MODUL BAHASA INGGRIS DASAR TEORI & PRAKTEK

The Parts of Speech

There are nine parts of speech. They are articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs,
conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections.
Nouns
A noun is a word used to name something: a person/animal,
a place, a thing, or an idea. For example, all of the following are nouns.
o Linda, Indri, Lina, Mia
o Japan, Venezuela, Atlanta, Kroger, the Gap
o pencil, store, music, air
o biology, theory of Relativity, Pythagorean theory
Hint: They are sometimes preceded by noun markers. Noun markers are also called
determiners and quantifiers. They are words like a, an, the, this, that, these, those, each,
some, any, every, no, numbers (1,2,3,etc.), several, many, a lot, few, possessive pronouns
(his, her, etc). See determiners for more information.

Nouns are classified in several ways.

1. Nouns can be singular or plural.
Singular nouns name only one person, place, thing or idea.
One apple, a pencil, the book
Plural nouns name two or more persons, places, things or ideas. Most singular nouns
(Not ALL) are made plural by adding –s. For example, (pencil is a singular noun. The
word pencils is a plural noun.)
Exception #1: If a noun ends with the –s, sh, ch, or x like the words, kiss, church, ash
or box, then they are made plural by adding –es (kisses, churches, ashes, and boxes).
Exception #2:There are also irregular nouns that do not follow any rules. For
example, the plural form of the word child is children.

2. Nouns can be Proper Nouns or Common Nouns

a.  Proper nouns refer to specific people, places, things and ideas. A person's name
(Leah Graham) is a proper noun, for example. Other examples are names of places
(Atlanta, Georgia) and names of things (the Navy). They are always capitalized!
o People’s names and titles- King Henry, Mrs. Smith
o Names for deity, religions, religious followers, and sacred
books- God, Allah, Buddha, Islam, Catholicism, Christians
o Races, nationalities, tribes, and languages- African American,
Polish-American, Black, Chinese, Russian
o Specific Places like countries, cities, bodies of water, streets,
buildings, and parks
o Specific organizations- Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),
o Days of the week, months, and holidays,
o Brand names of products
o Historical periods, well-known events, and documents- Middle
ages, Boston Tea Party, Magna Carta
o Titles of publications and written documents
b.  Common nouns are all other nouns. For example: cat, pencil, paper, etc.
They are not capitalized unless they are the first word in the sentence.
3. Nouns can also be collective.
Collective nouns are nouns that are grammatically considered singular, but include
more than one person, place, thing, or idea in its meaning. Words like team, group,
jury, committee, audience, crowd, class, troop, family, team, couple, band, herd,
quartet, and society.
Generally, collective nouns are treated as singular because they emphasize the group
as one unit.
The committee is going to make a decision.  
4. Nouns can also be either count or non-count.
Nouns that are non-count cannot be counted. For example,
one cannot go outside to have two fresh airs. One goes outside for fresh air.

5. Nouns can be Abstract or concrete

 Concrete nouns are nouns that you can touch. They are people, places, and some
things. Words like person, court, Georgia, pencil, hand, paper, car, and door are all
examples of concrete nouns.
 Abstract nouns are nouns that cannot be physically held. For example, things like air,
justice, safety, Democracy, faith, religion, etc.

6. Nouns can be Gerunds

A gerund is the –ing form of the verb and is used as a noun. For example,
Running is good for you.
Running is the noun/gerund and isis the verb.
Mycrying upset him.
Crying is the subject and upset is the verb
Note: A noun can fit into more than one of these categories. For example, the noun
Angela is a singular, concrete, count, proper noun.

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. They eliminate the need for repetition.
For Example:
Instead of Emma talked to Emma's child, you might say Emma talked to her child.
Her is the pronoun. It renames the antecedent, Emma.
& There are several types of pronouns.
Personal Pronouns refer to specific persons or things. Personal pronouns can act as subjects,
objects, or possessives.
Singular: I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it
Plural: we, us, you, they, them
I, you, she, he, it, we, and they are used as subjects of sentences.
For example, She knew the grammar rules very well.
The personal pronouns that can be used asobjectsare:
Me, you, him, her, it, them
For Example:
 The teacher gave all of them good grades.
 Tommy gave his poetry book to her.
 Then, Azra gave it to me.
Them, her and me are personal pronouns used as objects. They are NEVER the subjects of the
sentences.
 Possessive Pronouns indicate ownership or possession.
Singular: my, mine, your, yours, hers, his, its
Plural: yours, ours, theirs,
For Example: She returned my pencil to me because it was mine.
 
3. Reflexive Pronouns name a receiver of an action who is identical to the doer of the action.
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
For example: Marcel congratulated herself on her good grades.
Here, Manuela is both the doer and the receiver of the action.
Q: So, who did Manuela congratulate? A: Herself.
 
4.  Intensive Pronouns emphasize a noun or another pronoun.
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
For Example: I saw Bandihimself at the mall. Here, himself emphasizes the antecedent,
Bandi.

5.  Reciprocal Pronouns express shared actions or feelings. They are:

Each other One another
For Example:
Yani and Tari help each other with their work.
My friend and I dance with one another when we go clubbing.

6.  Indefinite Pronouns refer to non-specific persons and things.

All, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone,
everything, few, many, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, one, several, some,
somebody, someone, something
For Example:
Many believe that UFO’s exist, but nobodycan prove it.
No one can be sure if aliens really exist, but only fewwonder if Elvis is still alive.
The underlined indefinite pronouns do not refer to any one person. They are referring to
people in general.

7.  Demonstrative Pronouns are also considered noun markers. They "point" towards nouns.
this, that, these those
For Example:
Thatwoman attends Gainesville College.
That points out which woman.
The woman attends Gainesville College.
Q: Which woman? A: That woman.

8.  Interrogative Pronouns introduce questions.

Who, Whom, Whose, Which, What
For Example:
Who is going on vacation? To whom will the teacher give an "A"?
Whatare you doing?

