MODULE 1: SURFACE & GROUND WATER RESOURCES

MODULE -1
SURFACE AND GROUND WATER RESOURCES

Hydrologic Cycle, Global water resources and Indian Water resources, Surface Water
Resources, Water Balance, Available Renewable Water Resources, Water Scarcity, The
Water Balance as a Result of Human Interference, Groundwater Resources, Types of
Aquifers, Groundwater as a Storage Medium

Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle is a conceptual model that describes the storage and movement of water
between the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydrosphere

The scientific discipline in the field of physical geography that deals with the water cycle is
called hydrology. It is concerned with the origin, distribution, and properties of water on the
globe. As a result, the water cycle is also called the hydrologic cycle

INTRODUCTION

Water can occur in three physical phases: solid, liquid, and gas and is found in nature in
all these phases in large quantities. Depending upon the environment of the place of
occurrence, water can quickly change its phase.
A number of cycles are operating in nature, such as the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle,
and several biogeochemical cycles. The Hydrologic Cycle, also known as the water
cycle, is one such cycle which forms the fundamental concept in hydrology. Hydrologic
cycle was defined by the National Research Council (NRC, 1982) the as “the pathway of
water as it moves in its various phases to the atmosphere, to the earth, over and through

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the land, to the ocean and back to the atmosphere”. This cycle has no beginning or end
and water is present in all the three states (solid, liquid, and gas). A pictorial view of the
hydrological cycle is given in Fig. 1. The science of hydrology primarily deals with the
land portion of the hydrologic cycle; interactions with the oceans and atmosphere are
also studied.
The hydrologic cycle can be visualized as a series of storages and a set of activities that
move water among these storages. Among these, oceans are the largest reservoirs,
holding about 97% of the earth’s water. Of the remaining 3% freshwater, about 78% is
stored in ice in Antarctica and Greenland. About 21% of freshwater on the earth is
groundwater, stored in sediments and rocks below the surface of the earth. Rivers,
streams, and lakes together contain less than 1% of the freshwater on the earth and less
than 0.1% of all the water on the earth
Hydrologic cycle consists of motion loss, motion, recharge of the earth’s water. It connects
the atmosphere & two storages of the earth’s system the ocean and the land sphere
(hydrosphere & lithosphere) .The water evaporated from the earth the oceans enter the
atmosphere .Water leaves the atmosphere through precipitation .The oceans receive water
from the atmosphere by means of precipitation & from the land through rivers & ground
water flow. Water goes out of the oceans only through evaporation .The water leaves land
through evapotranspiration , stream flow & ground water flow .Evaporation & precipitation
processes take place in the vertical plane while streamflow and horizontal plane.
The exchange of water among the oceans, land, and the atmosphere was termed as ‘the
turnover’. This turnover affects the global patterns of the movement of ocean waters and
gases in the atmosphere, thereby greatly influencing climate. Since water is a very good
solvent, chemistry is an integral part of the hydrologic cycle. Usually, rain and snow are
considered as the purest form of water although these may also be mixed with pollutants that
are present in the atmosphere. During the journey on earth, many chemical compounds are
mixed with water and consequently the water quality undergoes a change. One can also
visualize the hydrologic cycle as a perpetual distillation and pumping system in which the
glaciers and snow packs are replenished and rivers get water of good quality

The global water cycle can be described with nine major physical processes which form
a continuum of water movement. Complex pathways include the passage of water from
the gaseous envelope around the planet called the atmosphere, through the bodies of
water on the surface of earth such as the oceans, glaciers and lakes, and at the same time
(or more slowly) passing through the soil and rock layers underground. Later, the water
is returned to the atmosphere. A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is that
it has no beginning and it has no end. It can be studied by starting at any of the following
processes: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, interception, infiltration, percolation,

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transpiration, runoff, and storage. 

COMPONENTS IN THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

EVAPORATION

Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is changed from a liquid state to a
gaseous state. A considerable amount of heat, about 600 calories of energy for each gram of
water, is exchanged during the change of state. Typically, solar radiation and other factors
such as air temperature, vapor pressure, wind, and atmospheric pressure affect the amount of
natural evaporation that takes place in any geographic area. Evaporation can occur on
raindrops, and on free water surfaces such as seas and lakes. It can even occur from water
settled on vegetation, soil, rocks and snow. There is also evaporation caused by human
activities.. 

CONDENSATION
Condensation is the process by which water vapor changes it's physical state from a vapor,
most commonly, to a liquid. Water vapor condenses onto small airborne particles to form
dew, fog, or clouds. The most active particles that form clouds are sea salts, atmospheric ions
caused by lightning, and combustion products containing sulfurous and nitrous acids.
Condensation is brought about by cooling of the air or by increasing the amount of vapor in
the air to its saturation point. When water vapor condenses back into a liquid state, the same
large amount of heat ( 600 calories of energy per gram) that was needed to make it a vapor is
released to the environment. 

PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and all forms of water particles fall from the
atmosphere and reach the ground. There are two sub-processes that cause clouds to release
precipitation, the coalescence process and the ice-crystal process. As water drops reach a
critical size, the drop is exposed to gravity and frictional drag. A falling drop leaves a
turbulent wake behind which allows smaller drops to fall faster and to be overtaken to join
and combine with the lead drop. The other sub-process that can occur is the ice-crystal
formation process. It occurs when ice develops in cold clouds or in cloud formations high in
the atmosphere where freezing temperatures occur. When nearby water droplets approach the
crystals some droplets evaporate and condense on the crystals. The crystals grow to a critical
size and drop as snow or ice pellets. Sometimes, as the pellets fall through lower elevation
air, they melt and change into raindrops. 

