SUPERTRAINING

THE MEANS OF SPECIAL

STRENGTH TRAINING

gth training more precisely. However, with the improvement in sporting achievements, the effect

the progress of strength preparation methods leads logically to examination of the motor

ones, beginning with an understanding of actual sports movements and the specific level of the athlete's
fitness. Thus, one can understand why it is necessary to devise new means that cannot easily be rejected
of fashionable techniques which have become established more on the basis of tradition and emotion

fied the progression of all training from a foundation of general physical preparation (GPP) to
t specific physical preparation (SPP), guided by an intimate understanding of the specific character of
activity. The practice of selecting the means of strength preparation, based upon the specifics of the
ovements, leads one to abandon reliance on intuition alone and find a more objective foundation.

The Problem of Training Means

ess of adaptation involves stimulation from the external or internal environment, which leaves certain
the body. With repetitive stimulation the traces accumulate, leading to significant modifications which
functional capability of the body. A characteristic of every living creature is the relative speed with
adapts to repetitive stimulation. The same regime of stimulation can rapidly produce habituation and
to elicit any fiu-ther adaptation, only maintaining the existing levels. Another regime can prove excessive
to overtraining, which prevents adaptation. An optimum level of stimulation offered in a progressively

s, in general and simplified terms, is the physiological foundation of training. In reality it is a very intricate

e listed at great length, since the development of strength is not the only goal of training. However,
this, it is likely that the coach will select from the vast number of variations, that combination of means
h he considers will produce the greatest success.
1.1 Characteristics of Strength Increase

ch the body is exposed during use of the motor apparatus. Only a sufficiently intense level of muscular
contraction, which can be achieved in different ways (e.g. using isometric tension or heavy loads at low
will provide an effective training stimulus. Research has shown that the threshold training stimulus ne

(Hettinger & Muller, 1953). As strength increases, the intensity of the stimulus required to produce

threshold from the initial state. The rate at which strength increases from the initial level to the

These early attempts at establishing general principles need to be more precisely applied in
means and methods of strength development, as well as the individual situation. For instance,
Korobkov (1953), Gerasirnov (1953) and Vasiliev (1954), strength increases relatively uniformly durin
stages of training, independent of how the load is applied in training, whether large or small. App
equivalent increases in strength are obtained with loads of 20%, 40%, 60% and 80% of maximum. An
the intensity of training in the initial stages (e.g. using a heavier load, faster tempo of movement and
intervals between sessions) does not always enhance the effectiveness of strength development, this be
effective only later, as strength fitness increases.
This principle may be illustrated by referring to the training results 6Fwjghtlifters. Exercises with 4
of 1RM in the first 8 sessions are slightly more effective than exercises with 60-75% and 75-90% of IRM

(Zimkin, 1961). A noticeable strengthening effect occurs for novices using 30-46% of 1RM, whereas
experienced athletes need to use at least 60% of 1RM (Muller & Hettinger, 1957).
To interpret these factors, one must bear in mind the phasic nature of the response to intense strength

and speed after the intensity of the resistance has decreased. Therefore, the eflectiveness of heavy wet
not occur immediately, but some time later. It has been shown that strength increases well after se
isometric tension have ceased (Clarke, 1954), while a marked increase in strength and speed of movement
use of sufficient resistance occurs only after at least 20 training sessions (Chemyavsky, 1966).

connected with the well-known adaptive inertia of the body and supercompensatoPy restoration
reconstruction) after strength work.
As strength and level of physical fitness increase, dependence of the increase in strength and its effect

whose training volume consisted of 20% with the 10% of IRM load and 80% with the 40% of
was an increase in strength of 44.8% and an increase of 35.2% in the speed of movement from

The increase in strength also depends upon the athlete's level of initial strengthfitness. In principle, the lo
thea$:aine_e':,!evel of strength, the greater its increase with training. Virtually all training means prove to

..-
. -,:.-
-. . 20 1
Y -
 SUPERTRAINING

after a period of total (bed) rest of only one week (Muller, 1966). The loss of strength caused by

after the third, 81-5% after the fourth and 88.8% after the fifth month). The greatest loss was

of 40 sessions does not decrease to initial levels even a year after training has ceased (Vasiliev, 1954;
Eklins, 1954). A significant proportion of the increase in strength achieved as a result of ten
ation sessions was maintained for 5 months (Khvilon, 1974). It has been noted that an increase in
rrtainedfor a longer period of time when it is accompanied by an increase in muscle mass
0; Khrolon, 1974).

training effect of the means used for a given sport at given levels of fitness

on of teaching efforts and special practice should introduce the quantitative programme via the
e of special strength training depicted in Figure 4.1, where A, B and C are training means of
greater training effect for a given athlete. In this respect, it should be noted that:

Means C
MsansB

Means A

PERFORMANCE

The intmduction of different means with higher training effect (Verkhoshansky, 1977).

202
 SUPERTRAINING

4.1.2 The Effect of the Strength Training Means

In recent years scientific research and years of practical experience have yielded a wealth of fi
current methods of special strength training are based. However, it is necessary to note that
generalised and its analysis is theoretical. Although today's athletes attain a high level of sport profic~
is still no basis to state that this is the result of a precise methodology of special strength training.
extent they achieve proficiency through a large volume of strength work and a colossal expenditure'
Generally, the selection and use of means for organising special strength training has a nknber of
Despite its apparent diversity, the range of special strength training .means is rather limited.
beginners and highly qualified athletes use essentially the same means, the difference beiig largely in
and intensity of their loads.
Firstly, this leads to training monotony and secondly, the body adapts to a repeated stimulus an
respond with the desired level of adaptation. Qualified athletes therefore spend much time using
means, none of which improves their level of strength fitness. Beginners, on the other hand, often us
overloading methods for which they are not yet prepared and disrupt the natural process of achiev
mastery. I .

An essential shortcoming in the organisation of strength training is that a a e t e s pay little att
phenomenon of the qualitative specifici@of the training effect of strength exercises. Therefore, v
use means whose specific training effect relates only weakly to the demands placed upon the
fundamental exercises. For instance, exercises that are selected for strength development often offer
conditioning.
At the other extreme, there is the attempt to select exercises which are structurally similar to the fu
exercises. This may be justified under certain circumstances, but it is sor%%spes carried to absurd
athletes devise such intricate exercises that they are even less effective than traditional general
movements. This reveals that any system of special training is deficient if it arbitrarily comb
developmental and special strength exercises.
In order to devise a sound scientific system it is necessary to evaluate objectively the training
strength means. The training effect is result of the influence of a means or complex of means on
revealed by the magnitude, quality and stability of the resulting adaptive changes. A number of specl
which reflect the training effect are examined for selecting the training means and devising a methodical,
special strength preparation.
It is first of all necessary to distinguish (see 6.7.1) between the acute (immediate)braining
the delayed training efect (DTE). The body's immediate reaction to the application of a s
expressed in a short-term improvement of or deterioration in the athlete's current functional state. D
or improvement depends upon the energy cost of the task, which determines the rest interval prior to
the next exercise: it may be increased if the body requires more rest or be optimally shortened if the s
after-effect phenomenon is exploited beneficially by the body. The negative reaction of the body is thus
as revealed by its relatively stable adaptation, which is substantial only if the volume of the training in
sufficient.
The particular effect and cumulative effect are the result of the use of one or more unidirectional
complex of multi-directional means. In the first case, the adaptation reflects the specificity of the means,
the giv-gime. In the second case, the adaptation displays an integrated, generalised character. Howe
not simply the sum of the body's functional changes, but a complex of new forms of its motor potent
contains the specific characteristicsof the particular training means.
The athlete's success depends largely upon the skill to select a diverse spectrum of exercise means w
produce the required cumulative training effect. One should also take into consideration factors
characteristic of the training effect, such as absolute and relative strength, muscular endurance, stab
temporal features. It is necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of two or more means in order to selec
which produces the optimal increase in absolute strength. The qualitative and quantitative characteristi
training effect provide measures of its specific form,and the magnitude of improvement jn performance.
the stability and temporal characteristics of the training effect are evaluated by the length of time for w
maintained.
 SUPERTRAINlNG

of the specific factors and the characteristics of the training effect of the strength means
exity of planning the strength training. Although the basis for selecting a strength means by
unt these indicators and their characteristics is convincing, it still offers a very limited foundation,
fy that the athlete will attain the desired level of strength preparation is slight.
e this problem, it is necessary, firstly, to pay serious attention to objectively evaluate the training
gth exercises currently used, and secondly, to conduct scientific research aimed at formulating
practical solutions to optimise the cumulative effect of a complex of strength means. In this
e has been done, although some generalisationsmay be made:
ining effect of any means diminishes as one's special physical fitness increases
earn used should produce the optimal training effect relative to the one's current functi& state
r-effect of previous work alters the training effect of any subsequent methods
g effict of a complex of means is determined not only by the sum of the stimuli, but also their
ination, order of succession and intervals of separation
gth training should include a complex of specific stimuli and produce the
gth fitness required,fqr thegiven sport, based upon the athlete's level of sports mastery.
of some mathematical concepts may be useful, as shown below.

Iaws may be applied to the interaction between different means, methods and techniques in
all sports) training ,which are important because they are not generally obeyed in training:
A*B = B*A
-%
y he said to be commutative if it does not matter in which order the operations are done in that
A*B = B*A, where * is some special operation. In sports training, this is not the case, since the
ch one carries out exercises or kinds of exercises can change the outcome, as pointed out in point 3
ence: Clean*Squat # Squat*Clean. Thus, sports training
ce, a distance running session shortly before a weights

over the longer term of successive microcycles or mesocycles in a periodised program, the after-
enon decrees that the outcome is affeded by the order of training means. In the various methods of
m m g (combinations of different means in individual sessions or longer cycles), the order of the
veness of the system. With hybrid exercises (Ch 7. I),
order of the individual movements also has a major

d to be associative if the operations follow this law:

since the use of means A followed by a complex of two
and C does not yield the same resuIt as a complex of means A and B, followed by the use of a single
Thus, fhe use of a muscle enduraflce regime A before a complex of plyometrics B and Olympic lifting C
Id the same results as the use of a complex of muscle endurance A and plyometrics B, followed by

d non-associative nature of sports training is central to its overall prescription,

n and management, and should be recalled whenever there is any temptation to design training
chemes solely on the basis of individual exercises, techniques, volumes, intensities
,duration and magnitude of these depending on
and these after-effects deem that exercises in different
arated by several days or weeks can interact positively

e context of any training situation in space and time be considered when drawing
gramme. Remarks such as "plyometric training is dangerous7', "power cleans are useless",
esn't work", "weight training is contraindicated for endurance athletes" and "circuit training is
 SUPERTRAINING

excellent for general preparation" may then be seen to be simplistic and misleading. Virtually any
may be rendered impotent or harmful if it is administered in an inappropriate manner for a giv
given stage of hidher training career. Conversely, methods which may appear to be offer only
improvements on their own, may in optimal combinations yield results which clearly show that "the
greater than the sum of its parts".
Steps Towards Structuring the Training Process
One issue is still very important for devising methods of strength traini
frequent and systematic repetition of a complex of different interacting means. The training 1
be the sum of all the specific influences on the body, its essential characteristics being:
its iesulting effect (the qualitative and quantitative assessment of the special work capacity of the
its composition or contents (the complex of means applied)
its structure (correlation of means)
its volume (the quantity of the training work)
its intensity (the difficulty or quality of the training work).
To assess the effectiveness of the training process, it is appropriate to examine further
structure, the volume and intensity of the training load relate to the resulting effect. The purpose of
training load is to obtain a pronounced and safe training effect through the logical organisation of the
and structure of the load, by use of an optimal volume and intensity of exercise.
A load will prove effective if its means create an adequate
body. This is especially important for highly qualified athletes, since
of preparation do not elicit an adequate training effect for c
highly effective means and methods of special strength training i
preparation. During the past few decades, isometric and isokinetic exercises have b
plyometric method of developing explosive-strength, the electrostimulation method an
of them have been studied sufficiently, and detailed methods for their use have not been determined, they
appreciable success, thereby confirming their effectivenessand the research findings in this field
In recent years the volume of the load has been increased significantly. However, it is impossible to
the view that increase in training volume is the only or best possibility for enhancing the effectiveness
athlete's preparation.
Elementary logic and practical experience clearly indicate that it is impossible fo
compensate for a low training effect of any given means. ow ever, there is also no guarantee that highly
specialisedmeans, logically organised in a specific training cycle, can produce a high level of special work
at a significantly smaller volume of exercise and in a shorter time. Nevertheless, it should be noted
volume of the load is undoubtedly one of the conditions for raising the special work capacity in many
(chiefly the cyclic types) during specific stages of preparation.
In order not to create an incorrect impression about the volume of the load we must point out that
two basic tasks in the training process. Firstly, it provides a functional base for the further devel
specific work capacity. Secondly, it is associated with raising the level of special fitne
endurance. If the first task is significant as a universal training principle, then the second is appropriate
certak types of sport. It should be added that the volume of the training work is an important cond
successhl technical preparation. Besides this, research indicates that there is a direct correlation betw
volume of the load and the length of time over which a training effect is maintained.
In addition to its volume, the structure of the training scheme is vitally impor
practical experience it is known that no one means or method of special
universal or absolutely effective. Each of them should have its own special pl
depending upon factors including the specificity of the sport, the athlete's level of fitness, the charac
previous training loads, and the specific aims of the current train
shown clearly that special strength training using a specific syste
significantly greater effect than the separate random use of different means and methods (see Ch 6), thi
being achieved even with a smaller volume of work (Verkhoshansky, 1966, 1970; Tatyan, 1974;
1975).
 S UPERTRAINlNG

should be noted. lf&e given means dcr not d&i~

m cxdqw$etraining eflecf, then imrme

original concepts &om which these began.

alists away from its in-depth study.

- - -
sequence is to be recommended as a practical solution to the problem of improving the

--c 2. Means 3. Methods 4. System 5. Volume

y. The basic criterion for this is a guarantee of a definite training effect for the given level of

tial for perfecting the methods of special strength traiining, is the principle of sysi-c
the necessary cumulative training effect.

f special prepatation, such a course tends to be a much simpler choice.