9.  Relative Pronouns introduce dependent clauses and refers to a person or thing already
mentioned in the sentence (i.e. the antecedent).
Who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, which, that
For Example:
The English that we learn in class will help us pass English 1101.that we learn in class is the
adjective clause that describes English. And, that is the relative pronoun.
Q: Which English?
A: The English that we learn in class—as opposed to the English we learn around our
friends.

Adjectives
An adjective modifies (describes) a noun or pronoun.
Normally in English, the adjective comes before the noun. For example:
The smart student earned an "A".
They also come after linking verbs. For example:
I feel happy.
Adjectives can be used to make comparisons.
 For most adjectives of one or two syllables, you can add –er. For example, greater,
faster, stronger.
 For adjectives longer than two syllables, you should use the word more.
For example, He was more intelligent than his sister was.
 
Adjectives can also be used as superlatives.
 This is usually done by adding –est to the end of an adjective that is one or two
syllables.
For example, the loudest, the coolest, the smartest.
 If an adjective is three syllables or longer, you must use the words the most. For
example:
Katsu is the most intelligent person in the world!
WARNING- Never use both an –er ending and the word more or an
–est ending and the word most.
For example, I am the most happiest when my students learn. Instead, it should be: I
am the happiest when my students learn.
There are some irregular adjective and adverb forms. For example:
Adjective Adverb Comparing two Comparing three or
more

Bad Badly Worse worst

Good Well Better Best

Little   Less Least

Much Many More Most

Punctuation Note: Adjectives are not usually capitalized unless they are the first word in a
sentence. BUT, nationalities are also adjectives and should be capitalized. For example:
Ricky Martin is Puerto Rican and Michelle Yeoh is Chinese.
These are called proper adjectives. And, like proper nouns, proper adjectives are always
capitalized in English. They are derived from proper nouns and are words like: African-
American, Vietnamese, Latino, Italian, Japanese, Korean, etc. They can also include
adjectives like Catholic, Jewish, Republican, Democrat, etc.
When they are used together, they are arranged in a certain order.
 

Determiner* Opinion Size Age Color Origin Material Noun

The, This Pretty Big New Blue Puerto Leather Sofa

Some Tall Thin Old Purple Rican Wood

My Expensive Small Ancient Black Chinese Silk Scarf

For Example:
I saw that tall, thin, old, blue, silk scarf at the store and I bought it.
Leon drives an expensive old Italian car.
You wouldn’t ordinarily use so many adjectives in just one sentence.
*Note: Determiners include articles, demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns and
possessive pronouns.

Adverbs
An adverb is a word that modifies an action verb, an adjective or another adverb.
 The teacher carefully graded the homework.
Carefully is an adverb that modifies the action verb to grade.
 Tommy was extremelyenthusiastic about doing his homework.
Extremely is an adverb that modifies the adjective enthusiastic.
 Yan Ko ran out of the classroom very quickly.
Very is an adverb that modifies the adverb quickly.
Warning: You need an adjective after linking verbs…NEVER an adverb!
For example, Tai feels bad(guilty) when he has to leave class.
Here, bad is an adjective that modifies the proper noun Tai. It is an adjective because it
follows the linking verb to feel.

HOWEVER, verbs like look, sound, smell, feel, and taste can function as either an action
verb or a linking verb.
Tai feels badly (to the touch) after swimming in a chlorinated pool. His skin is really dry.
Here, bad is used in its adverbial form since it follows an action verb, to feel.
Types of Adverbs:
 Relative Adverbs introduce questions and dependent adverbial clauses. They answer
the questions When? and Where? They are:
When Where
For Example:
WhenI was young, I liked to play outside.
Q: When did I like to play outside? A: When I was young.
 
 Adverbs of Frequency indicate answer the question how often? They are:
Always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never
The students in ESOL 98 always study very hard.
They rarely forget to do their homework.

Conjunctions
Conjunctions are the scotch tape of the grammatical world. They join together words and
phrases. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative
conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English. You can use the mnemonic device
fanboys to remember them.
For AndNor ButOrYetSo
They can be used with commas to create compound sentences. For example:
Ignacio loves to dance, but Rocío has no rhythm.
Kyong Mee works hard, yet she still earns low grades.
Note:A compound sentence is a sentence made up of two independent clauses. That is, a
compound sentence is simply two complete sentences joined by a comma and a coordinating
conjunction (i.e. a fanboys).

2. Correlative Conjunctions also join ideas, but they work in pairs. They are:
Both…and
neither…nor
whether…or
either…or
not only…but also
For Example:
Not only am I happy about the grades, but I am also excited that you are learning!
3. Subordinating Conjunctions join an independent clause to a subordinate clause. That is,
they join a clause that can stand alone with a clause that cannot stand alone. Some frequently
used subordinating conjunctions are:
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, since, so that, though,
unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while.
For Example:
Althoughthe students were tired, they still came to class.

Interjections
Interjections are words used to express emotional states. They can usually be found in
narrative writing, interviews, and in spoken English. They can stand alone. For example:
Oh!, wow!, Ouch! Oops! Hey!
Punctuation Note: They are punctuated with either commas or exclamation marks. Mild
interjections are followed by a comma, but stronger interjections are punctuated with an
exclamation mark (!) .
Oh, we’re late for the movie.
Generally, the movies is not an important destination. Therefore, the person making this
statement will sound less urgent than the next example.
Oh! I’m late for work.
Work, unlike the movies, is generally considered a very important destination. If one doesn’t
arrive on time, there is the possibility of being fired or of losing face. Here, the speaker will
have a greater sense of urgency.
 
Prepositions
Prepositions are words that, like conjunctions, connect a noun or pronoun to another word in
a sentence. Some common prepositions:
About Before Down Into Through

Above Behind During Like To

 Across Below Except Of Toward

After Beneath For Off Under

Among Beside From On Up

Around Between In Over With

At By Instead of Since Without

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a
noun or pronoun. They can act as adjectives or as adverbs.
Manuela, the student from Germany, wrote an excellent paper on the computer.

