry Film Thickness (DFT)
8. Nonconformance/Corrective Actions Follow-Up
9. Final Inspection
Approved by:
Surface Conditions Ambient Conditions
: : : :
New Maint Primer/Paint Age/Dry/Cure Time (Indiciate AM or PM)
Steel Galvanize Concrete Other Dry Bulb Tempº (C/F) º º º º
Hazard Sample Report # Wet Bulb Tempº (C/F) º º º º
Degree of contamination: % Relative Humidity % % % %
Test: Cl µg/cm2/µs Fe ppm pH Surface Tempº (C/F) Min/Max / º / º / º / º
Degree of Corrosion: Dew Point Tempº (C/F) º º º º
Scale Pitting/Holes Crevices Sharp Edges Wind Direction/Speed
Weld Moisture Oils Other Weather Conditions
Painted Surface Condition: Application
Dry to: Touch Handle Recoat Start Time: Finish Time: Est Sq Ft:
Dry/Over Spray Runs/Sags Pinholes Holidays Primer Intermediate Topcoat Touch-Up
Abrasion Fall Out Other Generic Type: Qty Mixed:
Surface Preparation Mfr: Mix Ratio:
Start Time: Finish Time: Est Sq Ft: Prod Name: Mix Method:
Solvent Clean Hand Tool Power Tool Prod #: Strain/Screen:
ºF
HP Wash PSI Other Color: Material Temp:
Min/Hrs
Abrasive Blast Abrasive Type Sample Kit Sz/Cond: Sweat-In Time:
Min/Hrs
Blast Hose Size Nozzle Size/PSI Shelf Life: Pot Life:
Air Supply CFM Air Supply Cleanliness Batch #s Reducer #:
Pt/Qt/Gal
Water/Oil Trap Check Equipment Condition Check (A) Qty Added:
%
Surface Cleanliness and Profile Measurement (B) % by Vol:
Mils
Job Specification SSPC/NACE SP (C) Specified WFT Avg:
Mils
SSPC/NACE Spec/Visual Stds Reducer: Achieved WFT Avg:
Profile Check Disc Tape Gage Airless/Conv Spray Brush Roller Other
Specified mils avg/Achieved mils Pump Pot: Hose Diameter: Air Check:
Surface Effect on DFT Gage/BMR mils Ratio/Size: Hose Length: SEP/Trap:
Dry Film Thickness GPM/CFM: Spray Gun: Filter:
Gage Type/
Model
Gage
Serial #
Plate/Shim
Mils/µm
Gage Adj
+/–
Spec Avg
DFT
DFT Last
Coat
DFT This
Coat
PSI: Tip Size: Agitator:
Inspector Signature: Date:
SSPC QCS 2-06 Revision 1 09/2005

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©2015 SSPC W3-19
Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

Module 3 Workshop B: Project Specification for

Module 3 Workshop B: Project Specification for
Preparation and Painting of Structural Steel
Preparation and Painting of Structural Steel

SECTION 12: (Surface Preparation Portions only)

12-1 General

12-1.01 Description
The work shall consist of surface preparation of structural steel in conformance with the
provisions of the various sections of these specifications.

12-2 Preparing Structural Steel

12-2.01 General
Cleaning of structural steel shall conform to the provisions in Section 12-1, "General,"
and this Section 12-2. The Contractor is responsible for controlling the quality of the
work and shall provide a trained Quality Control Specialist for the project.

12-2.02 Surface Preparation

All surfaces of structural steel that are to be painted shall be prepared by solvent cleaning,
then abrasive blast cleaning as described in sections 12-2.03 and 12-2.04.

12-2.03 Pre-surface Preparation

All dirt, grease, soluble salts or other foreign material that have accumulated on the steel
surfaces shall be removed by solvent cleaning in accordance with SSPC-SP1. Soluble
salts (chloride, ferrous ion and sulfate), if present in excess of 7 micrograms per square
centimeter (µg/cm2) shall be removed by water washing using pressures not less than
5,000 psi. Verification of soluble salt remediation shall be performed according to SSPC
Guide 15 using the CSN kit and ferrous ion test strips.

12-2.04 Surface Preparation (Abrasive Blast Cleaning)

Abrasives used for blast cleaning shall be of a recyclable type, capable of producing a
sharp, angular surface roughness. The use of abrasives other than those specified in this
Section 12-2.04 will not be permitted unless authorized in writing by the Engineer.

Note: This document

Note: This ismock
not intended to represent
and is notaintended
properly prepared
represent aspecification.
Note: This document
documentisisa not specification
intended to represent a properlytoprepared properly prepared
specifi cation.
specification.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC
Protective Coatings Inspector Training W3-20
©2007 SSPC W-17
Module 3 - Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection
Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

The cleanliness of the compressed air used for abrasive blast cleaning shall be verified for
cleanliness in accordance with ASTM D4285.

Surfaces shall be prepared according to the requirements of SSPC Surface Preparation

Specification No. 10/NACE No. 2, "Near-White Blast Cleaning." Blast cleaning shall
leave all surfaces with a dense, uniform, angular anchor pattern that produces a surface
profile depth of 50-87.5 microns (2-3.5 mils) as measured according to Method C
described in ASTM D 4417. The peak density shall be a minimum of 40/cm as measured
according to ASTM D 7127.

Blast cleaned surfaces shall be primed the same day blast cleaning is performed, unless
otherwise authorized by the Engineer. If prepared surfaces rust or are contaminated with
foreign material before primer application is completed, the surfaces shall be re-cleaned
by the Contractor at the Contractor's expense.

Abrasive blast cleaned surfaces shall be free of visible dust prior to primer application.
Dust removal may be performed by brushing, blow down or vacuuming. The cleanliness
of the compressed air used for blow down shall be verified for cleanliness in accordance
with ASTM D 4285. A dust assessment shall be performed according to the procedure
described in ISO 8502-3 (using thumb pressure only on the tape) after brushing, blow
down or vacuuming is completed. The dust quantity shall be 1 and the dust size shall be 2
or less.

12-2.05 Weather Conditions

Surface preparation shall only be performed when the temperature of the surfaces to be
prepared is a minimum of 3oC (5oF) above the temperature of the dew point.

Subject to approval by the Engineer in writing, the Contractor may provide suitable
enclosures to permit surface preparation during inclement weather. Provisions shall be
made to control atmospheric conditions artificially inside the enclosures within limits
suitable throughout the surface preparation operations. Lighting inside the enclosure shall
be in accordance with the guidelines provided in SSPC Guide 12 (Illumination) for
surface preparation and inspection activities.

Note: This document is a mock specification and is not intended to represent a properly prepared
specification.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Protective Coatings Inspector Training W-18
©2007 SSPC W3-21
©2015 SSPC
Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 3 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. Preparing a surface for coating application is the most ________________ and typically the
most ____________________ step.

2. List five common responsibilities of a coatings inspector relating to surface preparation:

______________________________ ___________________________
______________________________ ___________________________
______________________________

3. The two-fold purpose of surface preparation is to ___ and

______ the substrate.

4. and have prepared a standard and a recommended

practice for measurement of ______________________ _______________________.

5. ________________________ dictates the surface required surface profile depth.

6. The surface profile or anchor pattern must be ______________ with the entire
_________________________ _________________________.

7. List two “fabrication defects” that may be addressed in a coating specification.

______________________________ ___________________________

8. List three methods that can be used to inspect surfaces for the presence of grease/oil:
______________________________ ___________________________
______________________________

9. occurs between mating surfaces, while ______

__________________ forms on the surface of the steel.

10. Chemical contaminants like chloride trapped beneath a coating film can cause ____________
________ blistering, ________________ __________________ and ___________________
failure.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

11. Testing for chemical contamination involves two steps: ___________________ and _______
___________________.

12. ______________________ environments are more conducive to coating deterioration caused

by chemical contamination beneath the coating film than _________________________
environments.

13. Suggested thresholds for soluble salt concentrations are found in the appendix to __________
________________

14. The depth and shape of the surface profile generated by abrasive blast cleaning is determined
by the ____________________ and the _______________________ of the surface.

15. Abrasives fall into two general categories, _____________ and ______________.

16. SSPC AB 1 categorizes abrasives according to __, _ and

___________________.

17. The abrasive cleanliness requirements in SSPC abrasive specifications AB1, AB2 and
AB3 are ___________________ requirements of the SSPC abrasive blast cleaning surface
cleanliness standards.

18. List four tests that an inspector can perform in the field to verify conformance to SSPC AB1:
______________________________ ___________________________
______________________________ ___________________________

19. SSPC AB2 governs the quality of ___________ _ __

______________.

20. Steel grit produces an _____________________-shaped surface profile.

21. Steel shot produces a _____________________-shaped surface profile.

22. List three tests that an inspector can perform in the field to verify conformance to SSPC AB3:
______________________________ ___________________________
______________________________

23. List one test that an inspector cannot perform in the field to verify conformance to SSPC
AB2: ____________________________________________

24. The diameter of an S330 steel shot abrasive is ________________________.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

25. Which abrasive is larger, G25 or G50? ______________________________.

26. Centrifugal blast machines often incorporate a blend of _____________ ________ and
_______________ _____________ abrasives.

27. Wet abrasive blast cleaning is used when ______________ ___________ must be controlled.

28. High pressure water jetting incorporates pressures from ____________ to _______________
MPa.

29. Chemical strippers do not remove _____________ or _________ _____________ and will
not generate a _____________________ _____________________.

30. SSPC surface cleanliness standards become contract law once they are invoked by the
______________________________.

31. SSPC-SP1, “____” is an requirement of

the SSPC surface cleanliness standards.

32. SSPC-SP2 “______” requires the removal of all

_________ _________, ________ & _______________.

33. SSPC-SP2 requires the use of a ___ _ _____ as the

inspection tool.

34. SSPC-SP3 “______” requires the removal of all

mill scale, rust & _______________.

35. What is the primary difference between SSPC-SP15, “______________________________

_____________________” and SSPC-SP11, “_____________________________________
_________________________?”
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

36. In addition to solvent cleaning ___________________ _ ____________ is an

indirect requirement of SSPC-SP3, SP15 and SP11.

37. Which two SSPC surface cleanliness standards invoke a minimum surface profile
requirement? ________________________ and __________________________

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What is the minimum requirement? _____________

38. List three “indirect requirements” of the SSPC abrasive blast cleaning standards:
___________________________ ______________________________
___________________________

39. The amount of staining allowed by the SSPC abrasive blast cleaning standards is based on
what area? ___________________________________

40. SSPC-SP/NACE No. 4, “ ” requires the

removal of all ____________________ ______________________ rust, paint & mill scale.

41. SSPC-SP14/NACE No. , “ ” allows up to

___% _____________ rust, paint or mill scale to remain. The amount of staining is
______________________.

42. The only difference between SSPC-SP /NACE No. 3, “________________________

_______________” and SSPC-SP10/NACE No. __, “_____________________________
_______________” is ______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.

43. SSPC-SP___/NACE No. 3 allows up to ___% staining to remain on each ______ square inch
area.

44. SSPC-SP10/NACE No. __ allows up to ___% staining to remain on each ______ square inch
area.

45. SSPC-SP__/NACE No. __ allows no paint, rust, mill scale or straining to remain.

46. SSPC-SP WJ-2/NACE WJ-2 allows up to _____% of the surface to contain straining or
tightly adhering matter.

47. The “L” in “SSPC SP WJ-3” indicates _______ _ ______ is

permitted by the specification.

48. ISO St2, “__________________________________________” requires removal of all

________________ __________________ materials.
49. ISO ______, “________________________________” allows only stains to remain on the
surface.

50. The SSPC/NACE and ISO cleanliness standards prohibit the use of ___________________
when inspecting surface cleanliness.
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2013 SSPC Q3-4
Module 3: Surface Preparation: Methods, Industry Standards and Inspection

51. Prior to final surface preparation, it is recommended that the inspector verify that the
_________________ temperature is at least ____°F (___°C) higher than the
____________________________ temperature.

52. Dehumidification equipment ______________ moisture from the air.

53. List three methods of dehumidification: _________________________________

________________________________ _____________________________

54. Cooling air below the dew point for dehumidification of the air is the
__________________________ method.

55. Products that absorb moisture from the air as a means of dehumidification use the
__________________________ method.

56. Indicate the procedure for conducting a compressed air cleanliness test, below:
Conduct the test __________ stream of ________________ and oil separation.
Position the air outlet ______” from the collector
Exhaust the compressed air onto the collector for approximately _____________.

57. To conduct a “vial test,” fill a clear container with _____ abrasive and an equal amount of
__________________. Allow the shaken blend to settle for ________.

58. The maximum abrasive conductivity according to the SSPC abrasive specifications is
____________µS.

59. The minimum level of lighting for inspection is _____ Lux.

60. The recommended level of lighting for inspection is _________ ft/candles.

61. The visual standard reference “G2 SP14” in SSPC VIS 1 indicates:
__________________________________________________________________________

62. The visual standard reference “F SP3 PWB” in SSPC VIS 3 indicates:
__________________________________________________________________________

63. The visual standard reference “D WJ3 M” in SSPC VIS 4/NACE VIS 7 indicates:
_________________________________________________________________________

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

64. The visual standard reference “C WAB 6 H” in SSPC VIS 5/NACE VIS 9 indicates:
_________________________________________________________________________

65. The visual standard reference “A Sa3” in ISO 8501-1 indicates:

_________________________________________________________________________

66. Surface profile is defined as the maximum __________ ___ ______________ depth.

67. Profile generation __________________ the surface area of the steel.

68. An increase in peak count reportedly enhances ___ and a

greater resistance to ________________________.

69. The ________ comparator disc is selected for inspection of surface profile when garnet
abrasive is used to perform abrasive blast cleaning.

70. “3.0SH76” on a comparator disc segment indicates: _______________________.

71. Verify “zero-set” on a surface profile depth micrometer using a _________ _____________.

72. The measuring range of X-Coarse replica tape is _-_ mils.

73. The thickness of the Mylar film on replica tape is __________ mils.

74. Each grade of replica tape is most accurate in the _____________ of the range.

75. Complete the following chart:

Parts Per Million Chloride 176

Amount of Extraction Liquid 2 mL
Micrograms of Chloride
Area Extracted 12.25 cm2
Micrograms per cm2 chloride

76. Complete the following chart:

Conductivity of sample 120 µS/cm

Conductivity of blank 8.7 µS/cm
Net Conductivity of sample

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

77. Convert 35 µS/cm to surface chloride concentration.

78. A pH of 10 is considered ______________________

79. A pH of 3 is considered ________________________

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Module 4 Workshop: Arithmetic for the Protective

Coatings Inspector

Instructions

Using the basic arithmetic skills taught in Module 4, solve each of the Problem Sets below.
Remember to use your calculator to avoid making simple math errors. You may select the US
standard or the metric exercises, depending on the prevailing system used.

Problem Set 1: Averaging Values

You have collected the following surface profile measurements. Calculate the average of each area,
then average all of the areas together.

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5

50 microns 40 microns 76 microns 42 microns 44 microns
75 microns 43 microns 80 microns 58 microns 71 microns
62 microns 49 microns 57 microns 55 microns 56 microns

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5

2 mils 1.6 mils 3 mils 1.7 mils 1.7 mils
3 mils 1.7 mils 3.1 mils 2.3 mils 2.8 mils
2.4 mils 2 mils 2.2 mils 2.2 mils 2.2 mils

Average of Area 1 Average of all Areas _

Average of Area 2 ______________
Average of Area 3 ______________
Average of Area 4 ______________
Average of Area 5 ______________

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Problem Set 2: Averaging Values

You have collected the following coating thickness measurements. Calculate the average of each
area, then average all of the areas together.

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5

205 microns 181 microns 305 microns 256 microns 311 microns
312 microns 233 microns 295 microns 214 microns 298 microns
199 microns 241 microns 287 microns 277 microns 283 microns

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5

8 mils 7.1 mils 12 mils 10.1 mils 12.2 mils
12.3 mils 9.2 mils 11.6 mils 8.4 mils 11.7 mils
7.8 mils 9.5 mils 11.3 mils 10.9 mils 11.1 mils

Average of Area 1 Average of all Areas _

Average of Area 2 ______________
Average of Area 3 ______________
Average of Area 4 ______________
Average of Area 5 ______________

Problem Set 3: Converting Percentages to Decimal Format

A two coat exterior coating system has been specified and the products have been mobilized on the
project site. You have elected to calculate target wet film thickness and the maximum amount of
thinner that can be added to each. The coating manufacturer lists the volume solids content and the
allowable thinner as a percentage. You will need to convert each of the percentages to decimal.

Decimal Format
Allowable percentage of thinner for the primer: 15% _____________
Volume solids content of primer: 65% _____________
Allowable percentage of thinner for the topcoat: 5% _____________
Volume solids content of topcoat: 52% _____________

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Problem Set 4: Calculating Area

A cylindrical ground storage tank contains four (4) shell rings. Each shell ring is made from eight (8)
steel plates measuring 3 meters (10 feet) by 7 meters (23 feet). The interior and exterior of the tank is
to be coated (excluding the interior floor and interior ceiling, and the exterior roof, which all appear
to be in good condition). The tank owner has asked you to verify that the contractor has ordered
enough coating, so you will need to first calculate the total area of the shell rings to be coated. Use
the space below to show the steps you took to arrive at the final answer.

Total area of shell rings to be coated: ________________

Show steps here:

Problem Set 5: Calculating Area

The project specification for surface preparation of steel I beams in the fabrication shop requires
three (3) surface profile measurements every 30 square meters (100 square feet) of prepared surface.
There are two sizes of I beams on the project:

Beam Size A: 0.5 meter (18 inch) flanges

2 meter (6 foot) web
18 meters (60 foot) beam length
12 – stiffeners, each 2 meters (6 foot) x 10 cm (4 inches) wide

Beam Size B: 0.5 meter (18 inch) flanges

2.5 meter (8 foot) web
24 meters (80 foot) beam length
16 – stiffeners, each 2 meters (8 foot) x 10 cm (4 inches) wide

Total square meters (square feet) for Beam Size A: ______________

Total square meters (square feet) for Beam Size B: ______________

If the total project involves 12 beams of Size A and 15 beams of Size B, now many surface profile
measurements are required for the project? ___________________

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Use the space below to show the steps you took to arrive at the answers. You may also want to
draw and label the two beams with the dimensions for each to help visualize the sizes.

Problem Set 6: Calculating Volume of Coating

A three-component product has been selected for use on a project. Component A is 11 liters (3
gallons) in a 19 liter (5 gallon) container. Component B is 3.8 liters (1 gallon) in a 3.8 liter (1 gallon)
container. Component C is 0.5 liter (1 pint) in a 1 liter (1 quart) container. What is the total volume
of coating once all components are combined together?

Problem Set 7: Calculating Volume of Thinner

According to the manufacturer’s product data sheet for the three-component coating in Problem Set
6, the coating must be thinned 15%. What is the total volume of thinner that must be added to the
coating?

Problem Set 8: Converting Milliliters/Liter to Percentage

According to the manufacturer’s product data sheet, the recommended amount of thinner to add to
a coating is 50 milliliters per liter of coating. If the mixed volume of coating is 5 liters, how many
milliliters of thinner will be added?

What percentage of thinner will be added to the coating?

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Problem Set 9: Converting Ounces/Gallon to Percentage

According to the manufacturer’s product data sheet, the recommended amount of thinner to add to
a coating is 13 ounces per gallon of coating. If the mixed volume of coating is 5 gallons, how many
ounces of thinner will be added?

What percentage of thinner will be added to the coating?

Problem Set 10: Converting VOC Content

The local air quality regulations for a recoating project do not allow coatings containing VOC in
excess of 2.1 lbs./gallon. The product data sheet that the coating manufacturer provided for the
solvent borne primer only reports the VOC content in grams per liter, which is 250 grams/liter. Can
the coating be used on the project?

Based on the VOC content reported on the product data sheet, will the contractor be able to thin the
coating?

Problem Set 11: Converting VOC Content

A steel fabrication shop that also performs surface preparation and primer application work is
located in an area with very strict air pollution regulations. Coatings used by the fabrication shop
cannot exceed 375 grams/liter VOC. The shop wants to use a primer that contains 3.9 lbs./gal. VOC.
Can the primer be used by the shop?

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Problem Set 12: Converting Temperature

According to the coating manufacturer’s product data sheet, the air temperature must be maintained
between 40°F and 100°F during application. The air temperature is 34°C. Can coating application
work continue? After answering yes/no, indicate the actual temperature in °F.

Problem Set 13: Converting Temperature

According to the coating manufacturer’s product data sheet, the coating storage area must be
maintained between 10°C and 49°C. The air temperature in the storage area is 125°F. Does the
storage temperature conform to the manufacturer’s requirements? After answering yes/no, indicate
the actual temperature in °C.

Problem Set 14: Converting Units Used to Express Coating Thickness and Surface
Profile Depth

The coating specification requires a 2.0-3.5 mil surface profile depth. The actual surface profile depth
ranges from 63.5 to 83.8 microns. Does the area meet the specification? After answering yes/no,
indicate the actual surface profile range in mils.

Problem Set 15: Converting Units Used to Express Coating Thickness and Surface
Profile Depth

The coating specification requires the primer and intermediate coats to be a combined thickness of
203-305 microns. The thickness of the combined coats ranges from 6 to 10 mils. Does the area meet
the specification? After answering yes/no, indicate the actual coating thickness range in microns.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Problem Set 16: Calculating Coating Material and Thinner Requirements

A three-coat system has been specified for protecting a structure estimated to be 2,323 square meters
in area. The volume solids content is 75% for the primer, 56% for the intermediate coat and 46%
for the topcoat. The specified thickness is 75-100 microns for the primer, 125-178 microns for the
intermediate coat and 50-75 microns for the topcoat. The contractor will need to reduce the primer
and intermediate coatings by 10% with Thinner No. 2 and will need to thin the topcoat by 5% using
Thinner No. 4. Mixing and application losses are estimated to be 20% for each coating, and the
surface profile is expected to consume 15% of the primer. Based on this scenario, complete the chart
below:

Inquiry Enter Answer Here

Quantity of primer required (in liters)
Quantity of intermediate coating required (in liters)
Quantity of topcoat required (in liters)
Quantity of thinner required for primer &
intermediate coatings (in liters)
Quantity of thinner required for topcoat (in liters)

Show the metric version of the formula for calculating coating coverage here:

Show the values/equations you used to arrive at each answer below.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Problem Set 17: Calculating Coating Material and Thinner Requirements

A three-coat system has been specified for protecting a structure estimated to be 25,000 square feet
in area. The volume solids content is 75% for the primer, 56% for the intermediate coat and 46% for
the topcoat. The specified thickness is 3-4 mils for the primer, 5-7 mils for the intermediate coat and
2-3 mils for the topcoat. The contractor will need to reduce the primer and intermediate coatings by
10% with Thinner No. 2 and will need to thin the topcoat by 5% using Thinner No. 4. Mixing and
application losses are estimated to be 20% for each coating, and the surface profile is expected to
consume 15% of the primer. Based on this scenario, answer the questions below:

Inquiry Enter Answer Here

Quantity of primer required (in gallons)
Quantity of intermediate coating required (in gallons)
Quantity of topcoat required (in gallons)
Quantity of thinner required for primer & intermediate
coatings (in gallons)
Quantity of thinner required for topcoat (in gallons)

Show the US Standard version of the formula for calculating coating coverage here:

Show the values/equations you used to arrive at each answer below.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2013 SSPC W4-8
Module
Module4:4 Practial Arithmetic
- Practial forfor
Arithmetic thethe
Protective Coatings
Protective Inspector
Coatings Inspector

Protective Coatings
Protective Inspector
Coatings Training
Inspector Training
©2013
©2007SSPC
SSPC W4-9
W-9
Module 4: Practial Arithmetic for the Protective Coatings Inspector

SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 4 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. Average the following set of surface profile measurements: 3.5, 3.7, 2.9, 3.1. 4.0

2. Convert 39% to decimal format.

3. Calculate the amount of thinner to add to 10 gallons of mixed coating to be reduced 20%.

4. Calculate the area of a square that is 1.37 meters (4.5 feet) x 4.14 meters (13.6 feet).

5. Calculate the area of an I-beam that is 12.1 meters (40 feet) in length, has .3 meters (12 inches) wide
flanges, a 1.2 meter (48 inch) web, and 8 stiffeners (.10
meters x 1.2 meters long) (4 inches wide x 48 inches long).

6. Calculate the exterior surface area of a tank that is 13.7 meters (45 feet) in height and 27.4 meters (90
feet) in diameter.
__________________________________________________________________________

Calculate the volume of water the tank in Question 6 will hold. ________________________

7. Convert 2.4 pounds/gallon VOC to grams/Liter.

8. Convert 64°F to °C.

9. Convert 275 micrometers to mils

10. Calculate the quantity of primer required to coat 1,393 square meters (15,000 square feet) of blast
cleaned steel, based on the following data:

Specified Dry Film Thickness: 76.2-127 microns (3-5 mils)

Volume Solids Content: 84%
Mixing/Application Loss Estimate: 25%
Surface Roughness Loss Estimate: 20%
Recommended Thinner addition: 47% per liter (One pint per gallon)

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Module 5 Inspection Case Study: Coating and Lining

Installation of the Sun Spree Township Elevated
Potable Water Storage Tank

Project Description

The Sun Spree Township Municipal Authority (a suburb of Ft.

Sun Spree Township awarded the surface preparation and coating

The interior of the tank has been prepared to achieve a “Near-White

Metal” blast; the exterior has been blast cleaned to conform to SSPC-
SP 6, “Commercial Blast.” Both surfaces are ready to be coated. The
interior will be lined with a 3-coat NSF-approved epoxy system. The
three coats will be tinted different colors, but the manufacturer and
product no. are the same for each coat. The exterior will be coated with
one coat of epoxy and two coats of polyurethane (color coat and clear
coat with dissipative dye).

The information provided below was excerpted from the project

specification and only pertains to coating/lining system installation
activities:

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Interior Lining

Minimum Lighting for Coating Application 500 Lux (47 foot-candles)

Minimum Lighting for Inspection 2000 Lux (186 foot-candles)
Environmental Conditions Air Temperature: 50-120°F
Relative Humidity: Maximum 85%
Surface Temperature: 50-120°F
Surface Temperature a Minimum of 3°C
(5°F) Above Dew Point
Mixing Requirements Complete kits as supplied using a shear mixing
blade
Thinning Requirements Per manufacturer’s instructions
Coating Application Equipment Airless Spray, per manufacturer’s instructions
Coating Thickness SSPC-PA2 Level 3
Primer Thickness 125-175 µm (5-7 mils)
Intermediate Coat Thickness 125-175 µm (5-7 mils)
Topcoat Thickness 125-175 µm (5-7 mils)
Stripe Coats After primer application (using primer)
After intermediate coat application (using
intermediate coat)
Maximum Time Between Coats 30 Days

Exterior Coating

Minimum Lighting for Coating Application 500 Lux (47 foot-candles)

Minimum Lighting for Inspection 2000 Lux (186 foot-candles)
Environmental Conditions Air Temperature: 50-120°F
Relative Humidity: Maximum 85%
Surface Temperature: 50-120°F
Surface Temperature a Minimum of 3°C
(5°F) Above Dew Point
Mixing Requirements Complete kits as supplied using a shear mixing
blade
Thinning Requirements Per manufacturer’s instructions
Coating Application Equipment Airless Spray, per manufacturer’s instructions
Coating Thickness SSPC-PA2 Level 3
Primer Thickness 125-175 µm (5-7 mils)
Intermediate Coat Thickness 75-100 µm (3-4 mils)
Topcoat Thickness 37-50 µm (1.5-2 mils)
Maximum Time Between Coats 30 Days

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Work together in your teams to address each of the quality-related issues described below. Elect
a team spokesperson to present your answers to the class and be prepared to defend them if ques-
tioned.