Sfferent Means of Strength Development

 SUPERTRAINING

The first two cases are asSOGiated with dynamic WQ& and the third .with isometric work. An
stimulation is realised in the first case by inamsing the velocity of the prel
mobilising the athlete's voluntary resources in the third. It should alss be pointed out that voluntary
an important role in the magnitude of the effector response of the muscles in the
influence in the second is insignificant.
The mechanism chiefly responsible for the braking or amortisation work of the muscles causes a p
effector response more rapidly than a voluntary sequence of actions. Therefore, such a reflex stimulus i
provoke an extraordinary mobilisation of the neuromusculas apparatus, which is impossible where there is
on voluntary effort alone. This mechanism forms the foundation of plyometric training (5.2.4).
4.2.1 Electrostimulation
As has already been stated, there is always an ongoing search for noveI, hi
training. For example, Russian studies have established that electrosti
training stimulus for effective development of muscular strength (Kots, 1971;Kots
1974). Electrostimulation can be effective for certain purposes in the preparation of highly qualifi
(mainly in speed-strength sports) and there are a number of advantages associated with this method of
stf.ength,in particular the reduction of joint loading, It can occupy a specific place in
used in combination with other methods of developing muscular strength and be applied chiefly in the
ofhighly qualified athletes.
Ratov has found that functional electrical stimulation (FENS) can be particularly useful in improving
performance. His techniques, developed decades ago from his PhD programme on the internlation
electrical stimulation and electromyography,has used EMG signals fiom agonist and
triggers or control mechanisms for electrical stimulation of muscles
movements in sport. In his laboratory at the State Central Institut
successfully implemented these neuromuscular sthulati
rowers, shotputters and weightliftem.
However, it is inappropriate to consider the training applications of electrostimulation in detail here
its methodological fundamentals have still not been determined, espec
suitable conditions by qualified personnel. The next section sumarises the
electrostimulationas a form of supplementary sports preparation.

4.2.1.1 The Physiological Effects of Electrostimulation

The concept of electrcrstimulation is not new, and for years has
applications such as muscle rehabilitation, relief of muscular spas
possible vahe i n sports training is still considered controversial. In stragth conditioning, the apprli
electrostimdlationfall into the following broad categories:
Imposition of local physical stress to provoke supercompensation
Local restoration afkr exercise or injury
General central nervous and endocrine restoration after exercise or injury
Neuromuscular stimulation for pain control or movement patterning
Electrostimulation usually involves f&ng the muscles low cu
pads placed firmly on the skin. The effectiveness, comfort and depth of excitati
pulse sha>Z, frequency, duration, intensity and modulation
combinations immediately emphasizes how difficult it is
compare the results of different researchers.
The typical clinical machine supplies pulsating direct &alvanic) andlor
of brief pulses. The fiequency of faradic current is most c o m o d y chosen
pulse duration (width) ranges from about 100 microseconds to several hundred milliseconds. This
duration is important to minimise skin irritation and tissue damage. However, the duration at
intensity of faradic stimulation should not be too brief Although they may
that are too brief will supply insufEciat energy to cause full, tetanic muscle contraction.
 F i c a n interest in electrosthulation as a training adjunct was aroused in 1971, when K&S in Russia
iffcreases of mare than 20% in muscle strength, sped a d power p d u c e d by. severcal. weeks of
@baing Unable to produce comparable results, the Canadians invited him to b e at Con&a
sity in 1977. Anned with the new information that Kots empIoyed a sinusoidally modulated 2500 Hz

5 second rsst periods, for a Wal of 5 minutes per major musole group, with agonists and antagonists of
-
6 in.ipsilateral and contralateral squences (Siff, 1973). Reding always concluded

imnuscle
, strength.
,

1,Z Reasbns for Conflicting Research %.

we several main reasons for tht contradictory research findings:
studib focus largely on isametric or isolthetic strength changes, which complicates r e d
&tiqns,Such research often neglects possible effects of other irital f&ors such as power, speed, muscular
ice, residual muscle tension, muscle growth and rate of neuromuscular ~ ~ ~ v e r y .
ofthe research examines itijkedpatients in the process of rehabilitation, untmhed i n d i v i w or trained
from differing fitness and hhing backgrounds. It is d lknown that an increase in strength is

determined by the intensity of the current used and individaaI

fort caused by stimulation. In addition,no specific waveform has been found to k
. There alw esur be considem& variation among subjects in their response to. different
imer & Carlsson, 1979; M o r e n o - h d a
pp
,

types and frequency of mvdorms used, particularly since

characteristics of slow-twitch and fast-

@hetype, size, number and location of electrodes, as well as the electrode gei, affect the amount of electrid
Wgy transmitted to the muscles, the resultant force of contraction and patient comfort. Many studies do not
iscuss these detsrils, and therefore, valid comparisons largely are,meaningless.
:-Most studies have used commercial electrostimuiators which are able to vary only a few of all the possible
kdation parameters. Some of the more extensive studies have varied several of these parameters, as
xmmarised in the thorough review by Lloyd et a1 (1986). However, k m i s e of thi: enemnous number of
 SUPERTRAINING

stimulation combinations theoretically possible, no single extensive study has been able to examine the
varying all the stimulation parameters. This includes frequency, waveform, purse-width, type of m
(Frequency Modulation, Amplitude Modulation or pulse-width modulation), impulse interval and el
energy delivered.
7. The effects of electrostimulation, like plyometric training, may be enhanced by optimal integration into
overall strength and sport specific training programme (e.g. Francis, 1982)
8. Many of the training regimes have been deficiently designed. Usually, the electrostimulator is selected
to the maximum tolerated by subjects, or to a certain p
contraction as measured on isokinetic or other dynam
occurs, and subjects can withstand greater intensities of electric current from the start to end of any session,
from week to week.
Similarly, studies examining the combined effe
prescribe weight training with a fixed number of sets and loads at a f d percentage of single
despite the fact that the latter maximum gradually increases. The accompanying electrical
a fixed value, which fails to consider that the basic principle of strength and power e&ancement is
overload. Such a training regime in normal weight training is known to be highly limited in improving p
performance. It would be surprising if it were any different with electrostimulationtraining.
9. The design and effects of the electrostimulator depend on the choice of physiological model. Most stim
are designed on the basis of the action-potential model of nerve cell discharge, which considers that
communication in the body is.mediated by bursts of electrical discharge transmitted along
assumed to be 'on' (discharging electricity) or 'off (re
in the cell is large enough to exceed a certain thresh01
certain chemical ions. Intermediate subthreshold
understanding of the EEG (brain waves) and other electrical potentials of the
Similarly, the numerous glial cells which surround all nerve cells are assumed to play little mor
nutritional or supportive role for the nerves, despite the fact that they display a steady or quasi-steady
field (Galambos, 1961;Siff, 1981). Some scientists believe that glial cell
nerve cells by modulating their activity similar to semiconductors such as transistors in electronic circuits
1974; Galambos, 1961):1n'addition, the DC injury potentials measurable on the skin surface after tissue
are not associated with the action potential system (Becker, 1982).
Moreover, little is known about electrical fields at the subcellul
external electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields cannot satis
potentials, which are not directly affected by these fields (Becker, 1
do not explain the mechanisms whereby electric and other fields stimulate processes such
fractures, the healing of wounds and reduction of thrombosis.
On diswvering evidence for semiconduction and the possible existence of superconductivity at
temperature in biological systems, scientists now have p
growth and disease processes may involve bio
1971; Cope, 1974). In addition, Nordenstrom
body, whereby ionic flow concerned with growth and
through d o n g the capillaries (Nordenstrom, 1983).
All faradic, medium fkquency and interferential stimulators (including sports-oriented machines) are des
on the action-potential model for cell operation, which, therefore, do not permit applications relying on the
types of models described above. Such applications involve cell growth, tissue repair and general recuperatio
of which are essential features of physical conditioning.
based on these models have been applied clinically with significant success in neuromuscular rehabilitation
& Walton, 1986; Matteson, 1984, Matteson & Eberhardt, 185; Meyer & Nebrensky, 1983; Noto & Grant,

4.2.1.3 Clinical Applications of Electrostimulation

At this point it is relevant to,survey the clinical and r ~ s e a r ~evidence
h supporting the value of electrostimul
in medical situations. Its major applications or effects are the following:
 . .
+-

ease in Muscle Strength

ES was not superior to voluntary exercise (Currier & Mann, 1983; Laughrnen et al, 1983; McMiken
Sekowitz, 1985). Further studies found minimal or insignificant changes in strength (Massey et al,
et al, 1985; Singer et al, 1983).

cilitation of Muscle Contraction

;Vodovnik et al, 1982).

application of sub-maximal ES can stirnulate the fatiguing conditions encountered in strenuous physical
ereby increasing endurance of the muscles involved (Ikai & Yabe, 1969; Johnson et al, 1977). Russian

Increase of Speed of Muscle Contraction

-term higher frequency (more than 40 Hz) ES can improve reaction time and decrease the time to peak
on of fast twitch muscles (Fluery & Lagasse, 1W9; Salmons & Vrbova, 1967, 1969).
'-Increasein Local Blood Supply

extensively injured
ents using different
e than 200%, both
g and after ES, particularly if the frequencies used are below approximately 30 Hz (Currier et al, 1986;
ardson, 1981;Wakim et al, 1948; Wakim, 1953). In general, the higher the frequency of ES, the lower the
e increase in blood flow (Currier et al, 1986; Wakim, 1953).

p injured, tense or

studies using radioactive Xenon (Xe133) injected as a tracer confirm that massage accelerates local blood
 SUPERTRAINING

flow and reduces muscle ten

removal of metabolic waste products (Dubrovsky, 1982). -
8. Relief of Pain

Wolf, 1985; Jeans, 1979;

1987; Wadswath 8L Chanmugam, 1980). Conventional TENS employs low frequency (50 to 100 Hz)
with no muscle contiaction. TENS modes for management of deeper pain may use short, high intensi
frequencies between 1 and 150 Hz with definite muscle contraction.
9. Reduction'of Muscle Spasm

reducing spasm and spas

(Alfieri, 1982; Mills et al, 19% Wadsworth & Chanmugam, 1980).

10. Promotion of Relaxation and Recuperation

1 1. lncrease in'aange of Movement .

In physical therapy, PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation) techniques often are used to

Swelling (+) is the a c c u m a o n of exckive extracellular fluid in the region of a j&t, arising
protein andplasma through the capillary walls of soft tissues. It may be caused by i n f l ~ t i o ns,
tendinitis, rheumatoid arthritis, surgery or W e . Low intensity ES can rapidly reduce swellkg of

excess fluid.
13. Reduction of MusculPskeletal Ahnomalities
Abnormal spinal curvature has been halted or the progress, has slowed in mild to moderate scobis,
appropriately applied to specific back muscles (kxelgaard et al, 1983<Friedman et al, 1982; Kots & C
1971; Schultz et al, 1981).

recruitment (see 1.12, especially Fig 1.24). These iarg ifficult to activate under n,o&al
conditions, so ES may play a useful supplementary role
15. Acute Increase in Strength
 SUPERTRAINING

t in Metabolic Efficiency
ng exercise can improve the metabolic economy of the movement. Studies carried out by
ulating the quadriceps during cycling and
oxygen consumption decreased by 10-17% and the time taken to fatigue was extended
h which analysed the effect of ES applied to an athlete running on a treadmill revealed
n of some 10% in oxygen consumption. In addition, if work was performed by the muscles which were
y stimulated shortly before, energy consumption decreased by about 5%.

of electrical stimulation increases the contractile speed of skeletal muscle. Electrical stimulation, when
a technique for subjecting selected muscles to altered use, facilitates precise entrainment of the pattern
activity-(Karba et al, 1990).

s as much as 1000 times smaller than that

e far more successful than the latter in achieving many of

ents as low as 10 microamps (millionths of an amp) pulsating at between 0.1 to 400Hz are too weak to
muscle contraction, block pain signals or cause local heating, yet their effectiveness and safety is often
or in many applications to that of faradism, interferentialism and conventional TENS (Matteson &

igm for ES may be sought in the research fmdings quoted

'. There, it was learned-that cellular and subcellular
not involving cell discharge, propagated electrical impulses, or muscle &traction, appear to be
with cellular growth and repair.
partial answers to the questions posed by
sts that small, steady or slowly varying currents
sub-threshold modulation of the electric fields across nerve and glial cells, thereby directly regulating cell
and communication (Becker, 1974; Becker & Marino, 1982). In this respect, some of Becker's applications
d the acceleration of wou@ healing, partial regeneration of amphibian and rat limbs, and induction of
s with transcranial currents. Nordenstriim maintains that these electric currents can stimulate the flow of
long the blood vessels and through the cell membranes which constitute the body's closed electric circuits
iated by his theory (Nordenstr6m, 1983).
formation transfer across cell membranes. The
n this case hypothesizes that the molecular structure of the cell membrane reflects its current genetic
. Here, the function of a cell at any instant is determined by feedback between DNA in the cell nucleus and
inducer liberated from the membrane by means of a protein (enzyme) regulator derived from
brane-bound proteins is strongly modulated by
centration of divalent ions (such as calcium Ca*) absorbed on the membrane. ES may elicit
and thereby modify cell function.
wn that ES at 5Hz stimulates synthesis of DNA in chick cartilage cells and rat bone by as
s (Rodan et al, 1978). Not only does the
is occurs 4-6 hours after 15 minutes of
ions seems to be followed by an increase in
sceptible to the particular stimulus.
ows' which open most effectively to
e ES signal to these parameters, monitoring of
lligent TENS' devices.
ng et a1 (1982) have shown that stimulation with currents from 50- 1000 microamps can
concentrations in rats by 300-500%, and enhances amino acid transport through the cell
Interestingly, the same study reported that
t above only one milliamp was sufficient to depress tissue ATP and protein synthesis - and
tional ES usually applies currents exceeding 20 rnilliamps, at which stage this depression being nearly 50%.

212
4.2.1.5 An Integrated Theory of Electrostimulation
Therefore, it appears as if macroelectric cellular stimulation (MACS - currents exceeding one milli

fibres, The fact that the various muscle fibres do not transform at the same time may be due to
thresholds of each -the stimulus that elicits the transformation. Possibly, the earlier changes mig
subsequent ones. LL,I,

prolonged or inappropriately used to augment a weight training programme, adaptation might not occur or it
increase the proportion of slow twitch fibres and thereby reduce strength. This could explain some of the ne
research findings discussed earlier.
Furthermore, excessively demanding MACS conceivably might cause the body to draw on i
adaptation energy and lead to permanent tissue damage. Consequently, any athlete who may derive
performance benefits from MACS should not assume that increased dosage will lead to further improvem
contrary may well prove to be true.

a stressor. Instead, the evidence implies that it elicits biochemical changes associated with enhanced adaptati
growth and repair. Since MICS appears to operate more on the basis of re3?t attunement of the stimulu
cellular and subcellular processes, the specific therapeutic effects are determined by how efficiently
stimulation parameters match the electrical characteristic of the different cells, in particular, their impedance at

locally over specific soft tissues

tramcranially via electrodes on the earlobes or on sites on the surface of the skull
at acupuncture points on the body, bands or ears.
It is generally entirely safe to apply MICS anywhere on the body, because the current and energy transmitted
too low to produce any thermal or electrolytic effects on vital tissues. Under no circumstances should MACS
applied across the brain, as it can cause serious harm. It is generally not advisable to apply my form of ES
epileptics, pregnant women, cardiac patients or persons with heart pacemakers.