INFILTRATION

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Infiltration is the physical process involving movement of water through the boundary area
where the atmosphere interfaces with the soil. The surface phenomenon is governed by soil
surface conditions. Water transfer is related to the porosity of the soil and the permeability of
the soilprofile.

PERCOLATION

Percolation is the movement of water though the soil, and it's layers, by gravity and capillary
forces. The prime moving force of groundwater is gravity. Water that is in the zone of
aeration where air exists is called vadose water. Water that is in the zone of saturation is
called groundwater. For all practical purposes, all groundwater originates as surface water.
Once underground, the water is moved by gravity. The boundary that separates the vadose
and the saturation zones is called the water table. Usually the direction of water movement is
changed from downward and a horizontal component to the movement is added that is based
on the geologic boundary conditions. 

Geologic formations in the earth's crust serve as natural subterranean reservoirs for storing
water. Others can also serve as conduits for the movement of water. Essentially, all
groundwater is in motion. Some of it, however, moves extremely slowly. A geologic
formation which transmits water from one location to another in sufficient quantity for
economic development is called an aquifer. The movement of water is possible because of
the voids or pores in the geologic formations. Some formations conduct water back to the
ground surface. A spring is a place where the water table reaches the ground surface. Stream
channels can be in contact with an unconfined aquifer that approach the ground surface.
Water may move from the ground into the stream, or visa versa, depending on the relative
water level. Groundwater discharges into a stream forms the base flow of the stream during
dry periods, especially during droughts. An influent stream supplies water to an aquifer while
and effluent stream receives water from the aquifer. 

TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is the biological process that occurs mostly in the day. Water inside of plants is
transferred from the plant to the atmosphere as water vapor through numerous individual
leave openings. Plants transpire to move nutrients to the upper portion of the plants and to
cool the leaves exposed to the sun. Leaves undergoing rapid transpiration can be significantly
cooler than the surrounding air. Transpiration is greatly affected by the species of plants that
are in the soil and it is strongly affected by the amount of light to which the plants are
exposed. Water can be transpired freely by plants until a water deficit develops in the plant
and it water-releasing cells (stomata) begin to close. Transpiration then continues at a must
slower rate. Only a small portion of the water that plants absorb are retained in the plants. 

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Vegetation generally retards evaporation from the soil. Vegetation that is shading the soil,
reduces the wind velocity. Also, releasing water vapor to the atmosphere reduces the amount
of direct evaporation from the soil or from snow or ice cover. The absorption of water into
plant roots, along with interception that occurs on plant surfaces offsets the general effects
that vegetation has in retarding evaporation from the soil. The forest vegetation tends to have
more moisture than the soil beneath the trees. 

RUNOFF

Runoff is flow from a drainage basin or watershed that appears in surface streams. It
generally consists of the flow that is unaffected by artificial diversions, storages or other
works that society might have on or in a stream channel. The flow is made up partly of
precipitation that falls directly on the stream , surface runoff that flows over the land surface
and through channels, subsurface runoff that infiltrates the surface soils and moves laterally
towards the stream, and groundwater runoff from deep percolation through the soil horizons.
Part of the subsurface flow enters the stream quickly, while the remaining portion may take a
longer period before joining the water in the stream. When each of the component flows enter
the stream, they form the total runoff. The total runoff in the stream channels is called
streamflow and it is generally regarded as direct runoff or base flow. 

STORAGE

There are three basic locations of water storage that occur in the planetary water cycle. Water
is stored in the atmosphere; water is stored on the surface of the earth, and water stored in the
ground. 

Water stored in the atmosphere can be moved relatively quickly from one part of the planet to
another part of the planet. The type of storage that occurs on the land surface and under the
ground largely depend on the geologic features related to the types of soil and the types of
rocks present at the storage locations. Storage occurs as surface storage in oceans, lakes,
reservoirs, and glaciers; underground storage occurs in the soil, in aquifers, and in the fissure
of rock formations.

GLOBAL WATER RESOURCES

Highlights from assessment activities over the past two decades, which are used to
establish present and future water trends, reveal that:

1. Freshwater resources are unevenly distributed, with much of the water located
far from human populations. Many of the world's largest river basins run through
thinly populated regions. There are an estimated 263 major international river
basins in the world, covering ~231 059 898 km 2 or 45.3% of the Earth's land

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surface area (excluding Antarctica).

2. Groundwater represents about 90% of the world's readily available freshwater

resources, and some 1.5 billion people depend upon groundwater for their drinking
water.

3. Agricultural water use accounts for about 75% of total global consumption,
mainly through crop irrigation, while industrial use accounts for about 20%, and
the remaining 5% is used for domestic purposes.

4. It is estimated that two out of every three people will live in water-stressed areas
by the year 2025. In Africa alone, it is estimated that 25 countries will be
experiencing water stress (below 1,700 m3 per capita per year) by 2025. Today,
450 million people in 29 countries suffer from water shortages.

5. Clean water supplies and sanitation remain major problems in many parts of the
world, with 20% of the global population lacking access to safe drinking water.
Water-borne diseases from faecal pollution of surface waters continue to be a major
cause of illness in developing countries. Polluted water is estimated to affect the
health of 1.2 billion people, and contributes to the death of 15 million children
annually.

A wide variety of human activities also affects the coastal and marine environment.
Population pressures, increasing demands for space and resources, and poor
economic performances can all undermine the sustainable use of our oceans and
coastal areas. Serious problems affecting the quality and use of these ecosystems
include:

1. Alteration and destruction of habitats and ecosystems. Estimates show that

almost 50% of the world's coasts are threatened by development-related activities.

