SECTION 9

INTRODUCTION TO DATA INTERPRETATION

© 2017 Plant Integrity Limited

 Guided Wave Pipe Inspection

CONTENTS

9. INTRODUCTION TO DATA INTERPRETATION. 3

9.1 Identifying known features. 3
9.2 Data Annotation. 7
9.3 Setting DAC curve. 8
9.4 Complex pipeline geometry. 9
9.5 Ghost/Mirror Signals. 10
9.6 Anomalies 10
9.7 Principles of Operation and Interpretation (Teletest specific) 12

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9. INTRODUCTION TO DATA INTERPRETATION.

The operation of Guided Waves is greatly simplified by the use of computers to calibrate the
equipment, and gather, store and display test data. However, the interpretation of test data relies on
the skill of the test operator. Although this is true of all NDT methods, other methods have developed
over a period of more than 50 years and considerable experience has been gained in the interpretation
of results. Guided waves have been used practically in the field for a fraction of this time and therefore
the pool of expertise from which to draw interpretation best practice is small.
Interpretation expertise has to be gained from experience.
These notes are only able to provide a framework for best practice. This framework is based on a
number of steps to interpreting A-scans. In the Teletest software, some of these steps are automated
but the principle is explained in the following text.

9.1 Identifying known features.

Welds.

Once data has been collected the first step in interpreting A-scans is to identify the known pipe
features. It is recommended that a basic isometric sketch of the area to be examined is made to assist
with this process. The most common and easily identifiable features are the girth welds. Girth welds are
a uniform axi-symmetric feature, so will be displayed as a predominantly black trace on the A-scan
presentation. Although this feature is axi-symmetric it will also display varying amounts of flexural
content (Red trace = Horizontal, Blue trace = Vertical) depending on weld quality. Fig 9.1 displays two
standard girth weld responses. Girth weld response are normally a marker used in setting the DAC
curves.

Figure 9.1 – Standard girth weld responses

Girth welds along with their uniform echo dynamic are usually easily identifiable due to the regular
spacing between them (diameter dependant). In many cases a 12m (approx. 40ft) spacing is commonly
seen on many pipelines. In some cases there maybe differing lengths, such as sections of pipe that
have been cut out and replaced. (Pup sections).
Other Axi-symmetric features that may be present on pipelines are Flanges and in some cases
circumferential pipe support clamps

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Flanges.
Flanges, although less frequently seen than girth welds, are also axi-symmetric features The signal
received from a flange may appear ‘weld’ like due to its predominant black trace on the A-scan. The
noticeable differences between the two signals are the received amplitudes and echo dynamic
response. A flange will usually display a slightly more chaotic signal to that of a girth weld due to its
more complex geometry. In some instances usually on higher frequency scans it may be possible to
resolve the signals from the end face of the flange and its connecting weld. In some cases when the
pipework is devoid of girth welds a flange may be used in setting the DAC curves. Fig 9.2 displays two
flange signals. Although the flanges displayed below are from separate scans one displays a lower
frequency response compared to the other which has been collected at a higher frequency range.

Lower frequency Higher frequency

Figure 9.2 – Standard flange responses

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Bend Welds (Elbows).

Bend welds or elbows display differing responses depending on which side of the bend they appear.
When viewing Fig 9.3 Which displays a 90 degree elbow joint and corresponding a-scan trace the tool
is fired in the direction of the green arrow. The first bend weld will appear almost identical to that of a
girth weld because it’s essentially the same feature although sometimes with a slightly higher amplitude
to that of a standard girth weld. The second bend weld will normally display a drop in amplitude and
display a higher flexural response depending on the bends orientation. In the case of the bend below
there is a gap of over 1m between the two bend welds due to the large pipe diameter. When testing
pipes of this size there may be the presence of another signal annotated in the scan below as
‘phantom bend’. When sound propagates around a bend the majority of the energy travels on the
external radius Fig 9.4.These signals are a product of a small proportion of the sound energy travelling
on the bends internal radius which is a shorter distance in comparison to the external radius. We
therefore get two signals from the same feature. On pipes with a smaller diameters this type of signal is
not resolved from that of the signal from the external radius so is not usually seen.