4.2.1.6 The Use of Electrostimulation in Training

contraction and reduction of certain musculoskeletal abnormalities together supply an impressive variety
sible aids tca any training programme. Coupled with this is the observation that some ES procedures int
into carellly periodised training schedulesmay significantly increase m g t h , muscular endurance and power.

The Integrated Use of Electrostimulation

Electrostimulation can provide a valuable additional means of restoration and is generally of greater importa

frequencies (characteristicallybetween 0.5-8 Hz).

 S UPERTRAINING

r effect was obtained by using ES and plyometrics concurrently with

plyometric combination having the smallest training effect during

ion of electrodes is also very important, since one can use

. Adjacent or close attachment of the two electrodes tends
t fairly superficial, whereas the distant attachment method (where one
is attached to a remote or fairly neutral location from the muscle being stimulated) tends to produce a
nsive, deeper form of muscle contraction. To ensure good and comfortable conduction between electrode
ete, it is vital to lubricate the area of attachment with a commercial electrode gel or weak saline solution.
skin irritation or prickliness invariably are the result of the gel drying out. The electrodes
ly over important nerves, but the intensity of the ensuing contraction can be harmful and
stricted to use by experienced physical therapists.
modalities presented here should enable the scientist or therapist to
h the issue of electrostimulationmore systematically. Thus, if additional stress is needed on particular
groups to elicjt more pronounced supercompensation,the MACS modality should be employed by using
or interferential-type devices applied with gradual overload of both tsaining and ES intensity.
r t s Functional Electrostimulation
no mention is made in the West of the application of FES (Functional Electrostimulation) in sports
. In the West, this term or its equivalent FENS (Functional Electroneural Stimulation) invariably applies
use of electrostimulation to contract the muscles of spinally disabled patients who cannot voluntarily
their muscles and offer some degree of externally controlled movement. In Russia and other Eastern

*
countries the terms can also apply to the application of electrostimulationto able-bodied athletes during
g movements to intensify muscle tension at the most appropriate es of these movements. The
Central Institute of Sports Science in Moscow, has done considerable
able-bodied and disabled subjects and stresses that this type of functional stimulation is
ssful than the passive methods attributed to Kots by his Western supporters.
in his laboratory involved the use of concurrent EMG recordings to phase the FES
specific sporting movements, most specifically to avoid producing spurious muscle tension or
movement. Eventually, athletes learn to contract their muscles synchronously with the externally
ereby produce greater strength, power and speed. This method is sometimes called
lation, since the ES is applied to active muscles rather than to relaxed muscles @assive
,which is the method most commonly used in physical therapy.
methods like sports FES should not lead us to exclude the possible importance of
methods of ES which intentionally avoid offering any form of functional training. In this respect, the ES
y Serge Reding used a Myogen Parametric stimulator that was designed to offer
way simulated the most frequently occurring movements of Olympic lifting. In
of GPP (General Physical Preparation). The Reding machine applied
a flip-flop fashion to opposite sides of the body, though not to paired agonists
carefully periodised into the entire training programme alongside
ning sessions were always terminated with brief, deep ES muscle
across the brain and along the length of the spinal cord. Reding stressed
ortance of different waveforms and regimes of FES for different categories of sport, adding that the
share* Kots with Canadian coaches was only one of many possibilities.
Overtraining and Restoration
The possibility of overtraining, however, must be considered, especially if ES is being added to an already
strenuous training programme. It is generally not advisable to apply more than 5- 10 minutes of intense ES per
major muscle group, due to the associated tissue necrosis and prolonged soreness that may follow in the days
.after treatment. The use of biofeedback TENS devices which monitor cellular electrical characteristics and adjust
the stimulating parameters automatically, limits the possibility of overstimulation or cell damage.
In general, MICS may be used far more routinely than MACS, since it cannot produce overtraining or injury
and since it can accelerate recovery after training. Therefore, it can enable one to train more intensively and

214
 SUPERTRAINING

recuperate more rapidly between W O E ~and B even between sets, if necessary. For the
intends to periodicaily supplement strenuous weight training with MACS, regular use of
prove invaluable in improving performance and minimising the chance of overtraining. It
however, that routine ar frequent use of accelerated methods of restoration can impair the natura
body to recuperate and adapt; it is sometimes important to allow the body to undergo partial or
restoration to facilitate the supcompensatory response (Siff & Yessis, 1992).
Concluding Remarks

Therefore, this sedion does rmt pnwmt the specific detailsef applicatign.
4.2.2 Resistance and Strength Training

Crotona. A~cordingto legend, he increased his strength enommusly by lifting a young bull
shoulders. As the bull grew ip mass, so did
In our o h ma Milo's approach is exemp
(DeLorme, 1945; BLorme & Watkins, 1948,
through repetitively li&g a weight which is
workout, as t s g t h .-ni
However, when the display of great

1955; Pennybaker, 19611). However, it leng period of experhmntai and practial verification was re
this hypothesis gained q t a J l e e . However, it is cmect only relative to the amount of weight, the
partem of the movement, the tempo and the number of repetitions.
When resistance is used fof stimulating muscular tension, it is necessary to consider the fact &at
may be displayed in resistance exercises

resistance whose optimalmagnitude is determined by the r e q u i d speed of movement.

It should be pointed out that the work regimes of strength with primarily sl
strength exercises (using inherently fast movements) are essentially different with
mechanisms and the manner in
requinq-a-high level of eacitati
.the nervous system is to

begins to decrease (tZhhdze, 1%1). A similar result is chewed in the jtmp with a barbell on the

movement time, mainly during the a d v e thrust phase. Maximam power output is achieved with weights of
M and a maximal c&ient
40.96of the 1 ~f dvity &30-33% of the 1RM.
' ,X+i

215
 SUPERTRAINING

time increases is due to the additional

of the body and apparatus during the

of progressively heavier weights (20,

% of maximum) with seated leg extensions (from an initial knee angle of 110°) favour such conclusions
It is obvious from the graph that maximum dynamic force and mcwement time increase with increasing
in an analogous way to jumps with a barbell. However, the extraL elastic energy is lacking in this case,
a progressive decrease in power output.

FORCE (kg 9
--- a ,- 4.5

REACTIVITY
MOVEMENT COEFFICIENT

POWER Watts)

LOAD AS % OF MAX STRENGTH

(R) and power of jumping (with a barbell on

FORCE (kg9
POWER (watts)

1- O'
MOVEMENT 0.60 - '"
TIME
(sets) 100 - 6C
0.50 -
80

i - - 5C
Id
r'.
0.40
60

i
20 40 60 80
..
7.
- LOAD AS % OF MAX STRENGTH Po

ure 43 Changes in maximal force (Fmax), power and movement time (Time) for the leg-press with respect to increasing resistance
T & Verkhoshansky, 1999).
her factors influence the working effect of a movement against resistance. Variations in the magnitude of the
d, the regime of muscular work, the speed and tempo of the movement, the number of repetitions per set and
duration of the rest interval between sets significantly change the biomechanical characteristics of the
~vementand, consequently, the overall training effect. Therefore, in each case the selection of a particular work
jme with resistance must be based upon the specific type of strength displayed in the specidised exercises.

216
 It should also be added that the resistance, its speed of movement and the duration of the work dete
how it influences which muscles produce the movement, the coordination of their actions and the instant when
work ceases. The most stable indicator of the coordination of muscular activity during the repetitive lifting
barbell is the sequential involvement of the same specific muscles which are essential to the given movement.
In an experiment using 60% of IRM, the muscles taking part in the work remained the same for 82% o
time in all athletes. With 80% of 1RM weights, the degree of consistency was less (thereby showing gre
individuality), but was higher for qualified athletes. The coordination of muscular activity was also disrupted
fatigue (Pakhomov, 1967).
In addition, the relative contributions by the participating muscles can change during repetitive
(Lazareva, 1966, Kozlov, 1966). The number of muscle groups involved with a movement can either dec
(Moikin, 1964) or increase (Averyanov, 1963). In movements executed with little effort or low velocity a
part of the work involves the muscles of the body's distal links (Tochilov, 1946; Kosilov, 1948; Vinogr
1951). For movements against significant resistance or executed at high velocity, the activity characterist
shifts to the muscles of the proximal links, which tend to play a more tonic or postural role. These findings
that muscle isolation under conditions of significant resistance is impossible, as discussed later (4.2.9).
Thus, the factors just discussed have a profound influence on the working effect of the movement and
specificity of the strength developed. Therefore, when selecting strength exercises against resistance
consider these factors in accordance with the characteristicsof the given sport, with particular attentio
to the distinctive effects associated with the torque produced by resistance exercises. For example,
position for the squat and squat jumps (before beginning the dynamic effort), the muscles of the legs
have already developed tension equal to the weight of the apparatus being held. On the other hand,
snatch or clean-and-jerk, the fundamental working force which accelerates the apparatus is developed pract~
fiom zero. Thus, we can divide resistance exercises into two groups:
90,
Exercises in which the working force is developed after preliminary muscuhr tension (equal to the weight
the apparatus)
Exercises in which force is developed from zero, without appreciablepreliminary muscular tension.
The main difference between these groups of exercises is that the exercises in the first group do not apprec
influence the processes connected with physiological changes in the muscles (the excitation-tension
Consequently, depending upon the amount of weight used, conditions are created chiefly for developing mu
strength or the speed of muscular contraction, but not the speed with which muscles switch from rest
active state. The conditions of muscular work in the second group of exercises have the simultaneous po
for developing dynamic strength, speed of movement and especially starting strength. This is not simply re
to understanding movement dynamics, but is very s i d i c a n t for improving strength training methods.
Finally, based upon the conditions under which force is applied, exercises should be distinguished by
directed against the weight of a load and by force directed against the inertia of a load. In the fist case, if one
a barbell, for example, the working force of the movement is equal to F = m(g+a), i.e. determined by the m
the load and the acceleration against gravity. In the second case, the force of the movement is equal to F
dependent only upon the load's force of inertia, moving with a certain acceleration. Examples of such
are throwing, sprinting out of the starting blocks and punching, i.e. those situations when strength operate
direction approximately perpendicular to the gravitational force. The differences in the biomechanics of
types of movements are quite significant.
In the first case (overcoming weight), muscular force initially becomes equal to the amount of wei
lifted (developed under virtually isometric conditions), then it exceeds it as motion begins, it procee
accelerate the load, and then it increases further as it exceeds the weight of the apparatus (see Figs 2.1,2.13).
preliminary isometric muscular tension causes a large grad~entof acceleration-strength.
In the second case (overcoming inertia), if friction and the resistance of the surroundings are
movement of the load begins with insignificant propulsive force. Further changes in the latter are
by the speed of muscular contraction or, more precisely, the ability of the muscles to move
simultaneous production of maximal strength and maximum speed of contraction.
Consequently, under conditions where strength resists the weight of the load, primarily the
component is stimulated. Under conditions where strength is directed against the inertia of
predominantly the speed of muscular contraction is stimulated.
 SUPERTRAINING

Thus, in the second case, it is easy to appreciate the possibility for overcoming the opposing tendency
n the weight of the load and the speed of muscular contraction. Unfortunately, the necessary specialised
t for producing muscular work to overcome the inertia of a load is rarely used in training. However, to
e methods of special strength training, one must consider this concept of inertial training more seriously.
are two possible solutions: the application of force (e.g. a thrust) against a horizontal wheel or a suspended
like a pendulum), or the spinning of a heavy flywheel ergometer by the arms or the legs (e.g. Fig 4.4). In
st example, one can vary the amount of weight and in the second, the moment of inertia of the flywheel to
speed of contraction. One may use upper body or lower body ergometer flywheel devices in several
nt ways - accelerating against high inertia, using the heavy wheel to compel one to operate at a certain
nce, and opposing the angular momentum via eccentric muscle action to decelerate the wheel. One may
bine all of these methods in short bursts or mixed bursts to offer a varied training regime.
Work with weights should be examined as a special case. Weights are used extensively for increasing the
ulty of movement to develop various motor abilities. Elastic bands are also frequently used as a means of
ing movement, although the character of the force produced depends upon the elastic properties of the
terial, which limits the effectiveness of these means. Elastic force occurs in accordance with Hooke's Law: F =
where k is the spring constant and x is the extension. Thus, elastic force increases with degree of extension, so
resistance begins from zero value and increases with movement range. Therefore, elastic materials should not
used for developing starting-strengthin ballistic movements or for developing explosive-strength.

Figure 4.4 Inertial Training by turning a flywheel via the use of elbow flexion (Verkhoshansky, 1977).

It is another matter regarding strength-enduranceover a selected range. In this case, one can select the length and
elasticity of the band so that its resistance will change minimally over the working amplitude of the movement.
This method is sometimes used by swimmers for developing strength endurance in pulling movements (Fig 4.5).

Figure 4.5 Elasticised cable exercise for developing strength-endurancein swimming (Verkhoshansky, 1977).

In using elastics in general, the tension always increases with range of movement and this may readily be
decreased at 'sticking points' by moving towards the point of attachment of the bands, or conversely, if the
tension is still not great enough, one can move away from the point of attachment. Thus, one can tend to
overcome the major limitation of elastics, namely their nature to increase tension throughout the range (since
tension is proportional to extension, according to Hooke's Law). Resistance can be varied over the full range of
movement by accelerating free weights when resistance is decreasing (so-called "Compensatory Acceleration
Training') or by using special varying resistance machines, and this method of altering elastic length by postural
adjustment also allows one to use elastics to optimise resistance, if required.
The methods of resisted movement are extremely diverse. In each case they are determined by the exercise
and the resolution of two tasks: stimulation of muscular contraction and facilitation of transfer to the natural
conditions of the movement (for example, putting a regulation shot after training with an overweight one).
Movements can be made more difficult with small weights, thereby insignificantly increasing the mass of the body
or its links. This may be accomplished with belts, weights, cuffs, sandbags, boots and other apparatus.