Verbs
Verbs generally express action or a state of being. There are several classifications for verbs-
action verbs,/linking verbs, main verbs/auxiliary verbs, transitive/intransitive and phrasal
verbs.
1. Action verbs show action.
He runs. He plays. They study.
2. Linking Verbs link the subject to an adjective.
Ricky Martin is beautiful.
The linking verb is links the adjective beautiful with the subject Ricky Martin.
1. Main verbs can stand alone.
2. Auxiliary verbs, also called helping verbs, serve as support to the main verb.
The most common auxiliary verbs are:
Have, has, had
Do, does, did
Be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been
Should, could, will, would, might, can, may, must, shall, ought (to)
 
For example:
Tai has run everyday.
Run is an action verb. The subject can actually "do" it.
Has is the helping verb. It helps the main verb run to be present perfect tense.
Verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
 Transitive Verbs require a direct object in order to make sense.

For Example:
Yolanda takesaspirin for her headaches.
Here, takes is a transitive verb since the sentence Yolanda takes has no meaning
without its direct object aspirin.  
 Intransitive Verbs do not need direct objects to make them meaningful. For Example:
           Julio swims.
The verbswim has meaning for the reader without an object.
Caution: A verb can be either transitive or intransitive depending on its context. For
Example:
The cars race. – Here, raceis intransitive. It does not need an object.
My father raceshorses. – Here, races is transitive. It requires the object horses in order to
make sense.
Verbs can be phrasal.
1. Phrasal verbs are made up of a verb and a preposition. The preposition gives the verb
a different meaning than it would have by itself. For example, the verb lookhas a
different meaning from the phrasal verb look up (in the dictionary).
Some more examples:
call up, find out, hand in, make up, put off, turn on, write up
 
WARNING: The base form of a verb is called the infinitive. It is to + verb. For example, to
do, to win, to study, etc. Under no circumstance can a verb preceded by to be considered a
verb. Infinitives are not verbs.
 
Articles
Articlesare the, a, and an.
Q: What do articles do in a sentence?
A: Articles signal that a noun is going tofollow.
Example:
 Who invented the telephone? The wheel? The refrigerator? The airplane?
 A cat was chasing a mouse in my back yard.
Modifiers (adjectives & adverbs) can appear between an article and a noun.
Examples:
 A sunset.
 A spectacular sunset.
 An exceptionally spectacular sunset.
The indefinite article ‘a’ can only appear before nouns that begin with a consonant sound: a
hand, a book, a world, a computer…
The indefinite article ‘an’ can only appear before nouns that begin with a vowel sound: an
apartment, an hour, an article.
 
General Rules for the Use of Articles:
I. Use a/an with singular count nouns whose specific identity is not known to the reader
either because it is being mentioned for the first time, or because its specific identity is
unknown even to the writer.
 
Examples:
 Julia arrived in a limousine. (a = one among many. Not a specific one.)
 We’re looking for an apartment. (an = any one.)
II. Do not use a/an with non-count nouns. Only use a/an with non-count nouns if you add a
count noun in front of the non-count noun.
Example:
 Anh asked her mother for an advice.
 Anh asked her mother for apiece of advice.

III. Use the with most nouns whose specific identity is known to the reader because:
1. the noun has been previously mentioned:
o Yesterday I saw a group of ESL students. The students were playing with a
ball. The ball was white and blue. The ball rolled into a hole. The hole was
small.
2. the noun is made specific by a superlative:
o I bought thefastest computer they had.
3. the noun describes a unique person, place, or thing:
o Please give this to themanager.
o Thesun is bright today.
o Rain is falling heavily in theNorth.
4. the context or situation makes the noun’s identity clear:
o Please don’t slam the door when you leave.
o Bob warned me that the dog playing in his yard is very affectionate and jumps
on every person it meets.
IV. Do not use the with plural or non-count nouns meaning "all" or "in general" (i.e. generic
reference nouns). Do not use the with most singular proper nouns.
 The fountains are an expensive element of landscape design.
 In some parts of the world, the rice is preferred to all other grains.
V. Do not use articles with other noun markers or determiners, i.e. possessive nouns
(Helen’s) ; and some pronouns (his, her, its, ours, their, whose, this, that, these, those, all,
any, each, either, every, few, many, more, most, much, neither, several, some).
Exceptions:
All the…A few…The most…
Examples:
 The Helen’s book is on the floor.
 A this book belongs to Trung.
 
A final caution- A word can be more than one part of speech. For example:
I sat on the sofa.
Above, sofa is used as a noun (object of the preposition).
I slept on the sofa bed.
But, here sofa is used as an adjective to modify the noun bed.
And, native speakers often take poetic license with words in conversation. For example:
It’s Sofa city for you!
Here, sofa acts as an adjective to describe the noun city. The meaning of the sentence is that
the person will have to sleep on the sofa, not a bed.

Tenses
1. Simple Present Tense
This tenses are used to denote something that is fixed, habitual or an essential truth. Because
it is often related to the incident at about past, present and future, this at least has the Tenses
description for a certain time.
FORM:
(+) Subject (s) + Verb1 + Object (o)
ex: She ate the rice
(-) S+do/does not+Verb1+O
ex: She doesn’t eat the rice
(?) Do/Does + S + Verb1 + O
ex: Does she it the rice?
I, You, They, We use do when it come to negative and question sentence. While He, She, It
use does.
2. Present Continuous Tense
This tenses are used to express an action which is actually being done at this time.
FORM:
(+) S + to be + Verb-ing + O
ex: They are riding the bicycle
(-) S + to be + not + Verb-ing + O
ex: They are not riding the bicycle
(?) to be + S + Verb-ing + O
ex: Are they riding the bicycle?

3. Present Perfect Tense

This tenses are used to express your experience. This sentence can used to say that you have
never had a certain experience. Present Perfect Tense didn’t use to describe specific event.
FORM:
(+) S + Has/Have + Past Participle (V3)
ex: I have met her once before
(-) S + Has/Have + not + past participle (V3)
ex: I Have not met her before
(?) Has/Have + S + past participle (V3)
ex: Have You met her before?