2. Severe eutrophication has been discovered in several enclosed or semi-enclosed

seas. It is estimated that about 80% of marine pollution originates from land-based
sources and activities.

3. In marine fisheries, most areas are producing significantly lower yields than in the
past. Substantial increases are never again likely to be recorded for global fish
catches. In contrast, inland and marine aquaculture production is increasing and now
contributes 30% of the total global fish yield.

4. Impacts of climate change may include a significant rise in the level of the
world's oceans. This will cause some low-lying coastal areas to become completely
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submerged, and increase human vulnerability in other areas. Because they are
highly dependent upon marine resources, small island developing states (SIDS) are
especially vulnerable, due to both the effects of sea level rise and to changes in
marine ecosystems.

Groundwater is by far the most abundant and readily available source of freshwater,
followed by lakes, reservoirs, rivers and wetlands:
• Groundwater
resource
their represents
(Boswinkel,
drinking water 2000). over
supply About90%1.5 of the people
billion world's depend
readilyupon
available freshwater
groundwater for
• The amount of groundwater withdrawn annually is roughly estimated at ~600-700
km3, representing about 20% of global water withdrawals
• A comprehensive picture of the quantity of groundwater withdrawn and consumed
annually around the world does not exist.

The total volume of water on Earth is about 1 400 million km 3 of which only 2.5 per
cent, or about 35 million km3, is freshwater. Most freshwater occurs in the form of
permanent ice or snow, locked up in Antarctica and Greenland, or in deep
groundwater aquifers. The principal sources of water for human use are lakes,
rivers, soil moisture and relatively shallow groundwater basins. The usable portion
of these sources is only about 200 000 km3 of water — less than 1 per cent of all
freshwater and only 0.01 per cent of all water on Earth. Much of this available water
is located far from human populations, further complicating issues of water use.

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The replenishment of freshwater depends on evaporation from the surface of the

oceans. About 505 000 km3, or a layer 1.4 metres thick, evaporates from the oceans
annually. Another 72 000 km3 evaporates from the land. About 80 per cent of all
precipitation, or about 458 000 km 3/year, falls on the oceans and the remaining 119
000 km3/year on land. The difference between precipitation on land surfaces and
evaporation from those surfaces (119 000 km3 minus 72 000 km3 annually) is run-off
and groundwater recharge — approximately 47 000 km 3 annually More than one-
half of all run-off occurs in Asia and South America, and a large fraction occurs in a
single river, the Amazon, which carries more than 6 000 km3 of water a year .

However, much of the world’s water has little potential for human use because 97.5% of all
water on earth is saline water. Out of the remaining 2.5% freshwater, most of which lies deep
and frozen in Antarctica and Greenland, only about 0.26% fish in rivers, lakes and in the soils
and shallow aquifiers which are readily usable for mankind

INDIAN WATER RESOURCES

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TABLE – 1 : LAND AND WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA

PARTICULARS QUANTITY

Geographical Area 329 million ha.

Flood Prone Area 40 million ha.
Ultimate Irrigation Potential 140 million ha.
Total Cultivable Land Area 184 million ha.
Net Irrigated Area 50 million ha.
Natural Runoff (Surface Water and
Ground Water) 1869 Cubic km.
Estimated Utilisable Surface Water
Potential 690 Cubic km.
Groundwater Resource 432 Cubic km.
Available Groundwater resource for
Irrigation 361 Cubic km.
Net Utilisable Groundwater esource for
irrigation 325 Cubic km.

SURFACE WATER RESOURCES

India’s average annual surface run- off generated by rainfall and snowmelt is estimated to be
about 1869 billion cubic
The average annual rainfall in India is about 1170 mm. This is considerable variation in rain
both temporarily and spatially. Most rain falls in the monsoon season (June-September),
necessitating the creation of large storages for maximum utilisation of the surface run-off.
Within any given year, it is possible to have both situations of drought and of floods in the
same region. Regional varieties are also extreme, ranging from a low value of 100 mm in
Western Rajasthan to over 11,000 mm in Meghalaya in North-Eastern India. Possible
changes in rainfall patterns in the coming decade, global warming and climate change and
other predicted or observed long-term trends on water availability could affect India’s water
resources.
Out of the total Precipitation, including snow fall, of around 4000 km3 in the country, the
availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is estimated as 1869km 3.
Due to various constraints of topography,uneven distribution of resource over space and
time,it has been estimated that only about 1123km 3 including 690km3 from surface water and
433km3 from groundwater resources can be put to beneficial use.Table-1 shows the water

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resources of the country at a glance. Many Indian rivers are perennial, though few are
seasonal.This is because precipitation over a large part of India is concentrated in the
monsoon season during June to September/October. Precipitation varies from 100mm in the
western parts of (Rajasthan) to over 11,000mm at Cherrapunji in Meghalaya.Rivers do
not,however,remain at a high stage throughout the monsoon season.It is only a spell of heavy
rains, which may last for a period of several hours to few days that generates large run-off in
the catchments.