218
 SUPERTRAINING

This effect can also be obtained by exercising in water, in deep snow, up a hill, on the beach, or rowing
against a rowing ergometer. Exercises with weights are not necessarily adequate for developing speed of
movement (e.g. using the speed of unloaded movement or movement against a relatively small external resistance),
especially for highly qualified athletes.
Careful analysis of experimental and empirical data indicates that increasing the speed of movement through
resistance exercises (i.e. to develop absolute muscular strength) is primarily for novice athletes. This is
completely justified for augmenting muscular strength, and from a physiological standpoint promotes quicker
execution of movement. However, this factor quickly exhausts its value. Initially a positive influence, it becomes
negative, because resistance exercises not only can enhance the physiological processes essential for facilitating
rapid movement, but can also have a detrimental effect on them.
If one is referring to speed-strength movements (characterised by explosive force) associated with
overcoming significant resistance, then resistance exercises are definitely useful, but only in those cases when they
are executed in certain types of muscular work, at a reasonable volume, at specific stages of training, in a wa
which is specific to the given sport.

4.2.3 Kinetic Energy and Strength Processes

Consider the case where a training device, such as a barbell, possesses some velocity attainea by ralling from som
height, and the athlete's task consists of first actively stopping it, then quickly thrusting it upwards (Fig 4.6).

Figure 4.6 Thrusting a load upwards after it has fallen from a given height. This plyometric bench press device was designed
Adcock, A Chantler, H Glyn-Jones and T Rademeyer, students in the School of Mechanical Engineering at the University of
Witwatersrand as part of a senior biomechanics project (1992).

Under similar circumstances the total muscular working force developed by eccentric amortisation followed
active concentric work may be calculated from F = m(g+a), where the acceleration a = v2/2.s, from the equati
v2= u2 + 2a.s:
F = m (vI2/2Si + g) + m ( ~ ~ ~ +1g).2 ~ 2
where V1, V2 refer to the velocity of the barbell at displacements SI and S2 respectively, m is the mass of
barbell, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
A characteristic of such a movement is that much of the kinetic energy of the apparatus is transformed
the amortisation phase into elastic energy, which is then used in the subsequent concentric work. If ener
by processes such as heat generation and viscous damping in the muscle complex are excluded
approximation, this elastic energy is equal to the kinetic energy of the apparatus at the end of its fall (
where m = mass, h = the height of the fall and g = acceleration due to gravity). The muscular force devel
the instant of switching from eccentric to concentric work will be greater for a shorter amortisation
shorter braking time. This applies strictly to those conditions when the action as a whole is aimed at
apparatus with maximum speed immediately afier it has been stopped.
,hat we are referring to is completely different from the traditional production of muscular tension. The
mechanical stimulus is not so much the weight (and its force of inertia) as the energy accumulated after its

onsiders the dynamics of muscular work with variations of the take-off in the vertical jump for example
), it may be seen that such a means of stimulating muscular tension offers significant advantages, namely:
t develops maximal dynamic force very rapidly
'he magnitude of this maximum is significautly larger than that produced by other methods
i large maximal force is achieved without the use of additional resistance
:hange fiom eccentric to concentric work occurs far more rapidly than with other methods
The significant elastic energy accumulated (without additional resistance) during the amortisation phase
~roclucesmuscular work of greater power in the thrust phase and faster muscular contraction, which may
)e inferred fiom the greater height attained by the body during the subsequent upward drive.
timulation of muscular tension by absorption of the energy of the athlete's falling body or a training
us can produce a large force of muscular contraction without using weights (which is impossible with
leans of mechanical stimulation). This is achieved not only without decreasing the speed of muscular
ion, but even increasing it in comparison with the usual resistance methods.

FORCE
in t e r n of
Bodyweight
Bodyweight

TIME (sec)

.7 The development of force for various vertical jumps: (I) jumping from rest from a low squat (2) the usual jump with a dip
isation phase (3) after a depth-jump from 0.4 metre. The jump heights reached were 0.67m, 0.74m and 0.80m respectively.
h k y , 1977).

a first experimental steps taken to study this principle of muscular stimulation revealed its particular
eness in developing explosive strength and starting strength. The potential for developing starting strength
ly is limited because it depends upon one's ability to concentrate intensively on a specific voluntary effort.
IS strength is acquired very slowly in training because particularly stressful conditions are required, namely
lus of such intensity that it provokes the appropriate adaptive reaction. Even the wide variety of popular
Ice strength exercises usually do not fulfill these requirements, despite the fact that they usually require
Ibe developed from rest.
reral studies suggest that such exercises can have a place if, for example, muscular tension is achieved by
of an abrupt stretch at the instant when a falling body or object is stopped (Ramsey, 1944; Hill, 1955;
a al, 1963). It should be emphasized that significant and almost instantaneous development of muscular
in this case is due to the mechanical stimulation of proprioceptors in the neuromuscular system, which
the conditions for developing starting strength and explosiveness of muscular action.
hus, we have a specific work regime which no heavy resistance exercise can imitate, because stimulation of
ar activity with significant extra resistance slows down the transition from eccentric to concentric work.
lisation of energy of a falling body or object for mechanical stimulation requires the muscles to initially
, significant elastic tension, use it in overcoming the inertia of a relatively small weight, then quickly switch
entric work and produce a high speed of muscle contraction.
he role of kinetic energy in stimulating explosive muscle action warrants detailed analysis. To do this in the
Dry a special experimental stand was constructed to measure the height attained by a load when a subject
t upward after it had first fallen from some height (from 0.5 to 3.0 metres). The kinetic energy used for
 SUPERTRAINING

muscle stimulation changed according to the weight (3.3,6.6,9.9 and 13.3% of the maximum isom
and the height of the fall (Verkhoshansky, 1977). The experiment showed that an increase in kinetic
by an increase in the mass of the load decreases the height to which a load is thrown, but an i
distance through which a load falls increases the height to which it is thrown (Fig 4.8a).
A similar picture emerges from research on reactive ability (Fig 4.8b). This tendency, in general, is
by movements executed under other conditions, although these have their own peculiarities (Figs
These examples show clearly that it is not beneficial to increase kinetic energy by use of heavier I
therefore necessary to.examine a better means of increasing the thrust hkight. The depth jump
immediate practical significance for developingjumping ability is given in the example illustrated in F
Here maximal force Fmax)increases up to a height of 1.15 metres, then diminishes sharply, while mov
begins by changing insignificantly, then incrpsing sharply. Maximum power and reactivity are achiev
drop height of approximately 0.75 metres. 9
3
3
HEIGHT OF (a) REACTIVE
THROW ( h2 ) ABILITY
/ 3.3% Po

HEIGHT OF DROP Ihl) in metres KINETIC ENERGY Wles)

Figure4.8 (a) Changes in height (h2) of thrown loads of

fallen b m I different heights (hl) (b) Chanaes in reacti~

Thus, the optimal range of depth jumping for the sfimulation of muscular activity is 0.75-1.15 metres, bec
the lower end of this range the muscles are work
maximal dynamic force. This finding forms the
trainiag of advanced jumpers (Verkhoshansky 1963, 1964, 1966), though it is preferable to eik .
conservative side of using considerably lower jump heights with anyone who is unused to this type of b
and to strictly limit the volume of this type of 'shock' trainhg.
Further increases in the height of the depth jump signific&tly decrease the magnitude of the 4
parameters of the take-off. The support time increases quickly, primarily because the phase of switchi-n
eccentric to concentric work is lengthened. In addition, the maximum dynamic force oftake-off and the q
muschlilr contraction stabilise and do not increase any further.
The take-off comprises two distinct actions: amortisation (where the kinetic e n e r a of the fall is abs-
and the thrust proper. The amortisation is characterised by the increasing depth of the resulting knee flexibz
the thrust proper by a fairly constant speed of muscle contraction. Thus, the positive effect of
stimulation by absorption of kinetic energy fiom a fail can be used successfully only under certain condil
taking into consideration the optimal height of the fall, bodymass, additionaI'l'oad, and any other factor
may facilitate a quick take-off.
However, the state of the neuromuscular system during the amortisation phase of the falling body alsq
%J
play an independent training role. Tension developed reflexively during this phase enhances the abiliq.c$
muscles to switch quickly to the active state. Experience indicates that this is not detrimental ta speed-strd
 &tion and the musculoskeletal support apparatus, although further research required in order to make
&vepractical recommendations in this area.

h2 (cm) FORCE (kg f) RC

TlME (s)

DEPTH JUMP LOAD (kg)

9 Take-off characteristics after an unloaded depth-jump (M = mass of athlete) and with an extra 10,20,30 and 40 kg load.
reactivity coefficient, t is the time, F is the force and h2 is the height of the subsequent jump. (Verkhoshansky, 1977).

0.26 - POWER
(watts)
RC
I TlME
400 -380 -16
(secs)
7
0.25 -
350 -360 -14
0.24 .

0.23 - -340 -12

O M 0.75 1.15 1.55
HEIGHT h (m)

0 Take-off characteristics after depth jumping from gradually greater heights (h). RC is the reactivity coeficienf Fmax is
a1 force and t is the ground contact time. (Verkhoshansky, 1977).

This mechanism enables one to successfully overcome the force of body inertia in emergency situations,

Preliminary muscle stretching has a place in a number of strength exercises such as squats and jumps with a

; Chudinov, 1966; Chernesheva, 1967; Semenov, 1967; Tatian, 1974; Khodykin, 1975). However, more
is needed in the laboratory and under training conditions before its full scope is covered.

letics, isometric exercises were very popular in the mid- 1950s as a result of the search for economical and
ive methods of developing strength. Hettinger and Muller (1953, 1955) established that one daily effort of
 SUPERTRAINING

week, while Clark et a1 (1954)f d thatstatic strength oontinw to increase even after the wnclusbn
week pmgmnme of isometric exercises.

can be more efictive than dynamic exercises in those cases where the specific exerciserequires muscle
of large m w t u d e at a certain stage ~f a movement or during the early stages ofinjury rehabilitation.

in the neuromuscular system, thereby determining its str

sigaificant than that produced by transient dynamic teasion, Bone notes the fact that some
discovered an essential difference in the growth of see
then it is obvious that the fundamental conditioning
as its duration.
A technique which may be referred to osci
contractions over a small range of movement.
tension that can be produced valuntarily during
maximum sustained tension (%hting & Roberts, 1975). l3asrnajian (lSTIt+)commenM &at
importance of muscle fibre recruitment in the gradation of tension and syncbronisation of
during the short bursts of lading.
In other applications, short periods of low
shown to induce faster recovery, have a positiv

Mitation or intrinsic muscle changes.

maximum or SU-al value over a certain time (rise or 'attack' timek to sustain this
(the resistance phase) and to
dkkguishbetween
longer rise time (Fi
 SUPERTRAINING

SLOW ISOMETRICS
VOLUNTARY ISOMETRICS
VOLUNTARY EXPLOSIVE
ISOMETRICS
I?
REFLEXIVE EXPLOSIVE

REFLEXIVE ISOMETRICS

ISOMETRICS

$I1 -Categorisathnof the different types of isometric muscle contraction.

6.
*tion with this, it makes sense to distinguish isometric trainingfor developing absolute stvength and
rcic paining for &eloping explosive strength and to use one or the other in the appropriate circumstances.
be,this &illrequires detailed experimenta1 comboration. Nevertheless, isometrics should not be neglected
Ems of strength development, so that negative evaluations of this method are pmnatum.
. ;r

resistance phase

.--,.--
tUKLL
p ~ ~ phase c

Slow Isometrics

phase
Explosive Isometrics

necessary to bear in mind the following advantages of isometric training, as emphasized by its proponents:
B.It requires very simple apparatus.
. It can locally exercise any muscle group at a specific joint angle. During dynamic work the display of
maximal effort at the necessary joint angle can be achieved only for a fraction of a second. In some cases,
this is generally not possible since the movement's inertia quickly moves the apparatus through that
position at which the muscular tension would yield the greatest effect. Such a joint angle can be fixed
precisely during isometric training.
. The training is very productive, if the time expended is considered. Each 6-second isometric contraction is
. equivalent in its effect to many dynamic contractions (of the ballistic type) in which maximal force lasts no
more than 0.1 second. From a practical standpoint this means that 10 minutes of isometric tension in
specially selected exercises can replace a fatiguing hour of training with weights.
There is an insignificant increase in muscle mass and bodymass in comparison with dynamic strength work,
particularly with pressing exercises.

4 . There is usually a far smaller expenditure of time and energy than with dynamic weight
possible to preserve a high level of speed-strength in the period of crucial competitions. ,
training. It is

It offers a greater potential than dynamic exercises for using visual and kinaesthetic cues to hold any given
position. This gives isometrics a distinct advantage for studying and correcting errors.
 S UPERTRAINING

. Isametrics have the

cardiovascular system in some
pressure), disturb coordination,enhame mude-performme ody ole
movement, and diminish so& tiss3l.e elastkig and bctional range ofdynamic mowneat.
However, with proper uniform breathing, an appropriate sequence of work and rest p s e s
for relaxation, and limitation of the length of cantraclion to no more than 6 8ecoml.s (some authors
seconds), the harmful after-effwh of i s ~ ~ e x e x c i scan e s be minimised (see Figs 5.2,5.3).
methods of execution are recommended for dev1d- absolute strength with isometric exercises

2. Tension is produced by using a load which is raised

method involves shifting the load slowly over a wi
This enables one to work the
(quasi-Ztwmetrietrim).
the bae&e in trainingweight.
3. Tension is produced by p u s h g a weight fi.om a
on a so-called power^^&), This method begins with a short d+s pErase and g i w the
idea of the magnitude of the tension. He can lift the weight several h e s between the stop
isometric conkfaction forthe necessary duration against the upper stop.
4. Tension is p d u c e d by using a dynamometer or other resistance device to control and display
of muscular tension.
In all cases using rm-explosiv'e isometck it is necessary to:
apply force graduall~to-theimmovslbleobjed
hold the max.hal &ion for no longer th& 8 seconds (see Fig 5.2)
perform the maximal contractions for 6 repetitions (Fig 5 3 )
use a 5-10 second rest between repetitions (see5.2.1)
limit the total d W o n of isometric Wdnhg to 10 minutes per session
iinish the training session with relaxation exercises.
If the p p w p is'go develop expbsive strength then the ~~c tension should be generated
speed possible to a magnitude of 70-80% of one's mh~g strength
l The reflexive ezplosi
produced by plyometiic movements can be extremely effective in this respect.
Isometric exemises can be very diveme, depending upon the reasons for fbeir use,so that is
recommend specific exercises in each case.Athletes who understand the basic mles a .
choose the newpay exercises, provided that this se
and personal inventiveness.
Isometric Tmirring and Angular Specificity '

Many studies have reported that isometric training

ofi-semmic- This
have &own that isometric
&gees on either side of
or torque versus joint angle curve for each
strength increme would
1.3, it is more accurate
Recent work has revealed that this

group training at an elbow angle of

225
 the rest of the range. Finally, a third group training at 1200 increased their strength by 25% at the training angle,
but only by about 7% over the remainder of range.
In other words, isometric training of muscles in a relatively lengthened state can produce substantial strength
increase not only near the region of training, but also throughout the range of movement. This finding, however,

'
1
I
should not be interpreted to mean that isometric training can replace other forms of strength training, because the
production of a specific type of static or dynamic strength depends on neuromuscular factors which govern the
pattern and manner in which muscular force is to be exerted in a given situation.
Isometric Endurance
Isometric endurance with resistance exceeding 10-15 percent of a muscle's &a1 strength is very short
compared'with that of dynamic exercise, because of metabolic demands and the impairment in blood flow to the
exercising muscles by the intense muscle contraction (Petrofsky & Phillips, 1986). Exercise involving less than
this level of muscle tension are considered to be non-fatiguing, since the intramuscular pressure is low and readily
exceeded by the mean arterial pressure rising in the capillaries (Fig 4.13).