1. You arrive onto the project site and the contractor has already begun exterior coating
application. You measure the prevailing ambient conditions and the surface temperature is
within 3°C (5°F) of the dew point temperature, but the surface temperature is higher than the
dew point temperature. Based on this scenario, answer the following:

Do you allow the contractor to proceed? __________________________________________

If no, why not?

What could have been done to prevent this occurrence?

2. You measure the thickness of the primer and it is less than the specified minimum by 1
mil. The contractor also measures the thickness of the primer and states that it is within the
specified range. How would you resolve this discrepancy?

3. You were inside the tank obtaining dry film thickness measurements of the primer.
Meanwhile, the contractor proceeded with mixing and thinning 10 gallons of the intermediate
coat, which you were unable to witness. You inquired as to how much thinner was added to
the coating and the mixing crew responded, “We didn’t measure, but we estimate probably
about a gallon or so…” The product data sheet allows up to 10% thinner addition. Based on
this scenario, answer the following:

Do you allow the contractor to apply the coating____________________________________

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

If yes, what do you record on your documentation regarding the amount of thinner added?

If no, what explanation do you provide to the contractor?

4. The quality control specialist assessed the amount of light inside the tank prior to inspecting
the primer for dry film thickness. The amount of light was measured and recorded as 600 Lux
(56 foot-candles).

Does this conform to the project specification? ____________________________________

The same amount of light was available when the contractor applied the primer to the interior
surfaces. Is this acceptable? Explain.

5. The total square footage on the exterior of the tank was estimated to be 1,100 square meters
(11,840 square feet).

5A: How many 9 square meter (100 square foot) areas must be measured for coating
thickness?

5B: What is the minimum number of individual gage readings that must be obtained?

5C: How many spot measurements will be obtained?

5D: What is the range of thickness for the spot measurements of the primer?

5E: What is the range of thickness for the spot measurements of the primer + intermediate
coats?

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

5F: What is the range of thickness for the spot measurements of the primer + intermediate
+ finish coats?

6. The contractor begins to apply the clear coat to the exterior surfaces and you notice that there
is no dissipative dye in the coating as it is being applied. You inquire, and the contractor
responds that previous experience with another product resulted in rework because the dye
did not fully dissipate, so he refuses to use it.

Do you allow the contractor to proceed? _________________________________________

If no, why not?

What could have been done to prevent this occurrence?

7. Application of the white primer to a portion of the exterior surfaces was done in the early
evening around 6:00 PM or so. The next day, you observe a yellowish haze on portions of the
surface, which is slightly tacky.

As an inspector, what do you suspect occurred?

Does the presence of this substance put the project at risk?

What steps should the contractor take to prepare this surface for the intermediate coat
application?

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Module 5 Workshop 5A: Navigating a Coating

Manufacturer's Product Data Sheet

Navigate through the attached PDS and record the information in the chart below.

Inquiry Enter Information in this Column

Coating Manufacturer
Product Name and Number
Generic Coating Type
Volume Solids Content
Recommended DFT
Cure Time/Temperature to Recoat
VOC Content (as supplied)
VOC Content (thinned 10%)
Number of Components
Mix Ratio
Storage Temperature Range
Shelf Life
Target Wet Film Thickness
Minimum material temperature for mixing
Minimum material temperature for application
Induction Time (Sweat-in Time)
Pot Life at 25°C (77°F)
Thinner type and amount for airless spray
Minimum and maximum surface temperature
Cure Time/Temperature prior to immersion
service

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2015 SSPC W5-7
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5: Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Contact the manufacturer's repre-

Extensive test data available. Contact the manufacturer's representative for specific test results.

Contact the manufacturer's representative or manufacturer's Technical Services.

Surface Preparation of Concrete and manufacturer's Surface Preparation and Application Guide. Holes,

Contact the manufacturer's representative.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

©2007 SSPC W-7
Protective Coatings Inspector Training
©2015 SSPC W5-8
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5: Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

sult the manufacturer's Guide Specification and/or contact the manufacturer's representative.

Contact the manufacturer's representative or manufacturer's Technical Services.

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©2007 SSPC
Protective Coatings Inspector Training W-8
©2015 SSPC W5-9
From the list provided below, identify each of the ten coating application defects illustrated on the next page, and
record the possible causes for each in the table below.

A Sagging

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B Orange Peel

C Dry Spray

D Cratering

E Fish Eyes

F Wrinkling

G Blistering

H Pinholing

I Pinpoint Rusting

J Mudcracking

K Undercutting
Workshop 5B: Identifying Coating Application Film Defects

W5-11
Module 5: Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5: Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques
Module 5 - Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Photo of Orange Peel Photo of Cratering Photo of Wrinkling

Photo of Pinpoint Rusting Photo of Dry Spray Photo of Mudcracking

Photo of Sagging Photo of Blistering Photo of Fish Eyes

Photo of Pinholing

Photos C, G and H used by permission; Brendan Fitzsimons and Robinson Irwin Technical Support, Ltd., England.
Source: Visual Comparision Manual – Application and Coating Defects

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©2015 SSPC Coatings Inspector Training W5-12
©2007 SSPC W-10
Module 5: Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Module 5 Workshop 5C: Using Instruments for

Inspection of Coating Application

Students should refer to the instrument supplement at the end of

Modules 3 in the student manual for the step-by-step instructions for
these workshops.

Station 1: Measuring Ambient Conditions and Surface Temperature

Measure and record the prevailing environmental conditions. Indicate whether the prevailing
conditions conform to the requirements of the project specification (attached). Transfer the data to
the appropriate section on Inspection Form 4, attached.

Condition Reading
Date
Time of day
Dry Bulb Reading (air temperature or "t")
Wet Bulb Reading (t')

Depression of the Wet Bulb Thermometer (t-t')

Relative Humidity (RH)
Dew Point Temperature
Surface Temperature
Spread Between Dew Point and Surface
Temperature (p)

Note: Use the shaded areas to record the dry and wet bulb readings as they stabilize (i.e., every
20-30 seconds). Base the depression (t-t’), relative humidity and dew point measurements on the
stabilized readings in the un-shaded blocks.

Station 2: Calculating Wet Film Thickness Targets

Formula A (NO thinner addition)

DFT ÷ % solids by volume = WFT

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Formula B (WITH thinner addition)

Step 1: % solids by volume ÷ (100% + % thinner added) = adjusted volume solids content
Step 2: DFT ÷ adjusted volume solids content = WFT

Scenario 1

The specification requires a dry film thickness of 4 mils. The volume solids content is 87% and no
field thinning is permitted. Use Formula A.

Value Enter Data Here

Specified Dry Film Thickness
Volume Solids Content of the Coating
Calculated Wet Film Thickness

Scenario 2

The specification requires a dry film thickness of 7 mils. The volume solids content is 68% and no
field thinning is permitted. Use Formula A.

Value Enter Data Here

Specified Dry Film Thickness
Volume Solids Content of the Coating
Calculated Wet Film Thickness

Scenario 3
The specification requires a dry film thickness of 4 mils. The volume solids content is 87% and the
coating will be thinned 10%. Use Formula B.

Value Enter Data Here

Specified Dry Film Thickness

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Volume Solids Content of the Coating

Amount of Thinner
Adjusted Volume Solids Content of the Coating
Calculated Wet Film Thickness

Scenario 4

The specification requires a dry film thickness of 7 mils. The volume solids content is 68% and the
coating will be thinned 20%. Use Formula B.
Value Enter Data Here
Specified Dry Film Thickness
Volume Solids Content of the Coating
Amount of Thinner
Adjusted Volume Solids Content of the Coating
Calculated Wet Film Thickness

Scenario 5

Based on the measured wet film thickness indicated below, a volume solids content of 82% and 10%
thinner addition, what is the anticipated dry film thickness?

Value Enter Data Here

Measured Wet Film Thickness 9 mils (230 µm)
Volume Solids Content of the Coating
Amount of Thinner
Adjusted Volume Solids Content of the Coating
Anticipated Dry Film Thickness

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Station 3: Verifying the Accuracy and Using a Type 1 (Magnetic Pull-off

Gage)

The coated steel test plate provided represents 9.3 square meters (100 square feet) and SSPC
PA 2 Level 3 has been invoked by the project specification. Verify the accuracy of the manual
magnetic pull-off coating thickness gage and measure and record the coating thickness at the
frequency required by SSPC PA 2 Level 3. Record the DFT data in the 1st section of Form 5 (DFT
Measurement Worksheet, attached) and determine whether the spot and area measurements conform
to the requirements of the project specification (attached). Answer the three questions below.

Is it necessary to measure, record and deduct the Base Metal Reading (BMR)? ___________
If yes, how many measurements to you obtain and average to determine the BMR? ________
If yes, what was the average BMR? ___________

Station 4: Verifying the Accuracy and Using A Type 2 (Electronic)

Coating Thickness Gage (Ferrous Mode)

The coated steel test plate provided represents 9.3 square meters (100 square feet) and SSPC PA 2
Level 3 has been invoked by the project specification. Verify the accuracy of the Type 2 electronic
coating thickness gage (adjust as necessary) and measure and record the coating thickness at the
frequency required by SSPC PA 2 Level 3. Record the DFT data in the 2nd section of Form 5 (DFT
Measurement Worksheet, attached) and determine whether the spot and area measurements conform
to the requirements of the project specification (attached). Answer the three questions below.

Station 5: Measuring Coating System Thickness Using Destructive

Means

Using the 2X cutting tip and the Tooke Gage, determine the number and thickness of each layer.
Record the information below.

Primer Intermediate Coat Top Coat

Mils* Mils
Microns** Microns
Millimeters Millimeters
*1.0 mil = 1 Thou = 0.001" = one thousandth of an inch ** micron = micronmeter

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©2015 SSPC W5-16
Module 5: Coating Mixing, Thinning and Application: Equipment Overview and Inspection Techniques

Station 6: Low Voltage Holiday/Pinhole Detection

Assemble the low voltage pinhole detector and inspect the coated plate for pinholes.

Pinholes Present (circle one): YES NO

Station 7: Measuring Knife and Tape Adhesion Strength

Verify the accuracy of the coating thickness gage then measure the coating thickness on the steel
plate provided to determine whether the cross-cut (Method B) or the X-cut method (Method A)
should be used. Assess and record the tape adhesion of the coating according to the requirements of
ASTM D 3359.

Method Used: _ Tape Adhesion Rating: _____

Perform Knife Adhesion next to the area where you conducted tape adhesion and rate the knife
adhesion based on the rating scale provided in ASTM D 6677.

Knife Adhesion Rating: ________________________

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Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #: Copy to:
Daily Coating Inspection Report Inspector: QC Super Owner

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Paint Inspection Date: / / Su M Tu W Th F Sa Pg of

Project #: Copy to:
DFT Measurement Worksheet Inspector: QC Super Owner

Contr
Project/Client:
Location: Spec #:
Description: Revision #:
Item: Item:
Location Area Spot Readings Location Area Spot Readings
1 2 3 Total % Avg 1 2 3 Total % Avg
Min/Max Min/Max
A A
B B
C C
D D
E E
Approx Approx
Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm
Reference Inspection Report # for application record Reference Inspection Report # for application record
Item: Item:
Location Area Spot Readings Location Area Spot Readings
1 2 3 Total % Avg 1 2 3 Total % Avg
Min/Max Min/Max
A A
B B
C C
D D
E E
Approx Approx
Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm
Reference Inspection Report # for application record Reference Inspection Report # for application record
Item: Item:
Location Area Spot Readings Location Area Spot Readings
1 2 3 Total % Avg 1 2 3 Total % Avg
Min/Max Min/Max
A A
B B
C C
D D
E E
Approx Approx
Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm Sq Ft Specified DFT mils/µm Total avg mils/µm
Reference Inspection Report # for application record Reference Inspection Report # for application record
DFT Gage Calibration Record Comments:
Gage Type/ Gage Plate/Shim Gage Adj Spec Avg DFT Last DFT This
Model Serial # Mils/µm +/– DFT Coat Coat
Inspector Signature: Date:

SSPC QCS 2-07 Revision 1 09/2005

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SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 5 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. A product data sheet is considered an __ _ for a

coating.

2. Calculate a target wet film thickness based on the following data:

Dry film thickness: 125 microns (5 mils)

Volume solids content: 72%
Thinner addition: 12.5%

3. During a material receipt inspection, the inspector should record the following seven items:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________

4. Most coating manufacturers prohibit mixing of _________________ kits.

5. Most industrial coatings must be mixed using a ______________-type mixing blade.

6. Boxing a coating is not recommended for which two generic types of coatings?
______________________________ ______________________________

7. When inspecting mixing of zinc-rich primers, the ___________ component should be slowly
sifted into the ___________________ component while under ______________________.

8. Straining of a -_ primer is typically required by the

specification or coating manufacturers PDS.

9. Pot agitation is typically required for __-_ primers, except moisture-

cured _____________________ zinc-rich primers.

10. What is the first step when considering adding thinner to a coating?
_________________________________________________________________

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11. What is the second step when considering adding thinner to a coating? __________________
_______________________________________________

12. List three consequences of adding an unknown quantity of thinner to a coating. ___________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________

13. Application of coating to welds, edges, bolt/nuts, and rivets prior to full scale application is
known as _____________________.

14. ____________________ are used to coat crevices and between back-to-back angles.

15. __________________ spray is the most common method used to apply industrial/marine
coatings.

16. What is the paint pressure when the regulator on 45:1 airless spray pump is set to 60 psi?
________________________________

17. What does the marking 723 indicate on an airless spray tip?
_________________________________________________________________

18. Proper distance of an airless spray gun from the surface is ____________ inches.

19. The upper control on a conventional spray gun controls the _________________.

20. The lower control on a conventional spray gun controls the _________________.

21. Proper distance of a conventional spray gun from the surface is ________ inches.

22. The diameter of the holes in an HVLP spray air cap are ______________ than the holes in a
conventional spray air cap.

23. Plural component spray is used to apply coatings with what characteristics?
__________________________ and __________________________________

24. For plural component spray, what method is typically used to reduce viscosity of the
components? _______________________

25. An applicator should overlap spray passes ____% to build a consistent thickness.

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26.
List ten common inspection checkpoints that are performed on nearly every industrial
coatings project:
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
______________________________ ______________________________

27. What two values are used to determine the relative humidity and dew point temperature when
using a sling or battery powered psychrometer in conjunction with the US Weather Bureau
Psychrometric Charts?
______________________________ _______________________________

28. Ambient conditions should be measured where ___________________________

_________________________________________________________________

29. The temperature of the surface to be coated must be at least _____ above the
_____________________ ______________________.

30. The wet bulb temperature is considered to be stabilized when two readings taken within
_______________ seconds are within ________ of one another.

31. A coating material with a six hour pot life and a 45 minute induction has a useable pot life of
______________________.

32. The wet film thickness reading on a wet film thickness gage is considered the
___________________ numbered tooth (step) on the gage.

33. According to SSPC PA2, the accuracy of a coating thickness gage should be verified
___________________ and ________________ each period of use.

34. A Type 1 gage is known as a _________________________________ gage.

35. A Type 2 gage is known as an ___________________________ gage.

36. The accuracy of Type 1 gages is verified using _______ .

37. The accuracy of Type 2 gages is verified using _______ .

38. The effect of surface roughness on a coating thickness gage measurement is known as a
___________ ________________ __________________.

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39. The BMR is __________________ from the coating thickness to determine the thickness of
the coating above the ____________ of the surface profile.

40. If the tolerance of a coating thickness gage is +/- 5% and the tolerance of the standard used
to verify gage accuracy is +/- 3%, what is the tolerance of the reading on a 163 microns
(6.4 mils) test block? ________________________

41 The BMR is not necessary to measure when a Type 2 gage is verified for accuracy using
________________ ______________ placed onto the _______________________, uncoated
steel.

42. How many spot measurements are obtained within an area? ___________

43. How many individual readings comprise a spot measurement? _______________________

44. The surface to be assessed for DFT represents 55.74 square meters (600 sq. ft.)
No. of areas to measure: _____________________
Total No. of spots: _________________________
Minimum no. of individual gage readings: __________

45. The surface to be assessed for DFT represents 2229.7 square meters (24,000 sq. ft.)
No. of areas to measure: _____________________
Total no. of spots: _________________________
Minimum no. of individual gage readings: __________

46. The surface to be assessed for full determination of DFT represents an I-beam that is 12.2
meters (40 feet) in length, has .3 meters (1 foot) wide flanges, a 1.2 meter (4 feet) web.
No. of areas to measure: _____________________
Total no. of spots: _________________________
Minimum no. of individual gage readings: __________

47. According to SSPC PA2 Level 3, what is the tolerance of a spot measurement for a project
specification that specifies 50-100 microns (2-4 mils) of primer? _____________________

48. If the coating thickness for any _________ area is not in compliance with the contract
documents, determine the spot DFT at ____ intervals in ____ equally spaced directions
radiating outward from the nonconforming area.

49. What is the cumulative thickness range of the primer and intermediate coats for a project
specification that requires 100-150 microns (4-6 mils) of primer and 200-250 microns
(8-10 mils) of intermediate coat?
________________________________________

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50. If the coating thickness is 305-380 microns (12-15 mils), what Tooke gage tip should be used
to make an incision through the coating film to assess layer thicknesses? _______

51. The following data was acquired when viewing an incision (made with a 10X cutting tip)
through a Tooke Gage (with new universal microscope) lens. What is the thickness of each
layer?

Primer: 10 divisions: ________ microns/mils

Intermediate: 12 divisions: _________ microns/mils
Topcoat: 20 divisions: _______ microns/mils

52. Amine exudate or “blush” can occur on ____________ coatings that are applied and/or cured
during _______________, _______________ conditions.

53. Application of coatings over an amine exudate may result in what type of coating failure?
_____________________________________________________________

54. A pinhole is a _________ in the coating that penetrates to the substrate.

55. A holiday is a or _ in the lining system application.

56. Low voltage, wet sponge pinhole detection is can be used on nonconductive _____________
(up to ____ microns/mils) applied to a ___________________ substrate.

57. High voltage, spark testing is can be used on nonconductive __________________ applied to
a ___________________ substrate.

58. According to NACE RP0188-99, the suggested voltage for testing a coating system that is
1041-1397 microns (40-55 mils) thick is _____________.

59. The most reliable method for determining the cure of an ethyl silicate inorganic zinc-rich
primer is the _________________ ____________ test.

60. If a 3H pencil will not scratch or gouge the coating film, but a 4H pencil will, what is the
pencil hardness of the coating? __________

61. Tensile adhesion testers assess the ______-_____ strength of coatings; while tape adhesion
assesses the coatings resistance to ______-_______.

62. The cross-cut method (Method B) of the tape adhesion test is used for coatings that are less
than ____ microns/mils thick.

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63. When a coating breaks cleanly from the substrate, the location of break is
_______________________.

64. What is the primary difference between conducting an adhesion test per ASTM D3359
(method A) and ASTM D6677?
_______________________________________________________________

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SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 6 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. The resin, solvent and additives are known as the ________________ of a coating that
carries the _____________________ to the surface and binds it into the film.

2. List five functions of pigmentation in an industrial/marine coating:

_____________________________ _______________________________
_____________________________ _______________________________
_____________________________

3. Solvents are part of the _______ film, but are not part of the ____ film.

4. Primary solvents are used to _ ____; secondary solvents

are used to help the coating _____________________.

5. Coatings that “dry” rather than cure form a solid film by a process known as
_____________________ ____________________.

6. Waterborne coatings cure by a process known as _________________________.

7. Coatings that cure by a reaction with oxygen cure by ______________________.

8. Multi-component epoxy and polyurethane coating cure by __________________.

9. Coatings that hydrolyze are said to ___________________ cure.

10. What is the primary function of an intermediate coat? _____________________

11. Which coating system is recommended for use on surfaces with an elevated temperature in a
waste water treatment plant?
________________________________________________________________

12. Mounting test panels containing candidate coating systems in the actual environment where
the new coating will be installed is known as a ________________-________________
performance evaluation.

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13. Coatings contain two categories of ingredients: ______________________ and

____________________________.

14. Thinner addition ______________________ the VOC content of a coating.

15. Prior to selecting a coating system, the facility owner must properly identify the prevailing
_______________________ ______________________________.

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SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 7 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. The primer used on connection points of I beams must often have a Class A or Class B
_________________ ___________ if the connection is ________ critical.

2. List four inspection concerns relating to application of primers on slip-critical connections.

_____________________________ _________________________________
_____________________________ _________________________________

3. List three forms of metallized spray: __________________________________

____________________________ __________________________________

4. What is the minimum surface cleanliness and surface profile depth for metallizing applied to
structures for marine or immersion service? ______________________

5. Which form of metallizing feeds two wires to a spray gun? __________________

6. When measuring the thickness of thermal spray coatings on flat surfaces, a minimum of
_____ readings are obtained in a line spaced ______ meters apart.

7. When measuring the thickness of thermal spray coatings on a complex geometry, a minimum
of _____ readings are obtained in a _______ meter diameter spot.

8. Powder coating may be cured using or _____

9. List seven inspection check points associated with powder coating application.
_____________________________ _________________________________
_____________________________ _________________________________
_____________________________ _________________________________
_____________________________

10. Application of a liquid coating over a galvanized surface is known as a

___________________ system.

11. ____________ galvanizing is optimum for coating, while _ galvanizing is

12. If “sweep blasting” of galvanizing is specified, the inspector may be required to measure
the ______________ _______________ __________________ prior to sweep blasting
operations.

13. Most Type 1 and Type 2 DFT gages display the ___________________ thickness of the
galvanizing and coating layers.

14. On overcoating projects, the inspector should verify that visible ______________ and
________ contamination are removed prior to _______________ _____________________.

15. Areas of sound coating adjacent to repair areas should be __________________ to ensure
a smooth transition for the new coating and to prevent ________________ of the existing
coating.

16. If a brush-off blast (SSPC-SP___/NACE No. __) is specified for an overcoating project,
the inspector may be required to measure __________ _____________ and verify proper
abrasive type to ensure neither is too aggressive.

17. Pressure washing to remove dirt, chalking, etc. must be carefully inspected to ensure
_________________ removal prior to overcoating.

18. Prior to application of the overcoat material, an inspector should obtain ________________
measurements on the __________________ _____________.

19. The thickness of the overcoat can be isolated from the thickness of the existing coating by
using a ________ ___________.

20. List three toxic metals that may be in existing coatings:

_________________________________ _____________________________
_________________________________

21. A containment is designed to protect the ________________________________.

22. Ventilation inside a containment is designed to protect _____________________.

23. SSPC Class __ containment provides the highest level of protection.

24. Negative pressure is monitored _ or by reading a _______

gage.

25. Air flow inside a containment can be monitored using a ______________ _______ ________
______________________.
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©2013 SSPC Q7-2
Module 7: Specialty Inspection Projects

26. List two devices for monitoring air quality outside of a containment:
___________________________ ____________________________

27. Pre- and post-project ____________ and/or ______________ sampling and analysis may be
required to verify effectiveness of the containment.

28. List three things a coatings inspector should never do inside a regulated area:
_________________________________ _____________________________
_________________________________

29. Hazardous waste can only be transported by _.

30. List two SSPC Guides that govern containment and hazardous waste management
procedures:
_________________________________ _____________________________

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SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 8 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. List six possible causes of premature coating failure:

________________________________ ________________________________
________________________________ ________________________________
________________________________ ________________________________

2. List four consequences of coating failures:

_______________________________ ________________________________
________________________________ ________________________________

3. Describe how a coatings inspector can help prevent coating failures from occurring.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. What key item maintained by an inspector is critical to a coating failure investigation?

___________________________________________________________________________

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SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 9 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. The coatings inspector shares in the responsibility for the safety of ______________ and the
_______________.

2. A coatings inspector that observes an imminent hazard that may cause death or serious injury
should take _______________________ action to prevent the _____________________.

3. Who should an inspector obtain guidance from regarding their role relative to safety issues?
___________________________________________________

4. List an example of a “General Risk” that a coatings inspector may be exposed to:
_______________________________________

5. List an example of a “Personal Risk” that a coatings inspector may be exposed to:
_______________________________________

6.
What is the primary difference between exposure hazards associated with inspection verses
exposure hazards to painters? __________________________
________________________________________________________________

7. List two “hazardous materials” that will be present on every coatings project:
___________________________ _________________________________

8. The inside of a storage tank can be considered what type of “hazardous environment?”
_______________________________

9. Why is airless spraying categorized as a “hazardous activity?” ________________________

______________________________________

10. The effect of hazardous materials on an inspector’s health depends on the

________________, __________________ and route of ________________.

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11. List four items that are of the greatest value to an inspector on an MSDS:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

12. What is the most frequent way solvents affect the body? ____________________

13. Polyurethane coatings contain a chemical known as _______________________, which are

strong irritants and ________________________.

14. Respirators equipped with ___________ filtration cartridges can filter

_____________________ sized-dust.

15. Heights greater than _____________ above a lower level require fall protection.

16. What type of lanyard is a component to a personal fall arrest system?

________________________________

17. List three items that an inspector should verify before entering a confined space:
________________________________ ____________________________
________________________________

18. What electrical hazard cannot typically be locked-out/tagged-out?

________________________________________________________________

19. What hazard is associated with inadequate lighting? ______________________

20. List two basic types of respirators: _ & _____

21. Most coating inspection gages are not ___________________ safe and should not be used in
_______________________ environments.

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Module 10 Workshop: Navigating Coating Specifications

Navigate through the Bottomless Tank Lining Specification and Product Data Sheets, locate the
information, and answer each of the questions below on the provided exercise sheets.

1. Determine the specification requirements for the areas specified in Worksheet #1.

2. Document any project special notes.

3. Identify those areas and or requirements that seem to be unclear or ambiguous and require
further clarification prior to bidding work.

4. Review the paint manufacturer's Product Data Sheets for the specified primer and topcoat and
complete Worksheet #2.

5. Compare the information provided in the manufacturer's Product Data Sheets to the
specification requirements.

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©2013 SSPC W10-1
Exercise #1 - Worksheet
Information from "Bottomless: Tank Lining Paint Specification
From the specification provided, list the required information in the appropriate table.