Table-1 Water resources of India

Estimated annual precipitation (including

4000 km3
snowfall)

Average annual potential in rivers 1869 km3

Estimated utilisable water 1123 km3

Water demand ˜ utilization (for year 2000) 634 km3

Extreme conditions exist in the country-there are floods followed by droughts. Due to
excess rainwater, floods occur in certain parts. It has been estimated that 40 mha of area
is flood-prone which constitute 12% of total geographical area of the country. Droughts
are also experienced due to deficient rainfall. It has been found that 51 mha area is
drought prone which constitute 16% of total geographical area.
The population of the country has increased from 361 million in 1951 to 1130 million in
July 2007.Accordingly, the per capita availability of water for the country as a whole has
decreased from 5177 m3/year in 1951 to 1654 m3/year in 2007. Due to spatial variation of
rainfall, the per capita water availability also varies from basin to basin. The distribution
of water resources potential in the country shows that the average per capita water
availability in Brahmaputra & Barak basin was about 14057 m3/year whereas it was 308
m3/year in Sabarmati basin in year 2000.
River basins in India

River basin is considered the basic hydro logic unit for planning and development of
water resources. There are 12 major river basins with catchment area of 20000 km 2 and
above. The total catchment area of these rivers is 25.3 lakh km2. The major river basin is
the Ganga-Brahamputra-Meghna system,which is the largest with catchment area of
about 11.0 lakh km2 (more than 43% of the catchment area of all the major rivers in the

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country). The other major river basins with catchment area more than one lakh km2 are
Indus, Mahanadi,Godavari and Krishna. There are 46 medium river basins with
catchment area between 2000 and 20000 km2. The total catchment area of medium river
basins is about 2.5 lakh km2. All major river basins and many medium river basins are
inter-state in nature which cover about 81% of the geographical area of the country.
For the purpose of planning and development, in addition to 12 major river basins, eight
composite river basins combining suitably together all the remaining medium and small
river systems have been considered. Thus the entire country has been divided into twenty
river basins as shown in the Figure.

The details of water resources potential of these river basins are given in Table-2 below:

Catchment Average Utilisable surface

River Basin annual water resources
area(km2)
potential (km3)
(km3)

Indus (up to Border) 321289 73.31 46.00

(1165500)

a) Ganga 861452 525.02 250.00

(1186000)

b) Brahmaputra 194413 - -
(580000)+

c) Barak and others 41723 585.60 24.00

Godavari 312812 110.54 76.30

Krishna 258948 78.12 58.00

Cauvery 81155 21.36 19.00

Subernarekha 29196 12.37 6.81

Brahmani & Baitarni 51822 28.48 18.30

Mahanadi 141589 66.88 49.99

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Pennar 55213 6.32 6.86

Mahi 34842 11.02 3.10

Sabarmati 21674 3.81 1.93

Narmada 98796 45.64 34.50

Tapi 65145 14.88 14.50

WFR from Tapi to Tadri 55940 87.41 11.94

WFR from Tadri to 56177 113.53 24.27

Kanyakumari

EFR between Mahanadi & 86643 22.52 13.11

Pennar

EFR between Pennar & 100139 16.46 16.73

Kanyakumari

WFR of Kutch & Saurashtra 321851 15.10 14.98

including Luni

Area of Inland drainage in - Negligible Not applicable

Rajasthan

Minor Rivers draining into 36202 31.00 Not applicable

Myanmar & Bangladesh

Total - 1869.35 690.31

GROUND WATER
India’s rechargeable annual groundwater potential has been assessed at around 431 BCM
in aggregate terms. On an all India basis it is estimated that about 30 per cent of the
groundwater potential has been tapped for irrigation and domestic use. The regional
situation is very much different and large parts of India have already exploited almost all
of their dynamic recharge. Haryana and Punjab have exploited about 94 per cent of their

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groundwater resources. Areas with depleting groundwater tables are found in Rajasthan,
Gujarat, most of western Uttar Pradesh and in all of the Deccan states.

Occurrence of water availability at about 1000 cubic meters per capita per annum is a
commonly threshold for water indicating scarcity. Investment to capture additional
surface run-off will become increasingly more difficult and expensive in the future. Over
time, both for surface and groundwater resources, a situation where resources were
substantially under utilised and where considerable development potential existed, has
transformed in little more than a generation to a situation of water scarcity and limited
development options.

India faces an increasingly urgent situation: its finite and fragile water resources are
stressed and depleting while various sectoral demands are growing rapidly. Historically
relatively plentiful water resources have been primarily for irrigated agriculture, but with
the growth of Indian economy and industrial activities water demands share of water is
changing rapidly. In addition increase in population and rapid urbanisation also put an
additional demand on water resources. Summing up the various sectoral projection
reveals a total annual demand for water increasing from 552 billion cubic meter (BCM)
in 1997 to 1050 BCM by 2025 .
Under current sectoral trends, precious little water will remain for environmental and
other needs. This is untenable At Independence population was less than 400 million and
per capita water availability over 5000 cubic meter per year (m 3 /yr). With the population
crossed 1 billion mark, water availability has fallen to about 2000m 3/yr per capita. By the
year 2025 per capita availability is projected at only 1500 m 3/yr or 30% of availability
levels at Independence.
The water availability index includes surface water only, yet groundwater is an important
component of water availability that factors significantly in the Indian economy. Ground
water is an important source of drinking water and food security for India, supplying about 80
per cent of water for domestic use in rural areas and about 50 per cent of water for urban and
industrial uses. Ground water provides a very significant percentage of water supply for
irrigation, and contributed significantly to India’s agricultural and overall economic
development. With more than 17 million energised wells nationwide, groundwater now
supplies more than 50 per cent of irrigated area

WATER BALANCE EQUATION

Water balance is the most important integral physiographic characteristic of any territory—it
determines its specific climate features, typical landscapes and opportunities for human land
use. Assessment of mean long-term water balances of large regions at a sufficient accuracy

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depends on reliable estimation of the major water balance components—precipitation,

evaporation and runoff (surface and subsurface).