INTRAMUSCULAR
PRESSURE 10 .

MUSCLE TENSION
0 20 40 60 80 100 (%ofmaxstrength)

ing electrical stimulation at different

also increases and metabolism is unable to meet the

a1 demands of the exercise, resulting in a hyperbolic drop in performance and marked increase in
4.14). This curve was originally derived by Monod and Sherrer (1967) and later by Rohmert (1968),
ming known as a Rohmert curve. As can be seen from Figure 4.14, there is a marked difference in
e between the muscles of males and females, with the latter being able to sustain the same tension for
r i d s than the former at any level of tension, a finding which has not been adequately explained yet.

0 20 40 60 80 100

4.14 Rohmert curve: Isometric endurance affmger flexors for males and females (based on Petmfsky, 1980). MVC is the
Voluntary Contraction.

ly affected by muscle temperature, with hot packs reducing endurance and

. Research by Clarkeet a1 (1958) d i s c o 4 . M there is an optimum
above andbelow wkeh isoinetric muscle e n d m c e fairly'rapidly decreases (Fig4,14),
that this optimal temperature lies around 27-28 Celsius (Petrofsky & ZXhiIlips, 1986). 'It
of bodyfat on an individtial, fhe lower the Isometric endwaxidin
ituations, because of the higher resting muscle temperature. Temperature also exerts different effects for

226
 S UPERTRAINING

the diffaent types of mmuwcle d m 6 wit;hdynamicexercise talring place more efficiently at higher
apparently because of reduced .environmentaltissue viscosity at these temperatures. In t k case-
contraction, muscle fibre do nat mow during the contractions, viscosity of the medium would a p w r
imignifioant role compared with that .of muscle metabolism Cpetrofsky & Phillips, 1986).

TIME ' 3
(mins)
2

I .A. - 0 10 20 30 40
'r,: --- . 'C.7, -
Mgure 4.15 Mean variation isomet;i'c'endurance measured in human subjects after 30 minutes of forearm immersion in
#

at increasing temperature (bawl on Clarke et al, 1958).

Recovery after Isometric Activity

Recovery from isometric contraction is different from that of dynamic muscle action. It appears to take
three phases (Petrofsky & Phillips, 1986):
Rapid recovery of about 5096 of endurance during the first 3 minutes afker exercise
* A slower recovery lasting about 20 minutes during which recovery reaches about 90% of initial
A complete recovery within at least 24 hours. 7&d i ~ Ez f~

- t,.S(.
Interestingly, recovery from low tension isometric eontraction is slower during the first phases of reco
.A I , I -:,.,
Other Aspec$s af Isometric Activity imw% ti *I! .-
Isometric contraction is always distinguished from the dynamic f o h s .of m w l e contraction
eccentric)),as if it is'due to an entirely different process. Iwesptive ofwhether a m
does nat produce exterm?myernent of a joint, t i process q f c o n ~ ~ c t i bremains n
reaching the muscle fibres produce a sliding of myosin and actin filaments relative to one another
in and rehation occurs.
The &Terence between static and dynamic muscle contraction lies not in the muscle, but in the
system which controls the intensity, speed, duration, type and pattern ~Tcoqtraction. It is the new
which recruits a specific group and number of muscle fibres at a particular rate, time and sequence.
prime movers, antagonists, assistant movers, emergency muscles and o t k groups of muscles to
necessary controlled movement of a given joint or series of joints. What needs to be appreciated is
the concept of isometrics is far broader than is intimated by most t e e on.trahing. Little is said ab
isometric contractions are initiated, controlled or terminated. The main focus

,state &er activity. f'

-
duratbn of the cantraction rather than on the overall pattern of muscle action from resting state back ts

As discussed earlier, isometric contraction always takes place automatidiy during some a g e
transition Wtwsen edne&kic ' d eccentric mukcle actim. Under voJllaWy mfitrol, isometric mritiadisn
initiated or terminated slowly or rapidly, and maintained for a certain durati
maximal strength for one repetition (for a ~ c ~ a r i o iaction).
nt
Maintenance of a maximaI isom&c contwtiotl, hgwmerI depends
prodwced by muscle Mgw or psotec%iw xt@exes~Iioitedia.t'he.muwles or r;omective tissues.
overcome the negative feedback f$qrthese €issuqs !ssomewhat longer,
eventually becomes impossible and
5, 2
-ixtcmms
.. m., -- . ,t -+,;gun
;w+$$;:.; :,;- , -
.. %- . . .:+
71-
- +..>
I?
?i@wF -

227
 SUPBRTRAINING

contractions may be submaximal or maximal, short or long duration (depending on the length and
$Exxist intervals), continuous or intermittent, sequenced over a series of differentjoint angles, alternated
mist and antagonist (or adductor and abductor, or medial and lateral rotators), and alternated between
bsities. One can voluntarily oscillate isometric contractions between high and low levels of intensity,
qwging the period of its application. Isometrics performed very slowly over a given .mge of joint
Jxem referred to earlier as quasi-isometrics(see 1.10).
ave already learned that the stretch reflex may also be recruited impulsively following an eccentric
,-formingthe basis of the training method known as plyometrics. What is often overlooked is the fact
lation of the eccentric amortisation phase is followed by a brief isometric contraction (reflexive
metric action) augmenting the force produced by the elastic recoil of the stretched connective tissue

riticism of traditional training is that coaches erroneously believe that muscle action is most efficient if
im a completely relaxed state. Their justification is that initial tension hinders subsequent action and
slower or less controlled movement. As pointed out earlier, isometric contraction released explosively
nse time by as much as 7%, particularly if associated with a strong pre-stretch.
en a movement is produced from a state of complete relaxation, the subsequent
slower and less forcefil.
orme, Hettinger and Miiller, much emphasis was placed on the importance of
of gymnasium machines and the demise of Charles Atlas' dynamic tension
as all but fallen into oblivion as a training modality. Nevertheless, its role
o be recognised by physical therapists in the early stages of injury rehabilitation and by Russian
,10% isometrics strength training regime advo-

cking points' in an exercise can decrease any

system to cope with greater levels of loading which will eventually
rogressive overload. For example, the mere supporting of a
load (e.g. 120-150% of one's IRM)on the shoulders or quasi-isometric movement over the first
stom the body neuromuscularly and favourably enhance one's
eption to undertake future squats which are going to be only slightly heavier than one's current IRM.
lication should restore isometrics to a place of importance in
grammes. Since one of the basic principles of PNF is that mobility, or dynamic contraction, is
than stability or isometric contraction, then stability is at a higher level of muscular learning(see
understanding and the use of the isometric state needs to become a vital tool in the repertoire of the

ed external isometrics and internal isometrics. The former

ternal load, whereas the latter refers to contraction exerted
the muscle posing actions performed by bodybuilders. The

deal is written about resistance training with weights, machines and other modalities, but little is ever said
method which is used almost exclusively by bodybuilders. This is 'posing' training, a workout executed by
uilders, usually in front of mirrors, to perfect the appearance and sequence of their competition posing

is not done by bodybuilders as a form of resistance training, Russian scientistshave for

describing its value as a specific training variation (Vorobyev, 1978). In the early 1900s Anokhin
sed developing strength by the motivated tensing of one's agonists and antagonists for
ly what bodybuilders do in tensing their muscles before the judges in contests.
stions, this technique was not studied scientifically until after 1965. In particular,
doctoral thesis on what he called voluntary loadless muscle tensing or what the
o develop a supplementary system of training
ing, particdarly with the younger lifter whose
were told to perform all the Olympic and

228
supplementary lifts (e.g. snatch pull and front squat) with a broomstick while trying to generate maximum n
tension, as if they were overcoming a maximal weight. He found that this method produced definite m
strengthening and improvement in technical skill, but concluded that it must be used cautiously in 011
weightlifting, because it might disrupt the optimal extensor-flexor strength ratios.
Loadless training is especially useful if one has no access to training facilities or if one is recuperating
musculoskeletal injuries. Combined with pushups and free-standing squats, loadless training can be used to
effect on trips away from home. Loadless training may be performed isometrically, with a joint held at a y
angle; quasi-isometrically, with the joint moved powerfully through a full range of movement; or dynamica
imitating any given weight training movement with unloaded muscle tension against a broomstick.
Research indicates that consecutive sets (Kovalik recommended 5 sets of each exercise) should be sep
by between 3- 10 seconds of rest. During quasi-isometric loadless training, there should be no long peric
intense breath-holding: instead, one should breathe out slowly in synchrony with the slow tensing oj
movement. Moreover, each movement should involve strong tension in simultaneously contracted agonis
antagonists, with all movements starting from full extension and ending with stretching beyond full extensic
back again over a period of 10-15 seconds. The holding phase at the end of each movement (e.g. the overhes
position) should be held with maximal muscle tension for 6-8 seconds. Rotation of the joints in different 1
and movements of the limbs in various diagonal and spiral patterns will obey some of the basic princi~
physiotherapeutic PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) and enhance the effectiveness of the lo
training as a form of supplementary strengthening (Ch 6). The value of this type of training is corrobora
research which has revealed that dynamic stretching against resistance may strengthen muscle and conn
tissue.
One can even tense several muscles groups simultaneously and imitate actual sporting movements wi
Y
visualisations of these actions in your mind. This type of active visualisation, as opposed to the passive,
visualisation recommended by many sports psychologists, can be useful adjunct to skills training, provl
does not alter the dynamic structure of normal competitive patterns.

4.2.5 Eccentric Training

Eccentric contraction refers to muscle action in which the muscle force succumbs to the imposed load and
muscle complex lengthens (see 1.10). Not only is it metabolically much more efficient than co
contraction, but it is also capable of generating higher forces (Kaneko et al, 1984; Komi, 1973; Rodgers &
1974). In addition, this difference between concentric and eccentric contractions has been found to dep
velocity of contraction (Komi, 1973). As the velocity of contraction increases, so the maximum eccentric
increases, whereas the maximum concentric force decreases (Fig 3.16), even though the corresponding EM
the given muscle group remains reasonably constant.
Investigations into the change in strength elicited by concentric and eccentric work are often contradi
Johnson et a1 (1976) found that there were no significant differences between the two methods of training.
and Buskirk (1972), using an isokinetic dynamometer, found that eccentric training produced greater ecce
concentric and isometric strength increases than concentric training. The concentric training increased
concentric and eccentric strength. Friden et a1 (1983b) found that eccentric training to failure produces mark
creases in eccentric szrength-endurance,but minimal changes in concentric strength-endurance.
The high speed, large acceleration SMART (Seated Movement Aerobic and Resistive Training)
Supersitting system created by Lisa Ericson (1992) for work with the disabled, however, tends to increase b
concentric and eccentric strength-endurance.
- Other workers have reported adaptation differences relating
training velocity, measurement velocity and particular muscle groups, while very few
functional strength and power changes with free weights, auxotonic activities or naturi
central role played by the specificity principle clearly has a profound effect on the experimental analysis. ./
The ability of a muscle to produce greater eccentric than concentric force may be a result of the tensid
generating capacity of the connective tissues rather than the contractile elements of the muscle. Therefore, th
superior strengthening observed for high velocity (over 180° per second) isokinetic ec
to selective increase in the tensile strength of the tendon and other series elastic
complex. The training and rehabilitation implication is that high velocity eccentric exercise, applied in
progressive overload manner, may enable the connective tissue, especially that of the
to resist high impact forces associated with running, jumping and other impulsive actil
 ngthening of the muscle complex occurs with eccentric contraction, the stretching SEC (series elastic
is exposed to greater strain than under concentric conditions and the potential for injury increases.
uring the eccentric phase of

a single session of intense eccentric exercise causes pronounced DOMS (delayed

le soreness) which peaks between 24-72 hours after exercise and disappears several days later (Friden
a). This soreness is accompanied by reduced dynamic strength and damage to the myofibrils and
ve tissue elements such as the Z bands, which are a component of the SEC. Friden et a1 (1983b) also

e ability to perform eccentric

age had not taken place,
borated by Schwane and
at downhill m i n g in rats produced a superior training effect to level or uphill

that that eccentric exercise tends to produce greater and more rapid increases in muscle strength
than concentric exercise (Hortobagyi et al, 2000), and it is sometimes suggested that this may be

ese results do not support the hypothesis that fibre hypertrophy depends on the extent of the fibre
exercised muscles.
Isokinetic and Other Training Means
n stated that the interest in studying the characteristicsof muscular work in sport is associated
those regimes which ensure that the athlete's motor potential will be realised to the fullest and
atest effect from the special strength training. In the latter case,

s regimes of muscular work or complex of

within a specified period.
be stated, however, that these types of research project are not very numerous and have a number of

emature. One can only closely examine the state of this problem and draw preliminary conclusions.
development, two of them should be

