Extinction of Dinosaurs

Theories of dinosaur extinction

Naturally, such a mystery as dinosaur extinction has spawned a wide range of theories, ranging from the plausible to
the entertaining.36–41 In 1963, a geologist counted 46 theories, and many more have been added since then.42 Probably
only the cause of the Pleistocene ice age has generated as many bewildering theories. (As of 1968, there were 60
theories for the cause of the ice age.43 In 1957, a prominent ice age specialist, J. K. Charlesworth, summarised ice
age theories:

‘Pleistocene phenomena have produced an absolute riot of theories ranging “from the remotely possible to the
mutually contradictory and the palpably inadequate.”’ 44)

Some dinosaur extinction theories postulate that dinosaurs died from the cold, while others suggest the beasts died
from the heat, or else it was too hot in the summer and too cold in the winter. One theory hypothesises that the
climate became too wet, while another that the climate dried out to kill off the dinosaurs.

The dinosaurs could have starved to death or died from overeating. Or their extinction may have been caused by a
nutritional problem, such as newly ‘evolved’ flowering plants not providing the proper nutritional balance. Or the
flowering plants could have evolved poisons that killed the dinosaurs, as some theorise. A variant on the poisoning
theme is that poisonous insects evolved and stung the dinosaurs into extinction. Others thought the water became
poisonous with chemicals. Another ingenious twist is that butterflies and moths evolved and the larvae stripped the
plants of leaves causing the herbivores to pass away, bringing on the extinction of the carnivores. Another theory
suggests the herbivorous dinosaurs simply changed their eating habits to a less favourable diet, causing the demise
of all the dinosaurs. Some postulate that too many carnivores decimated the herbivorous dinosaurs.

Astronomical or geophysical causes have often been invoked, for instance a change in the earth’s gravity, the axial
tilt, or a reversal in the magnetic field. Some postulate a sudden bath in cosmic radiation. One theory, reinforced at
one time by the iridium anomalies in sedimentary rocks, is that a supernova exploded near the earth. 45 In this case the
supernova would have increased the solar proton flux, which would have broken down the protective ozone layer,
allowing ultraviolet radiation to zap the dinosaurs. Or the supernova explosion could have sharply increased cosmic
rays.46 Another imaginative hypothesis claimed that intense volcanism spewed up large quantities of radioactive
elements, so that the dinosaurs died of radiation poisoning.

In 1978, it was proposed that a spillover of cold brackish water from an isolated Arctic Ocean caused an ecological
chain reaction, first killing off the pelagic plankton and ending with the terrestrial animals. 47 Another terrestrial
theory postulated that the land became too hilly. Many palaeontologists favour a regression of shallow seas, which
suppressed dinosaur speciation rates and increased extinction rates. The mechanism for this vague hypothesis
supposedly was due to competitive interchange between faunas and increased disease vectors.

A variety of theories suggest that either the pressure or some other component of the atmosphere changed to kill off
the dinosaurs. One example is a decrease in carbon dioxide; another example is an increase in oxygen given off by
too many plants. However, others have suggested oxygen decreased due to a decrease in plankton.48

A past popular favourite was that little mammals, waiting for ‘the great die-off ’ in order to evolve, advanced
dinosaur extinction by eating dinosaur eggs. However, vertebrate palaeontologists generally believe the mammals
were too small to have accomplished this feat.49

There is a large list of far-fetched to entertaining theories (some possibly suggested tongue-in-cheek), including
extinction by parasites, slipped vertebral discs, hormonal disorders, shrinking brains, chronic constipation, over
specialisation, inability to change, becoming too large, senility, hyperpituitarism, cataracts, racial senescence (they
simply lived long enough), and social problems causing malformations of their bones during growth. Charig lists the
following as the most outrageous: poison gases, volcanic gases, meteorites, comets, sunspots, God’s will, mass
suicide and wars.50 Interestingly, volcanism, meteorite impacts and cometary collisions are now the major
contenders, and I will argue that the real reason is an ‘act of God’ through the agency of the worldwide Genesis
Flood. ‘Outrageous’ geological theories, for example, J. Harlen Bretz’s Spokane Flood as the origin of the
channelled scabland in eastern Washington, USA, should not be so freely dismissed.