Safety

Containment

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Cleanliness
Standard

Abrasives

Surface Profile

Lighting

Ambient
Conditions

Coatings
Materials

Coatings
Application
Coatings
Inspection

W10-3
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications
Exercise #2 - Worksheet
Information from Product Data Sheet Information
From the product data sheets provided, list the required information in the appropriate table.

©2013 SSPC
Specification Specificcation
Determine Primer Finish Coat
Requirements Requirements
Generic Type of
Coating
Number of
Components

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Percent Volume
Solids
VOC
(As Supplied)

Coverage Rate

Recommended
Storage Conditions
Recommended
Surface Profile
Sweat in Time &
Pot Life
Environmental
Conditions
Application
Requirements
Recommended
WFT / DFT

W10-5
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications

SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 10 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. A coating specification is an inspector’s __ for a coatings project.

2. An inspector should read and understand the coating specification ____________ the project
begins.

3. List two types of specifications for coating work:

____________________________ ________________________________

4.
What should an inspector do when the specification is poorly-prepared or does not contain
specific requirements? _________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

5. What likely becomes the governing document when there is no specification for a coatings
project? __________________________________________________

6. List three basic parts to a coating specification: _____________________

________________________________ _____________________________

7. In which of the three Parts of a coatings specification listed in Question 6 are the references
and definitions found? _____________________________________

8. In which of the three Parts of a coatings specification listed in Question 6 are the coatings
listed that will be used on a project? ____________________________

9. In which of the three Parts of a coatings specification listed in Question 6 is the degree of
surface cleanliness identified? ____________________________

10. In which of the three Parts of a coatings specification listed in Question 6 is the thickness
range of each coat listed? _________________________________

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MAINTENANCE PAINTING SPECIFICATION

COATING - STEEL TANK INTERIOR

PART 1 – General

1.1 The scope of this coating specification is for maintenance painting of severe service interior
steel tank surfaces.

1.2 REFERENCES
The publications listed below form a part of this specification to the extent referenced. The
publications are referred to in the text by the basic designation only.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Publications

D 4417-84 Test Methods for Field Measurement of Surface Profile of Blast Cleaned Steel
ASTM D 5162 Standard Practice for Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of Nonconductive
Protective Coating on Metallic Substrates

Code Of Federal Regulations (CFR)

29 CFR 1910 Occupational Safety and Health Standards - Respiratory Protection
29 CFR 1910.1000 - 1500 Subpart Z - Toxic and Hazardous Substances
29 CFR 1910.1200 Hazard Communications

SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings (SSPC) Publications

SSPC AB-2 Cleanliness of Recyclable Ferrous Metallic Abrasives
SSPC-Guide 6 Containing Surface Preparation Debris generated During Paint Removal
Operations
SSPC-Guide 12 Illumination of Industrial Painting Projects
SSPC-Guide 16 Specifying and Selecting Dust Collectors
SSPC-PA 1 Shop, Field, and Maintenance Painting
SSPC-PA 2 Measurement of Dry Coating Thicknesses with Magnetic Gages
SSPC-PA Guide 3 Guide to Safety in Paint Application
SSPC-SP 1 Solvent Cleaning
SSPC-SP 10 Near-White Blast Cleaning
SSPC-SP 11 Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal
SSPC-TR3 Dehumidification and Temperature Control
SSPC-VIS 1 Pictorial Surface Preparation Standards for Painted Steel Surfaces
SSPC Guide 15 Field Methods For Retrieval And Analysis Of Soluble Salts On Steel and
Other Nonporous Substrates

1.3 SUBMITTALS:

1.3.1 Manufacturer’s Product Data Sheets and Application Instructions for All Coating
Materials

1.3.2 SAFETY PLAN: Written plan of action which covers all operational requirements for
safe preparation of surfaces, application of coatings, and handling, storage, and disposal
of hazardous and toxic materials (including abrasive materials). Plan requirements will
comply with the most stringent requirement of the following:
(a) Manufacturer’s Material Safety Data Sheets
(b) SSPC-PA Guide 3
(c) Toxic materials exposure limits:
(1) 29 CFR 1910.1000
(2) 29 CFR 1910.134
1.3.3 WORK PLAN: The contractor will submit a written Work Plan for approval by the
owners representative outlining the contractors scheduling, materials, and equipment
required to show conformance to the specification.

1.3.4 INSECTION PLAN: The contractor will submit a written inspection plan for approval
by the owners representative outlining the contractors inspection hold points required to
show conformance to the specification. All inspections are to be documented and
recorded by the contractors designated inspector. Original copies are to be submitted to
the owners representative within 24 hours of completion of work.

1.4 DELIVERY AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS: Deliver coating materials in properly sealed
and labeled containers bearing manufacturer’s name and specification number, batch number,
color, date of manufacturer, and all label safety requirements. Store coating materials and
abrasives in accordance with manufacturer’s written directions

1.5 JOB SITE REFERENCES: The Contractor shall have at least one copy of each of the
referenced specifications and standards at the job site and made available to the owners
representative, prior to any surface preparation or coating application work.

1.6 REMOVAL OR PROTECTION OF ITEMS NOT TO BE PAINTED: Remove or protect by

covering all items not to be abrasively blasted and painted, as indicated on the specification
drawings.

PART 2. MATERIALS
2.1 Abrasives. Abrasives shall be clean dry steel grit or steel grit which have a gradation that will
produce a uniform profile of 1 - 3 mils. Abrasives shall have a free silica content of less than 1.0
percent by weight and meet local and state requirements for maximum heavy metal content for
non hazardous materials.

2.2 Coatings. All coatings will meet the required regulations

2.3 Final Coat Color: Bottomless Gray. Fed. STD. 595 – Color number: 12345

PART 3. EXECUTION
3.1 General. Perform surface preparation and application of coating materials as specified herein
and in accordance with the approved safety plan.

3.1.1 Surfaces not to be Painted: Remove or cover all appurtenances and other areas not
to be abrasive blasted or painted, as indicated on the specification drawings.

3.1.2 Containment: Tank containment construction will meet the requirements of SSPC
Guide 6, Category B.

3.1.3 Abrasive and Painting Debris. Provide necessary measures and equipment to
collect blasting and painting debris. Schedule and conduct blasting in such a manner as
to avoid blasting dust from falling onto freshly painted surfaces.

3.1.4 Dust Collection: Dust collection should be sufficient to meet the requirements of of
this specification.

3.1.5 Environmental Conditions. Conduct abrasive blasting and coating operations only
when the following conditions are met:
(a) Ambient air temperature is above 50 degrees F and below 95 degrees F,
(b) The steel surface temperature is more than five degrees above the dew point of the
ambient air,
(c) The wind is no more than 10 miles per hour, when paint is to be sprayed,
(d) Surfaces to be painted are completely dry.
(e) Relative Humidity must be maintained below 50% during all surface preparation and
coatings operations.

3.1.6 Dehumidification: Equipment should be sufficient to meet the requirements of 3.1.5

of this specification.

3.1.7 Illumination: Illumination and lighting must meet the requirements of SSPC-Guide
12 Illumination of Industrial Painting Projects.

3.2 Surface Preparation:

3.2.1 Surface Cleaning: Prior to beginning surface preparation prepare surface in
accordance with SSPC SP-1 Solvent Cleaning.

3.2.2 Chloride Contamination: Test surfaces for chloride contamination using the Test
Method described in Table 1, Section 4 of SSPC Guide 15. Test all surfaces at rate of
three tests for the first 100 square meters (1,000 square feet) plus one test for each
additional 200 square meters (2,000 square feet) or part thereof. [Concentrate testing on
areas of bare steel at areas of coating failure to bare steel and areas of corrosion pitting.]
[Perform 30 percent of tests on bare steel at welds, divided equally between horizontal and
vertical welds.] One or more readings greater than 3 micrograms per square centimeter of
chloride or 10 micrograms per square centimeter of sulfate or 5 micrograms of nitrate is
evidence of soluble salt contamination. Reject contaminated surfaces, wash as discussed
in paragraph PRE-PREPARATION TESTING FOR SOLUBLE SALTS CONTAMINATION,
allow to dry, and re-test until all required tests show allowable results. Re-blast tested and
cleaned areas as required. Label all test tubes and retain for test verification.

3.2.3 Repair of Metal Surfaces: Locate localized spots where rust has reduced the
original thickness to a measurable extent and clean them by wire brushing to a suitable
condition for welding. The total area of these spots is less than 10 square feet. Fill spots
with weld material and grind smooth.

3.2.4 Abrasive Blasting:

3.2.4.1 Cleanliness: Give all areas of steel to be painted a SSPC SP-10 Near–
White Blast. Verify this with the appropriate pictorial surface preparation
standards for painting steel surfaces. After blasting, thoroughly remove blasting
dust by brushing, blowing with oil-free and moisture-free compressed air, or
vacuuming. Blasted steel is not allowed to be unprimed for more than 8 hours.

3.2.4.2 Surface Profile: The surface profile of the steel surfaces cleaned by
abrasive blasting shall be a uniform profile of 1 -3 mils.

3.2.4.3 Abrasive Recycling: Recycle only manufactured grit, steel shot, or steel
grit. Cleanliness of recyclable metallic abrasives shall be measured and
maintained in accordance with the requirements of SSPC AB-2. Ensure that the
recycled abrasive contains no more than 2 percent of fines, rust, mill scale, old
paint, or other foreign material by weight. The recycled material must produce a
uniform profile of the required thickness.

3.2.4.4 Disposal of Abrasive: Remove all blasting residue (abrasive, paint, and
rust) and dispose of it in accordance with local regulations.

3.3 APPLICATION OF COATING SYSTEM:

3.3.1 General: Apply coating system in accordance with the requirements of SSPC-PA 1,
except as modified by the manufacturer’s instructions and this specification. Apply primer
as soon as possible after abrasive blast cleaning. In no case exceed 8 hours. If any
visible rust occurs, regardless of the time period, re blast the surface to the required
condition prior to applying the primer. Obtain approval of the owners representative
before each coat is applied.

3.3.2 Coating Thickness:

3.3.2.1 Apply one coat of an approved Zinc Rich primer at a dry film
thickness of 3 to 5 mils. Apply additional primer, if necessary to obtain the
required total dry film thickness.

3.3.2.2 Apply one coat of an approved Epoxy finish coat at a dry film thickness of
5 to 10 mils to obtain a total of 8 to 15 mils dry film thickness. Apply additional
finish coats, if necessary to obtain the required total dry film thickness.

3.3.3 Striping: Apply by brush (stripe) a coat of primer to all edges, corners, bolts, rivets,
welds, and other sharp surfaces before applying a full coat of primer. Allow striping to
cure a minimum of two hours before applying the full primer coat.

3.3.4 Coating Application: Zinc Rich coatings are to be applied using conventional spray
with a pot agitator. Final coat may be applied using brush, spray, or roller, as permitted
by local regulations.

3.3.5 Recoating: Follow specification requirements for times to recoat between primer
and finish coat and between finish coats. Ensure that undercoats are free of oil, grease,
dirt, dust, and other contaminants prior to application of subsequent coats.

3.3.6 Finished Surfaces: Provide finished surfaces that are free from such defects as
runs, sags, laps, brush marks, pin holes, and variations in shades.

3.3.6.1 Coatings shall be tested for pinholes in accordance with ASTM D 5162.

3.3.7 Touch Up and Repair: Damaged areas requiring repair or touch up are to be
prepared in accordance with SSPC SP11 Power Tool Cleaning to Bare Metal. The
surface profile of the steel surfaces cleaned by power tool cleaning shall be a minimum of
1 mil.

3.4 INSPECTION:
3.4.1 Environmental conditions: Environmental conditions are to be recorded every 4
hours during surface preparation and application in accordance with section 3.1.5.

3.4.2 Surface Preparation: Inspect cleaned steel surfaces for required cleanliness and
profile levels before priming in accordance with section 3.2. Measure profile in
accordance with ASTM D 4417, Method C.

3.4.3 Coating System: Inspect each coat of the coating system and the total system for
required appearance and the required dry film thicknesses in accordance with section
3.3. All Dry Film Thickness readings will be in accordance with SSPC-PA 2.

3.5 FINAL CLEANUP: Following completion of work, remove all debris, equipment, and materials
from the site. Restore all existing facilities affected by the work to their original condition.
Module 10: Navigating Coating Specifications

Industrial 6.07
& ZINC CLAD® III HS
Marine ORGANIC ZINC-RICH EPOXY PRIMER
Coatings PART A
PART B
B69A100
B69V100
BASE
HARDENER
PART F B69D11 ZINC DUST

PRODUCT INFORMATION Revised 6/05

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION RECOMMENDED USES

ZINC CLAD III HS is a three-component, polyamide epoxy, For use over properly prepared blasted steel.
zinc-rich coating. It has a low VOC level and contains 90.5% • Fabrication Shops
by weight of zinc dust pigment in its dried film. • Bridge and Highway Structures
• Meets Class B requirements for Slip Coefficient and Creep • Stadiums and Sports Complexes
Resistance, .52 • Drilling Rigs
• Provides cathodic protection • Piping
• Damaged film exhibits "self-healing" properties • Refineries
• Fast Recoat Time • Barges and Ships
• Shop or Field Applications
• Not recommended for immersion service.
PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Finish: Flat System Tested: (unless otherwise indicated)
Substrate: Steel
Color: Gray-green
Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP10
Volume Solids: 60% ± 2%, mixed 1 ct. Zinc Clad III HS @ 5.0 mils dft
1 ct. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0-10.0 mils dft
Weight Solids: 90% ± 2%, mixed 1 ct. Acrolon 218 HS @ 5.0 mils dft
VOC (EPA Method 24): Unreduced: <340 g/L; 2.80 lb/gal
mixed Reduced 5%: <360 g/L; 3.00 lb/gal
Adhesion:
Method: ASTM D4541
Zinc Content in Dry Film: 90.5% by weight Result: 975 psi

Mix Ratio: 3 components, premeasured Corrosion Weathering

3.25 gallons total
Method: ASTM D5894, 13 cycles, 2016 hours
Recommended Spreading Rate per coat: Result: Rating 10 per ASTM D610 for rusting
Wet mils: 5.0 - 8.0 Rating 10 per ASTM D714 for blistering
Dry mils: 3.0 - 5.0
Coverage: 190 - 320 sq ft/gal approximate Dry Heat Resistance, zinc only:
Note: Brush application is for stripe coating and small areas only. Method: ASTM D2485
Drying Schedule @ 5.0 mils wet @ 50% RH: Result: 300°F
@ 40°F @ 77°F @ 120°F
To touch: 45 minutes 30 minutes 10 minutes Moisture Condensation Resistance:
To handle: 2 hours 1 hour 30 minutes Method: ASTM D4585, 100°F, 4000 hours
To recoat*: Result: Rating 10 per ASTM D610 for rusting
minimum: 4 hours 2 hours 1 hour
maximum: 1 year 1 year 1 year Rating 10 per ASTM D714 for blistering
To cure: 10 days 7 days 7 days
Pot Life: 6 hours 4 hours 2 hours Pencil Hardness, zinc only:
Sweat-in-Time: 1 hour 30 minutes 15 minutes Method: ASTM D3363
Result: 2H
Drying time is temperature, humidity, and film thickness dependent.
*NOTE: Film must be free of solvent, hard and firm. When rubbed with
the face of a coin or knife the film should polish but not flake or chip. Salt Fog Resistance:
Method: ASTM B117, 4500 hours
Shelf Life: Parts A, B, & F - 24 months, unopened Result: Rating 10 per ASTM D610 for rusting
Store indoors at 40°F to 100°F Rating 10 per ASTM D714 for blistering
Flash Point: 58°F, Seta Flash, mixed
Slip Coefficient, zinc only:
Reducer/Clean Up: Method: AISC Specification for Structural Joints Using
Below 80°F: MEK, R6K10 ASTM A325 or ASTM A490 Bolts
Above 80°F: Reducer #58 (R7K58) or Result: Class B, 0.52
MEK (R6K10)

Zinc Rich 6.07 continued on back

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Industrial 6.07
& ZINC CLAD® III HS
Marine ORGANIC ZINC-RICH EPOXY PRIMER
PART A B69A100 BASE
Coatings PART B B69V100 HARDENER
PART F B69D11 ZINC DUST

PRODUCT INFORMATION
RECOMMENDED SYSTEMS SURFACE PREPARATION
Steel, polyurethane topcoat: Surface must be clean, dry, and in sound condition. Remove
1 ct. Zinc Clad III HS @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft all oil, dust, grease, dirt, loose rust, and other foreign material
1-2 cts. Acrolon 218 HS @ 3.0 - 6.0 mils dft/ct to ensure adequate adhesion.

Steel, catalyzed epoxy topcoat: Refer to product Application Bulletin for detailed surface prepa-
ration information.
1 ct. Zinc Clad III HS @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft
1-2 cts. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft/ct
Minimum recommended surface preparation:
Iron & Steel: SSPC-SP6/NACE 3, 2 mil
Steel, catalyzed epoxy topcoat: profile
1 ct. Zinc Clad III HS @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft Galvanizing: SSPC-SP7
1-2 cts. Tile-Clad HS @ 2.5 - 4.0 mils dft Weathered Zinc Rich Primer: Clean, dry, sound

Steel, acrylic topcoat: TINTING

1 ct. Zinc Clad III HS @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft
2 cts. DTM Acrylic Coating @ 2.5 - 4.0 mils dft/ct Do not tint.
or
1 ct. Fast Clad HB Acrylic @ 5.0 - 8.0 mils dft APPLICATION CONDITIONS
Temperature: 40°F minimum, 120°F maximum
Steel, water based epoxy topcoat: (air, surface, and material)
1 ct. Zinc Clad III HS @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft At least 5°F above dew point
2 cts. Waterbased Tile-Clad Epoxy @ 2.0 - 4.0 mils dft/ct Relative humidity: 85% maximum

Steel, water-based polyurethane topcoat: Refer to product Application Bulletin for detailed application
1 ct. Zinc Clad III HS @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft information.
1 ct. Waterbased Tile-Clad Epoxy @ 2.0 - 4.0 mils dft ORDERING INFORMATION
1-2 cts. Centurion WB Urethane @ 2.0 - 3.0 mils dft/ct
or Packaging: 3.25 gallons mixed
1-2 cts. Hydrogloss@ 2.0-4.0 mills dft/ct Part A 1 gallon
Part B 1 gallon
Steel, Class B Compliant System: Part F 73 lb Zinc Dust
1 ct Zinc Clad III HS @ 3.0-5.0 mils dft
Weight per gallon: 27.63 ± 0.2 lb, mixed
1 ct Steel Spec Epoxy Primer (red) @4.0-6.0 mils dft
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Refer to the MSDS sheet before use.

The systems listed above are representative of the product's Published technical data and instructions are subject to
use. Other systems may be appropriate. change without notice. Contact your Sherwin-Williams repre-
sentative for additional technical data and instructions.

DISCLAIMER WARRANTY
The Sherwin-Williams Company warrants our products to be free of manufactur-
The information and recommendations set forth in this Product Data Sheet are ing defects in accord with applicable Sherwin-Williams quality control procedures.
based upon tests conducted by or on behalf of The Sherwin-Williams Company. Liability for products proven defective, if any, is limited to replacement of the
Such information and recommendations set forth herein are subject to change defective product or the refund of the purchase price paid for the defective
and pertain to the product offered at the time of publication. Consult your product as determined by Sherwin-Williams. NO OTHER WARRANTY OR GUAR-
Sherwin-Williams representative to obtain the most recent Product Data Infor- ANTEE OF ANY KIND IS MADE BY SHERWIN-WILLIAMS, EXPRESSED OR
mation and Application Bulletin. IMPLIED, STATUTORY, BY OPERATION OF LAW OR OTHERWISE, INCLUD-
ING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Industrial 6.07A
& ZINC CLAD® III HS
Marine ORGANIC ZINC-RICH EPOXY PRIMER
Coatings PART A
PART B
B69A100
B69V100
BASE
HARDENER
PART F B69D11 ZINC DUST

APPLICATION BULLETIN Revised 6/05

SURFACE PREPARATION APPLICATION CONDITIONS

Zinc rich coatings require direct contact between the zinc pig- Temperature: 40°F minimum, 120°F maximum
ment in the coating and the metal substrate for optimum per- (air, surface, and material)
formance. Surface must be dry, free from oil, dirt, dust, mill At least 5°F above dew point
scale or other contaminants to ensure adequate adhesion.
Relative humidity: 85% maximum
Iron & Steel (atmospheric service)
Remove all oil and grease from surface by Solvent Cleaning
per SSPC-SP1. Minimum surface preparation is Commercial APPLICATION EQUIPMENT
Blast Cleaning per SSPC-SP6/NACE 3. For better perform-
ance, use Near White Metal Blast Cleaning per SSPC-SP10/ The following is a guide. Changes in pressures and tip sizes
NACE 2. Blast clean all surfaces using a sharp, angular abra- may be needed for proper spray characteristics. Always purge
sive for optimum surface profile (2 mils). Coat any bare steel spray equipment before use with listed reducer. Any reduc-
the same day as it is cleaned or before flash rusting occurs. tion must be compliant with existing VOC regulations and
compatible with the existing environmental and application
Galvanized Steel conditions.
Allow to weather a minimum of six months prior to coating.
Solvent Clean per SSPC-SP1 (recommended solvent is VM&P Reducer/Clean Up
Naphtha). When weathering is not possible, or the surface has Below 80°F ................... MEK, R6K10
been treated with chromates or silicates, first Solvent Clean Above 80°F ................... Reducer #58, R7K58 or
per SSPC-SP1 and apply a test patch. Allow paint to dry at MEK, R6K10
least one week before testing adhesion. If adhesion is poor, Airless Spray
brush blasting per SSPC-SP7 is necessary to remove these (use Teflon packings and continuous agitation)
treatments. Rusty galvanizing requires a minimum of Hand Tool Pressure ....................... 2000 - 2300 psi
Cleaning per SSPC-SP2, prime the area the same day as Hose ............................. 3/8" ID
cleaned or before flash rusting occurs. Tip ................................ .019"
Filter ............................. none
Weathered Zinc-Rich Primer Reduction ..................... As needed up to 5% by volume
Remove zinc salts by either high pressure water washing and
scrubbing with stiff bristle brush or sweep blast followed by Conventional Spray
water flush. Allow to dry. (continuous agitation required)
Gun ............................... Binks 95
Note: If blast cleaning with steel media is used, an appropri- Fluid Nozzle .................. 68
ate amount of steel grit blast media may be incorporated into Air Nozzle ..................... 68P
the work mix to render a dense, angular 1.5 - 2.0 mil surface Atomization Pressure .. 50 psi
profile. This method may result in improved adhesion and per- Fluid Pressure .............. 10 - 20 psi
formance. Reduction ..................... As needed up to 5% by volume

Keep pressure pot at level of applicator to avoid blocking of

fluid line due to weight of material. Blow back coating in fluid
line at intermittent shutdowns, but continue agitation at pres-
sure pot.

Brush
Brush ............................ Small areas only; natural bristle
Reduction ..................... Not recommended

If specific application equipment is not listed above, equiva-

lent equipment may be substituted.

Zinc Rich 6.07A continued on back

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Industrial 6.07A
& ZINC CLAD® III HS
Marine ORGANIC ZINC-RICH EPOXY PRIMER
PART A B69A100 BASE
Coatings PART B B69V100 HARDENER
PART F B69D11 ZINC DUST

APPLICATION BULLETIN
APPLICATION PROCEDURES PERFORMANCE TIPS
Surface preparation must be completed as indicated. Stripe coat all crevices, welds, and sharp angles to prevent
Zinc Clad III HS comes in 3 premeasured containers which early failure in these areas.
when mixed provides 3.25 gallons of ready-to-apply material.
Mixing Instructions: When using spray application, use a 50% overlap with each
Mix contents of component A and B thoroughly with power pass of the gun to avoid holidays, bare areas, and pinholes. If
agitator. Make certain no pigment remains on the bottom of necessary, cross spray at a right angle.
the can. Then combine 1 part by volume of Part A with 1 part by
volume of Part B, then add Part F (73 lb zinc dust). Thoroughly Spreading rates are calculated on volume solids and do not
agitate the mixture with power agitation. After mixing, pour include an application loss factor due to surface profile, rough-
through a 30-60 mesh screen. Allow the material to sweat-in ness or porosity of the surface, skill and technique of the ap-
as indicated. Re-stir before using. plicator, method of application, various surface irregularities,
If reducer solvent is used, add only after components have material lost during mixing, spillage, overthinning, climatic
been thoroughly mixed, after sweat-in. conditions, and excessive film build.
Continuous agitation of mixture during application is required,
otherwise zinc dust will quickly settle out. Excessive reduction of material can affect film build, appear-
Apply paint at the recommended film thickness and spread- ance, and performance.
ing rate as indicated below:
Recommended Spreading Rate per coat: Do not mix previously catalyzed material with new.
Wet mils: 5.0 - 8.0
Dry mils: 3.0 - 5.0 Do not apply the material beyond recommended pot life.
Coverage: 190 - 320 sq ft/gal approximate
Note: Brush application is for stripe coating and small areas only. In order to avoid blockage of spray equipment, clean equip-
ment before use or before periods of extended downtime with
Drying Schedule @ 5.0 mils wet @ 50% RH: MEK, R6K10.
@ 40°F @ 77°F @ 120°F
To touch: 45 minutes 30 minutes 10 minutes Keep pressure pot at level of applicator to avoid blocking of
To handle: 2 hours 1 hour 30 minutes fluid line due to weight of material. Blow back coating in fluid
To recoat*: line at intermittent shutdowns, but continue agitation at pres-
minimum: 4 hours 2 hours 1 hour sure pot.
maximum: 1 year 1 year 1 year
To cure: 10 days 7 days 7 days Application above recommended film thickness may result in
Pot Life: 6 hours 4 hours 2 hours mud cracking.
Sweat-in-Time: 1 hour 30 minutes 15 minutes
Refer to Product Information sheet for additional performance
Drying time is temperature, humidity, and film thickness dependent. characteristics and properties.
*NOTE: Film must be free of solvent, hard and firm. When rubbed with
the face of a coin or knife the film should polish but not flake or chip.