1 The Isokinetic Training Method

etic method was very popular in the latter part of the 1960's and early 1970's, particularly in the USA

exercise is executed, not the magnitude of the resistance as it is for .weightlifting exercises. The

netics, the resistance is a function of the force applied. Depending on the apparatus, it may be offered
of concentric isokinetics or eccentric isokinetics, although most commercial machines at present offer
ovement so that the athlete can fully
device is constructed so as to offer

e. Because muscular force and

city change during the specific movement, the resistance automatically accommodates to the muscles'
capability at each angle throughgut the 1 ~ m bmg g e . The isokirnetic device provides the muscles with
maximal load on each repetition of the exercise, kukpmht of mechanical advantage. This
resistance spontaneouslyadjuststo the specific work &pacity of the muscles, provided that the addeb
maintain sufficient motivation to produce sustained strength output against the machine.
The basic advantage of the isokinetic method over others,claimed by one of the pioneers who
for training athletes, Counsilman (1971,1972), is that this method forces the muscles to work with
all the t h e and produces a lager, faster increase in strength for particular actions, even for very
This contention, however, is incorrect, since isakineticforce is usually less than isometricfire
range of all joint movements, and maximal strength production is not possible under isokinetic conditj
1.10 and Figs 2.8,2.9). Even allowing for commercial clabs, it is noteworthy that some of the reputed^
of isukinetics have been corroborated in certain sports (e.g. in swimming and rowing) by considerable.
(Chu & Smith, 1971;Rosentsweig & Hinson, 1972; Himon & ~ o s e n t s w i 1972; ~, w~sA, 1972).
promote the following advantages of the isokineticmethod of strengthtraining:
1. The isokinetic device accommodates to the athlete's capabilities throughout the range of motion,
the athlete accommodating to the resistance. This prevents the athlete from doing m
of under these conditions. The individual automatically accommodates his effort in
fatigue or pain, as well @ to the increase in strength resulting from the training. Suc
the possibility of injury.
2. The necessity for prolonged warming up is largely eliminated with isokinetics, a d in five
have a very demanding workout. Despite the fact that athletes may train as a team an
strength capabilities, it is u n n v to adjust the device to suit each athlete, thereby saving tune.
3. By using resistance which automatically accommodates to the-appliedforce, significant str
achieved with fewer repetitions per exercise, since each -tition loads the muscle intensively
the entire range of motion.
4. The athlete is able to see his results displayed on a computer monitor or on a graph while exercising'
is able to compete against himself or other athletes.
5. The elimination of eccentric activity by most isokinetic machines diminishes the incidence of post&
soreness.
In interpreting some of these'advantages, one must remember that these studies on which these co
based were not done with top level international athletes, nor was the precise phase of the €raining p
specified (e.g. general vs specific preparation).
Several studies have compared isometric, dynamic and isokinetic regimes for effecti
development (Thistle et al, 1967; RosenWeig & Hinson, 1972). These established that isokinetic ex
average person produces greater electrical activity in the given muscles, the largest muscle hyp
highly effective maintenance of muscular strength for specific muscle groups. Laboratory studies s
significant gains in muscular strength in a shorter period, as well as shorter training sessions, are
isokinetic training. The transfer of this effect to multi-dimensional functional sporting activity or its
with athletes of different qualification, however, has not been proved. Isokinetic training also ens
degree of speed specificity of trained strtngth over some ranges of sporting movement because
'control the speed of joint action, although it is unable to mimic the force-time curves associated w
sports movements.
In interpreting these findings, it is vital to remember the specificity principle (see Ch I), es
functional strength in a given movement involves skilled neuromuscular co-n of many parti
groups. For example, increase in isokinetic strength of the quadriceps does not result in a comparable
squatting strength. Moreover, few, if any, of the studies examined the effect of isokinetic training on
strength, acceleration-strength, explosive strength, eccentric strength, strength deficit (see Fi
neuromuscular skill in producing hctionai sporting progress, motor qualities that are vital in mo
addition, these studies did not examine the effect of prolonged isokinetic training on different categori
especiallythe elite competitor.
..

23 1
 &is work is rarely doubted. This section examines if this extensive reliance on isokinetic measurement
w o n is warranted.
5

ental Biomechanics of Isokinetic Devices

,th& is always a period of positive or negative acceleration associated with all movement, isolcinetic or
The best that manufacturers of isokinetic devices can do is to minimise the duration of these phases,
can never entirely eliminate them. To produce entirely isohetic con'ditions from beginning to end .
necessitate the vraduction of infinite acceleration, which contradicts the laws of science.

@ k h a n i d analysis of the force-time and rate of force development (RFD) curves for resisted fiee

ement equivalents fhat they are of minimal value either fir functional analysis ors'specific

ended Strength Ratios

optima?ratio of quadriceps to hamstring strength is 60r.40, but Russian scientists hiam
&ton the specific type of sport (Vorobyev, 1978). For example, they have determined
&ratio (measured when knee extension torque is greatest) should be nearer 8020 for weightlifhrs and
me: Moreover, if the ratio is measured during movement on a treadmill, the ratio for mnmm is

thce in strength between left and right lower extremities is more than 10%.
&ht research, however, has shown that neither of these recommendations is supported by scientifically
@ I
experiments which correct torque outputs for the effect of gravity and avoid stretching the hamstrings
&s & Reid, 1988). In addition, the recommendation of a specific flexor/extensor ratio is vague, because @is
b thoughout the range of joint motion, as may be seen in Figure 4.16.
k'tixamp~e,the ratio for the Imee at 8004s about 7525 at 36 degs/sec, whereas it is 68:32 at 180 degs/ see.
aY mge at whichthe ratio is 60:40 occurs at an angle of approxim&tely500. Not only does the ratio change
~ i nangle,
t but it also changes with velocity of measurement, so it is meaningless to'prescribe an optimal
&rany joint. It would be more relevant to refer to a characteristic curve over a full range of movement for a
angular velocity.
scteatlfcaUy rigorous. 43pm-dqin &?kg of the lewer a d t y with the sole @the -
f

semiman- , 1tWm.l rotation bg bhps baris. The role '

or s e m i t e d h ~ M
p a f i i w h~aybe4aqjely 'ignoredfofOfth&averageillat, but e e r k d y not in the!a s e d
+place maximal chnan& on their &dies.

khesiesiolpgka1pattems presoribed by I(gI(g8ttiwd

V w (19771, but they,are compelled to ign
whepusing i s o m m a c h i n e s .
Muscle ~hbialogy
Some of the implications of muscle physiology m also relevant to understanding the limitations of I
testing:

233
 S ~ I P I . i~i A: ~
lnrn(;

many sporting actions -is Jnterrse.isometric contraction or explosive

y storage of elastic energy in the tendons (see 1.6.2). This state has a

tch reflex has great significance for increasing the working effect of concentric muscle action,
r the rate of stretch, the stronger this reflex. Most explosive movements in running, jumping,
throwing rely on intense recruitment of this reflex, which is not possible undef isokinetic
In fact, the production of powerful, skillful movements in all sports relies on-the establishment of
romuscular patterns through integration of many different reflexes. The elimination of most of
and trainkg is only of value during
significance dumg the specific
or competitive phases of sports training.
e two kinds of action: cocontraction or 'ballisticmovement (see 1.8). In
sts contract simultaneously, with dominance ofthe former producing the
ses bursts of agonist activity followed by phases of relaxation
rapid ballistic and fast continuous,
ly invdve feedback during the
ongoing feedback te the CNS
do not permit the production ofballistic or discontinuous
of the needs of sports testing and preparation.
.at a maximup throughout
1967). This proposition is neither prov&i nor is it

h a 1 contraction of the antagonists, the force

ed reciprocal inhibition and regularly used in
which commonly occurs during plyomtric

ltaneous use ofboth limbs) and unilateral

ns of relative limb str- can be v w

e use of isokinetics neglects the proven principle of specificity (discussed in detail in 1.3) with

Muscle Fibre Recruitment

Metabolism
Biochemical Adaptation
Flexibility
e of Contraction Fatigue
it is vital to understand the limitations of using isokinetics to test or train the arnlere and appreciate
ecific conditioning has little to do with isokinetic performance. As has been stressed by Sale and
1981), increased strength is apparent only when measured during the same type of movement used in
er by the considerable research of

Id enhance the required motor qualities

234
 S~EBmiNING

in terms of factors such as bntplitde a d dkectioa of mwement, and the rate and time of
production.
On this basis, as well, isokiaetic traini& and'measzrrement are seen to be so. functionally d
normal sporting movement as to be relatively useless for giving zrny information that is accurately
the competitive athlete.

Concluding R e m a r k s
Although technological measurement is invaluable and highly desirable in sport and
oversimplifidon of any highly complex situak'en can lead to serious errors and hinder scientifk
simplistic central sun and planetary electron model of the atom was a valuable tool for
physicists, but its replacement by more sophisticated quantum models has a
universe enormously. Unqualified reliance on a single isokinetic model to assess-muscular
is tantamount to permanently a c c q t i ~ gthe early model of the atom, just because it is easy to
The fact is ,that human motion .4volving static and dynamic
complicated and isokinetic.testing can
number of variables, Isokinetic machines are
dimemions, just as isometric dynamometry is useful for measuring
Extrapolation of results obtained under these conditions to sporting
c o n W o n and patterns of movement is scientifically unacceptable and misleading. Human mobility
are the integmted result of the appropriate phases of isometric and non-isokinetic muscle contractio
with a specific thning in thre-dhensional sp
movement demands the use of far more
polygraph whick integrates infixmati&nyielded by concunent u
myotensiometek, accelerometers and force plates.
The ultimate'measure of successful testing and training i
performance, so that sporting movements should still be regarded
reghe;In addition, an,inexpensive and highly effective
original work of D-ehrme (see 5.22). The convenience of isokinetic testing should
cost, limited application and the unsupported claims of manufacturers. The detailed
weaknesses of isokinetic methods given by Osternig (1

4.2.6.3 S t a t i c - D y n a m i c M e t h o d s
The static4ynamic metbud of$eveloping
isometric and dynamic (auxotonic) muscular activ
characteristics. For example, the following variati
a 2-3 second isometric contraction (at 80% of one's maximum) is held, followed by explosive c
dynamic work with a load of 30% of maximum
'
with both the isometric and dynamic components, a constant load of 75-80% of maximum is used.
In the latter case, for instance, the athlete sinks into the half-squat position with a barbell on his should
this pasition for 2 seconds, then with maximal acceleration,jumps upward. After careful landing he re
exercise.
It has been established experimentally that the fist variant of staticdynamic exercise is better than
exercise alone for developing speed-strength. The second variant has ah equivalent affect on the improve
speed-strength and absolute strength (Dobrovo~sky,1972, 1973).

4.2.6,4 C h o i c e of Muscle T r a i n i n g Regimes

One may now ask-the question: Of all "eheseregimk, which is me most enecnve? It is difficult to
categorical answer for several rerrsotrs:
1. Cqmprehensiveresearch to evaluate the effectiveness of all the regimes has not been conducted. An
for example, to study the effectiveness of ec&ntric, concentric, isometric and combined regimes

235
 SUPERTRAINING

and isometric method, but the main method using

ed regimes showed a clear advantage (Pletnev, 1975).
lling the training loads of the different regimes.
any specific regime. Each of them
situation, stage of the annual cycle, level of the
primary regime of muscular work in the special exercise, and the specificity of the strength ability

be ascertained with reasonable certainty that the most rational means of enhancing the effectiveness
combine the various regimes of muscular work. This has been corroborated
69; Kuznetsov, 1970; Verkhoshansky, 1970,
5; Savin, 1974). Such a training combination
its cumulative effect and its correspondence to the specific conditions of

The Use of Training Machines

pular in most modem gymnasia.
at there are essentially two distinct

resistance machines, whose purpose is to offer resistance in sport specific patterns

tional resistance machines, whose sole purpose is to offer general resistance in non-sport specific

ital for many coaches and athletes in the West, because the impressive
non-functional resistance (NFR)
lar among the average population that it is
e (FR) machines in these 'state-of-the-art'
es may be adequate for the casual fitness client, it can be profoundly
ines or free weights. Current cornmer-
f NFR machines, so the serious athlete
ularly regarding the detrimental effects
ave on the specificity of fitness, proprioceptive efficiency, central nervous programming and sporting
remarks of Zatsiorsky (1995) on this issue are highly relevant:
limitation of many strength training machines is that they are designed to train muscles, not
cause of this, they are not the most important training toolfor athletes.

ous movements encountered in sport.

ices are supposed to imitate or train certain elements of an
loads in the different regimes of muscular work (Ratov,
etics has shown them to be very effective for aspects of
gth trbining of many types of athlete (Semenov, 1970; Petrova & Gorbunov, 1970; Verkhoshansky,
973; Kuznetsov & Aiunts, 1974; Savin, 1974).
it the strict regulation of the load and the spatial
cs of the movement in order to use extensively the appropriate regimes of muscular work and to
otypical training movements and are

1FR devices is the pulley machine, which used to be

commercially persuasive chromium-plated 'modern'
e pulleys in high or low positions for all varieties of
ke the fixed bars and pivots of most
patterns of great complexity, if so desired.
 With appropriate choice
of different exercises for ev
actually provide a circuit

at less than 15% of

conditioning of the body.
A major advantage of sport-specificFR training devices lies in the fact that it is possible
visual and computerised feedback about the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of th
as to control the athlete's special strength tmbhg. All of these advantages create
perfecting the athlete's special strength training programme. Therefore, the design, intr
. - training device becomes a very important task.
of FR

loads can alter the force-time characteristics of the action signifi

responsible for the movement. The magnitude of the load, the
correspondence have to be considered carefully if one
movements in any way. Most important is the fact th
specific exercise, but of the functional objectives associ
to any sports action and integrating it effectively into

4.2.7.2 Non-Functional Resistance Machines

Non-functional resistance QWR) machines can play a useful supplementary role
machine training, but in general they are unable to provide the same degree of
neuromuscular and musculoskeletal training as fiee

stabilising muscles of the body and involving

this may be valuable in the a C e r stages of
trainkg the body for fuactional development.
person is the limitation they impose on

NFR machines may usefbl in

supplementing overail bodybuilding
for providing all-round conditionin
systems. For instance, there is no

training the latissimus dorsi than

machine conshins the body to

compressive loading of the skeleton).

It is not often appreciated
equivalent standing exercises.

forwards, this stress can incr

supports the lumbar region 1
 standing. The increase in stress becomes far greater against resistance, particularly ifjerky movements
initiate or terminate the movement. The dangers are exacerbated by sitting, because one is unable to
shock loading by flexing the knees, hips or ankles, as is the case when standing.
vast majority of cases, NFR machines provide an inferior, incomplete and less efficient way of training
loskeletal system. This is particularly true regarding the conditioning of the neuromuscular system in
xplosive movements, as well as the elastic qualities of the tendons and other connective tissues which
all sports involving running, jumping, throwing, catching or any other ballistic actions. Isokinetic
e especially deficient in this regard, so that their appropriateness of use must be clearly understood
e to prove beneficial in sport specific training (see 4.2.6). Nevertheless, some machines may be used
ly as an occasional form of General Physical Training, rehabilitation or restoration.