Water balance is the ratio between water inflow and outflow estimated for different
space and time scales, i.e. for the Earth as a whole, for oceans, continents, countries, natural-
economic regions, and river basins, for a long-term period or for particular years and seasons.
Water balance is the most important integral physiographic characteristic of any territory,
determining its specific climate features, typical landscapes, possible water management and
land use. Analysis of water balance components for individual territories and time intervals is
of great importance for studies of the hydrological cycle or water circulation in the
atmosphere-hydrosphere-lithosphere system, as well as the underlying processes influenced by
natural factors and human activities.
Precipitation, evaporation, river runoff and ground water outflow not drained by river
systems are basic components determining water balance. Besides these components, there are
minor components, too, e.g. moisture due to atmospheric water vapor condensation, deep
artesian water outflow, or, conversely, recharge of deep aquifers, water losses for animal
survival, etc. According to investigations, however, these components are very small if related
to large river basins, regions and the globe—they are of no importance for water balance
computation, so they can be ignored. It should be noted that much fresh water is used in many
regions for different human needs. Some of this is returned to water bodies as surface and
subsurface runoff, but some water is lost, particularly to evaporation (from irrigated lands,
reservoirs, etc.), thus increasing evapotranspiration in the region. This must be taken into
account in the appropriate water balance components. Thus, the assessments of
Water Balance Equations Water balance equation for any land area and any time interval
(without taking account of the above minor components) is as follows:

A general water balance equation is

P=R + E +∆S
where
P= is precipitation
E= is evapotranspiration
R =  is streamflow
∆S=  is the change in storage (in soil or the bedrock / ground water)
The basic equation can be expressed as:
INFLOWS – OUTFLOWS = CHANGE IN STORAGE

Typical inflows include

: • natural recharge from precipitation;
• Seepage from surface water channels;
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• Intentional recharge via ponds, ditches, and injection wells;

• Net recharge of applied water for agricultural and other irrigation uses;
• Unintentional recharge from leaky conveyance pipelines; and • subsurface inflows from
outside basin boundaries.

This equation uses the principles of conservation of mass in a closed system, whereby any
water entering a system (via precipitation), must be transferred into either
evaporation, surface runoff (eventually reaching the channel and leaving in the form of river
discharge), or stored in the ground. This equation requires the system to be closed, and where
it isn't (for example when surface runoff contributes to a different basin), this must be taken
into account.
Extensive water balances are discussed in agricultural hydrology.
A water balance can be used to help manage water supply and predict where there may be
water shortages. It is also used in irrigation, runoff assessment (e.g. through
the RainOff model, flood control and pollution control. Further it is used in the design of
subsurface drainage systems which may be horizontal (i.e. using pipes, tile drains or ditches)
or vertical (drainage by wells). To estimate the drainage requirement, the use of
a hydrogeological water balance and a groundwater model  may be instrumental.
The water balance can be illustrated using a water balance graph which plots levels
of precipitation and evapotranspiration often on a monthly scale.
If the water balance is considered at the global scale, it should be noted that there are regions
on each continent which differ greatly in their water balance structure. Most territories on the
continents are the zones of so-called external runoff—river runoff from these zones
discharges to the World Ocean directly. There are also rather large areas on the continents
(probably except Antarctica) which have internal runoff. These endorheic areas are not
connected to the World Ocean. River runoff formed in such regions is completely lost to
evaporation.

Several types of water balances can be distinguished, including:

• the water balance of the earth surface;
• the water balance of a drainage basin;
• the water balance of the world oceans;
• the water balance of the water diversion cycle (human interference);
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• the water balance of a local area like a city, a forest, or a polder.

AVAILABLE RENEWABLE WATER RESOURCES
Internal Renewable Water Resources (IRWR)
International indicators for comparing water resources potential Some of the definitions
used to quantify and compare water resource potential internationally are as follows:
1. Internal Renewable Water Resources (IRWR):
Internal Renewable Water Resources are the surface water produced internally, i.e.,
within a country. It is that part of the water resources generated from endogenous
precipitation. It is the sum of the surface runoff and groundwater recharge occurring
inside the countries' borders. Care is taken strictly to avoid double counting of their
common part. The IRWR figures are the only water resources figures that can be added
up for regional assessment and they are being used for this purpose.
2. Surface water produced internally:
Total surface water produced internally includes the average annual flow of rivers
generated from endogenous precipitation (precipitation occurring within a country's
borders). It is the amount of water produced within the boundary of a country, due to
precipitation. Natural incoming flow originating from outside a country’s borders is not
included in the total.
3. Groundwater recharge:
The recuperation of groundwater is called the groundwater recharge. This is requisite to
increase the groundwater table elevation. This can be done by many artificial techniques,
say, by constructing a detention dam called a water spreading dam or a dike, to store the
flood waters and allow for subsequent seepage of water into the soil, so as to increase the
groundwater table. It can also be done by the method of rainwater harvesting in small
scale, even at individual houses. The groundwater recharge volume is 418.5 cubic km
and the per capita annual volume of groundwater recharge is 412.9 cubic m per person.
4. Overlap:
It is the amount of water quantity, coinciding between the surface water produced
internally and the ground water produced internally within a country, in the calculation
of the Total Internal Renewable Water Resources of the country. Hence, Overlap = Total
IRWR- (Surface water produced internally + ground water produced internally). The
overlap for Indian water resources is 380 cubic km.
5. Total internal Renewable Water Resources:
The Total Internal Renewable Water Resources are the sum of IRWR and incoming flow
originating outside the countries' borders. The total renewable water resources of India
are 1260.5 cubic km.
6. Per capita Internal Renewable Water Resources:
The Per capita annual average of Internal Renewable Water Resources is the amount of
average IRWR, per capita, per annum. For India, the Per capita Internal Renewable
Water Resources are 1243.6 cubic m.
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7. Net renewable water resources:

The total natural renewable water resources of India are estimated at 1907.8 cubic km
per annum, whereas the total actual renewable water resources of India are 1896.7 cubic
km. 8. Per capita natural water resources: The present per capita availability of natural
water, per annum is 1820 cubic m, which is likely to fall to 1341 cubic m, by 2025.
8. Annual water withdrawal:
The total amount of water withdrawn from the water resources of the country is termed
the annual water withdrawal. In India, it amounts 500000 to million cubic m..
9.Per capita annual water withdrawal:

It is the amount of water withdrawn from the water resources of the country, for various
purposes. The per capita annual total water withdrawal in India is 592 cubic m per person
WATER SCARCITY
Water is life because plants and animals cannot live without water. Water is needed to ensure
food security, feed livestock, take up industrial production and to conserve the biodiversity
and environment. Although, India is not a water poor country, due to growing human
population, severe neglect and over-exploitation of this resource, water is becoming a scarce
commodity. While this is a growing concern all over the world, India is most vulnerable
because of the growing demand and in-disciplined lifestyle. This calls for immediate
attention by the stakeholders to make sustainable use of the available water resources to
ensure better quality of lives.
Water Scarcity • What is Water Scarcity • Causes of Water Scarcity • Effect of Water scarcity
WHAT IS WATER SCARCITY?
Simply put, water scarcity is either the lack of enough water (quantity) or lack of access to
safe water (quality).It currently affects around 2.8 billion people around the world, on all
continents, at least one month out of every year and more than 1.2 billion people lack the
access to clean drinking water.

World Water Scarcity

The world’s water resources are rapidly running dry creating a global crisis for every
living being on the planet. 1 billion - nearly 1/6th of the world’s population - are already
facing water shortages on a daily basis.
The United Nations' FAO states that by 2025, 1.9 billion people will be living in
countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population
could be under stress conditions. 780 million people lack access to clean water.
Inadequate access to safe drinking water for about 884 million people. In the 20th
Century, Population grew 3 fold but Water demand grew to 6 folds!

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CAUSES FOR WATER SCARCITY

1.Demand and Usage Domestic 30% of the rural population lack access to drinking
water. Agricultural 90% of total water resources used.
Industrial Water is both an important input
2.Supply a)Surface Water Only 48% of rainfall ends up in India’s rivers. Only 18% can
be used.
B) Groundwater 82% goes to irrigation and agricultural purposes. Only 18% is divided
between domestic and industrial.
3. Climate Change Climate change is exacerbating the depleting supply of water.
4. Population
The polluted water then seeps into the groundwater and contaminates agricultural
products when used for irrigation.
EFFECTS OF WATER SCARCITY
• 1 out of every 4 deaths under the age of 5 worldwide is due to a water-related disease.
• 80% of the Illness cause by unsafe water and Sanitation condition in world.
Every day in rural communities and poor urban centers throughout sub-Saharan Africa,
hundreds of millions of people suffer from a lack of access to clean, safe water. • Women
and girls especially bear the burden of walking miles at a time to gather water from
streams and ponds - full of water-borne disease that is making them and their families
sick.
Freshwater fish are going extinct at five times the rate of marine fish species
In the last 100 years 50% of the world’s wetlands have been lost to development
India is facing a water crisis that has implications not only for its 1.1 billion people, but
for the entire globe.

THE WATER BALANCE AS A RESULT OF HUMAN

INTERFERENCE

Human activity has the potential to indirectly and directly affect water quantity and the
natural flow regime of a river system. Indirect impacts to the hydrologic cycle can result
from land-use changes. Direct impacts can result from water diversions, withdrawals and
discharges, and from dams (flow regulation and water storage).

Land Use Changes

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Changes to the landscape caused by oil sands development can affect hydrologic systems
in two major ways, termed closed circuited and non-closed circuited land use. Closed
circuited areas include areas where the impacted land is hydrologicaly isolated from the
original drainage area, and no longer contributes flow to the river system. Non-closed
circuited land change includes areas that still contribute flows to the river systems, but
where vegetation has been removed or other changes affecting water flow have occurred.

Withdrawals, diversions and discharges

Water use is managed in the Athabasca oil sands area by the Alberta government, under
the provincial Water Act. The purpose of the Water Act is to manage and regulate the
allocation and use of water, and to support and promote water conservation.

Oil sands projects are a significant user of water from the lower Athabasca River. While
the use of water by industrial oil sands projects has historically been considered low
enough to maintain aquatic health for the mainstem of the Athabasca River, current
licenses allow for maximum amounts that are potentially of concern during low flow
conditions. To protect the aquatic health of the Athabasca River under low flow
conditions, an Instream Flow Needs and Water Management System was developed for
the lower Athabasca River (AENV and FOC 2007). This framework identifies
management actions, including water use restrictions, related to river flow conditions.
The objectives of the water management framework are to:

 Provide a high level of protection for the aquatic ecosystem over the long-term;

 Provide incentive to develop cooperative management options for water in the

Athabasca River;

 Provide incentive for achieving more efficient water use;

 Provide a reliable supply of good quality water; and

 Ensure water use restrictions are realistic and the framework is straightforward to
administer.

Dams

While there are no flow-regulating dams on the Athabasca River, the W.A.C. Bennett
Dam regulates flows on the Peace River. The effects of flow regulation on the natural
hydrologic balance of the Peace-Athabasca Delta have been of concern for decades. The
ecology and health of the Delta, supporting a diverse population of flora and fauna, are
dependent on the flow interaction of the Peace and Athabasca River systems
(Environment Canada 2002). Flows in the Athabasca River are an important component
of the overall health of this internationally important and delicately balanced ecosystem.