4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used to show that something started in the past and has
continued up until now. ”for two hours’, ‘for two weeks’, ‘since yesterday’ are all durations
which can be used with this sentence. Without the durations, the tense has a more general
meaning of “lately.” We often use the words “lately” or “recently” to emphasize this
meaning.
FORM:
(+) S + have/has + been + Verb-ing + O
ex: We have been practicing our English since Monday.
(-) S + have/has + been + Verb-ing + O
ex: We have not been practicing our English
(?) have/has + S + been + Verb-ing + O
ex: Have they been practicing their English?

5. Simple Past Tense

We used this tense to talk about the past.
FORM:
(+) S + Verb2 + O
ex: She studied math last night
(-) S + did + not + Verb1
ex: She did not studied math last night
(?) did + S + verb1 + O
ex: Did She studied math last night?

6. Past Continuous Tense

This tense is used to say when we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the
past.
FORM:
(+) S + was/were + Verb-ing
ex: He was reading
(-) S + was/were + not + Verb-ing
ex: He wasn’t reading
(?) Was/were + S + Verb-ing
ex: Was He reading?

7. Past Perfect Tense

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past.
It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.
FORM:
had+past participle
ex: I had Listen to the radio when she come home

8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued
up until another time in the past. “For five minutes” and “for two weeks” are both durations
which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present
Perfect Continuous however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before
something else in the past.
FORM:
S + had + been + Verb-ing
ex: Lina had been study at the university for 1 year before she left to Korea.

9. Simple Future Tense

often called will. because, the modal auxiliary verb in this sentence is will.
FORM :
(+) S + WILL + Verb1
ex: I will dance
(-) S+WILL+not+Verb1
ex: I will not dance
(?) will + S + Verb1
ex: Will she dance?

10. Future Continuous Tense

Future Continuous has two different forms: “will be doing ” and “be going to be
doing”. Future Continuous forms are usually interchangeable.
FORM:
(+) S + will be + Verb-ing
ex: I will be going to mosque.
(-) S + will not  be + Verb-ing
ex: I won’t be going to church
(?) will + S + be + Verb-ing
ex: Will you going to mosque?

11. Future Perfect Tense

This sentence is used when we talk about the past in the future.
FORM:
(+) S + Will + have + Verb3
ex: I will have finished by 6 PM
(-) S + will + not + have + Verb3
ex: I will not have finished by 6 PM
(?)  Will + S + have + Verb3
ex: will you have finished Verb3

12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point in
the future.
FORM:
(+) S + Will + have + been + Verb-ing
ex: Andra will have been drawing the sketch
(-) S + will + not + have + been + Verb-ing
ex: Andra Won’t have been drawing the sketch
(?) Will + S + have + been + Verb-ing ?
ex: Will Andra have been drawing the sketch?

13. Past Future Tense

this tense is used to express the events that WILL be done, BUT in the past, not the present.
FORM:
(+) S + would + Verb1
ex: I would go
(-) S + Would + not + Verb1
ex: I wouldn’t go
(?) Would + S + Verb1?
ex: Would you go?

14. Past Future Continuous Tense

Past Future Continuous tells an action would be in progress in the past.
FORM:
(+) S + was/were + going to be + Verb-ing
ex: She was going to be Cooking this morning
(-) S + was/were + not + going to be + Verb-ing
ex: She wasn’t going to be cooking this morning
(?) Was/were + S + going to be + Verb-ing
ex: was she going to be cooking this morning?
time signals for this tense is time in the past like, this morning, yesterday, last night, last
week and so on.

15. Past Future Perfect Tense

This tense is restates the action stated in Future Perfect Tense but with different time
dimension, it is in past time whilst the Future Perfect is in future time (not happen yet).
FORM:
(+) S + would + have + Verb3
ex: I would have drunk the milk last night
(-) S + would + not + have + Verb3
ex: I wouldn’t have drunk the milk last night
(?) Would + S + have + Verb3
ex: Would you have drunk the milk last night?

16. Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense emphasizes on the course and the duration of the
action. Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense is used to tell an action which would have been
happening until a certain time (period) in the past.
FORM:
(+) S + would + have + been + verb-ing
ex: Chris would have been working for 6 years when he get fired
(-) S+ would + not + have + been + verb-ing
ex: Chris wouldn’t have been working for 6 years when he get fired
(?) Would + subject + have + been + verb-ing?

READING STRATEGIES
1. Previewing:Learning about a text before really reading it.
Previewing enables readers to get a sense of what the text is about and how it is
organized before reading it closely. This simple strategy includes seeing what you can
learn from the headnotes or other introductory material, skimming to get an overview
of the content and organization, and identifying the rhetorical situation.

2. Contextualizing:Placing a text in its historical, biographical, and cultural contexts.

When you read a text, you read it through the lens of your own experience. Your
understanding of the words on the page and their significance is informed by what
you have come to know and value from living in a particular time and place. But the
texts you read were all written in the past, sometimes in a radically different time and
place. To read critically, you need to contextualize, to recognize the differences
between your contemporary values and attitudes and those represented in the text.  

3. Questioning to understand and remember:Asking questions about the content.

As students, you are accustomed (I hope) to teachers asking you questions about your
reading. These questions are designed to help you understand a reading and respond
to it more fully, and often this technique works. When you need to understand and use
new information though it is most beneficial if you write the questions, as you read
the text for the first time. With this strategy, you can write questions any time, but in
difficult academic readings, you will understand the material better and remember it
longer if you write a question for every paragraph or brief section. Each question
should focus on a main idea, not on illustrations or details, and each should be
expressed in your own words, not just copied from parts of the paragraph.  

4. Reflecting on challenges to your beliefs and values:Examining your personal

responses.
The reading that you do for this class might challenge your attitudes, your
unconsciously held beliefs, or your positions on current issues. As you read a text for
the first time, mark an X in the margin at each point where you feel a personal
challenge to your attitudes, beliefs, or status. Make a brief note in the margin about
what you feel or about what in the text created the challenge. Now look again at the
places you marked in the text where you felt personally challenged. What patterns do
you see?  