Application of coating above maximum or below minimum

recommended spreading rate may adversely affect coating
performance.
CLEAN UP INSTRUCTIONS SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Clean spills and spatters immediately with MEK, R6K10. Clean Refer to the MSDS sheet before use.
tools immediately after use with MEK, R6K10. Follow
manufacturer's safety recommendations when using any sol- Published technical data and instructions are subject to
vent. change without notice. Contact your Sherwin-Williams repre-
sentative for additional technical data and instructions.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Industrial 4.53
& MACROPOXY® 646
Marine FAST CURE EPOXY
Coatings PART A B58-600 SERIES
PART B B58V600 HARDENER

PRODUCT INFORMATION Revised 8/05

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION RECOMMENDED USES

MACROPOXY 646 FAST CURE EPOXY is a high solids, high • Marine applications
build, fast drying, polyamide epoxy designed to protect steel • Fabrication shops • Refineries
and concrete in industrial exposures. Ideal for maintenance • Pulp and paper mills • Chemical plants
painting and fabrication shop applications. The high solids • Power plants • Tank exteriors
content ensures adequate protection of sharp edges, corners, • Offshore platforms • Water treatment plants
and welds. This product can be applied directly to marginally • Mill White and Black are acceptable for immersion use for
prepared steel surfaces. salt water and fresh water, not acceptable for potable water
• Low VOC • Chemical resistant • Suitable for use in USDA inspected facilities
• Low odor • Abrasion resistant
Conforms to AWWA D102-03 OCS #5
PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Finish: Semi-Gloss System Tested: (unless otherwise indicated)
Substrate: Steel
Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP10
Color: Mill White, Black and a wide range
1 ct. Macropoxy 646 Fast Cure @ 6.0 mils dft
of colors available through tinting Abrasion Resistance:
Method: ASTM D4060, CS17 wheel, 1000 cycles, 1 kg load
Volume Solids: 72% ± 2%, mixed Result: 84 mg loss
Mill White Accelerated Weathering - QUV, Zinc Clad II Plus Primer:
Weight Solids: 85% ± 2%, mixed Method: ASTM D4587, QUV-A, 12,000 hours
Mill White Results: passes
VOC (EPA Method 24): Unreduced: <250 g/L; 2.08 lb/gal Adhesion:
mixed Reduced 10%: <300 g/L; 2.50 lb/gal Method: ASTM D4541
Result: 1,037 psi
Mix Ratio: 1:1 by volume Corrosion Weathering, Zinc Clad II Plus Primer:
Method: ASTM D5894, 36 cycles, 12,000 hours
Recommended Spreading Rate per coat: Result: Rating 10 per ASTM D714 for blistering
Wet mils: 7.0 - 13.5 Rating 9 per ASTM D610 for rusting
Dry mils: 5.0 - 10.0* Direct Impact Resistance:
Coverage: 116 - 232 sq ft/gal approximate Method: ASTM D2794
Result: 30 in. lb.
NOTE: Brush or roll application may require multiple coats to achieve Dry Heat Resistance:
maximum film thickness and uniformity of appearance. Method: ASTM D2485
* See Recommended Systems Result: 250°F
Exterior Durability:
Drying Schedule @ 7.0 mils wet and 50% RH: Method: 1 year at 45° South
@ 40°F @ 77°F @ 100°F Result: Excellent, chalks
To touch: 4-5 hours 2 hours 1½ hours Flexibility:
To handle: 48 hours 8 hours 4½ hours Method: ASTM D522, 180° bend, 3/4" mandrel
To recoat: Result: Passes
minimum: 48 hours 8 hours 4½ hours Immersion:
maximum: 3 months 3 months 3 months Method: 1 year fresh and salt water
Cure for Result: Passes, no rusting, blistering, or loss of adhesion
service: 10 days 7 days 4 days Irradiation-Effects on Coatings used in Nuclear Power Plants
immersion: 14 days 7 days 4 days Method: ANSI 5.12 / ASTM D4082-89
If maximum recoat time is exceeded, abrade surface before recoating. Result: Passes
Drying time is temperature, humidity and film thickness dependent. Pencil Hardness:
Method: ASTM D3363
Pot Life: 10 hours 4 hours 2 hours Result: 3H
Permeability Rating:
Sweat-in-time: 30 minutes 30 minutes 15 minutes Method: ASTM D1653
Result: 0.154 mg/cm²
Shelf Life: 36 months, unopened Salt Fog Resistance, Zinc Clad II Plus Primer::
Store indoors at 40°F to 100°F. Method: ASTM B117, 6,500 hours
Result: Rating 10 per ASTM D610 for rusting
Flash Point: 60°F, TCC, mixed Rating 9 per ASTM D1654 for corrosion
Slip Coefficient, Mill White:
Method: AISC Specification for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325
Reducer/Clean Up: Reducer, R7K15 or ASTM A490 Bolts
In California: Reducer R7K111 or Oxsol 100 Result: Class A, 0.36
Epoxy coatings may darken or discolor following application and curing.

Epoxy 4.53 continued on back

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Industrial 4.53
& MACROPOXY® 646
Marine FAST CURE EPOXY
Coatings PART A B58-600 SERIES
PART B B58V600 HARDENER

PRODUCT INFORMATION
RECOMMENDED SYSTEMS SURFACE PREPARATION
Immersion and atmospheric: Surface must be clean, dry, and in sound condition. Remove all oil,
dust, grease, dirt, loose rust, and other foreign material to ensure
Steel: good adhesion.
2 cts. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft/ct Refer to product Application Bulletin for detailed surface preparation
information.
Concrete/Masonry, smooth: Minimum recommended surface preparation:
2 cts. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft/ct Iron & Steel
Atmospheric: SSPC-SP2/3
Concrete Block:
1 ct. Kem Cati-Coat HS Epoxy Filler/Sealer Immersion: SSPC-SP10/NACE 2, 2-3 mil profile
@ 10.0 - 20.0 mils dft, as needed to fill voids and provide Aluminum: SSPC-SP1
a continuous substrate. Galvanizing: SSPC-SP1
2 cts. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft/ct Concrete & Masonry
Atmospheric: SSPC-SP13/NACE 6, or ICRI 03732, CSP
1-3
Atmospheric: Immersion: SSPC-SP13/NACE 6-4.3.1 or 4.3.2, or
*Steel: ICRI 03732, CSP 1-3
(Shop applied system, new construction, AWWA D102-03, can also
be used at 3 mils minimum dft when used as an intermediate coat TINTING
as part of a multi-coat system)
1 ct. Macropoxy 646 Fast Cure Epoxy Tint Part Awith 844 Colorants at 150% strength. Five minutes minimum
@ 3.0 - 6.0 mils dft mixing on a mechanical shaker is required for complete mixing of
1-2 cts. of recommended topcoat color.
Steel:
1 ct. Recoatable Epoxy Primer @ 4.0 - 6.0 mils dft Tinting is not recommended for immersion service.
2 cts. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft/ct
APPLICATION CONDITIONS
*Steel:
1 ct. Macropoxy 646 @ 4.0 - 6.0 mils dft Temperature: 40°F minimum, 140°F maximum
1-2 cts. Acrolon 218 Polyurethane @ 3.0 - 6.0 mils dft/ct (air, surface, and material)
or Hi-Solids Polyurethane @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft/ct At least 5°F above dew point
or SherThane 2K Urethane @ 2.0 - 4.0 mils dft/ct Relative humidity: 85% maximum
Steel:
2 cts. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft/ct Refer to product Application Bulletin for detailed application informa-
1-2 cts. Tile-Clad HS Epoxy @ 2.5 - 4.0 mils dft/ct tion.

Steel: ORDERING INFORMATION

1 ct. Zinc Clad II Plus @ 3.0 - 6.0 mils dft
1 ct. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft Packaging:
1-2 cts. Acrolon 218 Polyurethane @ 3.0 - 6.0 mils dft/ct Part A: 1 and 5 gallon containers
Steel: Part B: 1 and 5 gallon containers
1 ct. Zinc Clad III HS @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft
or Zinc Clad IV @ 3.0 - 5.0 mils dft Weight per gallon: 12.7 ± 0.2 lb
1 ct. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft mixed, may vary by color
1-2 cts. Acrolon 218 Polyurethane @ 3.0 - 6.0 mils dft/ct
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Aluminum:
2 cts. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft/ct Refer to the MSDS sheet before use.
Galvanizing:
2 cts. Macropoxy 646 @ 5.0 - 10.0 mils dft/ct Published technical data and instructions are subject to change with-
out notice. Contact your Sherwin-Williams representative for addi-
tional technical data and instructions.
The systems listed above are representative of the product's use.
Other systems may be appropriate.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Industrial 4.53A
& MACROPOXY® 646
Marine FAST CURE EPOXY
Coatings PART A B58-600 SERIES
PART B B58V600 HARDENER

APPLICATION BULLETIN Revised 8/05

SURFACE PREPARATION APPLICATION CONDITIONS

Surface must be clean, dry, and in sound condition. Remove all oil, Temperature: 40°F minimum, 140°F maximum
dust, grease, dirt, loose rust, and other foreign material to ensure (air, surface, and material)
adequate adhesion. At least 5°F above dew point
Iron & Steel, Atmospheric Service:
Minimum surface preparation is Hand Tool Clean per SSPC-SP2. Re- Relative humidity: 85% maximum
move all oil and grease from surface by Solvent Cleaning per SSPC-
SP1. For better performance, use Commercial Blast Cleaning per SSPC-
SP6/NACE 3, blast clean all surfaces using a sharp, angular abrasive
for optimum surface profile (2 mils). Prime any bare steel within 8
hours or before flash rusting occurs.
Iron & Steel, Immersion Service:
APPLICATION EQUIPMENT
Remove all oil and grease from surface by Solvent Cleaning per SSPC-
The following is a guide. Changes in pressures and tip sizes
SP1. Minimum surface preparation is Near White Metal Blast Cleaning
may be needed for proper spray characteristics. Always purge
per SSPC-SP10/NACE 2. Blast clean all surfaces using a sharp, angu-
spray equipment before use with listed reducer. Any reduction
lar abrasive for optimum surface profile (2-3 mils). Remove all weld
spatter and round all sharp edges by grinding. Prime any bare steel must be compliant with existing VOC regulations and com-
the same day as it is cleaned. patible with the existing environmental and application condi-
Aluminum tions.
Remove all oil, grease, dirt, oxide and other foreign material by Solvent
Cleaning per SSPC-SP1. Reducer/Clean Up ........... Reducer R7K15
Galvanized Steel In California .................. Reducer R7K111
Allow to weather a minimum of six months prior to coating. Solvent
Clean per SSPC-SP1 (recommended solvent is VM&P Naphtha). When Airless Spray
weathering is not possible, or the surface has been treated with Pump ............................ 30:1
chromates or silicates, first Solvent Clean per SSPC-SP1 and apply a Pressure ...................... 2800 - 3000 psi
test patch. Allow paint to dry at least one week before testing adhe- Hose ............................ 1/4" ID
sion. If adhesion is poor, brush blasting per SSPC-SP7 is necessary to Tip ................................ .017" - .023"
remove these treatments. Rusty galvanizing requires a minimum of Filter ............................. 60 mesh
Hand Tool Cleaning per SSPC-SP2, prime the area the same day as Reduction ..................... As needed up to 10% by volume
cleaned.
Concrete and Masonry, Atmospheric Service:
Conventional Spray
For surface preparation, refer to NACE 6/SSPC-SP13, or ICRI 03732,
Gun ............................... DeVilbiss MBC-510
CSP 1-3. Surfaces should be thoroughly clean and dry. Concrete and
Fluid Tip ....................... E
mortar must be cured at least 28 days @ 75°F. Remove all loose
mortar and foreign material. Surface must be free of laitance, con- Air Nozzle ...................... 704
crete dust, dirt, form release agents, moisture curing membranes, Atomization Pressure .. 60-65 psi
loose cement and hardeners. Fill bug holes, air pockets and other Fluid Pressure ............. 10-20 psi
voids with a cement patching compound. Weathered masonry and Reduction ..................... As needed up to 10% by volume
soft or porous cement board must be brush blasted or power tool Requires oil and moisture separators
cleaned to remove loosely adhering contamination and to get to a
hard, firm surface. Laitance must be removed by etching with a 10% Brush
muriatic acid solution and thoroughly neutralized with water. Brush ............................ Nylon/Polyester or Natural Bristle
Concrete and Masonry, Immersion Service: Reduction ..................... Not recommended
For surface preparation, refer to SSPC-SP13/NACE 6, Section 4.3.1
or 4.3.2, or ICRI 03732, CSP 1-3. Roller
Previously Painted Surfaces Cover ............................ 3/8" woven with phenolic core
If in sound condition, clean the surface of all foreign material. Smooth, Reduction ..................... Not recommended
hard or glossy coatings and surfaces should be dulled by abrading
the surface. Apply a test area, allowing paint to dry one week before If specific application equipment is listed above, equivalent
testing adhesion. If adhesion is poor, or if this product attacks the equipment may be substituted.
previous finish, removal of the previous coating may be necessary. If
paint is peeling or badly weathered, clean surface to sound substrate
and treat as a new surface as above.

Epoxy 4.53A continued on back

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

Industrial 4.53A
& MACROPOXY® 646
Marine FAST CURE EPOXY
Coatings PART A B58-600 SERIES
PART B B58V600 HARDENER

APPLICATION BULLETIN
APPLICATION PROCEDURES PERFORMANCE TIPS
Surface preparation must be completed as indicated. Stripe coat all crevices, welds, and sharp angles to prevent
early failure in these areas.
Mix contents of each component thoroughly with power agita-
tion. Make certain no pigment remains on the bottom of the When using spray application, use a 50% overlap with each
can. Then combine one part by volume of Part A with one part pass of the gun to avoid holidays, bare areas, and pinholes. If
by volume of Part B. Thoroughly agitate the mixture with power necessary, cross spray at a right angle
agitation. Allow the material to sweat-in as indicated prior to
application. Re-stir before using. Spreading rates are calculated on volume solids and do not
include an application loss factor due to surface profile, rough-
If reducer solvent is used, add only after both components ness or porosity of the surface, skill and technique of the ap-
have been thoroughly mixed, after sweat-in. plicator, method of application, various surface irregularities,
material lost during mixing, spillage, overthinning, climatic con-
Apply paint to the recommended film thickness and spreading ditions, and excessive film build.
rate as indicated below:
Recommended Spreading Rate per coat: Excessive reduction of material can affect film build, appear-
Wet mils: 7.0 - 13.5 ance, and adhesion.
Dry mils: 5.0 - 10.0*
Coverage: 116 - 232 sq ft/gal approximate Do not mix previously catalyzed material with new.
NOTE: Brush or roll application may require multiple coats to achieve
maximum film thickness and uniformity of appearance.
Do not apply the material beyond recommended pot life.
* See Recommended Systems
In order to avoid blockage of spray equipment, clean equip-
Drying Schedule @ 7.0 mils wet and 50% RH:
@ 40°F @ 77°F @ 100°F ment before use or before periods of extended downtime with
To touch: 4-5 hours 2 hours 1½ hours Reducer R7K15. In California use Reducer R7K111.
To handle: 48 hours 8 hours 4½ hours
To recoat: Tinting is not recommended for immersion service.
minimum: 48 hours 8 hours 4½ hours
maximum: 3 months 3 months 3 months Use only Mil White and Black for immersion service.
Cure for
service: 10 days 7 days 4 days
immersion: 14 days 7 days 4 days Quik-Kick Epoxy Accelerator is acceptable for use. See data
If maximum recoat time is exceeded, abrade surface before recoating. page 4.99 for details.
Drying time is temperature, humidity and film thickness dependent.
Refer to Product Information sheet for additional performance
Pot Life: 10 hours 4 hours 2 hours characteristics and properties.

Sweat-in-time: 30 minutes 30 minutes 15 minutes

Application of coating above maximum or below minimum rec-

ommended spreading rate may adversely affect coating per-
formance.
CLEAN UP INSTRUCTIONS SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Clean spills and spatters immediately with Reducer R7K15. Refer to the MSDS sheet before use.
Clean tools immediately after use with Reducer R7K15. In
California use Reducer R7K111. Follow manufacturer's safety Published technical data and instructions are subject to change
recommendations when using any solvent. without notice. Contact your Sherwin-Williams representative
for additional technical data and instructions.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC PROTECTIVE COATINGS

INSPECTOR (PCI) TRAINING
MODULE 13 QUIZ
NAME ________________________ DATE ________________ SCORE ________

1. The PSPC demands that a ________________ is compiled by the shipbuilder for each new-
building to which the PSPC regulations apply.

2. All coating repairs are to be ________________ in the overlaps.

3. At least ________________ of all thickness measurements will be greater or equal to the dry
film thickness and none of the remaining percentage to be below ________________ of the dry
film thickness.

4. The surface must be cleaned to a dust quantity rating of ________________ for dust size class
3, 4 or 5 as stated in ISO 8502-3.

5. The surface profile shall be between ________________ microns.

6. The water-soluble limit on the surface prior to coating shall be less than or equal to
________________.

7. The standard of surface preparation of the bare steel shall be ________________ as defined in
ISO 8501-1.

8. All coatings shall be pre-qualified by documenting field exposure with a final condition of
“good” after ________________.

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3

ANNEX 1

DRAFT RESOLUTION MSC.[…](82)]

[(adopted on … December 2006)]

PERFORMANCE STANDARD FOR PROTECTIVE COATINGS

FOR DEDICATED SEAWATER BALLAST TANKS IN ALL TYPES OF SHIPS
AND DOUBLE-SIDE SKIN SPACES OF BULK CARRIERS

THE MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE,

RECALLING Article 28(b) of the Convention on the International Maritime Organization

concerning the functions of the Committee,

NOTING the amendments to regulations II-1/3-2 and XII/6 of the International

Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended (hereinafter referred to as
“the Convention”) adopted by resolution MSC.[…(82)], concerning protective coatings of
dedicated seawater ballast tanks and double-side skin spaces,

NOTING ALSO that the aforementioned regulation II-1/3-2 provides that the protective
coatings referred to therein shall comply with the requirements of the Performance standard for
protective coatings for dedicated seawater ballast tanks in all types of ships and double-side skin
spaces of bulk carriers (hereinafter referred to as “the Performance standard for protective
coatings”);

RECOGNIZING that the Performance standard for protective coatings referred to above
is not intended to inhibit the development of new or novel technologies which provide for
alternative systems,

HAVING CONSIDERED, at its [eighty-second] session, the text of the proposed

Performance standard for protective coatings,

1. ADOPTS the Performance standard for protective coatings for dedicated seawater ballast
tanks in all types of ships and double-side skin spaces of bulk carriers, the text of which is set out
in the Annex to the present resolution;

2. INVITES Contracting Governments to the Convention to note that the Performance

standard for protective coatings will take effect on 1 July 2008 upon entry into force of the
amendments to regulations II-1/3-2 and XII/6 of the Convention;

3. REQUESTS the Secretary-General to transmit certified copies of this resolution and the
text of the Performance standard for protective coatings contained in the Annex to all Contracting
Governments to the Convention;

4. FURTHER REQUESTS the Secretary-General to transmit copies of this resolution and

the Annex to all Members of the Organization which are not Contracting Governments to the
Convention;

5. INVITES Governments to encourage the development of novel technologies aimed at

providing for alternative systems and to keep the Organization advised of any positive results.

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3
ANNEX 1
Page 2

ANNEX

PERFORMANCE STANDARD FOR PROTECTIVE COATINGS FOR

DEDICATED SEAWATER BALLAST TANKS IN ALL TYPES OF SHIPS
AND DOUBLE-SIDE SKIN SPACES OF BULK CARRIERS

1 PURPOSE

This Standard provides technical requirements for protective coatings in dedicated seawater
ballast tanks of all type of ships of not less than 500 gross tonnage and double-side skin spaces
arranged in bulk carriers of 150 m in length and upward1 for which the building contract is
placed, the keels of which are laid or which are delivered on or after the dates referred to in
SOLAS regulation II-1/3-2 as adopted by resolution MSC.[...](82).

2 DEFINITIONS

For the purpose of this Standard, the following definitions apply:

2.1 Ballast tanks are those as defined in resolutions A.798(19) and A.744(18).

2.2 Dew point is the temperature at which air is saturated with moisture.

2.3 DFT is dry film thickness.

2.4 Dust is loose particle matter present on a surface prepared for painting, arising from
blast-cleaning or other surface preparation processes, or resulting from the action of the
environment.

2.5 Edge grinding is the treatment of edge before secondary surface preparation.

2.6 “GOOD” condition is the condition with minor spot rusting as defined in
resolution A.744(18).
2.7 Hard coating is a coating that chemically converts during its curing process or a
non-convertible air drying coating which may be used for maintenance purposes. Can be either
inorganic or organic.

2.8 NDFT is the nominal dry film thickness. 90/10 practice means that 90% of all
thickness measurements shall be greater than or equal to NDFT and none of the
remaining 10% measurements shall be below 0.9 x NDFT.

2.9 Primer coat is the first coat of the coating system applied in the shipyard after shop
primer application.

2.10 Shop-primer is the prefabrication primer coating applied to steel plates, often in automatic
plants (and before the first coat of a coating system).

2.11 Stripe coating is painting of edges, welds, hard to reach areas, etc., to ensure good paint
adhesion and proper paint thickness in critical areas.

1
This Standard applies only to dedicated seawater ballast tanks in all types of ships and double-side skin spaces
in bulk carriers which are constructed of steel.

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3
ANNEX 1
Page 3

2.12 Target useful life is the target value, in years, of the durability for which the coating
system is designed.

2.13 Technical Data Sheet is paint manufacturers’ Product Data Sheet which contains detailed
technical instruction and information relevant to the coating and its application.

3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

3.1 The ability of the coating system to reach its target useful life depends on the type of
coating system, steel preparation, application and coating inspection and maintenance. All these
aspects contribute to the good performance of the coating system.

3.2 Inspection of surface preparation and coating processes shall be agreed upon between the
shipowner, the shipyard and the coating manufacturer and presented to the Administration for
review. The Administration may, if it so requires, participate in the agreement process. Clear
evidence of these inspections shall be reported and be included in the Coating Technical
File (CTF) (see paragraph 3.4).

3.3 When considering the Standard provided in section 4, the following is to be taken into
account:

.1 it is essential that specifications, procedures and the various different steps in the
coating application process (including, but not limited to, surface preparation) are
strictly applied by the shipbuilder in order to prevent premature decay and/or
deterioration of the coating system;

.2 the coating performance can be improved by adopting measures at the ship design
stage such as reducing scallops, using rolled profiles, avoiding complex geometric
configurations and ensuring that the structural configuration permits easy access
for tools and to facilitate cleaning, drainage and drying of the space to be coated;
and

.3 the coating performance standard provided in this document is based on

experience from manufacturers, shipyards and ship operators; it is not intended to
exclude suitable alternative coating systems, providing a performance at least
equivalent to that specified in this Standard is demonstrated. Acceptance criteria
for alternative systems are provided in section 8.

3.4 Coating Technical File

3.4.1 Specification of the coating system applied to the dedicated seawater ballast tanks and
double-side skin spaces, record of the shipyard’s and shipowner’s coating work, detailed
criteria for coating selection, job specifications, inspection, maintenance and repair2 shall
be documented in the Coating Technical File (CTF), and the Coating Technical File shall
be reviewed by the Administration.

2
Guidelines to be developed by the Organization.

I:\MSC\82\WP\3.doc

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3
ANNEX 1
Page 4

3.4.2 New construction stage

The Coating Technical File shall contain at least the following items relating to this Standard and
shall be delivered by the shipyard at new ship construction stage:

.1 copy of Statement of Compliance or Type Approval Certificate;

.2 copy of Technical Data Sheet, including:

- product name and identification mark and/or number;

- materials, components and composition of the coating system, colours;
- minimum and maximum dry film thickness;
- application methods, tools and/or machines;
- condition of surface to be coated (de-rusting grade, cleanness, profile, etc.);
and
- environmental limitations (temperature and humidity);

.3 shipyard work records of coating application, including:

- applied actual space and area (in square metres) of each compartment;
- applied coating system;
- time of coating, thickness, number of layers, etc.;
- ambient condition during coating; and
- method of surface preparation;

.4 procedures for inspection and repair of coating system during ship construction;

.5 coating log issued by the coating inspector – stating that the coating was applied
in accordance with the specifications to the satisfaction of the coating supplier
representative and specifying deviations from the specifications (example of daily
log and non-conformity report, see annex 2);

.6 shipyard’s verified inspection report, including:

- completion date of inspection;

- result of inspection;
- remarks (if given); and
- inspector signature; and

.7 procedures for in-service maintenance and repair of coating system2.

3.4.3 In-service maintenance, repair and partial re-coating

In-service maintenance, repair and partial re-coating activities shall be recorded in the Coating
Technical File in accordance with the relevant section of the Guidelines for coating maintenance
and repair2.

2
Guidelines to be developed by the Organization.

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3
ANNEX 1
Page 5

3.4.4 Re-coating

If full re-coating is carried out, the items specified in paragraph 3.4.2 shall be recorded in the
Coating Technical File.

3.4.5 The Coating Technical File shall be kept on board and maintained throughout the life of
the ship.

3.5 Health and safety

The shipyard is responsible for implementation of national regulations to ensure the health and
safety of individuals and to minimize the risk of fire and explosion.

4 COATING STANDARD

4.1 Performance standard

This Standard is based on specifications and requirements which intend to provide a target useful
coating life of 15 years, which is considered to be the time period, from initial application, over
which the coating system is intended to remain in “GOOD” condition. The actual useful life will
vary, depending on numerous variables including actual conditions encountered in service.

4.2 Standard application

Protective coatings for dedicated seawater ballast tanks of all ship types and double-side skin
spaces arranged in bulk carriers of 150 m in length and upward shall at least comply with the
requirements in this Standard.

4.3 Special application

4.3.1 This Standard covers protective coating requirements for the ship steel structure. It is
noted that other independent items are fitted within the tanks to which coatings are applied to
provide protection against corrosion.

4.3.2 It is recommended that this Standard is applied, to the extent possible, to those portions of
permanent means of access provided for inspection not integral to the ship structure, such as
rails, independent platforms, ladders, etc. Other equivalent methods of providing corrosion
protection for the non-integral items may also be used, provided they do not impair the
performance of the coatings of the surrounding structure. Access arrangements that are integral
to the ship structure, such as increased stiffener depths for walkways, stringers, etc., are to fully
comply with this Standard.

4.3.3 It is also recommended that supports for piping, measuring devices, etc., be coated in
accordance with the non-integral items indicated in paragraph 4.3.2.

I:\MSC\82\WP\3.doc

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3
ANNEX 1
Page 6

4.4 Basic coating requirements

4.4.1 The requirements for protective coating systems to be applied at ship construction for
dedicated seawater ballast tanks of all ship types and double-side skin spaces arranged in bulk
carriers of 150 m in length and upward meeting the performance standard specified in
paragraph 4.1 are listed in table 1.

4.4.2 Coating manufacturers shall provide a specification of the protective coating system to
satisfy the requirements of table 1.

4.4.3 The Administration shall verify the Technical Data Sheet and Statement of Compliance or
Type Approval Certificate for the protective coating system.

4.4.4 The shipyard shall apply the protective coating in accordance with the verified Technical
Data Sheet and its own verified application procedures.

4.4.5 Standards referred to in footnotes in table 1 and Annex 1 to this standard are those
acceptable by the Organization. Other standards may be accepted by the Administration if not
inferior to the referenced standards.

Table 1 – Basic coating system requirements for dedicated seawater ballast tanks of all type
of ships and double-side skin spaces of bulk carriers of 150 m and upwards

Characteristic/
Reference Requirement
Standards
1 Design of coating system

.1 Selection of the The selection of the coating system should be considered by the parties
coating system involved with respect to the service conditions and planned maintenance. The
following aspects, among other things should be considered:

.1 location of space relative to heated surfaces;

.2 frequency of ballasting and deballasting operations;
.3 required surface conditions;
.4 required surface cleanliness and dryness;
.5 supplementary cathodic protections, if any (where coating is
supplemented by cathodic protection, the coating should be compatible
with the cathodic protection system).