Within the Athabasca River watershed, and specifically within the oil sands area, dams
are used to create tailings ponds to store industrial wastewater produced in some oil

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sands developments. These tailings ponds represent an increased risk to downstream

aquatic systems through the presence of large volumes of contaminated water stored
within some regional watersheds. “Water stored in tailings may represent the most
pressing environmental liability of the region and this can be addressed by enhancing the
efficiency of water use, and finding ways to either recycle or treat and discharge these
waters”

Climate Change

Climate change describes a change in the average conditions such as temperature and
rainfall in a region over a long period of time. NASA scientists have observed Earth’s
surface is warming, and many of the warmest years on record have happened in the past
20 years.

Climate change describes a change in the average conditions — such as temperature and
rainfall — in a region over a long period of time. For example, 20,000 years ago, much
of the United States was covered in glaciers. In the United States today, we have a
warmer climate and fewer glaciers.

Global climate change refers to the average long-term changes over the entire Earth.
These include warming temperatures and changes in precipitation, as well as the effects
of Earth’s warming, such as:

 Rising sea levels

 Shrinking mountain glaciers

 Ice melting at a faster rate than usual in Greenland, Antarctica and the Arctic

 Changes in flower and plant blooming times.

GROUNDWATER RESOURCES

Ground water plays a key role in meeting the water needs of various user-sectors in
India. With growing awareness, the dependability on ground water as a sustainable
resource in nation building reasserts the need for an organization like Central Ground
Water Board which is vested with the responsibilities of assessing and managing the
ground water resources of the country through ground water management studies,
exploration, evaluation and monitoring of ground water regime.

The Dynamic Ground Water Resource of the country has been jointly estimated by State
Ground Water Departments and Central Ground Water Board, based on the methodology
recommended by Ground Water Estimation Committee-1997 .The Ground Resource was
estimated as on March, 2004. The National level report on "Dynamic Ground Water
Resources of India" was finalized and approved by the R&D Advisory Committee in its

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seventh meeting held at New Delhi on 19th August, 2005. As per the report, the Annual
Replenishable Ground Water Resource for the entire country is 433 billion cubic metre
(bcm), Net Annual Ground Water Availability is estimated as 399 billion cubic metre
whereas the Annual ground water draft for irrigation, Domestic & Industrial was 231
billion cubic metre and their Stage of Ground Water Development for the Country as a
whole is 58%.
The Annual Replenishable Ground Water Resource is contributed by two major sources
– rainfall and other sources that include canal seepage return flow from irrigation,
seepage from water bodies and artificial recharge due to water conservation structures.
The overall contribution of rainfall to country’s Annual Replenishable Ground Water
Resource is 67% and the share of other sources taken together is 33%. The contribution
from other sources such as canal seepage, return flow from irrigation, seepage from
water bodies etc in annual replenishable resources is more than of 33% in the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Jammu &Kashmir, Jharkhand, Punjab, Tamil Nadu,
Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal and UT of Pondicherry. Southwest monsoon being the most
prevalent contributor of rainfall in the country, about 73% of country’s Annual
Replenishable Ground Water Recharge takes place during the Kharif period of
cultivation. Keeping 34 bcm for natural discharge, the Net Ground Water Available for
utilization for the entire country is 399 bcm. The Annual Ground Water Draft is 231
bcm, out of which 213 bcm is for Irrigation use and 18 bcm for Domestic & Industrial
use. An analysis of ground water draft figures indicates that in the states of Chhattisgarh,
Delhi, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Kerala, north eastern
states of Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura, Orissa, Sikkim, and
Union Territories of Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, Lakshadweep and
Pondicherry, ground water draft for domestic &industrial purposes are more than 15%
which is comparatively higher than the national average of 8%. In general, the irrigation
sector remains the main consumer of ground water (92% of total annual ground water
draft for all uses).

STAGE OF GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT

The stage of ground water development for the country as a whole is 58%. The status of
ground water development is comparatively high in the states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab
and Rajasthan and UT of Daman & Diu and Pondicherry, where the Stage of Ground
Water Development is more than 100%, which implies that in these states the average
annual ground water consumption is more than average annual ground water recharge. In
the states of Gujarat,Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh the average stage of
ground water development is 70% and above. In rest of the states / UT's the stage of
ground water development is below 70%.

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GROUND WATER OCCURRENCE

The ground water behaviour in the Indian sub-continent is highly complicated due to the
occurrence of diversified geological formations with considerable lithological and
chronological variations, complex tectonic framework, climatological dissimilarities and
various hydro-chemical conditions. Studies carried out over the years have revealed that
aquifer groups in alluvial/soft rocks even transcend the surface basin boundaries. Broadly
two groups of rock formations have been identified depending on characteristically
different hydraulics of ground water, Viz. Porous Formations and Fissured Formations.
Porous Formations
Porous formations have been further subdivided into Unconsolidated and Semi –
consolidated formations.
Unconsolidated Formations
The areas covered by alluvial sediments of river basins, coastal and deltaic tracts
constitute the unconsolidated formations. These are by far the most significant ground
water reservoirs for large scale and extensive development.The hydrogeological
environment and ground water regime in the Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra basin indicate the
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existence of potential aquifers having enormous fresh ground water reserve. Bestowed
with high incidence of rainfall and covered by a thick pile of porous sediments, these
ground water reservoirs get replenished every year and are being used heavily. In these
areas, in addition to the Annual Replenishable Ground Water Resources available in the
zone of water level fluctuation (Dynamic Ground Water Resource), there exists a huge
ground water reserve in the deeper passive recharge zone below the zone of fluctuation
as well as in the deeper confined aquifers which remains largely unexplored as yet.
Although the mode of development of ground water is primarily through dug wells, dug
cum bore well and cavity wells, thousands of tube wells have been constructed during
last few decades.
Semi-Consolidated Formations
The semi-consolidated formations normally occur in narrow valleys or structurally
faulted basins. The Gondwanas, Lathis, Tipams, Cuddalore sandstones and their
equivalents are the most extensive productive aquifers in this category. Under favorable
situations, these formations give rise to free flowing wells. In selected tracts of
northeastern India, these water-bearing formations are quite productive. The Upper
Gondwanas, which are generally arenaceous, in general, constitute prolific aquifers.
Fissured Formations (Consolidated Formations)
The consolidated formations occupy almost two-thirds of the country. These formations,
except vesicular volcanic rocks have negligible primary porosity. From the hydrogeological
point of view, fissured rocks are broadly classified into four types viz. Igneous and
metamorphic rocks excluding volcanic and carbonate rocks, Volcanic rocks,Consolidated
sedimentary rocks and Carbonate rocks