5. Outlining and summarizing:Identifying the main ideas and restating them in your
own words.
Outlining and summarizing are especially helpful strategies for understanding the
content and structure of a reading selection. Whereas outlining reveals the basic
 structure of the text, summarizing synopsizes a selection's main argument in brief.
Outlining may be part of the annotating process, or it may be done separately (as it is
in this class). The key to both outlining and summarizing is being able to distinguish
between the main ideas and the supporting ideas and examples. The main ideas form
the backbone, the strand that holds the various parts and pieces of the text together.
Outlining the main ideas helps you to discover this structure. When you make an
outline, don't use the text's exact words.
Summarizing begins with outlining, but instead of merely listing the main ideas, a
summary recomposes them to form a new text. Whereas outlining depends on a close
analysis of each paragraph, summarizing also requires creative synthesis. Putting
ideas together again -- in your own words and in a condensed form -- shows how
reading critically can lead to deeper understanding of any text.  

6. Evaluating an argument:Testing the logic of a text as well as its credibility and

emotional impact.
All writers make assertions that they want you to accept as true. As a critical reader,
you should not accept anything on face value but to recognize every assertion as an
argument that must be carefully evaluated. An argument has two essential parts: a
claim and support. The claim asserts a conclusion -- an idea, an opinion, a judgment,
or a point of view -- that the writer wants you to accept. The support includes reasons
(shared beliefs, assumptions, and values) and evidence (facts, examples, statistics, and
authorities) that give readers the basis for accepting the conclusion. When you assess
an argument, you are concerned with the process of reasoning as well as its
truthfulness (these are not the same thing). At the most basic level, in order for an
argument to be acceptable, the support must be appropriate to the claim and the
statements must be consistent with one another.  

7. Comparing and contrasting related readings:Exploring likenesses and differences

between texts to understand them better.
Many of the authors we read are concerned with the same issues or questions, but
approach how to discuss them in different ways. Fitting a text into an ongoing
dialectic helps increase understanding of why an author approached a particular issue
or question in the way he or she did.

Listening Strategies
Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension
and recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified by how the listener
processes the input.
Top-down strategies are listener based; the listener taps into background knowledge of the
topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge
activates a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate
what will come next. Top-down strategies include
 listening for the main idea
 predicting
 drawing inferences
 summarizing
Bottom-up strategies are text based; the listener relies on the language in the message, that is,
the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning. Bottom-up strategies
include
 listening for specific details
  recognizing cognates
 recognizing word-order patterns
Strategic listeners also use metacognitive strategies to plan, monitor, and evaluate their
listening.
 They plan by deciding which listening strategies will serve best in a particular
situation.
 They monitor their comprehension and the effectiveness of the selected strategies.
 They evaluate by determining whether they have achieved their listening
comprehension goals and whether the combination of listening strategies selected was
an effective one.
Listening for Meaning
To extract meaning from a listening text, students need to follow four basic steps:
 Figure out the purpose for listening. Activate background knowledge of the topic in
order to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate listening strategies.
 Attend to the parts of the listening input that are relevant to the identified purpose and
ignore the rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input
and reduces the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory in
order to recognize it.
 Select top-down and bottom-up strategies that are appropriate to the listening task and
use them flexibly and interactively. Students' comprehension improves and their
confidence increases when they use top-down and bottom-up strategies
simultaneously to construct meaning.
 Check comprehension while listening and when the listening task is over. Monitoring
comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and comprehension failures,
directing them to use alternate strategies.

Report Writing
Report writing is an essential skill for professionals.
A report aims to inform, as clearly and succinctly as possible.
Below we give some general guidelines, but you should check with your lecturer for more
detail on what is expected.
A report is similar to an essay in that both need:
 formal style
 introduction, body and conclusion
 analytical thinking
 careful proof-reading and neat presentation.

A report differs from an essay in that a report:

 presents information, not an argument
 is meant to be scanned quickly by the reader
 uses numbered headings and sub-headings
 uses short, concise paragraphs and dot-points where applicable
 uses graphics wherever possible (tables, graphs, illustrations)
 may need an abstract (sometimes called an executive summary)
 does not always need references and bibliography
 is often followed by recommendations and/or appendices.

A report should generally include the following sections.

(Sections marked with an asterisk (*) are essential: others are optional depending on the type,
length and purpose of the report.)
 Letter of transmittal
 Title page*
 Table of contents
 List of abbreviations and/or glossary
 Executive summary/abstract
 Introduction*
 Body*
 Conclusion*
 Recommendations
 Bibliography
 Appendices.

Presentation and style are important. First impressions count, so consider these simple tips:
 use plenty of white space
 ensure the separate parts of your report stand out clearly
 use subheadings
 allow generous spacing between the elements of your report
 use dot points/ numbers/ letters to articulate these elements
 use tables and figures (graphs, illustrations, maps etc) for clarification.
 number each page
 use consistent and appropriate formatting
 use formal language.

Avoid these:
 the inclusion of careless, inaccurate, or conflicting data
 the inclusion of outdated or irrelevant data
 facts and opinions that are not separated
 unsupported conclusions and recommendations
 careless presentation and proof-reading
 too much emphasis on appearance and not enough on content.

Reports and essays—what’s the difference?