3 Machines and the Variable Resistance Philosophy

sed elsewhere in this text, the torque produced by a muscle in a particular movement varies with joint
chine manufacturers have used this fact to justify the design of machines whose resistance varies
match the torque curves of natural joint movement. They maintain that variable resistance
offer superior strength training to free weights and other resistance devices. What they fail to point out
training on any machine, whether variable resistance or not, provides inadequate functional
training and thereby can reduce one's level of motor efficiency, stability and safety.
are based on the faulty premise that the resistance offered to the muscles by a free weight
e same. So, for example, if you perform a biceps curl with 50 kg, then it is implied that you are
force of 50 kg weight (about 490 Newtons) from beginning to end of movement. Machine
stress that their bicep curl machine offers some form of automatically adjusting resistance to
variation of strength with joint angle, apparently something that never happens with free weights.
e application of Newton's Second Law of Motion (force is proportional to the acceleration of the ob-
that the resistance offered by a free weight changes with acceleration from rest and during any other
en the trainee speeds up or slows down the movement when the weight feels lighter or heavier
The force exerted by any weight which begins from and returns to rest is always varying, anyway,
be demonstrated by force plate, cable tensiometer or high speed video analysis. The skilled trainee is
on his proprioceptive apparatus to perceive any changes in force or pattern of movement so as to
dynamically vary the resistance and its direction more efficiently than any current machines.

The Training Safety of Machines

claimed that the NFR machines found in most fitness centres are much safer to use than free weights.
the back and knees (on leg press, hack-squat and hip-sled maehines), the shoulders and chest (on bench
pec+k machines), the elbow joint (bicep curl machines), the back (back extension machines) and other
just as common with machines as with free weights. In fact, many machines, such as the 'pec-deck',
ess, leg press, calf-raise and seated press machines force the user to commence the movement from the
anically least efficient and potentially most harmful position for the relevant joint. Partners to 'spot'
ust as necessary as spotters for free weights users. Faulty technique is equally dangerous with
ights.
.machines such as leg extension, lat pulley and seated bicep curl machines are certainly safer if an
is suffering from back weakness or injury. They can be very helpful in the early stages of rehabili-
are not helpful in the long-term, since continual avoidance of stress to the regions involved eventually
eir progressive weakening. There is a definite supplementary place in a gymnasium for certain NFR
,but they should not replace free weights, pulley machines and other FR devices. A more detailed
of the safety of training with specific machines is covered later (Ch 8.8).

5 The Efficiency of Machine Training

hat the equipment manufacturers state, it takes far longer for NFR machines to provide a similar
training effect to the equivalent free weights or FR machines. For instance, it requires at least twelve
s to approximately equal the training effect of the clean-and-push press, at least four machines to
ing effect of the free standing squat, more than three machines to equal the training effect of the
dumbbell curl, and at least five machines to rival the effectiveness of the flexed-knee deadlift.
 SUPERTRAINfNG

One Bas to as^^ degree

l e W and s * C ~ ~ t w e Bu
~
di*b*n*=++=t ptt$=%-
group%;&d .Whingdi& iS@ent p-@movement. ,,
 SUPERTRAINING .

muscle magazine authors have extolled the virtues of special ways of training to isolate specific
s. They have advocated certain machines, ways of fixating the joints, precise placement of the limbs
other ingenious manoeuvres to ensure that one muscle is maximally recruited while others remain

if large loads are imposed on a given muscle g m p by intense resistance, isolation becomes virtu-

otherapists relying on PNF techniques sometimes impose maximal loading on a joint to elicit
ory or overflow activity of muscles other than the 'prime movers.' This is not possible if the
imposed is inadequate to overload the 'prime movers.' Similarly, the weight trainer who wishes to

11proliferatsp by numerous instructors and in many training texts.

only in the context of the given task. In other words, the m e a s and methods of strength training
de a n " i u a t e conditioning regime for the motor system in the special exercises and thereby ensure
unprovement in sporting performance.
foundation of this assertion lies in theprinciple of dynamic correspondence, which emphasizes that the
d methods of strength training for specific sports should be chosen to enhance the required motor

The dynamics of the effort

:.* Tbe rate and time of maximum forceproduction
The regime of muscular work
 SUPERTRAINING

4.3.1 The Amplitude and Direction of Movement

The criterion of correspondence with respect to the arnplifude
movement relative to the adjacent body part. It determines whi
anatomical peculiarities and the external conditions of work. Thus, the movement of the shoulder girdle of a
or shot putter is about the same in amplitude, but the direction of the working force is different (Fig 4.17).
first case the pulling of the oars involves shoulder extension, whereas in the second case it involves sho
flexion acting in opposition to the force of inertia of the shot.
The importance of the correspondenceof muscular work, in terms o
by the following example. In track-and-field training, jumpers and
hip flexor muscles in a standing position on a hip flexor machine which offers resistance by mean
pressing against the h n t of the thigh.
However, the amplitude of thigh movement in running and jumping (when moving the legs forw
significantly greater than the amplitude of this exercise, and beg
relative to the torso. Therefore, the execution of this exercise i
mechanism of the movement in the sport specific exercise ( e.g. jumping or sprinting).

Figure 4.17 Working amplitude of shoulder movement of a rower and a shotputter @iff& Verkhoshansky, 1999).

If the athlete's position changes (Fig 4.18), the criterion of the correspondence is met, not only with respect
amplitude of the movement, but also to the sporting movement, because the resistance imitates the
resistance of the mass of the leg rotating about the hip joint in the special exercise. By altering the lo
number of repetitions and the tempo of movement, the task of
force and strength-endurance, will be solved. Thus, to fulfill the criteria of correspondence with res
amplitude and direction of movement, it is advisable to sel
lete, as well as to calculate the direction of action of the forces
and the additional load.
The line of action of the applied external resistance and of the loaded movement as a whole must also
taken into account. For example, in middle-distance running, skiing and skating, a knapsack full of san
weight belt are sometimes used as resistance. However, the
weight of the body. This can increase the ability to cope with
endurance, but does not strengthen those muscles which propel

Figure 4.18 Exercise for developing hip flexion strength based on consideration for the accentuated part of the working amplitude and
the resistance to the force of muscle contraction (Siff & Verkhoshansky, 1999).

Similarly, a skater may execute jumps on one leg on the floor or from a bench. These exercises strengthen the leg
muscles supporting the body and the static-endurance of the back muscles, but do not fully imitate the working of
the muscles for the push-off, where the force is directed backward.
 SUPERTRAINING

km should use another method of resisted movement by changing the direction in which the force of
%s acting (Fig 4.19). These methods to a large extent match the exercise to the dynamics of the

b4.19 Training means for increasing resistance during skating (Verkhoshansky, 1977).
t
~ w t the
, working force is developed by the simultaneous coordinated tension of the muscle groups which
the various segments of the body. The most characteristic example of such cooperation of the working
is the simultaneous flexion and extension at the two hip joints (e.g. in running, jumping, fencing, figure
@g,basketball or tennis), where the angular movement of one leg enhances the push-off movement of the
r. It is usefbl to imitate this combination with special strength exercises which take into account the working
btude of the movement and the direction of the opposing force (as in Fig 4.20). On the other hand, it is
by inappropriate to perform the actual sporting movements with significantly large added loads in ah attempt
nvide exact simulation, since the added loading invariably alters the centres of gravity and rotation of the
s and body, thereby altering the underlying motor patterns and dispositions of joints relative to one another.
or body, or dragged behind the athlete (eg. a car tyre or sled), because they do not incr
forces acting on the body. The fact that the parachutes offer aerod
velocity (actually the square of the velocity) allows us to use these devices more know
parachutes are more suited for speed development, medium parachutes for speed-endu
for speed-strength and acceleration-strength. Naturally, running speed determines the d
that optimal development of these fitness or motor qualities depends on attempts to run at maximum speed for
long as possible and implementation of various fartlek or interval methods. The drag force characteristically vari
between 5 - 200 Newtons for running speeds of 6 -1 0 metres per second, depending on the size of the parachu
(Zatsiorsky, 1995).
Quick release of the parachute at maximum velocity can be heIpful as a special co
speed and stride fiequency, Training distances commonly vary between 30x11 and 150
being used for the longer distances. If the basic principles of its application are cl
training can be used successfully by distance runners, as well as sprint or distance cyclists and swimmer-.
with other resistance training, this method must be applied carefully so as not
coordination. In particular, it should be noted that parachutes o
support and non-support phases of running, thereby disrupting speed and
movement during flight. In addition, parachutes alter the relative position of the joints during land
during hurdling and jumping. All of this can adversely affect several aspects of the degree of
correspondence of the training means to the actual sporting movements (as discussed throughout C
In using parachutes, the principle of gradual progressive overloading should be applied, with larger
being used over a period of weeks. In doing so, it is essential to periodically decrease the load
workout or microcycle and to apply the sudden release contrast method to enhance the training e
In any workout, it is common to progess rapidly after the warm-up to the use of Iarge resistance parach
conclude with a few repetitions using smaller parachutes.
To ensure that this aerodynamic resistance training does not leave after-e
neuromuscular skills, it is advisable to precede and follow all parachute sessions with t
performed without parachutes. During the preparatory weekly microcycles, parachute sessions typical1
performed two or three times a week on alternate days between other types of training session. They are
more frequently nearer the later stage of the preparatory phase immediately pr

4.3.2 The Accentuated Region of Force Production '

Muscular effort changes during the course of every movement and maximum force is deve
appropriate instant for a given action. In ballistic movements this instant corresponds to the beginning part of
working amplitude and in movements of mixed regimes of muscular work, this takes place at the instant
switching from one regime to another (Verkhoshansky, 1977). Thus, the working amplitude always has
accentuated region where the maximum dynamic force occurs close to a specific joint angle. Based on this,
criterion of correspondence includes the need to produce the required force at a specific joint angle.
In the previous example it should be noted that the accentuated region of the working amplitude of the
movement is near the beginning, as discussed earlier and as shown in the graph of hip flexion torque in the air
4.2 1).

243
 SUPERTRAINING

loads or use h p flexor machines regularly not

nt, but also lose the ability to train the muscles
the necessary force at the appropriate hip joint angle. This clearly illustrates the importance of the
ition for executing the special strength exercises that have a local effect on the motor system. The
xercise should not only reproduce the full amplitude of the movement but also the specific direction of
to the pull of the muscles.
owing these requirements can sometimes lead to such initial positions using weights or pulley machines
artificial (Fig 4.22). However, this occurs only when an exercise is attempted which
e illustrated, the partner seated on the athlete's
ng normally imposes, while the partner pulling the back leg
the hip flexors. While this exercise may be appropriate if
resistance can reduce its effectivenessmarkedly.

ated regions of force production can be incorrectly resisted and posture can be inappropriately held (Siff & Verkhoshansky,

ble to develop force at the required joint angles with isometric exercises, because they can have a
value in this respect (see 4.2.4). With isometrics or quasi-isometrics over a given range of movement
ocally influence certain muscle groups by paying particular attention to the accentuated regions of the
nts where they are involved. Therefore, the selection of these exercises should be based on the joint angle
maximal torque is developed in the special exercise.

.3 The Dynamics of the Effort

criterion of dynamic effort is the quantitative correspondence of the dynamics of the training means to the
ific sports movement. This criterion states that the intensity of the training stimulus should not be less than
ing level of sports proficiency and should even exceed it.

f correspondence of strength.
lay maximal strength in two forms: in the movement
ly be larger in the second case than in the first, since
= ma). However, it is unnecessaty to exercise only
losely to the dynamics of the special exercise. It is
to consider first the duration and character of the effort.
two cases is qualitatively different: in the first,
force is determined by the absolute strength of the muscles, and in the second by the speed of
n. Therefore, the strength and training effects of the respective movements are also different.
effort in training, the athlete should become clearly
sfy the criteria of correspondence according to the
se. In other words, correspondence with respect to
d only by calculating the speed of movement. If
nt that he is on the right track in organising his
 SUPERTRAINING

The following examples swe h clarify the issu

large resistance at a relatively bw sped, then hain& should be aimed primarily at developing
Conversely, if the athlete has to seal witb a s d re1ktame in the special exercise and execute
maximal speed, then, according to the criterbn of com~pon&nce,he should apply a moderate:
and pay particular attention to the duration of the movement.
4.3.4 The Rate and Time of Force Production
The criterion of correspondence regarding the rate
criterion of dynamic effort and is particularly imp
We have already stated that the strength displayed
of production, which is equivalent to measuring the time taken to execute the movement. The
explosive strength implicates a brief-acting moderate force whose characteristics may be describ
features such as the power and the impulse (F.At) of the force, where s is the displacement and At i
time interval over which the force F acts (see 5.1). The following factors are relevant in this context:
p=m
Power dt i.e. The rate of doing work at any instant
Here W refers to the work and n&y be defined in its integral form as W = S~(t).ds where s is the displ
p r o d u d by the force F. Thus, if F is constant over the interval concerned, we obtain: .