Coating manufacturers shall have products with documented satisfactory

performance records and technical data sheets. The manufacturers should also
be capable of rendering adequate technical assistance. Performance records,
technical data sheet and technical assistance (if given) shall be recorded in the
Coating Technical File.

Coatings for application underneath sun-heated decks or on bulkheads forming

boundaries of heated spaces shall be able to withstand repeated heating and/or
cooling without becoming brittle.

I:\MSC\82\WP\3.doc

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3
ANNEX 1
Page 7

.2 Coating type Epoxy based systems.

Other coating systems with performance according to the test procedure in

annex 1.

A multi-coat system with each coat of contrasting colour is recommended.

The top coat shall be of a light colour in order to facilitate in-service

inspection.
.3 Coating Epoxy based systems tested prior to the date of entry into force of this Standard
pre-qualification test in a laboratory by a method corresponding to the test procedure in annex 1 or
equivalent, which as a minimum meets the requirements for rusting and
blistering; or which have documented field exposure for 5 years with a final
coating condition of not less than “GOOD” may be accepted.

For all other systems, testing according to the procedure in annex 1, or

equivalent, is required.

.4 Job specification There shall be a minimum of two stripe coats and two spray coats, except that
the second stripe coat, by way of welded seams only, may be reduced in scope
where it is proven that the NDFT can be met by the coats applied in order to
avoid unnecessary over thickness. Any reduction in scope of the second stripe
coat shall be fully detailed in the CTF.

Stripe coats shall be applied by brush or roller. Roller to be used for scallops,
ratholes, etc., only.

Each main coating layer shall be appropriately cured before application of the
next coat, in accordance with coating manufacturer’s recommendations.
Surface contaminants such as rust, grease, dust, salt, oil, etc. shall be removed
prior to painting with proper method according to the paint manufacturer’s
recommendation. Abrasive inclusions embedded in the coating shall be
removed. Job specifications shall include the dry-to-recoat times and walk-on
time given by the manufacturer.

.5 NDFT (nominal total NDFT 320 µm with 90/10 rule for epoxy based coatings, other systems to
dry film thickness)3 coating manufacturer’s specifications.

Maximum total dry film thickness according to manufacturer’s detailed

specifications.

Care shall be taken to avoid increasing the thickness in an exaggerated way.

Wet film thickness shall be regularly checked during application.

Thinner shall be limited to those types and quantities recommended by the

manufacturer.

3
Type of gauge and calibration in accordance with SSPC-PA2: 2004. Paint Application Specification No.2.

I:\MSC\82\WP\3.doc

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3
ANNEX 1
Page 8

2 PSP (Primary Surface Preparation)

.1 Blasting and Sa 2½; with profiles between 30-75 µm

Profile. 4, 5
Blasting shall not be carried out when:
.1 the relative humidity is above 85%; or
.2 the surface temperature of steel is less than 3°C above the dew point.

Checking of the steel surface cleanliness and roughness profile shall be carried
out at the end of the surface preparation and before the application of the
primer, in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
.2 Water soluble salt ≤ 50 mg/m2 of sodium chloride.
limit equivalent to
NaCl 6
.3 Shop primer Zinc containing inhibitor free zinc silicate based or equivalent.

Compatibility with main coating system shall be confirmed by the coating

manufacturer.
3 Secondary surface preparation

.1 Steel condition7 The steel surface shall be prepared so that the coating selected can achieve an
even distribution at the required NDFT and have an adequate adhesion by
removing sharp edges, grinding weld beads and removing weld spatter and any
other surface contaminant.

Edges to be treated to a rounded radius of minimum 2 mm, or subjected to

three pass grinding or at least equivalent process before painting.

4
Reference standard: ISO 8501-1: 1988/Suppl: 1994. Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints
and related products – Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.
5
Reference standard: ISO 8503-1/2: 1988. Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related
products – Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel substrates.
6
Conductivity measured in accordance with ISO 8502-9: 1998. Preparation of steel substrate before application
of paints and related products – Test for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
7
Reference standard: ISO 8501-3: 2001 (grade P2). Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and
related products – Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.

I:\MSC\82\WP\3.doc

Protective Coatings Inspector Training

MSC 82/WP.3
ANNEX 1
Page 9

.2 Surface treatment4 Sa 2½ on damaged shop primer and welds.

Sa 2 removing at least 70% of intact shop primer, which has not passed a pre-
qualification certified by test procedures in 1.3.

If the complete coating system comprising epoxy based main coating and shop
primer has passed a pre-qualification certified by test procedures in 1.3, intact
shop primer may be retained provided the same epoxy coating system is used.
The retained shop primer shall be cleaned by sweep blasting, high pressure
water washing or equivalent method.

If a zinc silicate shop primer has passed the pre-qualification test of 1.3 as part
of an epoxy coating system, it may be used in combination with other epoxy
coatings certified under 1.3, provided that the compatibility has been
confirmed by the manufacturer by the test in accordance with paragraph 1.7 of
appendix 1 to annex 1 without wave movement.
.3 Surface treatment Butts St 3 or better or Sa 2½ where practicable. Small damages up to 2% of
after erection4 total area: St 3. Contiguous damages over 25 m2 or over 2% of the total area of
the tank, Sa 2½ should be applied.

Coating in overlap to be feathered.

5
.4 Profile requirements In case of full or partial blasting 30-75 µm, otherwise as recommended by the
coating manufacturer.
.5 Dust8 Dust quantity rating “1” for dust size class “3”, “4” or “5”. Lower dust size
classes to be removed if visible on the surface to be coated without
magnification.
.6 Water soluble salts ≤ 50 mg/m2 of sodium chloride.
limit equivalent to .
NaCl after blasting/
grinding6
.7 Oil contamination No oil contamination.
4 Miscellaneous

.1 Ventilation Adequate ventilation is necessary for the proper drying and curing of coating.
Ventilation should be maintained throughout the application process and for a
period after application is completed, as recommended by the coating
manufacturer.

4
Reference standard: ISO 8501-1:1988/Suppl: 1994. Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints
and related products – Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.
5
Reference standard: ISO 8503-1/2:1993. Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related
products – Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned steel substrates.
8
Reference standard: ISO 8502-3:1993. Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related
products – Test for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
6
Conductivity measured in accordance with ISO 8502-9:1998. Preparation of steel substrate before application
of paints and related products – Test for the assessment of surface cleanliness.

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.2 Environmental Coating shall be applied under controlled humidity and surface conditions, in
conditions accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. In addition, coating shall
not be applied when:
.1 the relative humidity is above 85%; or
.2 the surface temperature is less than 3°C above the dew point.
.3 Testing of coating3 Destructive testing should be avoided.

Dry film thickness shall be measured after each coat for quality control
purpose and the total dry film thickness shall be confirmed after completion of
final coat, using appropriate thickness gauges (see annex 3).
.4 Repair Any defective areas, e.g. pin-holes, bubbles, voids, etc. should be marked up
and appropriate repairs effected. All such repairs shall be re-checked and
documented.

5 COATING SYSTEM APPROVAL

Results from prequalification tests (table 1, paragraph 1.3) of the coating system shall be
documented, and a Statement of Compliance or Type Approval Certificate shall be issued if
found satisfactory by a third party, independent of the coating manufacturer.

6 COATING INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS

6.1 General

6.1.1 To ensure compliance with this Standard, the following shall be carried out by qualified
coating inspectors certified to NACE Coating Inspector Level 2, FROSIO Inspector Level III or
equivalent as verified by the Administration.

6.1.2 Coating inspectors shall inspect surface preparation and coating application during the
coating process by carrying out, as a minimum, those inspection items identified in section 6.2 to
ensure compliance with this Standard. Emphasis shall be placed on initiation of each stage of
surface preparation and coatings application as improper work is extremely difficult to correct
later in the coating progress. Representative structural members shall be non-destructively
examined for coating thickness. The inspector shall verify that appropriate collective measures
have been carried out.

6.1.3 Results from the inspection shall be recorded by the inspector and shall be included in
the CTF (refer to annex 2, Example of Daily Log and Non-conformity Report).

3
Type of gauge and calibration in accordance with SSPC-PA2:2004. Paint Application Specification No.2.

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6.2 Inspection items

Construction
Inspection items
stage
Primary surface 1 The surface temperature of steel, the relative humidity and the dew point shall be
preparation measured and recorded before the blasting process starts and at times of sudden
changes in weather.
2 The surface of steel plates shall be tested for soluble salt and checked for oil, grease
and other contamination.
3 The cleanliness of the steel surface shall be monitored in the shop primer
application process.
4 The shop primer material shall be confirmed to meet the requirements of 2.3 of
table 1.
Thickness If compatibility with the main coating system has been declared, then the thickness
and curing of the zinc silicate shop primer to be confirmed to conform to the
specified values.
Block assembly 1 After completing construction of the block and before secondary surface
preparation starts, a visual inspection for steel surface treatment including edge
treatment shall be carried out.

Any oil, grease or other visible contamination to be removed.

2 After blasting/grinding/cleaning and prior to coating, a visual inspection of the
prepared surface shall be carried out.

On completion of blasting and cleaning and prior to the application of the first coat
of the system, the steel surface shall be tested for levels of remaining soluble salts
in at least one location per block.
3 The surface temperature, the relative humidity and the dew point shall be monitored
and recorded during the coating application and curing.
4 Inspection to be performed of the steps in the coating application process
mentioned in table 1.
5 DFT measurements shall be taken to prove that the coating has been applied to the
thickness as specified and outlined in annex 3.
Erection 1 Visual inspection for steel surface condition, surface preparation and verification of
conformance to other requirements in table 1, and the agreed specification to be
performed.
2 The surface temperature, the relative humidity and the dew point shall be measured
and recorded before coating starts and regularly during the coating process.
3 Inspection to be performed of the steps in the coating application process
mentioned in table 1.

7 VERIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

The following shall be carried out by the Administration prior to reviewing the Coating
Technical File for the ship subject to this Standard:

.1 check that the Technical Data Sheet and Statement of Compliance or Type
Approval Certificate comply with this Standard;

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.2 check that the coating identification on representative containers is consistent with

the coating identified in the Technical Data Sheet and Statement of Compliance or
Type Approval Certificate;

.3 check that the inspector is qualified in accordance with the qualification standards
in paragraph 6.1.1;

.4 check that the inspector’s reports of surface preparation and the coating’s
application indicate compliance with the manufacturer’s Technical Data Sheet and
Statement of Compliance or Type Approval Certificate; and

.5 monitor implementation of the coating inspection requirements.

8 ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS

8.1 All systems that are not an epoxy based system applied according to table 1 of this
Standard are defined as an alternative system.

8.2 This Standard is based on recognized and commonly used coating systems. It is not
meant to exclude other, alternative, systems with proven equivalent performance, for example
non epoxy based systems.

8.3 Acceptance of alternative systems will be subject to documented evidence that they ensure a
corrosion prevention performance at least equivalent to that indicated in this Standard.

8.4 As a minimum, the documented evidence shall consist of satisfactory performance

corresponding to that of a coating system which conforms to the Coating Standard described in
section 4, a target useful life of 15 years in either actual field exposure for 5 years with final
coating condition not less than “GOOD” or laboratory testing. Laboratory test shall be
conducted in accordance with the test procedure given in annex 1 of this Standard.

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ANNEX 1

TEST PROCEDURES FOR COATING QUALIFICATION

FOR DEDICATED SEAWATER BALLAST TANK OF ALL TYPES OF SHIPS AND
DOUBLE-SIDE SKIN SPACES OF BULK CARRIERS COATING

1 Scope

These Procedures provide details of the test procedure referred to in paragraphs 5 and 8.3 of this
Standard.

2 Definitions

Coating specification means the specification of coating systems which includes the type of
coating system, steel preparation, surface preparation, surface cleanliness, environmental
conditions, application procedure, acceptance criteria and inspection.

3 Testing

Coating specification shall be verified by the following tests. The test procedures shall comply
with appendix 1 (Test on simulated ballast tank conditions) and appendix 2 (Condensation
chamber tests) to this annex as follows:

.1 For protective coatings for dedicated seawater ballast tanks, appendix 1 and
appendix 2 shall apply.

.2 For protective coatings for double-side spaces of bulk carriers of 150 m in length
and upwards other than dedicated seawater ballast tanks, appendix 2 shall apply.

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APPENDIX 1

TEST ON SIMULATED BALLAST TANK CONDITIONS

1 Test condition

Test on simulated ballast tank conditions shall satisfy each of the following conditions:

.1 The test shall be carried out for 180 days.

.2 There are to be 5 test panels.

.3 The size of each test panel is 200 mm x 400 mm x 3 mm. Two of the panels
(Panel 3 and 4 below) have a U-bar welded on. The U-bar is welded to the panel
in a 120 mm distance from one of the short sides and 80 mm from each of the long
sides.

Welded to the panel 25 mm long

only on the outside 2 mm thick
15 mm
of the U-bar
40 mm

The panels are to be treated according to this Standard, table 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3, and
coating system applied according to table 1, paragraphs 1.4 and 1.5. Shop primer
to be weathered for at least 2 months and cleaned by low pressure washing or
other mild method. Blast sweep or high pressure washing, or other primer
removal methods not to be used. Weathering method and extent shall take into
consideration that the primer is to be the foundation for a 15 year target useful life
system. To facilitate innovation, alternative preparation, coating systems and dry
film thicknesses may be used when clearly defined.

.4 The reverse side of the test piece shall be painted appropriately, in order not to
affect the test results.

.5 As simulating the condition of actual ballast tank, the test cycle runs for two
weeks with natural or artificial seawater and one week empty. The temperature of
the seawater is to be kept at about 35°C.

.6 Test Panel 1: This panel is to be heated for 12 h at 50°C and cooled for 12 h
at 20°C in order to simulate upper deck condition. The test panel is cyclically
splashed with natural or artificial seawater in order to simulate a ship’s pitching
and rolling motion. The interval of splashing is 3 s or faster. The panel has a
scribe line down to bare steel across width.
.7 Test Panel 2 has a fixed sacrificial zinc anode in order to evaluate the effect of
cathodic protection. A circular 8 mm artificial holiday down to bare steel is
introduced on the test panel 100 mm from the anode in order to evaluate the effect
of the cathodic protection. The test panel is cyclically immersed with natural or
artificial seawater.
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.8 Test Panel 3: to be cooled on the reverse side, in order to give a temperature

gradient in order to simulate a cooled bulkhead in a ballast wing tank, and
splashed with natural or artificial seawater in order to simulate a ship’s pitching
and rolling motion. The gradient of temperature is approximately 20°C, and the
interval of splashing is 3 s or faster. The panel has a scribe line down to bare steel
across width.

.9 Test Panel 4 is to be cyclically splashed with natural or artificial seawater in order

to simulate a ship’s pitching and rolling motion. The interval of splashing is 3 s or
faster. The panel has a scribe line down to bare steel across width.

.10 Test Panel 5 is to be exposed to dry heat for 180 days at 70°C to simulate
boundary plating between heated bunker tank and ballast tank in double bottom.

CYCLIC HEATING
12 HOURS 50 ºC
12 HOURS 20 ºC

TEST PANELS COOLING

TEMP. GRADIENT

SEAWATER 35 ºC

HEATING

WAVE MOVEMENT

Figure 1
Wave tank for testing of ballast tank coatings

2 Test results

2.1 Prior to the testing, the following measured data of the coating system shall be reported:
.1 infrared (IR) identification of the base and hardener components of the coating;

.2 specific gravity9 of the base and hardener components of the paint; and

.3 number of pinholes, low voltage detector at 90 V.

9
Reference standard: ISO 2811-1/4:1997. Paints and varnishes. Determination of density.

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2.2 After the testing, the following measured data shall be reported:

.1 blisters and rust10;

.2 dry film thickness (DFT) (use of a template)11;

.3 adhesion value12;

.4 flexibility13 modified according to panel thickness (3 mm steel, 300 µm coating,

150 mm cylindrical mandrel gives 2% elongation) for information only;

.5 cathodic protection weight loss/current demand/disbondment from artificial

holiday;

.6 undercutting from scribe. The undercutting along both sides of the scribe is
measured and the maximum undercutting determined on each panel. The average
of the three maximum records is used for the acceptance.

3 Acceptance criteria

3.1 The test results based on section 2 shall satisfy the following criteria:

Item Acceptance criteria for epoxy Acceptance criteria for alternative

based systems applied according systems
to Table 1 of this Standard
Blisters on panel No blisters No blisters
Rust on panel Ri 0 (0%) Ri 0 (0%)
Number of pinholes 0 0
Adhesive failure > 3.5 MPa > 5 MPa
Adhesive failure between substrate Adhesive failure between substrate
and coating or between coats for and coating or between coats for
60% or more of the areas. 60% or more of the areas.
Cohesive failure > 3 MPa > 5 MPa
Cohesive failure in coating for 40% Cohesive failure in coating for 40%
or more of the area. or more of the area.
Cathodic protection current < 5 mA/m2 < 5 mA/m2
demand calculated from weight
loss

10
Reference standards: ISO 4628/2:2003. Paints and varnishes – Evaluation of degradation of coatings –
Designation of quantity and size of defects, and of intensity of uniform changes in appearance – Part 2.
ISO 4628/3: 2003. Paints and varnishes – Evaluation of degradation of coatings – Designation of quantity and
size of common types of defect – Part 3: Designation of degree of rusting.
11
Nine equally distributed measuring points are used on panel’s size 150mm x 150 mm or 15 equally distributed
measuring points on panel’s size 200mm x 400mm.
12
Reference standard: ISO 4624:2002. Pull-off test for adhesion.
13
Reference standards: ASTM D4145:1983. Standard Test Method for Coating Flexibility of Prepainted Sheet.

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Cathodic protection; < 8 mm < 5 mm

disbondment from artificial
holiday
Undercutting from scribe < 8 mm < 5 mm
U-bar Any defects, cracking or detachment Any defects, cracking or detachment
at the angle or weld will lead to at the angle or weld will lead to
system being failed. system being failed.

3.2 Epoxy based systems tested prior to the date of entry into force of this Standard shall
satisfy only the criteria for blistering and rust in the table above.

3.3 Epoxy based systems tested when applied according to table 1 of this Standard shall
satisfy the criteria for epoxy based systems as indicated in the table above.

3.4 Alternative systems not necessarily epoxy based and/or not necessarily applied according
to table 1 of this Standard shall satisfy the criteria for alternative systems as indicated in the table
above.

4 Test report

The test report shall include the following information:

.1 name of the manufacturer;

.2 date of tests;

.3 product name/identification of both paint and primer;

.4 batch number;

.5 data of surface preparation on steel panels, including the following:

- surface treatment;
- water soluble salts limit;
- dust; and
- abrasive inclusions;

.6 application data of coating system, including the following:

- shop primed;
- number of coats;
- recoat interval14;
- dry film thickness (DFT) prior to testing14;
- thinner14;
- humidity14;
- air temperature14; and
- steel temperature;
.7 test results according to section 2; and
.8 judgment according to section 3.
14
Both of actual specimen data and manufacturer’s requirement/recommendation.

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APPENDIX 2

CONDENSATION CHAMBER TEST

1 Test condition

Condensation chamber test shall be conducted in accordance with applicable standards15.

.1 The exposure time is 180 days.

.2 There are to be 2 test panels.

.3 The size of each test panel is 150 mm x 150 mm x 3 mm. The panels are to be
treated according to the Performance Standard, table 1, paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 and
coating system applied according to table 1, paragraphs 1.4 and 1.5. Shop primer
to be weathered for at least 2 months and cleaned by low pressure washing or
other mild method. Blast sweep or high pressure washing, or other primer
removal methods not to be used. Weathering method and extent shall take into
consideration that the primer is to be the foundation for a 15 year target life
system. To facilitate innovation, alternative preparation, coating systems and dry
film thicknesses may be used when clearly defined.

.4 The reverse side of the test piece shall be painted appropriately, in order not to
affect the test results.

Room temperature 23 ± 2° C

Test panels

100% RH

Water 40 ± 2° C

Figure 2
Condensation chamber

15
Reference standard: ISO 6270-1:1998 Paints and varnishes – Determination of resistance to humidity – Part 1:
Continuous condensation.

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2 Test results

According to section 2 (except for paragraphs 2.2.5 and 2.2.6) of appendix 1.

3 Acceptance criteria

3.1 The test results based on section 2 shall satisfy the following criteria:

Item Acceptance criteria for epoxy Acceptance criteria for alternative

based systems applied according systems
to table 1 of this standard
Blisters on panel No blisters No blisters
Rust on panel Ri 0 (0%) Ri 0 (0%)
Number of pinholes 0 0

Adhesive failure > 3.5 MPa > 5 MPa

Adhesive failure between substrate Adhesive failure between substrate
and coating or between coats for and coating or between coats for
60% or more of the areas. 60% or more of the areas.
Cohesive failure > 3 MPa > 5 MPa
Cohesive failure in coating for 40% Cohesive failure in coating for 40%
or more of the area. or more of the area.

3.2 Epoxy based systems tested prior to the date of entry into force of this Standard shall
satisfy only the criteria for blistering and rust in the table above.

3.3 Epoxy based systems tested when applied according to table 1 of this Standard shall
satisfy the criteria for epoxy based systems as indicated in the table above.

4 Test report

According to section 4 of appendix 1.

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ANNEX 2

EXAMPLE OF DAILY LOG AND NON-CONFORMITY REPORT

DAILY LOG Sheet No:

Ship: Tank/Hold No: Database:

Part of structure:

SURFACE PREPARATION

Method: Area (m2):

Abrasive: Grain size:

Surface temperature: Air temperature:

Relative humidity (max): Dew point:

Standard achieved:

Rounding of edges:

Comments:

Job No.: Date: Signature:

COATING APPLICATION:

Method:

Coat No. System Batch No. Date Air Surf RH% Dew DFT* Specified
temp. temp. point Meas.*

*
Measured minimum and maximum DFT. DFT readings to be attached to daily log
Comments:

Job No: Date: Signature:

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Non-conformity report Sheet No:

Ship: Tank/Hold No: Database:

Part of structure:

DESCRIPTION OF THE INSPECTION FINDINGS TO BE CORRECTED

Description of findings:

Reference document (daily log):

Action taken:

Job No.: Date: Signature:

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ANNEX 3

DRY FILM THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS

The following verification check points of DFT are to be taken:

.1 one gauge reading per 5 m2 of flat surface areas;

.2 one gauge reading at 2 to 3 m intervals and as close as possible to tank

boundaries, but not further than 15 mm from edges of tank boundaries;

.3 longitudinal and transverse stiffener members:

One set of gauge readings as shown below, taken at 2 to 3 m run and not less than
two sets between primary support members;

Primary support members

Longitudinal and transverse stiffeners

15 mm (Typical from edges)

Figure 3

NOTE: Arrows of diagram indicate critical areas and should be understood to

mean indication for both sides.

.4 3 gauge readings for each set of primary support members and 2 gauge readings
for each set of other members as indicated by the arrows in the diagram;

.5 for primary support members (girders and transverses) one set of gauge readings
for 2 to 3 m run as shown in figure 3 above but not less than three sets;

.6 around openings one gauge reading from each side of the opening;

.7 five gauge readings per square metre (m2) but not less than three gauge readings
taken at complex areas (i.e. large brackets of primary support members); and

.8 additional spot checks to be taken to verify coating thickness for any area
considered necessary by the coating inspector.

***

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Protective Coatings Inspector Training

SSPC: THE SOCIETY FOR PROTECTIVE COATINGS

COATING APPLICATION STANDARD NO. 2
PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING CONFORMANCE TO
DRY COATING THICKNESS REQUIREMENTS

1. Scope 1.6 This standard is not intended to be used for measure-

ment of thermal spray coatings. The thickness measurement
1.1 This standard describes a procedure for determining procedures for these coatings are described in SSPC-CS
shop or field conformance to a specified coating dry film thick- 23.002.
ness (DFT) range on ferrous and non-ferrous metal substrates
using nondestructive coating thickness gages (magnetic and 2. Referenced Standards
electronic) described in ASTM D 7091.
2.1 The latest issue, revision, or amendment of the refer-
1.2 The procedures for adjustment and measurement enced standards in effect on the date of invitation to bid shall
acquisition for two types of gages: “magnetic pull-off” (Type 1) govern unless otherwise specified. Standards marked with an
and “electronic” (Type 2) are described in ASTM D 7091. asterisk (*) are referenced only in the Notes, which are not
requirements of this standard.
1.3 This standard defines a procedure to determine
whether dry coatings conform to the minimum and the 2.2 If there is a conflict between the requirements of any
maximum thickness specified. See Note 11.1 for an example of the cited reference standards and this standard, the require-
of a possible modification when measuring dry film thickness ments of this standard shall prevail.
on overcoated surfaces.
2.3 ASTM International Standard3
1.4 This document is not intended to prescribe a
D 7091 Standard Practice for Nondestructive Measure-
frequency of coating thickness measurement for a coating
ment of Dry Film Thickness of Nonmagnetic
failure investigation1.
Coatings Applied to Ferrous Metals and
Nonmagnetic, Nonconductive Coatings Applied
1.5 This document contains the following non-mandatory to Non-Ferrous Metals (mandatory document)
appendices:
2.4 SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings
Appendix 1 - Numerical Example of Average Thickness Standard:
Measurement
Appendix 2 - Methods for Measuring Dry Film Thickness * PA Guide 11 Protecting Edges, Crevices, and Irreg-
on Steel Beams (Girders) ular Steel Surfaces by Stripe Coating
Appendix 3 - Methods for Measuring Dry Film Thickness
for a Laydown of Beams, Structural Steel, and Miscellaneous 3. DEFINITIONS
Parts after Shop Coating
Appendix 4 - Method for Measuring Dry Film Thickness 3.1 Gage Reading: A single instrument reading.
on Coated Steel Test Panels
Appendix 5 - Method for Measuring Dry Film Thickness 3.2 Spot Measurement: The average of three, or at least
of Thin Coatings on Coated Steel Test Panels that Have Been three gage readings made within a 1.5-inch (approximately
Abrasive Blast Cleaned 4-centimeter [~4-cm]) diameter circle. Acquisition of more than
Appendix 6 – Method for Measuring the Dry Film Thick- three gage readings within a spot is permitted. Any unusually
ness of Coatings on Edges
Appendix 7 – Method for Measuring Dry Film Thickness 2
CS 23.00/AWS C2.23M/NACE No. 12, Specification for the Applica-
on Coated Steel Pipe Exterior tion of Thermal Spray Coatings (Metallizing) of Aluminum, Zinc, and
Appendix 8 – Examples of the Adjustment of Type 2 Their Alloys and Composites for the Corrosion Protection of Steel is
available online at <http://www.sspc.org/marketplace>
Gages Using Shims 3
ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken,
PA 19428-2959. For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM
website, www.astm.org, or contact ASTM Customer Service at
[email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM Standards volume
1
The number and location of measurements during a coating failure information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on the
investigation may be more or less frequent than described by this ASTM website.
standard.