A common problem is that students transfer what they have learned about essay writing to
report writing.
Both essays and reports need:
 formal style
 careful proof-reading and neat presentation
 introduction, body and conclusion
 analytical thinking.
But there are some essential differences between the two.
A Report An Essay
Presents information Presents an argument
Is meant to be scanned quickly by the
Is meant to be read carefully
reader
Uses numbered headings and sub-
Uses minimal sub-headings, if any.
headings
May not need references and Always needs references and bibliography/reference
bibliography/reference list list
Uses short, concise paragraphs and dot- Links ideas into cohesive paragraphs, rather than
points where applicable breaking them down into a list of dot-points
Uses graphics wherever possible (tables,
Rarely uses graphics
graphs, illustrations)
May need an abstract (sometimes called Will only need an abstract if it is very long, or if
an executive summary) your lecturer asks for one specifically
May be followed by recommendations
Seldom has recommendations or appendices
and/or appendices
Report structure
What follows is a generic structure for reports. Using this structure will help to give your
report the correct level of formality; it will also help to ensure that you do not leave out
anything important. However, the actual structure required by your discipline may not be
exactly what is represented here - you should check with your lecturer.
A report should generally include the following sections.
(Sections marked with an asterisk (*) are essential: others are optional depending on the type,
length and purpose of the report.)
 Letter of transmittal
 Title page*
 Table of contents
 List of abbreviations and/or glossary
 Executive summary/abstract
 Introduction*
 Body*
 Conclusion*
 Recommendations
 Bibliography
 Appendices.
Letter of transmittal
(only if specified by your lecturer)
This is a letter to the person who commissioned the report, in which you effectively hand
over your work to that person. Include:
 a salutation (eg. Dear Ms Podolinsky)
 the purpose of the letter (eg. Here is the final version of the report on ‘Underwater
Welding’ which was commissioned by your organisation.)
 the main finding of the report
 any important considerations
 an acknowledgement of any significant help
 an expression of pleasure or gratitude (eg. Thank you for giving us the opportunity to
work on this report.)
Title page
This must contain:
 the report title which clearly states the purpose of the report
 full details of the person(s) for whom the report was prepared
 full details of the person(s) who prepared the report
 the date of the presentation of the report
Table of Contents
(usually only if the report is longer than, say, ten pages)
This is a list of the headings and appendices of the report. Depending on the complexity and
length of the report, you could list tables, figures and appendices separately. Make sure the
correct page numbers are shown opposite the contents. Up-to-date word processing packages
can generate a table of contents for you.
Abbreviations and/or glossary
If necessary, you should provide an alphabetical list of the abbreviations you have used in the
report, especially if they may not be familiar to all readers of the report.
If you have used a lot of technical terms, you should also provide a glossary (an alphabetical
list of the terms, with brief explanations of their meanings).
Acknowledgements (if appropriate)
This is a short paragraph thanking any person or organisation which gave you help in
collecting data or preparing the report.
Abstract (Summary or Executive Summary)
An abstract is quite different from an introduction. It is a summary of the report, in which you
include one sentence (or so) for every main section of your report. For example, you can
include:
 the context of the research
 the purpose of the report
 the major findings (you may need several sentences here)
 the conclusions
 the main recommendations
Write the abstract after you have written the report.
Introduction
 Give enough background information to provide a context for the report.
 State the purpose of the report.
 Clarify key terms and indicate the scope of the report (ie what the report will cover).
Body
The content of the body depends on the purpose of the report, and whether it is a report of
primary or secondary research.
A report of primary research (based on your own observations and experiments) would
include:
 Literature review (what other people have written about this topic. See our webpage
for hints on writing a literature review). The literature review should lead towards
your research question.
 Method (summarises what you did and why). Use the past tense.
 Findings or results (describes what you discovered, observed, etc, in your
observations and experiements). Use the past tense.
 Discussion (discusses and explains your findings and relates them to previous
research). Use the present tense to make generalisations.
A report of secondary research (based on reading only) would include:
 Information organised under appropriate topics with sub-headings. It is unlikely that
your report will discuss each source separately. You need to synthesise material from
different sources under topic headings.
 Analysis/discussion of the sources you are reporting.
Conclusion
Sum up the main points of the report. The conclusion should clearly relate to the objectives of
your report. No surprises please! (that is, don’t include new information here.)
Recommendations (if appropriate)
These are suggestions for future action. They must be logically derived from the body of your
report.
Bibliography
(See our page on Using References for more information).
Appendices
An appendix contains material which is too detailed, technical, or complex to include in the
body of the report (for example, specifications, a questionnaire, or a long complex table of
figures), but which is referred to in the report. Appendices are put at the very end of the
report, after everything else. Each appendix should contain different material. Number each
appendix clearly.
Presentation of the report
The content and structure of your report is important; so is the presentation and style. First
impressions count, so consider these simple tips to ensure your report is reader-friendly:
 use plenty of white space
 ensure the separate parts of your report stand out clearly
 use subheadings
 allow generous spacing between the elements of your report
 use dot points/ numbers/ letters to articulate these elements
 use tables and figures (graphs, illustrations, maps etc) for clarification. Label them
clearly and cite the source. These graphics should relate to the text of your report; for
example, Figure 1 shows that the population of Bandung has increased dramatically
since 1890, or The population of Bandung has increased dramatically since 1890 (see
Figure 1).
 number each page (a neat header and/or footer makes your work look more
professional)
 use consistent and appropriate formatting (you may like to follow the report format
supplied with your word processing package)
 use formal language. It would be worth having a look at the language which is used in
other, similar reports to check out useful expressions and terms.
Common problems
Some common problems with research report writing that you should take care to avoid are:
 the inclusion of careless, inaccurate, or conflicting
 the inclusion of outdated or irrelevant data
 facts and opinions that are not separated
 unsupported conclusions and recommendations
 careless presentation and proof-reading
 too much emphasis on appearance and not enough attention to solid content.

Guidelines for Writing a Letter of Application for Employment

When sending a company your resume for a job or internship, always include a letter of
application. Your application letter should contain information on the position you are
applying for and your qualifications for the job. It should be properly organized, formatted
and spaced so it's readable and makes the best impression on the hiring manager.
Here are guidelines to follow when writing a letter of application for employment.
Letter of Application Guidelines
Length: A letter of application should be no more than one page long.
Format: A letter of application should be single-spaced with a space between each
paragraph. Use about 1" margins and align your text to the left, which is the standard
alignment for most documents.
Font: Use a traditional font such as Times New Roman, Arial, or Calibri. The font size
should be between 10 and 12 points.