P=
dt
j~(t).ds ......... (4.1) or

The right hand side of this equation quite &nPlY ,reduces to the familiar basic expression for power:
Power P = F.V .....where V is the velocity of the.object
Unfortunately, this basic definition is applied without qual$cation in many strength
serious misunderstanding of training theory andmethods. If the force is not constant over the time
analysed, then we have to rely on a more precise form such as equation (4.1) which m i n d s us to
the force and v e h i t y (as functions of time) vary over the time interval concerned. Tkis can
conveniently by examining graphs of F versas V (e.g. Figs 3.1 5 - 3.18), F versus time and V versus
2.13,3~.3,3.4,3.14,3.27,4.7). .
It is especially important to be aware of how the force-time (i.e. the RFD or Rate of Force
curve changes with time (i.e., the slope of the F-t curve, shown in Fig 2.13). It is
peak force alone. The ability to increasepower or explosive strength akso
f w o r (which was introduced in 2.2.1 as the kctor
to the design of strength training programmes to
actions. The emergence of plyometric training as an
praetical consequences of understanding the implicationsof the p&g analysis of power as a motor
Jh all plyometric actions, the force changes very rapidly as a complicated transient spike
be regarded as a constant throughout the rebound phase. In such cases it is better to rely on
speed video methods to analyse the movement than to attempt to apply elementary biomec
that will inevitably produce grave errors.
The other facmr used to analyse explosive Smngth, the Reaetiviry-Coe&ient, was d e
w c a r k (2a.
RFD relhve to one's bodyweight (or the weight of any object being moved rapidly):
Reuctiviv C m i e n t RC = Fmax/ tmaxmg = RFD- IW
where Fmax is the maximum f m exerted, tnax is the time taken to reach this maximum, the mass is m a d
accelerationdue to gravity = 9.8m/s2.
The above equations may be used to evaluate explosive strength, although the significanceof each
be different, depending on con&Tions. Thus,evaluation~usingcakulations of the impulse of the
only when it is not necessary to compare different movements. If such a need arises, them the
only if the time taken is identical for each tnoveme
Therefore, in this particular case,detemlinahn of the
 S UPERTRAINlNG

interval, a necessary condition of the

stics of the neuromuscu~arsystem. This again emphasizes the

that training based entirely on variables such as exercise
sets and repetitions is hifly inadequate for producing sport specific fitness.
of correspondeace regarding strength and the speed with
achieves a'maximum creates its own unique problem, the: successful resolution of which depends upon

rk should be taken into consideration for selecting the

umber of sets and repetitions, because boxing requires primarily a quick, unresisted movement and the
in force, whereas shotputting involves rapid single
against a specific resistance.
selection of a regime of muscular work is difficult where a specific motor action is concerned. However,
gymnastics and modern pentathlon. Therefore,.the
lem of selecting a regime of muscular work involves two obvious tasks: ,
selection of the regime for a specific motor action (e.g. the key elements in an exercise)
he diverse muscular activities in all-round training.

m including some dynamic exercises such as

to master complex elements such asjumping
value of the cyclic work regime and reconsider

pxplwive effort to isometric tension. The methodology underlying the development of these complex capabilities
is the aim of technical training in all sport. Its resolution is the goal of special strength trahing.
4.3.6 Correspondence of Training Means to the Sports Movements
The scientific understanding of the character of muscular work and motor strength is derived from analysis of the
athlete's movements, i.e. the entire complex of interacting motor actions which resolve the motor tasks most

246
 SUPERTRAINING

...--
1. --
effectively. The most conyen
each movement at intervals separated by M o n s of a second.
The kinematic structure charaderises the interrelation of the separate movements in space
helps to identify those actions d i c h play either a &ndamental or supportive role in determinin
From here it is easy to take one further step to determine the means of perfecting the m
the means and methods of developing functional strength. Naturally, knowledge of the
precise if it is based on quantitative i n f o d o n which can be obtained only from comput
- The analysis of the kinematics of a motor action to model its mechanisms can be based on
phasic structure of the movement (8ccording to Donskoi). The act as a wlrole or its elements
divided into separate phases in which %liedirection of movement, the application of
muscular work are distinguished. The interrelation between separate p h e s enables one to gain so
muscle actionS Bnd the movement as a whole, particularly during critical phases of the task. Such a
will be more complete if forces are simultaneously W e d along with the video
cable tensiometer), thereby permitting the total interaction of the p e m n with the external objects to be
As has already been stated, full reproduction of the complex interact
strength is not alyvays possibk in training. It becomes necessary to exercise locally the intensting muscle
that are crucial for
increased. Such ex
structure of the motor action (see 2.1.2,2.1.3). It has been establis
act, the elements ofthe kinesiological structure develop in a particular pattern of heterochronicity, depen
their origin and manner of interdependence(see 2.2.3).
The development of some elements is determined by their direct interaction with external abjects,
others are determined by indirect interaction with these objects,
indispensable condition for forming
development of its elements. This task can be successfidlyun
special strength training. L .1q~~!.?:;J-::5,:
!
Thus, it must be emphasized again that success in selecting tbe means of special strength
determined by a thorough knowledge of the biomechanics of the movements.

4.4 Strength Training and General Endurance

The scientificallycorroborated concepts concerning energy production for muscular work play an
in solving the practical problems of training. Analysis of the
level of tau:cardiovascular-respiratory and motor systems is
is considered with respect to the respiratory functions and
existing regimes of endurance training are still based on
development is now particularly urgent This question is examined in detail below:
1. Athletes who have equivalent VOr rnax levels show different results, and conversely, athletes
levels of aerobic efficiency demonstrate-thesame results. For example, top middle-distance
1940s had the same VO;!rnax as today's athletes,
1968). There are no statistically reliable differences between athletes of different qualificatio
development of aerobic potential, although there are significant differences with respect to
ciency (Nabotaikova, 1972; Serafinova, 1974; Rusko, 1976).
2. The VO;!rnax levels in highly-qualified athletes stabilises, but results continue to improve. For exarnpl
a 4-5 year period the VO2 rnax levels of the best Soviet and Swedish skaters stabilised, but their resd
improved from year to year (Orlov & Sharova, 1977). V02 rnax levels remained practically unchan
qualified road cyclists over many years of
3. A significant decreas
cyclists (Bakhvalov, 1974;
Naumenko, 1978), skiers (Va&lkv &
middle-distance runners (
1976). There is a decreasing correl

247
 SUPERTRAINING
1
!

i- fficient is R = 0.7 during the preparation period, w h e w it is 0.4 during the competitiveperiod cvwiliev
& Trunin, 1974; Melenberg, 1981).
indicates that V02 max on its own is no guarantee of outstanding performance. It is now recognised
*art from aerobic power, other factors play a rofe, such as the ability to perform work for a prolonged
at a level of oxygen consumption close to the VO2 m a , and the ability to effectively utilise available
gy under competitive conditions. This concerns the decrease in VO2 max during the competition period, a

aerobic and anaerobic processes (Zatsiorsky et al, 1974; Volkov, 1975).

kdatire Capacity and Muscular Endurance
tical improvement of the metabolic processes in endurance sports is associated with increasing the potential
aerobic sources of energy by raising the Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (OBLA), i.e. that level of

Since OBLA dependson VOZm a , it is considered useful to strive to raise V02 max, and in particular, to

gy production of intense muscular work is achieved by recruiting the glycolytic mechanism of ATP
uthesis, it is advisable to execute a specific part of the training load with a high blood lactate concentration.
However. recent research indicates that an increase in endurance is associated more with enhancing the
of the muscles to utilise a higher percentage of the oxygen already in the blood than with increasing the

~ u s c d aenergy
r potential, the power of the oxidative processes and the contractile (strength) qualities of the
k l e s decrease the rate of glycolysis (Newshalme& Randle, 1964; Saltin & Karlsson, 1971; Paul et al, 1966;

d myocardium, as has always been believed, where there is a drop in lactate during and after work
t, 1970; Knutten, 1971;Gollnick & Hermansen, 1973).
the development of endurance is associated withfitnctional specialisation of the skeletal muscles,
the enhancement of their strength and oxidative qualities, rather than improvement of
abiliiy. Consequently, the fundamental emphasis in developing endurance should be to decrease
glycolysis in supplying the energy for work and improve the ability of the muscles to oxidise
umg work, and not simply to improve acoommodation to high concentrations of blood lactate. In other
in addition to utilising the aerobic pathway of energy production with maximum efficiency, the develop-
f e n h c e should be aimed chiefly at eliminating the disparity between the anaerobic and aerobic abilities

1970,:19?4; 0zofin & Partsik, 1970; Danilov, 1980; Kurbanov, 1977; ow ell, 19% ;Kaijser, 1970;
1971; Gollnick et al, 1975). The redistribution of blood and an increase in circulation to the working
to satis.ng the oxygen requirements of the muscles and the removal of anaerobic metabolites..
Differentiation of the vesicular reaction providing effective redistribution of blood flow and an optimal

I
peak blood flow to the lower extremities increases. At the same time, cardiac output decreases during the
competition period, a measure which reflects the efficiency of the cardiovas~uiarsystem (Stepochkin et al, 1970).
The very same conditions which create, economy of aerobic energy production decrease the involvement of
 SUPERTRAINING

concerning antagonism in endurance sport between the development of the aerobic and anaerobic mechanis
must be questioned (Mellenberg'& Khvan, 1982).
One should consider the fact that OBLA (lactate threshold) and VO
each other. It is interesting to note that, while there is some decrease in VO2 max
OBLA can rise (Zatsiorsky et al, 1974; Sirenko, 1979; Nurmekivan, 1974). Rese
concentration can increase by some 6% as a result of training, while the VO2 max level increases by on
(Williams et al, 1967). It has also been shown, that the mean change in VO2 rnax of qualified skaters is 5-1
the competition period, while local blood flow is increased much
1981). This also corroborates the finding that effectiveness of training does n
enhancing the haemodynamic efkiciency of oxygen transport, which thereby can
the tissues by decreasing reliance on the contribution of anaerobic metabolism.
Consequently, together with the rise in strength and oxidative qualities of the muscles, the redistribution
bloodflow and improved local vesicular reaction are impomnt conditionsfor developing local muscle endwa
Sports exercises are performed by specific muscle groups and if metabolic processes in these muscles
especially intense, then the products of anaerobic metabolism accumulate, resulting in fatigue and decreased
capacity. Therefore, adaptation of the muscles to anaerobic work is clearly local in nature. For example, i
trains different muscle groups, then it is possible to achieve approximately equivalent functional effect at the
of the cardiovascular-respiratorysystems. However, it is displayed only in
those same muscle groups (Clausen et al, 1970; Holmer & Astrand, 1972). With skiers, running and i
skiing without poles raises the
not develop the specific phy
imitation skiing and indoor skiing
in the muscles of the upper extre
specific work-capacity for skiing (Yevstratov et al, 1975).
Local muscular endurance is the athlete's ability to produce the
prolonged period without significant fatigue. For example, this may be seen in 4001-11
regarding the changes in stride length and tempo with increase in sport mastery (Fig 4.23). It is
length is maintained with some decrease in tempo at the high-mastery level by means of local stre
In the fatigued state, athletes of different sex and level of qualification all display a greater d
than tempo, but the decrease in speed is associated exclusively with the strength factor.

STRIDE

(per sec)
230 -

STRIDE 220
- 3'8 ' -
LENGTH
(cm)

200 - 3.7 ,
53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46
TIME (secs)

Figure 4.23 Change in stride length accompanying increase in the speed of running 400m (Popov, 1972).
Thus, the importance of local muscle endurance in sports requiring prolonged maintenance of a specific work
output, is obvious. However, practical ways of developing local muscular endurance still need serious research.
Clearly, one should find ways to intensify muscular work in those regimes characterising the given sport and
utilise special strength exercises for this purpose (Verkhoshansky, 1977).
Strength Training and General Endurance
With respect to what has just been discussed, one should examine the research showing that strength training leads
to a greater rise in haemoglobin content (Petrov & Lapchenkov, 1978) and myoglobin (Pattengale & Holloszy,
1967; Hemmingsen, 1963) than endurance training; and that strength training, even in the beginning stages of

249
 SUPERTRAINING
I
I
I

butes more to the larg&hpmvements in distance sports than aerobic t r a h h g (Memimshchii &

mussen, 1969; Cook &

s attention. Methods
I

are a major factor-indetennining progress in cyclic sports, especially in longer distance I

ore, the a h v e data justify the importance of solving the problem of enhanoing enduranceIwhere it
lex resultant of motor abilities (Reindel, 1962; Roskamm &al, 1952; Brogli & Antomv,

form of a scheme of training complexes based on the interaction between the cardiovascular-

haracteristics of endurance agree with the concepts of the motor-visceral reflexes (Mogendovich, I
scle contraction (Arshavsky, 1967). In d o e with these concepts, the I

I
een them, as is quite common in the methodology of special physical training. I

Process of Functional Specialisation

cus on the process of functional specialisation over many years of training, its most general features may
esented in an ascending flowchart (Fig 4.24). We are endowed with an enormous ability to execute any
task and perfect this ability. We have flexible mechanisms of coordination, regulation and energy
the ability to produce movements which require the display of speed, I
sms ensure the success of human activities in daily life and offer extensive
ies for adaptation (Level 1). Changes in environmental conditions imposed by sport activities in training
mpetition stimulate the motor function, which coordinates all muscular activity (Level 2). The motor
n specialises chiefly by developing the ability to display explosive force and specific endurance
ndent of the type of sport (Level 3).
1
STRUCTURE OF SPECIAL PHYSICAL PREPAREDNESS SPECIALISED
ABILITIES

COORDINATION
I

It should be noted that specific endurance may be predominantly cardiovascular or local muscular in nature. In
addition, explosive force relates closely to the motor qualities of starting strength, acceleration-strength and
&solute strength (see 3.2.1). The intensive stage of functional specialisation follows which, along with further
improving its survival capability, forms the structure of special physical preparedness (Level 4). The latter
 SUPERTRAINING

displays its own form with respect to interaction of the cardiovascular-respiratory and motor systems,
secure the athlete's high work-capacity.

structure of special physical preparedness is determined by the specific training regime, and does not re1
conditions imposed by other sporting activities. This fact should be noted by anyone who may be contemp
the use of generalised cross training with various sports.
Factor Analysis

This type of information, gathered from results in many sports, indicates that there are distinc
the structure of an athlete'sphysical preparedness with increasing sports proficiency, with marked
being observed between athletes of high and low qualification.
The data in Table 4.1 show that athletes (high jumpers, Class 1-MS), concurrently with in
proficiency, develop the specific ability to generate powerful force during the take-off in jumping exercises
I) and perfect the ability to powerfully extend the body with the dynamic participation of the knee an
extensor muscles (factor III).

indicators which characterise the explosive capabilities of the plantar flexors shift from factor I1 (Class 2
athletes) to factor IV (Class 1 athletes and MS), the contribution of which diminishes significantly. On the
the role of special physical preparedness of jumpers increases with level of qualification.

Power of plantarRexors Power of knee extension isometrically 23.4

Power of knee extension in dynamic regime 150 Power of knee extension dynamically 18.5

Isometric strength of knee extensors 10.5 Powerof ~ x o r s

acquired during the run-up. Furthermore, the plantarflexors play a diminishing role, because under in
overloading the muscles of the support leg are already unable to make a significant contribution to the dynami
the take-off.
The nature of the changes in an athlete's structure of special fitness in cyclic sports is presented in Table 4.
One should note the sharp rise in the role of energetic efficiency of special work and multifaceted technic
preparedness, factors which make an increasing contribution to general development. One should also point o
that the first two factors (power and aerobic capacity) of Class 1 athletes may be combined as one factor (i.
 the major factors displayed by a large sample of

Energetic efficiency of executing speciftc work 36.5

Multi-faceted technical preparedness

Power of anaerobic processes Power d anaerobic processes

indicate that a high level of aerobic potential still does not ensure top-level performance in skating.
erate a high level of aerobic power, it necessary to have exceIlent movement technique and a high
c (non-oxidativeglycolytic) productivity, thereby expanding the athlete'smotor capabilities.
or research offers a useful statistical model of the structure of the athlete's special physical