1
SSPC-PA 2
May 1, 2012

high or low gage readings that are not repeated consistently as well as the measured thickness value obtained, and the
are discarded. The average of the acceptable gage readings is method used to verify gage accuracy. If the same gage, refer-
the spot measurement. ence standard, and method of verification are used throughout
a job, they need to be recorded only once. The stated value of
3.3 Area Measurement: The average of five spot the standard and the measured value must be recorded each
measurements obtained over each 100 ft2 (~10 m2) of coated time accuracy is verified.
surface.
5.5 If the gage fails the post-measurement accuracy
4. Description of Gages verification check, all measurements acquired since the
last accuracy verification check are suspect. In the event of
4.1 Gage Types: The gage type is determined by the physical damage, wear, or high usage, or after an established
operating principal employed in measuring the thickness and calibration interval, the gage shall be rechecked for accuracy
is not determined by the mode of data readout, i.e. digital or of measurement. If the gage is not measuring accurately, it
analog. shall not be used until it is repaired and/or recalibrated (usually
by the gage manufacturer).
4.1.1 Type 1 – Magnetic Pull-Off Gages: In magnetic
pull-off gages, a permanent magnet is brought into direct 5.6 Type 1 gages have nonlinear scales and any adjusting
contact with the coated surface. The force necessary to pull feature is linear in nature. Any adjustment of these gages will
the magnet from the surface is measured and interpreted limit the DFT range for which the gage will provide accurate
as the coating thickness value on a scale or display on the readings; therefore adjustment of the gage is not recom-
gage. Less force is required to remove the magnet from a thick mended. Furthermore, the application of a single “correction
coating. The scale is nonlinear. value” representing the full range of the gage to compensate
for a gage that is not measuring accurately is not appropriate,
4.1.2 Type 2 – Electronic Gages: An electronic gage
since the correction will also be non-linear.4
uses electronic circuitry to convert a reference signal into
coating thickness. 6. Measurement Procedure - Type 1 Gages
5. Calibration and Verification of Accuracy 6.1 Type 1 gage accuracy is verified using smooth test
blocks. In order to compensate for any effect of the substrate
5.1 ASTM D 7091 describes three operational steps itself and surface roughness, obtain measurements from the
necessary to ensure accurate coating thickness measurement: bare, prepared substrate at a minimum of ten (10) locations
calibration, verification and adjustment of coating thickness (arbitrarily spaced) and calculate the average value. This value
measuring gages, as well as proper methods for obtaining represents the effect of the substrate/surface roughness on a
coating thickness measurements on both ferrous and non- coating thickness gage. This average value is the base metal
ferrous metal substrates. These steps shall be completed reading (BMR). The gage shall not be adjusted to read zero on
before taking coating thickness measurements to determine the prepared, bare substrate.
conformance to a specified coating thickness range.
6.2 Measure the DFT of the dry coating at the number of
5.2 Gages shall be calibrated by the manufacturer or spots specified in Section 8.
a qualified laboratory. A Certificate of Calibration or other
documentation showing traceability to a national metrology 6.3 Subtract the BMR from the gage reading to obtain the
institution is required. There is no standard time interval for thickness of the coating.
re-calibration, nor is one absolutely required. Calibration inter-
vals are usually established based upon experience and the 7. MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE - TYPE 2 GAGES
work environment. A one-year calibration interval is a typical
starting point suggested by gage manufacturers. 7.1 The manufacturers of Type 2 (electronic) gages
prescribe different methods of adjustment to measure dry film
5.3 To guard against measuring with an inaccurate gage, thickness over abrasive blast cleaned surfaces. Adjust the
gage accuracy shall be verified at a minimum of the begin- gage according to the manufacturers instructions using one of
ning and end of each work shift according to the procedures the methods described in ASTM D 7091 or Appendix 8 of this
described in ASTM D 7091. The user is advised to verify gage standard.
accuracy during measurement acquisition (e.g., hourly) when
a large number of measurements are being obtained. If the
gage is dropped or suspected of giving erroneous readings 4
A correction curve can be prepared by plotting the actual gage
during the work shift, its accuracy shall be rechecked. readings against the stated values on the calibration test blocks.
Subsequent coating thickness measurements can be “corrected” by

plotting the measurements along the correction curve. The correc-
5.4 Record the serial number of the gage, the reference tion curve may or may not cover the full range of the gage, but should
standard used, the stated thickness of the reference standard cover the intended range of use. The Base Metal Readings (BMR)
described in 6.1 may also need to be plotted on the correction curve.

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7.2 Measure the DFT of the dry coating at the number of If there is no place to measure in a given direction, then
spots specified in Section 8. no measurement in that direction is necessary. Acquire spot
measurements in each direction (up to the maximum surface
8. Required Number of Measurements for area coated during the work shift) until two consecutive
Conformance to a Thickness Specification conforming spot measurements are acquired in that direction
or until no additional measurements can be made. Accept-
8.1 Number of Measurements: Repeated gage read- able spot measurements are defined by the minimum and
ings, even at points close together, often differ due to small maximum values in the contract documents. No allowance is
surface irregularities of the coating and the substrate. There- made for variant spot measurements as is the practice when
fore, a minimum of three (3) gage readings shall be made for determining the area DFT.
each spot measurement of the coating. For each new gage
reading, move the probe to a new location within the 1.5 inch 8.2.4.1.1 On complex structures or in other cases where
(4-cm) diameter circle defining the spot. Discard any unusually making multiple spot measurements at 5-ft (1.5-m) intervals is
high or low gage readings that are not repeated consistently. not practical, single spot measurements shall be performed on
The average of the acceptable gage readings is the spot repeating structural units or elements of structural units. This
measurement. method shall be used when the largest dimension of the unit
is less than 10 ft (3 m). Make single spot measurements on
8.2 Unless otherwise specified in the procurement docu- repeating structural units or elements of structural units until
ments (project specification), an area measurement is obtained spot measurements on two consecutive units in each direction
by taking five (5) separate spot measurements (average of the are conforming or until there are no more units to test.
gage readings described in 8.1) randomly spaced throughout
each 100 ft2 (~10-m2) area to be measured and representative 8.2.4.2 Non-compliant areas shall be demarcated using
of the coated surface. The five spot measurements shall be removable chalk or other specified marking material and docu-
made for each 100 ft2 (~10-m2) of area as follows: mented. All of the area within 5 ft (1.5 m) of any non-compliant
spot measurement shall be designated as non-compliant.
8.2.1 For areas of coating not exceeding 300 ft2 (~30 m2) For a given measurement direction or unit measurement,
arbitrarily select and measure each 100 ft2 (~10-m2) area. any compliant area or unit preceding a non-compliant area or
unit shall be designated as suspect, and as such is subject to
8.2.2 For areas of coating greater than 300 ft2 (~30 m2) re-inspection after corrective measures are performed.
and not exceeding 1,000 ft2 (~100 m2), arbitrarily select and
measure three 100 ft2 (~10-m2) areas. 8.2.5 Appendices 2 through 7 provide specifiers with
optional alternatives for defining the area size as well as the
8.2.3 For areas of coating exceeding 1,000 ft2 (~100 m2), number and frequency of spot measurements to include in
arbitrarily select and measure the first 100 m2 (~1,000 ft2) as project specifications as appropriate for the size and shape of
stated in Section 8.2.2. For each additional 1,000 ft2 (~100 the item or structure to be coated.
m2) coated area (or increment thereof), arbitrarily select and
measure one additional 100 ft2 (~10-m2) area. 9. Conformance to Specified Thickness

8.2.4 If the coating thickness for any 100 ft2 (~10-m2) 9.1 A minimum and a maximum thickness are normally
area is not in compliance with the contract documents, the specified for each layer of coating. If a single thickness value
procedure described below shall be followed to assess the is specified and the coating manufacturer does not provide
magnitude of the nonconforming thickness. a recommended range of thickness, then the minimum and
maximum thickness for each coating layer shall be +/- 20% of
8.2.4.1 Determine the spot DFT at 5-ft (1.5-m) intervals the stated value.
in eight equally spaced directions radiating outward from the
nonconforming 100 ft2 (~10-m2) area as shown in Figure 1. 9.2 Table 1 provides five thickness restriction levels. Level
1 is the most restrictive and does not allow for any deviation
of spot or area measurements from the specified minimum
and maximum thickness, while Level 5 is the least restrictive.
Depending on the coating type and the prevailing service envi-
NONCONFORMING ronment, the specifier selects the dry film thickness restriction
AREA level for a given project. If no restriction level is specified, then
Level 3 is the default. It is possible to specify a maximum thick-
ness threshold for Level 5 Spot or Area measurements for
some generic product types and service environments.
FIGURE 1
RADIATING SPOT MEASUREMENTS TO DETERMINE 9.3 For the purpose of final acceptance of the total dry
EXTENT OF NONCONFORMING AREA film thickness, the cumulative thickness of all coating layers

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TABLE 1
COATING THICKNESS RESTRICTION LEVELS

Spot
Thickness Gage Reading Area Measurement
Measurement
Level 1
Minimum Unrestricted As specified As specified
Maximum Unrestricted As specified As specified
Level 2
Minimum Unrestricted As specified As specified
Maximum Unrestricted 120% of maximum As specified
Level 3
Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified
Maximum Unrestricted 120% of maximum As specified
Level 4
Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified
Maximum Unrestricted 150% of maximum As specified
Level 5
Minimum Unrestricted 80% of minimum As specified
Maximum Unrestricted Unrestricted Unrestricted

shall be no less than the cumulative minimum specified thick- A paint inspection gage (sometimes called a Tooke or PIG
ness and no greater than the cumulative maximum specified gage) will give accurate DFT measurements, but it requires
thickness. that an incision be made through the coating (overcoat only
or total system), so each measurement site will require repair.
10. Disclaimer A practical approach to monitoring DFT (when overcoating)
is to compute the DFT using wet film thickness (WFT) read-
10.1 While every precaution is taken to ensure that all ings, the percent volume solids of the coating being applied,
information furnished in SSPC standards and specifications is and any thinner addition as shown below.
as accurate, complete, and useful as possible, SSPC cannot
assume responsibility nor incur any obligation resulting from DFT = Measured WFT x % Volume Solids,
the use of any materials, coatings or methods specified therein, or
or of the specification or standard itself. DFT = Measured WFT x % volume
solids ÷ (100% + % thinner added)
10.2 This standard does not attempt to address prob-
lems concerning safety associated with its use. The user of If the DFT of the existing coating is not too uneven or
this standard, as well as the user of all products or practices eroded, the average DFT of the existing coating can be
described herein, is responsible for instituting appropriate measured per this standard to establish a base DFT. This base
health and safety practices and for ensuring compliance with DFT can then be subtracted from the total DFT to isolate the
all governmental regulations. thickness of the overcoat(s).

11. Notes 11.2 Correcting for Low or High Thickness: The speci-
fier should specifically state the methodology to correct the
Notes are not requirements of this standard.
applied dry film for low or high thickness. If this information
is not contained in the specification, then the manufacturer’s
11.1 Overcoating: Maintenance painting often involves
instructions should be followed.
application of a new coating over an existing coating system.

It can be very difficult to accurately measure the DFT of this
APPENDIX 1 - Numerical Example of Average
newly applied coating using non-destructive methods. First,
Thickness Measurement
access to the profile is not available, compromising the accu-
racy of the BMR or the adjustment of a Type 2 gage. Second,
Appendix 1 is not a mandatory part of this standard.
unevenness in the DFT of the existing coating necessitates
careful mapping of the “before and after” DFT readings. This
The following numerical example is presented as an illus-
unevenness also adds to the statistical variation in trying to
tration of Section 8. Metric values are calculated equivalents
establish a base DFT reading to be subtracted from the final
from U.S. Customary measurements (reference Journal of
DFT.
Protective Coatings and Linings, Vol. 4, No 5, May 1987). The
example is based on a Level 3 Restriction (default).

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Suppose this structure is 300 ft2 (~30 m2) in area. Mentally specified minimum thickness. Eighty percent of 2.5 mils is 2.0
divide the surface into three equal parts, each being about 100 mils (0.80 x 2.5 = 2.0). Although 2.1 mils is below the specified
ft2 (~10 m2). minimum, it is still within 80 percent of it, so the specification is
satisfied. There are individual gage readings of 1.5 mils at Spot
Part A - 100 ft2 (~10 m2) 5 and 1.8 mils at Spot 3, both of which are clearly less than
Part B - 100 ft2 (~10 m2) 2.0 mils. This is allowed because only the average of the three
Part C - 100 ft2 (~10 m2) readings (i.e. the spot measurement) must be greater than or
equal to 2.0 mils.
First, measure the coating thickness on Part A. This
involves at least 15 gage readings with a Type 1 or Type 2 Considering Equivalent Metric Measurements: The
device (see Figure A1). Assume the specification calls for average, 65.4 µm, exceeds the specified minimum of 64 µm
2.5 mils (~64 micrometers [µm]) minimum thickness. The and thus satisfies the specification. Next, determine if the
coating thickness for area A is then the average of the five lowest spot measurement, 53 µm, is within 80% of the speci-
spot measurements made on area A, namely 2.6 mils (65.4 fied minimum thickness. Eighty percent of 64 µm is 51 µm (0.80
µm). x 64 = 51). Although 53 µm is below the specified minimum, it
is still within 80% of it so the specification is satisfied. There
Spot 1 2.5 mils 64 µm are individual gage readings of 38 µm (1.5 mils) at spot 5 and
Spot 2 3.0 76 46 µm (1.8 mils) at spot 3, both of which are clearly less than
Spot 3 2.1 53 51 µm. This is allowed because only the average of the three
Spot 4 3.0 76 readings (i.e., the spot measurement) must be greater than or
Spot 5 2.3 58 equal to 51 µm.
Average 2.6 mils 65.4 µm Since the structure used in this example is 300 ft2
(approximately 30 m2), the procedure used to measure the film
Considering the U.S. Customary Measurements:
thickness of part A must be applied to both part B and part C.
The average, 2.6 mils, exceeds the specified minimum of 2.5
The measured thickness of part B must exceed the (64 µm)
mils and thus satisfies the specification. Next, determine if
specified minimum, as must the thickness of part C.
the lowest spot measurement, 2.1 mils, is within 80% of the

FIGURE A1
PART “A” OF STRUCTURE
(AREA 100 FT2 [APPROXIMATELY 10 M2])

GAGE READINGS

Spot 1 Spot 2 3.6

2.6 2.6
3.0 2.7
2.0 Avg. 3.0
Avg. 2.5

1.5 inch
1.8
10 ft 2.2 Part “B”
2.3
Spot 3
Avg. 2.1

Spot 5 1.5
Spot 4 2.8
2.6 2.6
3.2 Avg. 2.3
3.1
Avg. 3.0

10 ft

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To monitor the thickness of this entire 300-ft2 (approxi- A3.4, allows for fewer spot measurements. The user does not
mately 30-m2), structure, at least 45 individual gage readings have to require a full DFT determination for every beam in the
must be taken, from which 15 spot measurements are calcu- structure. For example, the requirement may be for a full DFT
lated. The five spot measurements from each 100 ft2 (10-m2) determination on one beam out of ten, or a sample DFT deter-
part of the structure are used to calculate the thickness of that mination on one beam out of five, or a combination of full and
part. sample DFT determinations. Note that for existing structures,
the top side of the top flange (Surface 1) may not be accessible
APPENDIX 2 - Methods for Measuring Dry Film for measuring coating thickness.
Thickness on Steel Beams (Girders) A beam has twelve different surfaces as shown in Figure
A2. Any one of these surfaces may have a DFT outside the
Appendix 2 is not a mandatory part of this standard, but it specified range, and hence, shall be measured. If the thick-
provides two sample protocols for measuring DFT on beams ness of the flange is less than 1 inch (25 mm), the contracting
and girders. parties may choose not to measure the DFT on the toe, i.e.,
surfaces 2, 6, 8, and 12 of Figure A2. As an informal initial
A2.1 A challenge for the painter in coating steel beams or survey, the inspector may want to check for uniformity of DFT
girders is providing the same uniform thickness over high and across each surface. Is the DFT of the flange near the fillet the
low vertical surfaces as over horizontal surfaces. On a beam, same as near the toe? Is the DFT uniform across the web? The
there are proportionately more edges that tend to have low dry inspector must be sure to use a gage that is not susceptible
film thickness (DFT) and inside corners that tend to have high to edge effects. Follow the gage manufacturer’s instructions
DFT compared to the center of the flat surfaces. Each painter when measuring the edges.
usually develops a pattern of work for a specific task. Hence,
the DFT on the underside of the top flange, for example, may A2.2 Full DFT Determination of a Beam: Divide the
be consistently on the high side or the low side of the target beam or girder into five equal sections along its length. Identify
DFT. This type of error is easy to detect and correct. Random the 12 surfaces of the beam as shown in Figure A2 for each
errors pose a more difficult problem. Gross errors where the section. For tall beams where the height of the beam is 36
paint is obviously too thin or too thick must be corrected and inches (91 cm) or more, divide the web in half along the length
are beyond the scope of this standard. of the beam. For the full DFT determination, each half of the
The number of spot measurements in these protocols web is considered a separate surface. Take one spot measure-
may far exceed the “5 spot measurement per 100 ft2 (10 m2)” ment (as defined in Section 8.1) on surface 1 in each of the five
required in the standard. The full DFT determination, described sections. The location of the surface 1 measurement within a
in Section A3.2, provides a very thorough inspection of the section is arbitrarily chosen by the inspector in each of the five
beam. The sample DFT determination, described in Section sections. The average of these five spot measurements is the

FIGURE A2
THE SURFACES OF A STEEL BEAM
(36 in [91 cm] in height)

Less than 36 inches (91 cm) in height 36 inches (91 cm) in height or greater
12 Spots Top Flange 14 Spots

1 1
12 2 12 2
11 3 11 3

Toe 10t 4t

Web
10 4
Fillet
10b 4b
bbb

9 5 9 5
8 6 8 6
7 7

Bottom Flange

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TABLE A2
DATASHEET FOR RECORDING SPOT MEASUREMENTS AND
AVERAGE DFT VALUES FOR THE 12 SURFACES OF A BEAM OR GIRDER

Spot Measurements of DFT on Beam # _______________

Surface Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Average
1
2
3
4t
4b
5
6
7
8
9
10t
10b
11
12

t = top half of web (for beams equal to or greater than 36 in [91 cm] in height)
b = bottom half of web (for beams equal to or greater than 36 in [91 cm] in height)

TABLE A2.1 – NUMBER OF SPOT MEASUREMENTS NEEDED

ON EACH SURFACE OF A BEAM FOR A FULL OR A SAMPLE DFT DETERMINATION

Number of Spot Measurements per Surface

Length of Beam Full DFT Determination* Sample DFT Determination
less than 20 ft (6 m) 5 2
from 20 to 60 ft (6 to 18 m) 5 3
over 60 ft (18 m) 5 NA

* For beams 36 inches (91 cm) or more, the top half and the bottom half of the web are treated as separate surfaces in a full DFT determination.

DFT of surface 1. Repeat for the other 11 surfaces (7 surfaces determination, the web of beams less than 36 inches (91 cm)
if the toe is not measured; 14 surfaces for tall beams). The data in height is not split.
can be reported in a format shown in Table A2.
A2.4.1 Beams less than 6 m (20 ft) in length: For beams
A2.3 If Coating Thickness Restriction Level 3 is invoked less than 20 ft (6 m) in length, take two spot measurements,
by the specification (or if no Restriction Level is invoked by randomly distributed, on each of the 12 surfaces (8 surfaces if
the specification), then no single spot measurement can be the toe is not measured) of the beam as defined in Figure A2.
less than 80% of the specified minimum DFT, and no single Each spot measurement must conform to the specified DFT.
spot measurement can be more than 120% of the specified
maximum DFT. The average value for each surface must A2.4.2 Beams 20 ft (6 m) up to 60 ft (18 m) in length:
conform to the specified DFT. (There will be only eight average For beams 20 ft (6 m) up to 60 ft (18 m) in length, take three
values if the DFT of the toe is not measured; there may be as spot measurements, randomly distributed, on each of the 12
many as 14 average values for beams greater than 36 inches surfaces (8 surfaces if the toe is not measured) of the beam as
in height.) defined in Figure A2. Each spot measurement must conform to
the specified DFT.
A2.4 SAMPLE DFT DETERMINATION OF A BEAM: In
lieu of a full DFT determination of each beam, the job speci- A2.5 NON-CONFORMANCE: If any spot measurement
fication may require only a sample DFT determination for falls outside the specified range, additional measurements
selected beams less than 60 ft (18 m) long. For a sample DFT may be made to define the non-conforming area.

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A2.6 RESTRICTED ACCESS: If the beam is situated part. Each spot measurement must conform to the specified
such that one or more of the surfaces are not accessible, take DFT.
measurements on each accessible surface in accordance with
Section A2.2 or Section A2.4 through A2.4.2, as specified. A3.5 NON-CONFORMANCE: If any spot measurement
falls outside the specified range, additional measurements
A2.7 ATTACHMENTS: Stiffeners and other attachments may be made to define the non-conforming area.
to a beam shall be arbitrarily measured.
A3.6 RESTRICTED ACCESS: If a beam or miscellaneous
APPENDIX 3 - Methods for Measuring Dry Film part is situated such that one or more of the surfaces are not
Thickness for a Laydown of Beams, Structural Steel, accessible, take measurements on each accessible surface in
and Miscellaneous Parts After Shop Coating accordance with Section A2.2 or Section A2.4, as specified.

Appendix 3 is not a mandatory part of this standard, but A3.7 NUMBER OF BEAMS OR PARTS TO MEASURE:
it provides two sample protocols for measuring DFT for a In a laydown, the number of beams or parts to receive a full
laydown. DFT determination and the number to have a sample DFT
determination can be specified. For example, do a full DFT
A3.1 GENERAL: A “laydown” is a group of steel members determination on a piece painted near the beginning of the
laid down to be painted in one shift by one painter. For inspec- shift, near the middle of the shift, and near the end of the shift
tion of a laydown, first make a visual survey to detect areas in accordance with Section A3.2; and perform a sample DFT
with obvious defects, such as poor coverage, and correct as determination on every third piece in accordance with Section
necessary. As an informal initial survey, the inspector may A3.4.
want to check for uniformity of DFT across each surface.
A3.8 ATTACHMENTS: Stiffeners and other attachments
A3.2 FULL DFT DETERMINATION to a beam shall be arbitrarily measured.

A3.2.1 Beam (Girder): Follow the procedure described in APPENDIX 4 - Method for Measuring Dry Film Thick-
Section A2.2. ness on Coated Steel Test Panels

A3.2.2 Miscellaneous Parts: Take 1 spot measurement Appendix 4 is not a mandatory part of this standard, but it
(as defined in Section 8.1) on each surface of the part. If the provides a sample protocol for measuring DFT on coated steel
part has fewer than 5 surfaces, take multiple spot measure- test panels.
ments on the larger surfaces to bring the total to 5. If the total
area of the part is over 100 ft2 (10 m2), take 5 spot measure- A4.1 PANEL SIZE: The test panel shall have a minimum
ments randomly distributed over the part for each 100 ft2 (10 area of 18 in2 (116 cm2) and a maximum area of 144 in2
m2), or fraction thereof. (930 cm2); e.g., minimum 3 x 6 inch (7.5 x 15 cm) and maximum
12 x 12 inch (30 x 30 cm).
A3.3 If Coating Thickness Restriction Level 3 is invoked
by the specification (or if no Restriction Level is invoked by A4.2 PROCEDURE: Use a Type 2 electronic gage. Take
the specification), then no single spot measurement can be two spot readings from the top third, the middle third, and the
less than 80% of the specified minimum DFT, and no single bottom third of the test panel. Readings shall be taken at least
spot measurement can be more than 120% of the specified ½ inch (12 mm) from any edge and 1 inch (25 mm) from any
maximum DFT. The average value of the spot measurements other spot reading. Discard any unusually high or low gage
on each surface must conform to the specified DFT. If there is reading that cannot be repeated consistently. The DFT of the
only a single spot measurement on a surface, it must conform test panel is the average of the six acceptable spot readings.
to the specified DFT.
A4.3 MINIMUM THICKNESS: The average of the accept-
A3.4 SAMPLE DFT DETERMINATION: In lieu of a full able spot readings shall be no less than the specified minimum
DFT determination of each painted piece as described in thickness. No single spot reading shall be less than 80% of the
Section A2.2, the job specification may require only a sample specified minimum.
DFT determination for selected pieces.
A4.4 MAXIMUM THICKNESS: The average of the
A3.4.1 Beams less than 20 ft (6 m): Follow the procedure acceptable spot readings shall be no more than the specified
described in Section A2.4.1. maximum thickness. No single spot reading shall be more than
120% of the specified maximum.
A3.4.2 Beams greater than 20 ft (6 m): up to 60 ft (18 m)
in length: Follow the procedure described in Section A2.4.2. A4.5 REJECTION: If a spot reading is less than 80% of
the specified minimum DFT or exceeds 120% of the speci-
A3.4.3 Miscellaneous parts: For a miscellaneous part, fied maximum DFT, additional measurements may be made
take three spot measurements, randomly distributed on the to reevaluate the DFT on the area of the test panel near the