How to Organize a Letter of Application

Header: A letter of application should begin with both you and the employer's contact
information (name, address, phone number, email) followed by the date. If this is an email
rather than an actual letter, include your contact information at the end of the letter, after your
signature.
 Header Examples
Salutation: Begin your letter with "Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name." If you do not know the
employer's last name, simply write, "Dear Hiring Manager."
 Salutation Examples
Introduction: Begin by stating what job you are applying for. Explain where you heard
about the job, particularly if you heard about it from a contact associated with the company.
Briefly mention how your skills and experience match the company and/or position; this will
give the employer a preview of the rest of your letter.
Body: In a paragraph or two, explain why you are interested in the job and why you make an
excellent candidate for the position. Mention specific qualifications listed in the job posting,
and explain how you meet those qualifications. Do not simply restate your resume, but
provide specific examples that demonstrate your abilities. You can either write about these
specific examples in complete sentences or in a bulleted format.
Closing: Restate how your skills make you a strong fit for the company and/or position. State
that you would like to interview and/or discuss employment opportunities. Explain what you
will do to follow up, and when you will do it. Thank the employer for his/her consideration.
Signature: End with your signature, handwritten, followed by your typed name. If this is an
email, simply include your typed name, followed by your contact information.
Proof and Edit Your Letter
Remember to proof and edit your letter before sending it. It may sound silly, but also be sure
to include the correct employer and company names - when you write many letters of
application at once, it is easy to make a mistake.
If you are applying to a job in advertising or another field that emphasizes creativity, you
might be able to be more flexible with these guidelines. However, think closely about the
position and the company before deviating drastically from this format.

Job Application Letter Sample

Contact Information
Name
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Phone Number
Email Address
Date
Employer Contact Information (if you have it)

Name
Title
Company
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Salutation
Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name, (leave out if you don't have a contact)

Body of Application Letter

The body of your application letter lets the employer know what position you are applying
for, why the employer should select you for an interview, and how you will follow-up.

First Paragraph
The first paragraph of your letter should include information on why you are writing.
Mention the job you are applying for and where you found the job listing. Include the name
of a mutual contact, if you have one.

Middle Paragraph(s)
The next section of your application letter should describe what you have to offer the
employer. Mention specifically how your qualifications match the job you are applying for.
Remember, you are interpreting your resume, not repeating it.

Final Paragraph
Conclude your application letter by thanking the employer for considering you for the
position. Include information on how you will follow-up.

Complimentary Close
Sincerely,
Signature

Letter Writing - Useful Words & Expressions

To complete your IELTS letter writing task within 20 minutes, it is helpful to know some
common phrases and set expressions. Being able to use these will allow you to express your
ideas quickly and effectively, without thinking about each and every word. While you're
learning their meaning, also make sure you can spell them perfectly. Finally, try the quiz at
the bottom of the page to see how well you know these important expression.
Apologizing
I'm sorry about...
I am sorry that...
I'm very sorry about...
I'm very sorry for...
Please forgive me for...
I'd like to apologize for...
Please accept my apologies.
Please accept my sincere apologies. (very formal)

Asking for Help

I'd be grateful if you could...
I would be grateful if you could...
I would appreciate it if you could...
Could you please...
I was wondering of you could help me.(informal)
I would like to know...

Asking for Information

I am writing to enquire about...
I am writing to find out about...
What I am looking for is...
I would like to know about/if...

Closing
I look forward to seeing you.
I look forward to hearing from you.
I look forward to meeting you.

Complaining / expressing dissatisfaction

I'm writing to express my dissatisfaction with...
I'm writing to express my annoyance with...
I am not happy about...
...was very disappointing.

Conveying regards
Please give my best regards to your family.
Please pass on my best wishes to your wife and children.
Please give my regards to your parents.

Expressing satisfaction
I was delighted to hear that...
I was very happy to learn that...
I was thrilled to find out that...
I was glad to hear that...
...was very enjoyable.

Expressing concern / sympathy

I was sorry to hear about... (your accident/ illness)
I am writing to express my concern about...

Giving bad news

I regret to inform you that...(semi-formal)
I am sorry to tell you that...(informal)
I regret to advise you that...(formal)
I am afraid I have some bad news.(informal)

Giving good news

I am pleased to inform you that...(semi-formal)
I am delighted to tell you that...(informal)
I am happy to advise you that...(formal)
I thought you might like to know that...

Giving reasons
This is because...
This is because of...
This is due to... (formal)
This is as a result of...(formal)
This is owing to...(formal)

Making suggestions
Would it be a good idea to...
Perhaps it would be a good idea to...

Thanking
Thanks.
Thank you.
Thank you very much.
Thank you kindly.
I can't thank you enough.
No words can express my gratitude.
I am extremely grateful for...
I very much appreciate your ______ing

Useful Phrases for writing formal letters

a) Writing formal letters generally:
Greetings:
 Dear Sir
 Dear Madam
 Dear Sir/Madam
 Dear Mr Brown
 Dear Ms Jones
 
Reason for writing:
 I am writing in response to your article/advertisement/letter
 I am writing with regard to your article/advertisement/letter
 I am writing regarding your article/advertisement/letter

Ending the letter:

 I look forward to receiving your reply
 I look forward to your reply
 I look to hearing from you
 I am, yours faithfully (if you don't know the name of the person you are writing to)
 I am, yours sincerely (if you know the name of the person you are writing to)
 Yours faithfully

Yours sincerely
 
 
b) Writing formal letters to complain:
 
Reason for writing:
 I am writing in order to complain about
 I am writing to complain about
Introducing the complaint:
 Firstly
 In the first place
 First of all
 My first complaint is
 The first problem is
 The first thing I would like to draw your attention to is
 My first concern is
 
Introducing further complaints:
 Secondly
 In the second place
 Not only …….but also
 In addition
 In addition to this
 Added to this
 …….was also unacceptable
Demanding action:
 I suggest that you replace the item
 I therefore suggest that I be given a full refund
 I would be grateful if my money was refunded
 I would be grateful if you could give me a full refund

Ending the letter:

 I look forward to hearing from you
 I look forward to receiving a full refund
 I look forward to receiving a replacement
 I look forward to receiving your explanation
 
c) Writing formal letters to make suggestions:
 
Reason for writing:
 I am writing to suggest
 I am writing to arrange
 I am writing to offer suggestions
 I am writing make arrangements
 
Making first suggestion:
 My first suggestion is
 First of all I suggest
 I would like to suggest

Making further suggestions:

 Another possibility is
 A further possibility is
 I further suggest
 I would further suggest
 Secondly
  
Offering a choice:
 Would you therefore mind choosing between ….?
 Either……or
 You might choose either ……. Or
 
d) Writing formal letters to request information
 
Reason for writing:
 I am writing to receive further information about
 I am writing to enquire about
 I am writing to receive more detailed information about
 I am writing to receive further details about
 
Requesting first piece of information:
 The first thing I would like to know is
 First of all I would like to know
 I wonder if you would mind telling me first of all ….?
 
Requesting further information:
 
 Could you also tell me….?
 Could you also inform me ….?
 Would you also mind informing me ….?
 Would you also mind telling me ….?
 Do you know ….?
 I would also like to know if
 I would also like to know whether
 I hope you might also let me know about …
 
 Thanking for information:
 
 I would like to thank you in advance for this information
 Thanking you in advance for this information
 Thanking you in advance
  
e) Writing formal letters to give information:
 
Reason for writing:
 
 I am writing to inform you about
 I am writing to provide you with information about
 I am writing to let you know that
  
Providing first point:
 
 The first thing I would like to inform you of is
 The first thing I would like to tell you is
  The first thing I wish to inform you of is
 I would like to begin by informing you
  
Providing further points:
 
 I would also like to let you know that
 I would also like to inform you that
 You might also find the following information useful
 It might also be useful for you to know that
 Another piece of information that might be useful
Ending the letter:
 If you require further information, please do not hesitate to as
 If I can be of further assistance, please do not hesitate to ask
 I will willingly provide further information on request
 I am at your disposal should you require further information
 I am at your disposal should you need further assistance
 Please do not hesitate to ask should you require further information
f) Writing formal letters to request permission
Reason for writing:
 I am writing to ask permission for
 I I am writing to ask permission to
 am writing to request permission to
 I am writing to request permission for
 I am writing to ask if I might
Making first request:
 Firstly I wonder if you would
 First of all I wonder whether you would mind
 The first request I would like you to consider is
Making further requests:
 I would be grateful if you would also consider
 I wonder if it might be possible for me to
 I would also like to request permission for
 I would also like to request permission to
Thanking for permission
 Many thanks for kindly considering my requests
 Thank you for considering my requests

The word version of this CV template is a learning/teaching guide

not designed to be changed. Free doc and odt (Openoffice) working
Your Name - Curriculum Vitae/CV file versions from www.businessballs.com/curriculum.htm can be
changed. Use headings which fit your situation best. Click on the
Personal Profile/Personal Attributes red box borders to delete these notes from your own CV.

 Create 5-7 descriptive bullet-point phrases that describe your strengths and attributes.
 These statements should also reflect the personal qualities that the employer seeks.
 Keep the statements simple and clear; one line for each statement.
  Use a consistent format and readable typeface; use professional, concise, intelligent
language.
 Use good, appropriate punctuation; semi-colons are effective for joining word-strings.
 Ensure you can provide an example (at interview) for every statement you make on
your CV.
 Examples and guidance for this section at www.businessballs.com/curriculum.htm

Personal Profile is you as a person. Experience/Specialisms/ Strengths are

Experience/Specialisms/Strengths your capabilities. Make all points very relevant to the job/employer needs.

 Create 5-7 professional statements which explain your

experience/specialisms/strengths.
 Think about what the employer is seeking and try to match these requirements.
 Your statements here should be examples/evidence of how you fit the needs of the
job.
 Statements can describe experience, skills, strengths, knowledge, style, attitude, etc.
 Examples and guidance for this section at www.businessballs.com/curriculum.htm
These points build evidence and credibility. Relate them to the job requirements. They need not
Achievements all be work-based. They can be from other activities, but must show you can 'make a difference',
relevantly.
 Create 3-7 professional statements which describe your achievements.
 Show achievements that best illustrate your capabilities relevant to the needs of the
new job.
 Show achievements which demonstrate that you could 'make a difference' relevantly
in the job.
 Achievements need not be work-related, especially for young people with little work
history.
 Importantly, give scale, facts, figures to your achievements - be concise and specific.
 Guidance for this section at www.businessballs.com/curriculum.htm

Career History

 mth/year-mth/year - job title/function/responsibilities - employer/city -

industry/sector
 mth/year-mth/year - job title/function/responsibilities - employer/city -
industry/sector
 mth/year-mth/year - job title/function/responsibilities - employer/city -
industry/sector

Education and qualifications Briefly list your past jobs, employers, industry, and mth/yr (from-
to). Most recent first. Layout in neat columns ideally. Briefly state
 school, college, dates, etc responsibilities if not self-explanatory from the job titles. Insert
education, hobbies, interests, personal and contact information.
 qualifications Make details neat, concise and relevant to the job opportunity.

Hobbies / Interests

 Show hobbies/interests indicating personal qualities that are relevant to the job
requirements.
 ©Businessball
Personal Details Ifs 2006-11.
you prefer, show your contact details under the heading at the top of
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ThisCV.CV To make more space reduce font size in CV to 9 or 10pt.
Continue
template ison a second page if really necessary. One page is best,
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 Address date/ref and page number if more than one page, bottom right of CV,
for personal
 Phone numbers or
use,if and
space
for is very tight, in a vertical text box as shown below in this
example.
teaching and
 Email training
 DOB (date of birth) - others. Not to [OPTIONAL - include if you think
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 Marital status - [OPTIONAL]

date/your file ref/page # of #

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 Dependents (children) - online. LotsThe pdf[OPTIONAL]
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 Driving licence - guidance, help
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 References are available on and tips at request.
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