In spite of the recent dominance of the meteorite hypothesis, scientists continue to add new causes or subsidiary
causes for the extinction of the dinosaurs. Some of these recent mechanisms are:

1. cancer triggered by huge bursts of neutrinos released by dying stars in the Milky Way Galaxy; 51,52
2. AIDS;53 and
3. hypercanes, super hurricanes that could be triggered by meteorite impacts, causing environmental
catastrophe.54,55

Revival of the meteorite extinction theory

Ever since 1980, the meteorite hypothesis has swept to centre stage, and a large literature now surrounds it. Back in
1979, the meteorite hypothesis was considered outrageous by many geologists. The turnaround came with the
discovery of an iridium (Ir) anomaly at the Cretaceous/ Tertiary (K/T) boundary. 56 In thin clay layers (1 cm to
several tens of centimetres thick) found at Gubbio, Italy, and at Stevns Klint, Denmark, the contained Ir
concentrations were increased 30 and 160 times respectively above background levels. The earth’s crust is depleted
in iridium and other platinum group elements, while meteorites are enriched in them. A 10 km diameter meteorite
was said to have injected 60 times its mass in pulverised rock into the stratosphere, causing a cooling trend that
wiped out about 50 percent of the biota, including all the dinosaurs. Conversely, others envision the impact caused a
sudden, short-term temperature rise, instead of cooling from a ‘nuclear winter’-like mechanism. 57 The sudden
heating supposedly was caused by an oceanic impact which injected water into the stratosphere producing a ‘vapour
canopy’ effect.

It did not take long to discover Ir anomalies at other K/T sites.58–60 Currently, there are 103 known K/T iridium
anomalies from around the world, mostly in marine sediments either on the bottom of the ocean or on land.61 As for
the frequency of meteorite bombardment, Eugene Shoemaker estimated that the earth probably was struck 5 to 10
times by meteorites that formed craters greater than 140 km in diameter. 62 So an impact at the K/T boundary is not as
outlandish within the uniformitarian paradigm as many first thought. Other scientists using computer climate models
reinforced the scenario of disastrous climatological and ecological effects. 63

The discovery of shocked quartz in eastern Montana, USA, in 1984,64 and at many other sites around the world65
since then, is considered further proof of the meteorite hypothesis. Shocked quartz differs from ordinary quartz, in
that the crystal lattice has become compressed and deformed by pressure. Under a scanning electron microscope, the
quartz exhibits planar striations in one or more directions on a crystal face.

Various other, more minor and equivocal evidence has been adduced in favour of the meteorite/asteroid extinction
hypothesis, such as:

1. a palynological change from ferns to angiosperms in ‘continental’ deposits;66

2. the existence of microtektites,67 which are small, droplet-shaped blobs of silica-rich glass;
3. soot-rich horizons supposedly from global wildfires caused by the heat of impact;68
4. various isotopic ratios;69
5. various other platinum group elements;70 and
6. the discovery of the ‘smoking gun’—the Chicxulub structure on Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula.71

Thus, the meteorite extinction theory has seemingly been verified by an overwhelming amount of observational
data.
Climate change:

One widely accepted theory of dinosaur extinction is that of great climatic changes which the dinosaurs

were not able to adapt to.  There are many possible causes to these changes.  And there are more

disputes about these causes than the eventual result (the earth’s environmental change and the

dinosaurs’ incompatibility to it).  Some of these changes may have been a result of the drifting of the

continents.  In this time of mountain building, the earth’s crust would have undergone violent upheavals.

     With the shifting of the continents came great climatic changes in the environment.  There became

increases in the difference of latitudinal temperature.  During the time of the dinosaurs, the temperatures

between the equator and the poles were relatively similar.  When these differences occurred, also came

different seasonal temperatures.  With these changes in temperature “(it became too hot or too cold, for at

least part of the year) and in rainfall (it became too dry, causing the disappearance of the swamps and

lakes in which many of the dinosaurs are supposed to have lived, or too wet, causing floods).  Movement

of the earth’s crust, up or down, could have produced the same effects.  The Walt Disney film Fantasia 

chose to show the Cretaceous dinosaurs (including a Jurassic Stegosaurus !) dragging themselves

hopelessly to their deaths over a hot waterless desert”  (Charig 1983).

     But perhaps these changes did not take place so suddenly.  “From the fossil evidence it is difficult to

see much climatic difference between the late Cretaceous and early Cenozoic time”  (Colbert 1983). 