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low or high spot reading. If the additional measurements indi- APPENDIX 6 - Method for Measuring fhe Dry Film
cate the DFT in the disputed area of the panel to be below Thickness of Coatings on Edges
the minimum or above the maximum allowable DFT, the panel
shall be rejected. Appendix 6 is not a mandatory part of this standard, but it
provides a sample protocol for measuring DFT of coatings on
APPENDIX 5 - Method for Measuring Dry Film Thick- edges.
ness of Thin Coatings on Coated Steel Test Panels
that have been Abrasive Blast Cleaned A6.1 Type 2 gage manufacturers offer a variety of probe
configurations, some of which are less affected by proximity
Appendix 5 is not a mandatory part of this standard, but to edges and are designed to better measure the thickness of
it provides a sample protocol for measuring DFT of thin coat- coatings on edges. The user should consult the gage manu-
ings on coated steel test panels that had been abrasive blast facturer’s instructions before measuring coating thickness on
cleaned. edges. SSPC-PA Guide 11 describes the use of coatings with
edge retention properties and references a method (MIL-PRF-
A5.1 For the purposes of this standard, a coating is 23236D) for assessing edge retention properties of coatings.
defined as thin if the dry film thickness (DFT) is on the order of
1 mil (25 µm) or less. Because the DFT is the same order as A6.2 Prior to measurement of coating on edges, the gage
the statistical fluctuations of a DFT gage on bare blast cleaned and probe should be verified for accuracy by placing a thin,
steel, many gage readings must be taken to get a meaningful flexible shim onto the prepared, uncoated edge. Adjustments
average. to the gage may or may not be required. This procedure also
verifies that the probe configuration will accommodate the
A5.2 PANEL SIZE: The test panel shall have a minimum edge configuration prior to coating thickness data acquisition.
area of 18 in2 (116 cm2) and a maximum area of 144 in2
(930 cm2); e.g., minimum 3 x 6 inch (7.5 x 15 cm) and maximum A6.3 Obtain a minimum of three gage readings within 1.5
12 x 12 inch (30 x 30 cm). linear inches (~4 linear cm) of coated edge. The average of
the gage readings is considered a spot reading. The number of
A5.3 PROCEDURE: Use a properly adjusted Type 2 spot readings along the edge will vary depending on the total
electronic gage. Take ten gage readings randomly distributed length of the coated edge.
in the top third of the panel. Compute the mean (average)
and standard deviation of these ten readings. Similarly, take APPENDIX 7 – Method for Measuring Dry Film
ten readings from the middle third and ten readings from the Thickness on Coated Steel Pipe Exterior
bottom third of the test panel and compute their means and
standard deviations. Readings shall be taken at least ½ inch Appendix 7 is not a mandatory part of this standard, but it
(12 mm) from any edge and 1 inch (25 mm) from any other provides a sample protocol for measuring DFT of the exterior
gage reading. Discard any unusually high or low gage reading, of coated pipe.
i.e., a reading that is more than three standard deviations from
the mean. The DFT of the test panel is the average of the three A7.1 Pipe sections that are loaded onto a cart or rack
means. are considered a complete unit, as opposed to a single joint
of pipe. The total number of spot and area measurements is
A5.4 MINIMUM THICKNESS: The average of the means based on the total square footage of pipe on the cart or rack.
shall be no less than the specified minimum thickness. No The square footage can be calculated using the formula below:
single mean shall be less than 80% of the specified minimum.
Area = (length of each pipe x circumference) x number of pipe
A5.5 MAXIMUM THICKNESS: The average of the means sections on cart or rack
shall be no more than the specified maximum thickness.
No single mean shall be more than 120% of the specified A7.2 Some carts may have several small items that could
maximum. exceed the number of spot DFT readings required based on

TABLE A7
NUMBER AND LOCATIONS OF SPOT MEASUREMENTS – PIPE SPOOLS

Pipe Diameter Circumferential Spot Measurements Interval Spacing

Up to 12 in (30 cm) 4 evenly spaced 10 feet (3 meters) apart

14 to 24 inches (36-60 cm) 6 evenly spaced 10 feet (3 meters) apart

Greater than 24 inches (60 cm) 8 evenly spaced 10 feet (3 meters) apart

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May 1, 2012

total square footage. In this case, the Owner/Contractor may A7, provides a very thorough inspection of a joint of pipe. The
select a Pipe DFT frequency Level shown below: DFT determination, described in Section A7.1, may allow for
fewer spot measurements. The user does not have to require a
A7.2.1 Pipe DFT Level 1 Area = (length of each pipe x full DFT determination for every joint of pipe. For example, the
circumference) x no. of pipe sections on cart or rack = (number requirement may be for a full DFT determination on one pipe
of spot measurements) x 2 out of ten, or a sample DFT determination on one pipe out of
five, or a combination of full and sample DFT determinations.
A7.2.2 Pipe DFT Level 2 Area = (length of each pipe x
circumference) x no. of pipe sections on cart or rack = (number APPENDIX 8 - Examples of the Adjustment of Type 2
of spot measurements) x 3 Gages Using Shims

A7.2.3 Pipe DFT Level 3 Area = (length of each pipe x Appendix 8 does not form a mandatory part of this stan-
circumference) x no. of pipe sections on cart or rack = (number dard, but it provides examples of how to adjust Type 2 gages
of spot measurements) x 4 using shims on roughened (e.g., abrasive blast cleaned)
surfaces.
A7.2.4 Pipe DFT Level 4 Area = (length of each pipe x This example describes a method of adjustment to
circumference) x no. of pipe sections on cart or rack = (number improve the effectiveness of a Type 2 (electronic) gage on a
of spot measurements) x 5 blast cleaned or otherwise roughened surface. Blast cleaning
is used throughout this example, but these methods are appli-
A7.2.5 Pipe DFT Level 5 Area = (length of each pipe x cable to other types of surface preparation. A less uniform
circumference) x no. of pipe sections on cart or rack = (number surface, such as partially rusted hand tool cleaned steel, may
of spot measurements) x 6 require more gage readings to achieve a satisfactory level of
statistical significance. Since gage operation differs among
A7.3 Pipe spools that are not loaded onto a rack or cart manufacturers, follow the manufacturer’s instructions for
are measured individually. The number and locations of spot adjustment of a particular gage.
measurements are based on Table A7. Three sets of four A Type 2 gage needs to be adjusted to account for the
circumferential spot measurements should be obtained on profile of the substrate in order to read the coating thickness
pipe spools less than 10 feet (3 meters) in length. directly. Type 2 gages equipped with double pole probes
may provide greater measuring precision on rough surfaces
A7.4 A challenge for the painter in coating fabricated pipe
compared to single pole probes.
spools is providing a uniform thickness throughout the entire
A portion of the substrate, after blast cleaning but prior
surface. On a fabricated pipe spool, valves, flanges, and
to coating, can be used to adjust the gage. Alternatively, an
elbows tend to have low or high DFTs when compared to the
uncoated test panel, blast cleaned at the time the structure
straight run section. Painters may develop a pattern of work for
was blast cleaned and having a profile representative of the
a specific task. Hence, the DFT on the flange and valves may
structure can be used to adjust the gage provided the test
be consistently on the high side or the low side of the target
panel is of material with similar magnetic properties and geom-
DFT. This type of error is easy to detect and correct. Random
etry as the substrate to be measured. If this is not available
errors pose a more difficult problem. Gross errors where the
then a correction value can be applied to a smooth surface
paint is obviously too thin or too thick must be corrected and
adjustment as described in A8.3.
are beyond the scope of this standard.
Three adjustment techniques can be used depending
The number of spot measurements in this protocol may far
on the capability and features of the gage to be used for the
exceed the “5 spot measurement per 100 ft2 (10 m2)” required
inspection. Note that due to the statistical variation produced
in the standard. The full DFT determination, described in Table

TABLE A8
TYPICAL GAGE CORRECTION VALUES USING ISO 8503 PROFILE GRADES
(SOURCE: ISO 19840)1

ISO 8503 Profile Grade Correction Value (mil) Correction Value (µm)

Fine 0.4 10

Medium 1.0 25

Coarse 1.6 40

1
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Case Postale 56, Geneva CH-1211, Switzerland. ISO standards
are available online from the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 1819 L Street, NW, Suite 600, Washington,
DC 20036 or at <http://www.ansi.org>

10
SSPC-PA 2
May 1, 2012

by a roughened surface, individual readings taken using these As protective coatings are normally applied to blast
three methods may not perfectly agree. cleaned metal surfaces, a statistical approach is required to
The first two examples describe adjustment and verifica- obtain a typical value for the adjustment. Ten readings on a
tion to one or more shims. When shims are used, resultant shim are sufficient to establish a reliable average value for that
gage measurements are less accurate and must be recalcu- shim on the roughened surface. Following the manufacturer’s
lated. For example, if the accuracy of a properly calibrated instructions, the gage is adjusted so that the actual shim thick-
gage is ± 2% and the thickness of a shim is accurate to within ness is then used to set the gage.
± 3%, the combined tolerance of the gage and the shim will be This procedure should be repeated for both the upper and
± 4% as given by the sum of squares formula: lower shim values.
The average of 10 readings on an intermediate shim,
√22 + 32 = 3.6055 ≈ 4% approximately 4.0 mil (100 µm) thick in the case described
above, will confirm that the gage has been adjusted correctly.
For the gage to be in agreement with the shim, the It is acceptable for the average reading to be within ± 4% of the
average thickness measured by the gage must be within ±4% shim thickness.
of the shim’s thickness. If the average thickness measured on This method ensures that the gage reads the thickness of
a 250-µm (10-mil) shim is between 9.6 mils (240 µm) and 10.4 the coating over the peaks of the profile.
mils (260 µm), the gage is properly adjusted. The minimum
240 is 250 minus 4% of 250 (9.6 is 10 minus 4% of 10); the A8.3 SMOOTH SURFACE ADJUSTMENT: If access
maximum of 260 is 250 plus 4% of 250 (10.4 is 10 plus 4% of to the bare blast cleaned substrate is not available because
10). [4% of 250 is 10; 4% of 10 is 0.4.] the coating already covers it, a smooth surface can be used
to adjust the gage. Adjust the gage on a smooth surface
A8.1 SINGLE POINT ADJUSTMENT: This example uses according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Alternatively,
a single shim value at or close to the thickness to be measured. it may be possible to adjust some Type 2 gages through the
The thickness range over which this adjustment achieves the coating already applied to an abrasive blast cleaned substrate
required accuracy will vary with gage design. (may be necessary if no uncoated substrate exists). This
Assuming that the coating thickness to be measured is 4.0 procedure should be performed according to the manufac-
mil (100 µm) then a shim of approximately 4.0 mil (100 µm) or turer’s instructions.
slightly greater should be used to adjust the gage. The shim is Readings taken on the blast-cleaned substrate will be
placed on an area of the substrate that has been blast cleaned higher than the true value by an amount dependant on the
to the required standards, or on a blasted test coupon with a surface profile and the gage probe design. For most appli-
similar surface profile. cations a correction value of 1.0 mil (25 µm) is generally
The average of 10 readings on the shim is sufficient to applicable. Note that this value is not related to the actual
allow for the statistical variation in the blast profile. surface profile measurement. This correction value must be
subtracted from each gage reading to correct for the effect
A8.2 TWO POINT ADJUSTMENT: This example uses of the profile. The resulting corrected reading represents the
two shim values, one above and one below the expected film thickness of the coating over the peaks.
thickness to be measured. It should be noted that not all film For fine profiles the correction value may be as low as 0.4
thickness gages can be adjusted in this manner. mil (10 µm) but for coarse profiles it could be as high as 1.6
Assuming that the coating thickness to be measured is mil (40 µm). Table A8 gives approximate correction values to
4.0 mil (100 µm) then shims of 10.0 mil (250 µm) and 2.0 mil be used when a blast-cleaned surface is not available to adjust
(50 µm) are appropriate for setting the upper and lower values the gage.
on the scale of the gage. The use of coated standards to adjust gages means that
a correction value must be applied to readings, as the coated
standards make use of smooth substrate surfaces.

Copyright ©
SSPC standards, guides, and technical reports are copyrighted
world-wide by SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings. Any
photocopying, re-selling, or redistribution of these standards,
guides, and technical reports by printed, electronic, or any other
means is strictly prohibited without the express written consent
of SSPC: The Society of Protective Coatings and a formal
licensing agreement.

11
SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………1

Key Terms…………………………………………………………………………….1

Owner’s Role and

Responsibilities………………………….…………………………………………….2

Contractor’s Role and

Responsibilities………………………….…………………………………………….2

Coating Inspector’s Role and

Responsibilities………………………….…………………………………………….3

Inspection
Planning………………………………………………………………………………3

Developing an Inspection and Test Plan……………………………………..............4

Process Control Procedures

(PCPs)………………………………………………………………………………..4

Required Inspection Documents……………………………………………………..5

Required Inspection Equipment……………….……………………………………..5

Inspection Check or Hold

Points…………………………………………………………………………………6

Coating Inspection Plan for Steel…………………………………………………….8

Phase Inspection……………………………………………………………………...8

Pre-Surface Preparation…………………………………………………………........8

Surface Preparation…………………………………………………………………...12

Coating Application…………………………………………………………………..14

Minimizing Problems…………………………………………………………………18

Sample Inspection Plan for Concrete

Substrates………………………………………………………………………………19

SSPC Inspection and Test Plan Guide

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection
Introduction

Inspection is a key component in job quality monitoring. Proper inspection and testing
and recording tells the story of what happened at the job site: documenting when the
work was done, where it was done on the structure, when it was in conformance with
requirements, and when it was out of spec. Without good inspection data, all parties are
hard-pressed to figure out what was done and the quality monitoring process collapses.

Like any vital process, good inspection doesn’t just happen. It requires planning. You
cannot show up at the job site and figure it out as you go. This does not mean that initial
inspection plans cannot change as a result of unknown conditions at the job site or
changes in contract requirements (change orders) but without a clear plan going in,
there’s little chance the inspection will accomplish its intended goal of telling the project
story in the finest detail. A well-thought-out inspection and test plan greatly increases the
likelihood that key inspections and tests are done and properly recorded.

This guide is intended to assist coating and lining inspection companies, contractor
quality control personnel, and owners in developing a key tool to ensure that coating and
lining inspection is the best it can be. This tool will provide the contractor with guidance
on how to plan to do comprehensive QC which will provide a record of objective
evidence that it has met contract requirements. It also helps the contractor to track
progress of the job and to support payment of invoices for conforming work done. Good
inspection reports give the facility owner confidence that quality assurance functions
(e.g., procedural conformity surveillance; auditing) can be performed with the best
available information. Complete inspection reports will support both the contractor and
the owner in claims for extra payment, warranties both implied and express, and latent
defects later.

Good inspection practice greatly reduces the risk of premature coating failure. When
failure does occur, good inspection data will help identify the potential cause. Without
such data, hundreds of hours of expensive forensic analysis and destructive testing may
be required to identify the cause of the failure.

The primary examples used in this document focus on inspection of painted steel
structures. However, a model that can be readily adapted to inspection of coatings applied
to concrete substrates appears in the appendix. As with any model forms, it is important
to view them only as examples. A complete analysis of the project job specification is
required to develop a good inspection and test plan. Inspection report forms (IRs) must
also be adapted to the job at hand.

Some Key Terms

Owner. Organization that owns the structure, administers the long-term coatings
program, and prepares the specification for new and maintenance painting.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 1

Quality assurance inspector. The inspector working on behalf of the owner to ensure
contractor conformity to specification requirements.
Quality control inspector. The inspector working on behalf of the contractor to ensure
that the job is in conformance to the specification requirements and any deviations from
conforming work are corrected.
Corrective action. Action to identify the root cause of a nonconformity, to eliminate the
root cause, and to follow-up to ensure that the cause does not recur.
Non-conformity. Interim or final work that fails to fulfill contract requirements and
requires rework or repair, or must be scrapped.
Latent defect. A flaw or imperfection discovered after delivery.
Warranty. Written guarantee of integrity of a product and the producer’s responsibility
for repair or replacement of deficient parts. In contract law, an implied warranty is a
term for certain assurances that are presumed to be made in the sale of products,
including fitness for a particular purpose. An express warranty is a standard guarantee
from the seller of a product that specifies the extent to which the quality or performance
of the product is assured and states the conditions under which the product can be
returned, replaced, or repaired.

Responsibilities for Project Quality Management

Owner’s Role and Responsibilities

Project Specification. The facility owner for whom the work is to be done is responsible
for providing the coating or lining project specification. The specification may actually
be prepared by the owner’s engineering staff, a private consultant, or a coating
manufacturer. The specification writer must design the work to be done and prepare a set
of requirements that will help ensure that the final coating product meets all of the
owner’s needs. The specification writer should also be responsible for continuously
reviewing requests for information concerning technical issues and all specification
submittals. Prior to the start of work, the owner should hold a pre-construction
conference with all parties to the contract to ensure that they review and understand all
specification requirements. Any concerns about the specification should be expressed at
that time.

Quality Assurance. If the owner has the resources to perform quality assurance using
independent inspection, the owner should utilize qualified company or contracted third-
party inspection personnel to verify for the contract administrator that the work-to-date
conforms to specification requirements. This will permit the contract administrator to
coordinate the necessary actions to keep the project continuously moving forward.
Owners who do not have the resources to use qualified, independent inspection for
quality assurance should instead use surveillance techniques (e.g., auditing for procedural
conformity) as a viable alternative to independent inspection.

Contractor’s Role and Responsibilities

The painting contractor is usually responsible for buying the specified coating/lining and

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 2

surface preparation materials, preparing the surface for coating, and mixing and applying
the materials in accordance with the requirements of the specification. The contractor is
also responsible for self-inspection (quality control), testing, and documentation, as
required by the specification, to ensure that that the coating or lining work-to-date meets
specification requirements and that all specified procedures have been followed. The
contractor’s staff usually provides these services, but, sometimes, an independent,
certified coating inspector is hired. For each non-conformity detected by the inspector,
the contractor must invoke corrective action which includes:

• Determining the root cause and a plan to prevent recurrence of the non-
conformity.
• Preparing and implementing a corrective action request (CAR) for tracking and
documenting each step in the corrective action (CA) for the non-conformity.

Coating Inspector’s Role and Responsibilities (Quality Assurance)

General Responsibilities. A certified coating QA inspector must verify that the result of
the coating or lining work performed by the contractor that the inspector observes meets
all of the project specification requirements, i.e., to provide project quality assurance.
Additional information on coating inspectors’ responsibilities and techniques to be used
can be found in the SSPC publication The Inspection of Coatings and Linings.

Making Measurements and Observations. The inspector measures and observes to

ensure conformance of the work-to-date to the project requirements. The project
requirements dictate the tests and procedures to be followed, in addition to stating
acceptance criteria such as required surface profile range or dry film thickness range.

Documentation of Findings. Inspection data are often recorded in the inspector’s

logbook as they are taken and then transferred onto inspection forms. The documentation
must include all inspection findings, especially non-conformities, in a clear, concise, and
timely manner, so that findings are easily understood and not confusing, lost, or
forgotten. If a problem arises, this information can be a key component to its resolution,
especially in avoiding litigation. Copies of the documentation are periodically forwarded
to responsible contractor and owner quality assurance personnel. The owner personnel
review these documents to gain assurance that both the original work and any corrective
actions are in conformance with specification requirements. Thus, the inspector serves
both the owner and the contractor project quality management systems.

Inspection Planning for Specific Coating Projects

The Need for an Inspection Plan

Inspectors require detailed planning to conduct their work both thoroughly and
efficiently. This is best accomplished by preparing and implementing a systematic

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 3

inspection and test plan with a format that covers all phases of the work in sequence. The
inspection plan must match the contractor’s work plan and schedule, so that the inspector
is prepared to monitor each phase of the contractor’s work.

Developing an Inspection and Test Plan

Scope of Inspection Plan. Prior to the start of project work, the contractor prepares, for
the owner’s approval, a work plan that covers all phases of the work and completely and
accurately describes of all of the individual processes that make up each work phase.
This plan converts the project specification requirements into a practical document for
field use. The inspector must prepare an inspection plan to supplement the contractor’s
work plan.

Plan Schedule. The inspection plan should include a project schedule for all phases of
the work to match the schedule of the contractor’s work plan, so that the inspector is
ready in advance without causing any delays in work production. The inspection plan
systematically lists the inspection hold points, test methods, and acceptance criteria for
each procedure in each phase of the project work.

Plan Format. There is no standard format for an inspection plan, since plans may vary
significantly with different types of work to be done. A chart containing the following
three columns is usually adequate for most projects:

• Inspection Check or Hold Points. Identification of inspection check points for each
phase of work (e.g., surface preparation, coating application, curing).
• Inspection Method. Industry standards, instrumentation, and/or specific test methods
or procedures required by specification.
• Acceptance Criteria. Project specification requirements that must be met.

Review and Approval of Inspection and Test Plan. Coating projects often require
project-specific inspection plans to be submitted to the owner for review and acceptance
before the start of a project. If the contract does not require submission of an inspection
and test plan, the inspector should still prepare one. An organized inspection plan, even
for the smallest job, will help to assure a more efficient and comprehensive inspection
with limited delays or items overlooked.

Process Control Procedures (PCPs)

Process control procedures are project-specific documents prepared by the contractor and
approved by the owner (if a contract requirement) before work begins. They may be used
in place of or to supplement the contractor’s work plan. They typically contain:

• Contract data and the project specification

• Process descriptions and required equipment
• Inspection and test plan
• Actions/authorization for addressing non-conformities

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 4

• Requirements for worker safety, environmental control, and waste management

The inspector must be familiar with these procedures and utilize the relevant information
in them to work efficiently.

Items Required for Inspection Plan Implementation

Required Documents

The inspector should become familiar with the surface preparation and coating or lining
application requirements, inspection and test methods required, and the characteristics of
the material being applied. Before the start of project work, the inspector should assemble
and completely understand these documents:

 The project specification (including all amendments and pertinent appendices)

 Standards referenced in project specification (SSPC, NACE, ASTM, etc.)
 Manufacturer’s product data sheets for each material used
at the job site (e.g., coatings, thinner, abrasives, repair
materials)
 Other appropriate coating or lining procedures from the
manufacturer
 Test methods and inspection equipment required by the
specification
 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) for each product
 Applicable building codes

The project specification lists all published test methods or procedures to be used. While
it may permit the inspector to choose between different options, in all cases, it does list
the test requirements. The standard test methods and procedures are usually consensus
documents of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), SSPC: The
Society for Protective Coatings, or other technical societies.

Equipment Required for Inspection

The required test methods describe the necessary instruments and procedures for
performing these tests. Depending upon the materials being applied and type of structure
or equipment to be coated, the specification requirements and the instrument
requirements may vary from one coating project to another. The most frequently used
coating inspection equipment and instruments are:

 Telescoping Mirror (Multiple sizes)

 Pictorial surface preparation standards (e.g, SSPC-VIS 1, 3, 4, or 5)
 Replica tape and spring micrometer
 Surface profile comparator
 Psychrometer with psychrometric charts or tables
 Air and surface thermometers

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 5

 Hypodermic needle gage for determining air/abrasive pressure at the nozzle
 Equipment for soluble salt extraction and analysis
 Film thickness gages calibrated by the manufacturer and shims or standard
plates for verifying gage accuracy
 P.I.G. gage
 Flashlight and mirror
 Light meter
 Holiday detector

These instruments should be kept clean and operational with instrument serial numbers
and dates of last factory calibration noted as required. For example, serial numbers and
calibration verification of DFT gages should be noted in the daily inspection
documentation. The inspector should also carry spare batteries, bulbs, thermometers, and
other expendable items so that work is not delayed due to inspection equipment
malfunctions.

Inspection Check or Hold Points

Definition

Inspection hold points are critical periods during the project when further work is stopped
until the work-to-date has been inspected and the contractor authorized to proceed. Hold
points will vary with the coating and lining material being applied and the type and
nature of the work and will reflect the requirements of the specification. The hold points
listed here should be considered as basic for most work; however, additional inspection
points may be added or substituted, as needed for the particular project:

 Pre-surface preparation
 Post-surface preparation
 Coating conditions for application
 Coating application
 Post-application of coating
 Post-curing

Pre-Surface Preparation (Prior to start of work) Hold Point

The pre-surface preparation inspection hold point occurs after the substrate is prepared
for cleaning. This hold point includes detecting grease, oil, or soluble salt deposits, metal
imperfections (such as scabs, hackles/slivers, delaminations, and metal damage),
inaccessible areas, and other problem areas. It indicates whether the substrate has been
fully prepared for surface preparation. Dew point and surface temperature measurements
should be taken immediately prior to allowing surface preparation to proceed, to help
assure that moisture will not condense on prepared surfaces.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 6

Post-Surface Preparation Hold Point

This inspection hold point follows surface preparation. It verifies that the degree of
cleanliness and surface profile meet the requirements of the project specification.
Depending on the steel, more in-depth inspection may be necessary to identify metal
imperfections that become visible after blast cleaning, such as “hackles and slivers.”
These imperfections can require scraping and/or grinding with re-blast cleaning.

Surface Condition for Coating Hold Point

This inspection hold point occurs immediately prior to the coating or lining application
and establishes whether the previously approved surfaces have become re-contaminated
with such things as embedded abrasive, dust and dirt, oil, flash rusting, sweat marks,
inspection markings, salt, etc. The inspector should also verify that prevailing ambient
conditions and surface temperature are acceptable before the coating is mixed by the
production crew and are likely to remain acceptable during the work shift.

Coating Application Hold Point

During coating application, ambient conditions and wet film thickness readings should be
monitored to be consistent with project specification requirements. The application
should also be checked to determine if the contractor’s PCP is being followed and if there
are any defects in the wet film.

Post-Coating Application Hold Point

The post-coating application inspection hold point follows the application of each coat. It
is required to check that the film thickness is within the specified range and to determine
if each individual coat is ready to receive the next coat, i.e., is within the manufacturer’s
stated recoat window and is free of intercoat contamination. Such observed imperfections
as overspray, pinholes, lack of adhesion, insufficient film thickness, etc., should be
corrected at this point.

Post-Curing Hold Point

The post-curing hold point will verify that the final dry film thickness requirement of the
coating system has been met. It will also include a visual inspection of the coating or
lining for surface defects. When the coating is used as a tank lining or other critical
service, a pinhole/holiday check is usually required to detect any surface imperfections
requiring repair. Several tests are available for determining if the coating system has
completely cured.

Final Inspection Hold Point

A final inspection will verify that all touch-ups or other corrective actions satisfactorily
meet project specification requirements.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 7

Example of Coating Inspection Plan

General Description

The following example of an inspection plan covers all phases involved in the
application of an amine-cured epoxy system which may be used as a protective
coating or as a lining on steel. The information provided serves only as a guide for the
inspector in writing an inspection plan for a particular project. It lists the
chronological sequence of inspection activities to be followed during the total
inspection of the coating or lining operation. It begins with the requirements of
the inspector prior to the start of the actual project production and continues
through surface preparation, coating application, and curing. The plan includes
the inspection hold points required by the specification, the test method or
procedure to be followed, and the specification acceptance criteria.

Phase Inspection

When performing the required inspection activities, each phase of the work is inspected
and approved before proceeding with the next phase. In this way, corrective action
requests for any non-conformities revealed by the inspection are issued so the work can
be corrected to conform to the project specification, re-inspected, or scrapped before
proceeding with the next phase and plans developed and actions taken to avoid
recurrence as the work progresses.

Pre-Surface Preparation Inspection Plan and Supplemental Notes

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

Coating Material: AMINE-CURED EPOXY COATING

Substrate: CARBON STEEL

INSPECTION INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

HOLD POINT METHOD
Surface Preparation and
Application of Amine-
Cured Epoxy

A. PRIOR TO THE
START OF WORK

1. Coatings Materials

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 8

a. Age and Visually inspecting can As specified by the project
Identification labels. specification , e.g., not more that
one year since manufacture;
manufacturer’s name, code
number, and batch number.
b. Condition in 1. Visually inspecting 1. Absence of skins, settling,
Container and stirring can lumps, and foreign matter. 2.
contents. 2. Checking Viscosity in range acceptable to
viscosity by dipping cup manufacturer.
(ASTM D4212), if
required.
c. Storage Conditions Visually inspecting Covered area protected from
storage area. damage, moisture, direct sunlight
and with temperatures in
specified range, e.g., between 40
and 100°F.
2. Abrasive Materials SSPC-AB 1, 2, 3; vial Clean, dry, oil-free abrasives
test of ASTM D4940. meeting the requirements of
SSPC-AB 1, 2, or 3 and ASTM
D4940.
3. Touch-Up Materials 1. Visually inspecting 1. Those permitted by the project
and stirring can specification in good condition. 2.
contents. 2. Checking viscosity in range acceptable to
viscosity by dipping cup manufacturer.
(ASTM D4212), if
required.
4. Thinners, Solvents, and Visually inspecting As permitted by the specification
Cleaners materials and can labels. with product numbers legible on
containers.