AQUIFERS
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or
unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater can be extracted using a water
well. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called
hydrogeology
Types of aquifers are
1. Unconfined Aquifers
2.Perched Aquifer
3.Confined Aquifer
4. Leaky Aquifer
1.UNCONFINED AQUIFER
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Unconfined aquifers are those into which water seeps from the ground surface directly above
the aquifer.
Where groundwater is in direct contact with the atmosphere through the open pore spaces of
the overlying soil or rock, then the aquifer is said to be unconfined. The upper groundwater
surface in an unconfined aquifer is called the water table. The depth to the water table varies
according to factors such as the topography, geology, season and tidal effects, and the
quantities of water being pumped from the aquifer.

Unconfined aquifers are usually recharged by rain or stream water infiltrating directly
through the overlying soil. Typical examples of unconfined aquifers include many areas of
coastal sands and alluvial deposits in river valleys. 

2. PERCHED AQUIFER
A perched water table (or perched aquifer) is an aquifer that occurs above the regional water
table, in the vadose zone. This occurs when there is an impermeable layer of rock or sediment
(aquiclude) or relatively impermeable layer (aquitard) above the main water table/aquifer but
below the land surface.

3. CONFINED AQUIFERS

Confined aquifers are permeable rock units that are usually deeper under the ground than
unconfined aquifers. They are overlain by relatively impermeable rock or clay that limits
groundwater movement into, or out of, the confined aquifer.

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Groundwater in a confined aquifer is under pressure and will rise up inside a borehole drilled
into the aquifer. The level to which the water rises is called the potentiometric surface. An
artesian flow is where water flows out of the borehole under natural pressure.

Confined aquifers may be replenished, or recharged by rain or streamwater infilitrating the

rock at some considerable distance away from the confined aquifer. Groundwater in these
aquifers can sometimes be thousands of years old.

4. LEAKY AQUIFER

An aquifer which is overlain or underlain by a semi- pervious layer (aquitard) through which

vertical leakage takes place due to head difference is called leaky aquifer or semi-
confined aquifer.

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Aquitard:
An aquitard is a zone within the Earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer
to another. A completely impermeable aquitard is called an aquiclude or
Aquifuge. Aquitards comprise layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic
conductivity

Aquiclude:
A hydrogeologic unit which, although porous and capable of storing water, does not transmit
it at rates sufficient to furnish an appreciable supply for a well or spring

Aquifuge
A hydrogeologic unit which has no interconnected openings and, hence cannot store or
transmit water

GROUND WATER AS A STORAGE MEDIUM

Groundwater Storage, Porosity, and Specific Yield:  Groundwater occupies the cracks and
pore spaces between rocks and mineral grains below the land surface. In the saturated zone,
essentially all of the pores are filled with water. If a volume of saturated aquifer material is
completely dried, the water volume removed reflects the total  porosity of the material, or the
fraction of pore space within the total volume of solids plus open spaces. This number can be
surprisingly large; some minerals and rock formations can have total porosities in excess of
50%. In the unsaturated, or vadose, zone there can be significant amounts of water present,
but the voids are not completely filled (see appendix on saturated thickness).

However, some of the pore spaces may be too small or too poorly connected to permit the
water they contain to flow out easily. The effective porosity can be thought of as the volume
of pore space that will drain in a reasonable period of time under the influence of gravity.
Effective porosity is always less than total porosity, sometimes (as in the case of clays) much
less. "Good aquifers" tend to have values of effective porosity in the range of 10-30%,
although examples of higher and lower values can be found. Figure illustrates the
relationship among the types of porosity and the volume of water in storage.

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Groundwater Storage Capacity The groundwater storage capacity of an individual basin or

within the entire State is one of the questions most frequently asked by private citizens, water
resource planners, and politicians alike. Total storage capacity seems easy to understand. It
can be seen as how much physical space is available for storing groundwater. The
computation of groundwater storage capacity is quite simple if data are available: capacity is
determined by multiplying the total volume of a basin by the average specific yield. The total
storage capacity is constant and is dependent on the geometry and hydrogeologic
characteristics of the aquifer(s)
Estimates of total groundwater storage capacity in California are staggering. Previous
estimates of total storage range from 850 million acre-feet to 1.3 billion acre-feet. However,
due to incomplete information about many of the groundwater basins, there has never been an
accurately quantified calculation of total storage capacity statewide. Even if such a
calculation were possible, the utility of such a number is questionable because total storage
capacity might lead to overly optimistic estimates of how much additional groundwater
development can contribute to meeting future demands.
Groundwater Budget A groundwater budget is an analysis of a groundwater basin’s inflows
and outflows to determine the change in groundwater storage. Alternatively, if the change in
storage is known, the value of one of the inflows or outflows could be determined.

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