Another argument against the climatic change theory is would this have affected all  the dinosaurs?  For

example, why has the crocodile survived?  All the dinosaurs, small and large, became extinct.  If the

crocodile survived, why didn’t other small dinosaurs survive?  Perhaps the  earth’s waters experienced

less drastic changes?  Or perhaps the water already had varying degrees of temperature and the animals

within it were accustomed to these temperature variations.  But, many aquatic creatures have also

become extinct.
Starvation:

Another cause in the dinosaurs’ demise may have been a change in the vegetation that the dinosaurs fed

upon.  Changes which caused the vegetation to be inedible would have led to obvious results.  Perhaps

more plants evolved to be poisonous to the dinosaurs.  If dinosaurs were similar to present day reptiles,

they would have had a poor sense of taste; and thus would not have been able to taste the bitter and

poisonous alkaloids contained in some of the flowering plants that evolved in Late Cretaceous times.

     Or, there may have been just a sudden lack  of vegetation due to several reasons.  The climatic

changes mentioned before certainly would have had this outcome.  With the evolution of plants and the

arrival of flowers, also came along butterflies and moths.  Butterflies and moths fed almost entirely on

plants; thus decreasing the supply.  Today, their numbers are kept down by natural enemies such as

birds.  But these natural enemies to moths and such were absent at the time of the dinosaurs  (Charig

1983).

     The dinosaurs’ enemy may have been smaller and more deadly than plant-eating moths.  An

unknown, wide spread epidemic or disease may have plagued them.  With the environment evolving, new

diseases, bacteria, viruses and such could arrive.  And again, the question arises; would this have

affected all  the dinosaurs?  “Diseases and epidemics are generally rather specific in their effects; closely

related animals may suffer from the same diseases, but more distantly related forms are usually immune. 

There were many genera and species of dinosaurs, belonging to numerous families and higher

categories”  (Colbert 1983).

     Rather than these gradual and natural developments, several theories argue that a tremendous world-

wide cataclysmic event caused the sudden extinction of the dinosaurs.  Many of these theories include

some event that caused great changes to the atmosphere and environment that was impossible to adopt

to.  One such theory is that in this time of continental upheaval and drastic change to the earth’s crust,

great volcanic eruptions emitted so much dust and ash as to block the sun and change the atmosphere. 
Resulting effects would have been a drastic reduction in photosynthesis of plants; the base of the food

chain on earth.  These same effects may have also been caused by a great comet, meteor, or asteroid

from outer space.  These catastrophic theories may have explained the wide, global nature of this event;

but why were not all the animals affected?  Would not the mammals be affected by these same drastic

changes in the earth’s atmosphere?

     Some discredit the cataclysm theory by again indicating the global and far-reaching nature that such

an event would had to have had.  “The cataclysmic hypothesis can receive no support.  We have shown

that dinosaurs were world-wide in distribution, and, of course, they did not live alone.  Many other kinds of

creatures lived on land, in the air, and in the sea whose history would have been profoundly affected by

any great catastrophic change in environmental or other conditions”  (Swinton 1970).

     Other arguments not mentioned before include the over-abundance of meat-eaters.  These meat-

eaters may have ate so many plant-eaters that they themselves starved.  Another theory is that the little

mammals of the Cretaceous period liked to eat dinosaur eggs; so much so that the dinosaurs died out.

     These varied arguments are near impossible to verify and may not answer the question, “This caused

the extinction of all  the dinosaurs everywhere ?”  The dinosaurs of the late Cretaceous were so varied

and populated such a large area of the continents that a cause of extinction would have had to been

gradual, but global enough to effect all the dinosaurs; or if the cause was sudden, it would have had to be

so catastrophic and immense in nature as to effect every corner of the globe.

     Evidence that dinosaurs died out in a short time can be seen at the North Horn Formation in Utah.  At

a certain point in ancient sediments dinosaur bones can clearly be seen.  “Then at a certain point in the

sequence there are no more dinosaur fossils, while within a few feet above that level are the remains of

early mammals.  There are no changes in the sediment to indicate the break (no disconformity,  in

geological parlance), yet the fossil evidence is clear and unequivocal.  The dinosaurs died out and a short

time later...primitive mammals appeared in force”  (Colbert 1983).

     Whether or not the extinction was sudden or gradual, the question still remains as to why it was not

complete.  Many crocodiles, turtles, lizards, snakes, fish, amphibians, and other invertebrates survive to

the present day; while many “ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, mosasaurs (...giant sea-going lizards), flying

reptiles, and certain invertebrates...were going the way of the dinosaur”  (Ostrom 1984).  Those searching

for an answer to dinosaur extinction look for a common lethal factor.  But, perhaps it was not just one

cause, but several of these hypotheses working in concert.  For now, this question remains one of the

great mysteries of science.