The first hold point addresses the materials to be used in the project. This includes the
coating or lining materials themselves, any touch-up or repair materials, thinners, and the
abrasives/cleaners to be used to prepare the surface. The inspector must verify that the
correct materials are on-site and are in good condition.

Material mix-ups do not occur often in field work, but are more likely to occur in shop
work, where a shop warehouse may store many different coating or lining materials. The
shelf life of a coating or lining material is defined as the length of time from its
manufacture until its time of use. The inspector must verify that the material is within its
shelf life and will remain current during the course of the application. This is not usually
a problem on small jobs, but on a job that extends over a long period of time, the material
may exceed its shelf life prior to completion of the work.

Coating and lining materials must be properly labeled. Containers with missing or
illegible labels should be set aside and disposed of properly. All coating and lining
materials should have legible batch numbers printed on the label. These batch numbers

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 9

are extremely important in identifying a material in the event that a problem arises. The
batch number is usually a several-digit number, occasionally consisting of both letters
and numbers. The inspector should record all batch numbers in the reports, before the
containers are opened.

Dented containers do not have to be rejected unless the dents are so severe that the
containers have leaked or the contents have been exposed to the atmosphere. If leakage
or exposure has occurred, the material must be rejected. Such materials must be
segregated and removed from the area containing good materials.

The storage temperature range of most coating and lining materials is usually specified
either in the specification or on the manufacturer’s product data sheet. Touch-up or repair
materials are not always identical to the coating or lining materials initially applied.

The inspector should check the abrasive to be used for surface preparation, when abrasive
blast cleaning is specified. The specification may require that the abrasive conform to one
or more of the requirements of SSPC-AB 1, 2, or 3. In all cases, the abrasive should be
inspected for labeled name and size range and freedom from moisture, oil, and other
visible contaminants. Note that the SSPC surface cleanliness standards for dry abrasive
blast cleaning invoke the abrasive cleanliness requirements of SSPC AB1, AB2, and
AB3.

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

(CONTINUED)
Coating Material: AMINE-CURED EPOXY COATING
Substrate: CARBON STEEL
INSPECTION INSPECTION METHOD ACCEPTANCE
HOLD POINT CRITERIA
A. PRIOR TO THE
START OF WORK
(continued)
5. Equipment Readiness

a. Environmental Control Air and surface As listed in specification.

temperature, dew point, and Typically, surface
RH (ASTM E337) must be temperature at least 5°F
taken at start of work and above dew point and 50-
every four hours or at 100°F during application
intervals listed in the and curing.
specification.
Visual inspection for Blowers, filters,
functioning dehumidifers to meet
ventilation/dehumidification specification
equipment. requirements. RH

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 10

typically no more than
80% .

b. Abrasive Blast Cleaning 1. Safe, properly sized 1. Manufacturer’s

Equipment equipment. 2. ASTM recommended
D4285 for clean air. 3. equipment. 2. Clean
Hypodermic needle gage blotter. 3. Manufacturer’s
test for air pressure at recommended pressure,
nozzle. e.g., 90 to 100 psig.
Mfg. recommended size;
c. Spray Equipment
Visual inspection. airless guards

The next table is a check of the equipment the applicator and/or inspector will need to
accomplish their work. The environmental control equipment should be capable of
maintaining the specified relative humidity, temperature, and dew point. The abrasive
blast cleaning and spray application equipment should be those required by the
specification or recommended by the manufacturer. One very frequent cause of poor
coating or lining application is the use of incorrect or worn spray equipment. The blotter
test and hypodermic needle gage test (listed in the table above) are used to ensure a clean
compressed air supply and operation under optimum conditions.

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

(CONTINUED)
Coating Material: AMINE-CURED EPOXY COATING
Substrate: CARBON STEEL
INSPECTION HOLD POINT INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE
METHOD CRITERIA
A. PRIOR TO THE START OF
WORK (continued)

5. Equipment (continued)

d. Inspection instruments
required
Psychrometers and ASTM E337 and Typically, surface
psychrometric tables manufacturer’s temperature at least 5°F
instructions. above dew point and RH
not over 80%.
Contact, remote, or recording Following As required by the
thermometers manufacturer’s specification, typically 50-
instructions. 100°F during application
and curing.

Standards for abrasive Required SSPC-SP Good comparison to

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 11

blast cleaning. standard and specification description
SSPC-VIS 1. and pictorial standard.
Profile measurement equipment: ASTM D4417, Measurements in range
1. Replica tape and micrometer. Method C, A, or B permitted by
2. Metal comparator disc and (in preferred order) specification.
lens, or profile depth gage.
Wet and 1. ASTM D4414 1. Used only as an aid in
dry film thickness gages [WFT]. obtaining acceptable dry
2. SSPC-PA 2 film thickness. 2. DFT in
[DFT]. range specified.
Low and high voltage holiday ASTM D5162 All holidays detected
detector. marked, repaired, re-
inspected, and approved

The next part of the inspection plan covers the pre-inspection of the completed surface
immediately prior to the start of abrasive blast cleaning.

Surface Preparation Inspection Plan and Supplemental Notes

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

(CONTINUED)

Coating Material: AMINE-CURED COATING

Substrate: CARBON STEEL
INSPECTION INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE
HOLD POINT METHOD CRITERIA

B. SURFACE
PREPARATION
1. Cleaning to remove 1. Ultraviolet light 1. No contamination visually
grease or oil. or water break test detected or complete flow-out
described in SSPC of water.
Inspection Manual.
2. Blast Cleaning

a. Blast Cleanliness: 1. 1. Visual inspection 1. Good comparison to visual

General cleanliness. using SSPC-VIS 1. standard and to SSPC-SP
2. Soluble salt surface 2. Extraction and specification description. 2.
concentration. analysis systems Surface salt concentrations at
required by or below allowable level.
specification and
described in SSPC-
Guide 15 and SSPC
Inspection Manual.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 12

b. Surface Profile ASTM D 4417, Surface profile required (e.g.,
Method C, A, or B 1.0 to 3.0 mils) by
(in preferred order). specification.
c. Abrasive Cleanliness ASTM D4940 No floating oil sheen, color,
(vial test); SSPC or suspended material visually
AB 1, 2, or 3. detected.

d. Blast Cleaning Visual observations Conformance to PCP

Operations

Surface preparation includes the removal of visible grease or oil deposits, in accordance
with the requirements of SSPC-SP 1, prior to the start of abrasive blast cleaning. The
blast cleaned surface must conform to the specified degree of cleanliness in the SSPC
standard required by the specification and must have the specified surface profile. Also,
the soluble salt concentration on the surface must not exceed the specified limit (when
soluble levels are specified).

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

(CONTINUED)

Coating Material: AMINE-CURED EPOXY COATING

Substrate: CARBON STEEL

INSPECTION INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE

HOLD POINT METHOD CRITERIA
B. SURFACE
PREPARATION
(continued)

4. Removal of Dust and ISO 8502.3 (tape test) As required by

Blast Cleaning specification.
Products

5. Environmental
Conditions
a. Substrate Thermometer; Surface temperature
Temperature manufacturer’s at least 5°F above
instructions. dew point
and in range required
by specification or
manufacturer’s
product data sheet.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 13

b. Dew Point ASTME337. Temp. and Surface temperature
dew point must be taken at least 5°F above
at start of work and dew point.
every 4 hours or at time
intervals required by
specification.

6. Protection of Surfaces Visual Assessment Visual observation.

and Equipment Surfaces and
equipment not to be
coated must be
protected from
abrasive blast
cleaning and coating
overspray.

The protection of surfaces and equipment not to be prepared or coated is important. All
necessary masking or other protection should be in place and inspected prior to the start
of any surface preparation.

The final step of surface preparation, prior to the application of the coating or lining, is
to ensure that the surface is free of all dust or other contaminants. In addition, the
inspector must verify that the surface is free of unacceptable embedment, sweat marks,
and oil contamination from air tools and from the operating mechanisms of access
equipment (spiders or sky climbers). The inspector should be alert for imperfections in
the base material that may be revealed by the surface preparation, such as laminations
(also called hackles or slivers).

Coating Application and Curing Inspection Plan and Supplemental Notes

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

(CONTINUED)

Coating Material: AMINE-CURED COATING

Substrate: CARBON STEEL

INSPECTION INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
HOLD POINT METHOD
C. COATING
INSPECTION
1. Mixing of Visual Containers not to be opened except for
coatings observations inspection or immediate use.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 14

Visual Mix in accordance with
observations specification/manufacturer’s
instructions. Mix each component
separately prior to mixing combined
materials. Mix only complete pre-
measured units, i.e., full containers.
Visual Mix until smooth and free from lumps,
observations typically with a slow speed stirrer.
Strain through a suitably sized screen, if
necessary.
2. Environmental Temperature Within range listed in
Conditions (and dew point, specification/manufacturer’s product
and RH) taken data sheet. Surface temperature at least
at start of work 5°F higher than the dew point
and every four temperature.
hours.
ASTM E337 Relative humidity as specified, typically
no more than 80% during coating/curing

When the surface has been approved for the application of coating or lining, the materials
to be used should be brought from storage to the work area in unopened containers. The
containers should remain unopened until just prior to mixing. Under no circumstances
should the applicator attempt to mix partial containers. Only complete, factory-measured
units should be mixed.

Some applicators may attempt to proportion a small quantity of coating material for
touch-up rather than use a full 5-gallon container to save material. Most coating or lining
manufacturers supply materials in 1-gallon, or smaller, containers for this purpose, along
with the appropriate amount of catalyst or hardener required. Components of two- or
three-component materials should be mixed separately and in the proper order, in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Some materials require straining prior to
mixing.

Induction time (sometimes called “sweat-in time”) is the period after mixing multiple-
component coatings that is allowed to elapse before application. The induction time
simplifies coating application to vertical surfaces and ensures complete curing. If an
induction time is required at the particular application temperature, this will be noted on
the coating or lining manufacturer’s product data sheet.

Temperatures of the individual components of a coating or lining should be within the

range of the specification or manufacturer’s product data sheet before mixing.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 15

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN
(CONTINUED)
Coating Material: AMINE-CURED EPOXY COATING
Substrate: CARBON STEEL
INSPECTION INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
HOLD POINT METHOD

C. COATING
INSPECTION
(continued)
3. Application

a. Number of coats Visual inspection, Visually conforming to

preferably with specification.
adjacent coats of
different colors
b. Checking coated Coated before Visually conforming to
surfaces for surface becomes specification.
cleanliness before contaminated by
topcoating moisture, dirt, rust,
oil or grease
c. Complete curing ASTM D3363 Within minimum and maximum
(pencil hardness); range of specification.
ASTM D2240
(durometer
hardness); ASTM
D5402 (solvent
resistance).
d. Force curing Substrate Time and temperature as specified.
temperature
monitored manually
or with a recording
thermometer.
e. Touch-up Verified visibly As required by specification.
and/or with a
holiday detector.

The specified number of coats, the timing of the applications, time and temperature of any
force curing that may be required, and touch-up requirements are specified in the
inspection plan.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 16

Wet film thickness readings (usually done by the painter) are required as the coating or
lining work proceeds so the painter can adjust technique and settings to achieve
conforming coating thicknesses. However, it is still necessary to verify the required dry
film thickness of each coat as soon as it has cured sufficiently for measuring. Coatings and
linings applied too heavily are susceptible to incomplete curing, trapping of solvents, and
later blistering, cracking, and/or peeling. Coatings and linings are applied in multiple coats
to minimize the possibility of pinholes in different coats penetrating to the substrate.
Contrasting colors for adjacent coats will help in the detection of skips or thin areas.

The curing time between coats is of utmost importance. If a coating or lining is applied too
soon over the previous coat, solvents in the underlying coating may be trapped there, or
the underlying coat may be lifted or otherwise adversely affected. In the case of most
coatings, the succeeding coats must be applied before the underlying coats have cured to a
stage at which inter-coat adhesion is significantly reduced.

When force-curing of a coating or lining is required, the final curing temperature must be
carefully monitored and recorded. The temperature specified is usually the substrate
temperature, and this can vary greatly from surface to surface, depending on the
configuration of the object being cured and on the method and equipment being used to
accelerate the cure. Remote thermometers are best used to measure temperatures of
uncured coatings. Note that remote thermometers have an optimal measuring distance
which must be observed by the operator.

Tank bottoms sitting on concrete slabs or on sand beds, tank saddle supports, and
reinforced sections around openings or brackets are all notorious heat sinks. When force-
curing a lining, the temperature is normally raised in measured increments (for example, a
40o F rise in temperature every 30 minutes) until the desired temperature is reached and
then maintained there for the required period of time.

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

(CONTINUED)
Coating AMINE- CURED EPOXY COATING
Material:
Substrate: CARBON STEEL
INSPECTION INSPECTION METHOD ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
HOLD POINT
C. COATING
INSPECTION
(continued)
4. Applied
Coatings
a. Dry Film Calibration, verification of As required in the project
Thickness accuracy, measurements, and specification (e.g., primer: 3-5
frequencies as required by mils).
SSPC-PA 2.
b. Film Visual estimation of extent of Visually conforming to

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 17

Imperfections sags, voids, drips, overspray, specification.
loss of adhesion, blistering,
peeling, etc. Standard
photographs may be helpful.

c. Film ASTM D5162 (low-voltage All holidays detected marked,

holidays holiday detector) repaired, re-inspected, and
approved.

The final part of the inspection plan covers the determination of the dry film thickness of
the applied coating or lining system in accordance with the procedures in SSPC-PA 2.
The inspector is often required to make an inspection of the coated surface for coating or
lining imperfections, such as overspray, major runs or sags, drips, blistering, pinholes,
any loss of adhesion, inadequate cure, etc. Any such imperfections must be corrected and
approved as conforming to the project specification.

When the coating application is to be used as a tank lining or in other severe chemical
service, a holiday test for pinholes or other film discontinuities is usually required. Any
holidays, pinholes, or other imperfections revealed by this test must be marked with
grease-free chalk or other suitable means and repaired and re-inspected for conformance
to the specification.

The inspector should look for areas lacking easy access that are difficult to blast or coat,
such as brackets, or behind pipes, inside channels, etc. A telescoping mirror can be useful
in inspecting areas not readily visible. The coating of structural steel in a fabricator’s yard
may be straight forward, but the lining of a tank interior can be much more complicated.
Inspectors should look for imperfections first in irregular areas and then continue with the
inspection of the large, flat surfaces. They should never accept the premise that, “Since
the coating on the walls of a tank looks good, the limited-access or difficult-to-coat areas
are also good.” Rust stains running down a tank wall after six months in service will be a
testament to an incomplete inspection.

Tips For Minimizing Problems

Use of Pre-Construction Conference to Clarify Requirements and

Authorizations for the Inspector and Other Personnel

All coating projects should start with a pre-construction conference that

includes the owner, contractor, coating manufacturer, and inspection personnel.
Items that should be discussed include:

• Procedures for clarification of any vague, inadequate, or conflicting

specification requirements.
• RFIs and RFDs (requests for information or deviation from the specification).

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 18

• Identification of personnel conducting different phases of the project work
and the extents of their authority.
• An inclusive list of “difficult-to-access” and “obstructed” surfaces, along with
a “procedure” for dealing with each area or location. The procedure should
include surface preparation, acceptance criteria, and coating system (e.g., non-
blasted areas may not be suitable for zinc-rich primers).
• Responsibilities for supplying materials and equipment, including access and
safety equipment.
• Work hazards associated with the project and safety controls to be utilized to
avoid accidents and injuries.
• Procedures for resolving disagreements at the job.
• Procedures for issuing corrective action requests (CARs).
• Procedures for processing change orders and notifying the appropriate parties.

At this time, the inspector should make sure that the extent of inspection
responsibilities is defined and precisely how to perform each task is completely
understood.

Addressing Deviations from the Specification

Coating inspectors should document and report but not approve deviations from
specification requirements without proper written authorization unless they are
assigned additional responsibilities. They should not tell contractor personnel how to do
their work or otherwise interfere with their work.

Assistance from the Manufacturer

If inspectors are not familiar with the products being used and desire more
information than provided in the manufacturer’s product data sheets, they can
request it from the manufacturer. However, the contractor is the party who should
request field support from manufacturers in applying their products, if they consider
it important.

Appendix: Sample Inspection Plan for Concrete Substrates

Equipment Required for Concrete Inspection

 Visual Profile Coupons for surface preparation (ICRI CSP 1-9)

 Profile Replica Putty and micrometer (TCP)
 Dew Meter/Psychrometer with psychrometric charts or tables, as necessary
 Air, surface, and paint thermometers
 Water drop test/black light
 pH test
 Acoustics test
 Impact hammer
 Calcium Chloride test/RH test

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 19

 Anemometer/Volometer
 Light meter
 WFT gages for concrete
 Ultrasonic Film Thickness (DFT) gages calibrated by the manufacturer and
shims for verifying the accuracy
 Tooke or Paint Inspection Gage (PIG)
 Flashlight and pocket magnifier
 Holiday detector
 Adhesion test equipment
 ISO 8502-3 Dust Test
 Slip Meter
 Covermeter

Inspection of Pre-Surface Preparation

Note: Soundness of concrete is always checked before beginning any coatings job
(ASTM D4541 and ACI 503R).

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

Coating Material: _________________________________

Substrate: CONCRETE____________________

INSPECTION HOLD INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

POINT PRIOR TO THE METHOD
START OF WORK

1. Coatings Materials

a. Age, identification, and 1. Visually inspect 1. As specified by the project

condition of containers. container labels. specification , e.g., not more that
2. Condition of one year since manufacture;
container. manufacturer’s name, code
number, and batch number; no
missing labels, all in tact.
2. No dents or leaks.
b. Condition of paint in 1. Visually inspect and stir 1. Absence of skins, settling,
container. container contents. lumps, and foreign matter.
2. Check viscosity. 2. Viscosity in range acceptable
to manufacturer.
3. Coating temp. as specified.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 20

c. Storage conditions for 1. Visually inspect storage 1. Covered area -- protected from
all materials. area. damage, moisture, direct sunlight.
2. Check ambient 2.Temperatures in specified
conditions. range, e.g., between 50 and
100°F.
2. Abrasive Materials

a. Identification and 1. Name and size of 1. As permitted by the

Cleanliness. abrasive. specification.
2. SSPC-AB 1, 2, or 3. 2. Requirements of SSPC-AB 1,
3. Verify doable field test 2, or 3 are compliant per
of SSPC-AB 1, 2, or 3, manufacturer’s data.
i.e., oil, ASTM D4940. 3. Doable SSPC-AB 1, 2, or 3
field tests verify cleanliness,
i.e., rust, oil, ASTM D4940.
3. Wash Water

a. Cleanliness 1. Supply source. 1. Factory DI water as specified.

2. Cleanliness. 2. Conductivity as specified.

4. Crack Fill Materials

a. Age, identification, and 1. Visually inspect 1. As specified by the project

condition of containers. container labels. specification , e.g., not more that
2. Condition of one year since manufacture;
container. manufacturer’s name, code
number, and batch number; no
missing labels, all in tact.
2. No dents or leaks.
b. Condition of fill 1. Visually inspect Those permitted by the project
material in container. contents. specification in good condition.

5. Thinners, Solvents
and Cleaners
a. Age, identification, and 1. Visually inspect 1. As specified by the project
condition of containers. container labels. specification , e.g., not more that
2. Condition of one year since manufacture;
container. manufacturer’s name, code
number, and batch number, no
missing labels, all in tact.
2. No dents or leaks.
6. Equipment and Test
Equipment Readiness

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 21

a. Condition of 1. Visual inspection for 1. Blowers, filters, dehumidifiers
Environmental functioning ventilation or to meet specification
Equipment. dehumidification requirements. RH typically no
equipment. Test A/C- more than 80%. A/C-Heater as
Heater. listed in specification and in
2. Temperature, dew point, working order.
and RH (ASTME337) must 2. Typically, temperature at least
be taken at start of work 5°F above dew point and 50-
and every four hours, or at 100°F during application and
intervals listed in the curing.
specification.
b. Condition of 1. Safe, whip check, 1. Manufacturer’s recommended
Blasting/Washing properly sized equipment. equipment.
Equipment. 2. ASTM D4285 for clean 2. Clean blotter or meets
air or ASTM D4940. conductivity requirement.
3. Wedge-shaped orifice 3. Maximum 2 nozzle size
gage test for nozzle size. increase in nozzle number or flat
4. Hypodermic needle gage fan nozzle as specified. 4.
test for air pressure at Specified blasting pressure, e.g.,
nozzle. 70 to 80 psig or minimum 3000
psig water pressure.
c. Condition of Paint
Mfg. recommended size; airless
Spray Equipment and
guards, gages working.
Crack Fill Equipment. Visual inspection.
d. Inspection instruments 1. Dew meter or 1. Within calibration limits;
required. Psychrometer and 2. Typically, temperature at least
psychrometric tables. 5°F above dew point and RH not
2. ASTM E337 and over 80%.
manufacturer’s
instructions.
3. Water drop 3. Penetrates.
4. Black light 4. Does not fluoresce.
5. Calcium chloride. 5. Building acclimatized –test
6. Insit tu RH test. duration 72 hours as required by
specification, typically 3 pounds
or less.
6. Building acclimatized –test
duration 72 hours as required by
specification, typically 75% or
less.
7. pH test 7. As required by specification
typically 8-10 pH.
8. Contact, remote, or 8. Following directions of
recording thermometers. manufacturer and, as required by
the specification, typically 50-
100°F during application and

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 22

curing.

9. TCP Profile Replica 9. As required by

putty and micrometer. specification.
10. ICRI CSP 1-9. 10. Visual comparators.
11. Wet film strips. 11. Used only as an aid in
12. Ultrasonic dry film obtaining acceptable dry film
thickness gages. thickness.
13. SSPC-PA 9. 12. Within gage tolerance.
13. As specified – e.g., Level 4
(no maximum--within 75%
minimum thickness.)
14. Low/high voltage 14. As specified.
holiday detector. 15. All holidays to be marked,
15. ASTM D5162 or repaired, re-inspected, and
NACE RP0188. approved.

Inspection of Surface Preparation

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

Coating Material: ___________________________

Substrate: _CONCRETE___________
INSPECTION INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE
HOLD POINT METHOD CRITERIA
DURING SURFACE
PREPARATION

1. Environmental
Conditions

a. Substrate Thermometer Not required in the

Temperature manufacturer’s specification.
instructions
b. Dew Point ASTM E337, Not required in the
Temp. and dew specification.
point must be taken
at start of work and
every 4 hours, or at
time intervals
required by
specification.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 23

c. Protection of Surfaces Surfaces and Visual observation.
and Equipment equipment not to be
coated must be
protected from
abrasive blast/water
cleaning and
coating overspray.

2. Cleanliness

a. Cleaning to remove 1. Ultraviolet light 1. No Contamination

grease/oil (SSPC-SP 1). 2. Water drop test 2. Complete flow-out.
described in SSPC
Inspection Manual.

b. Abrasive cleanliness. 1. ASTM D 4940 1. No floating oil sheen, color

(vial test 1:1 or suspended material visually
volume ratio). detected.
2. SSPC-AB 1, 2, 2. Requirements of SSPC-AB
or 3. 1, 2, or 3 are compliant per
manufacturer’s data.

c. Shot blast cleanliness. 1.ASTM 4940 (vial 1. No oil sheen, turbidity, or

test 1:1 volume floating material.
ration)
d. Water cleanliness Vial test – potable Less than 500 microSiemens,
water clear.
2. Profile
a. Blasted/Shot 1. TCP Replica 1. Surface profile required
blasted/Washed Putty (e.g., 56-75 mils).
profile. 2. ICRI CSP 2. Visual - Matches CSP 4-5.
visual coupons.
Blasting/Shot Visual Conformance to PCP.
blasting/Water observations.
washing
operations
c. Removal of dust and 1. ISO 8502-3. 1. As required by specification.
blast products. 2. Clear tape test. 2. As agreed upon by owner.

3. Finish of Surface
Preparation

a. Prepared surface 1. Water drop. 1. Penetrates.

cleanliness. 2. Black light. 2. Does not fluoresce.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 24

b. Moisture Vapor 1. Calcium 1. Building acclimatized –test
Emission/RH test. Plastic chloride. duration 72 hours as required
sheet method. 2. Insit tu RH test. by specification, typically 3
3. Sheet sealed pounds or less.
against surface for 2. Building acclimatized –test
16 hours. duration 72 hours as required
by specification, typically 75%
or less.
3. Visually inspect underside
of sheet and the concrete for
presence of moisture.
c. pH of concrete surface. Electronic/ pH strip As required by specification
test. typically 8-10 pH.

Inspection for Coating Application

COATINGS INSPECTION PLAN

(CONTINUED)

Coating Material: ___________________________

Substrate: _CONCRETE________
INSPECTION INSPECTION ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
HOLD POINT METHOD
DURING
INSPECTION
1.
Environmental
and Surface
Conditions
Temperature, RH Surface, Within range listed in
ambient specification/manufacturer’s product data sheet.
temperature,
dew point
temperature,
and RH, taken
at start of work
and every four
hours
afterward.
ASTM E337 Relative humidity as specified, typically no
more than 80% during coating/curing.
1. Mixing of
Coatings

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 25

a. Lighting SSPC Guide 12 Light as required (20 foot candles).
Containers Visual Containers not to be opened except for
observations inspection or immediate use.
b. Mix single Visual Mix in accordance with
components and observations. specification/manufacturer’s instructions. Mix
multi- Coating temp. each component separately prior to mixing
components. check. combined materials. Mix only complete pre-
measured units, i.e., full containers. Check that
coating is at recommended temp. found on
product data sheet.
c. Sweat-in/dwell 1. Time. 1. Record mix time –for pot life, dwell.
time, pot life. 2. Visual 2. Mix until smooth and free from lumps,
observation. typically with a slow speed stirrer. Strain
through a suitably sized screen, if necessary.
3.
APPLICATION

a. Lighting SSPC Lighting as specified (20 foot candles).

Guide 12

b. Number of Visually Visually conforms to the specification.

coats and colors inspect colors.
of each coat.

c. First coat color 1. Color 1. Blue – Conforms to specification.

and WFT. 2. WFT 2. WFT gages –conforms to specification.
d. First coat 1. Visually 1. No visible moisture, dust, rust, fish eyes,
cleanliness/amine check for amine blush, or contamination.
blush prior to top moisture, dust, 2. Verify accuracy - DFT measurements
coating. rust, fish eyes, conform to SSPC PA 9.
and amine
blush
contamination.
2. Ultrasonic
DFT test.

SSPC Guide for Planning Coatings Inspection 26

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