Figure 9.3 – 90 degree vertical elbow 36 inch pipe

Figure 9.4 – FE presentation of sound propagation around a 90 degree pipe bend

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Pipe supports.
Signals received from pipe supports can vary dramatically depending on their style and wherever they
are welded, clamped or resting. An ideal scenario for a Guided Wave inspection would contain pipe
supports that have no welded or mechanical connection to the pipe as this would improve onward
wave propagation when compared to supports that are welded or tightly clamped. The signal received
from supports may also change in appearance depending on which wave mode is being utilised. Fig
9.5 shows a photo and a typical response from a ‘saddle’ style pipe support. Many pipe supports
designs are poor and can lead to corrosion so extra care should be taken when inspecting them. When
inspecting multiple supports from one location use a comparative means of inspection. If the supports
are the same style they should exhibit a similar response on the A-scan display. If one of the supports
has a very different response to several others it should be investigated further.

Figure 9.5 – Saddle pipe support and typical A-scan response

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Branches and T’s.

Branches and T pieces are commonly seen pipe features which cover a large spectrum of non axi-
symmetric reflectors of various diameters including vents, valves, weldolets, instrumentation points etc.
The signal response seen from this group of features is largely dependent on diameter. Smaller
diameter features such as vents or drain valves will give a small flexural response depending on its
orientation but will have little effect on the onward travelling wave. More severe effects are seen at
larger diameters when testing such features as a branch or T piece which has an equal diameter to
that of the main carrier pipe. These features will also exhibit a strong flexural component but may have
a detrimental effect to the onward travelling wave.

Figure 9.6 – Branch with FE display.

9.2 Data Annotation.

Operators should annotate the responses with the corresponding description in the feature menu
shown in Fig 9.7. In cases where a suitable description is not available in the feature menu the ‘see
info’ option should be selected. Once selected the user can manually enter a free text description into
the relevant ‘extra info’ box located in the feature list table. Fig 9.8. The annotation procedure is
described in more detail in Section 5 Introduction to the Teletest software. Note: The feature menu
option ‘Ignore’ is used to prevent a Ghost/Mirror signal from appearing on the cluster plot display.
However, when using this option it is best practice to add extra info to explain why it should be ignored.

Figure 9.7 – feature annotation

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Figure 9.8 – Extra information annotation

9.3 Setting DAC curve.

The second step for data analysis is to set the DAC curves. These provide markers for classifying
anomalies.
The Teletest software will attempt to identify responses from girth welds. If more than one weld is
identified in each test direction DAC curves are set automatically. The operator should check that the
automatic identification of girth welds is correct before continuing.
If the Teletest software is unable to identify more than one girth weld the operator will need to set the
DAC curves manually by dragging them into place using the -14dB (Blue) curve. An example of
correctly set curves is shown in Fig 9.9 & 9.10. The DAC curve setting procedure is described in more
detail in Section 5 Introduction to the Teletest software.

Noise

Figure 9.9 – DAC curve Example (Logarithmic mode)

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Figure 9.10 – DAC Curve example (Linear mode)

9.4 Complex pipeline geometry.

All pipe features and changes in pipe geometry reflect ultrasound. In some situations pipeline geometry
may be too complex to obtain a confident diagnosis as signals from multiple features in close proximity
may obscure signals from metal loss damage Fig 9.11.

Flanges

Branch
Girth Welds

Pipe Contents
Coatings

Support Collars
Internal Deposits

Figure 9.11 – multiple pipe features

As explained previously, the Teletest software provides help for the detection an identification of girth
welds. Unfortunately, the signature from welds is similar to that of flanges so extreme care should be
taken during the DAC curve setting process and therefore, as previously mentioned part of the
information gathering process should include a sketch showing the pipe with all visible features. Only in
this way may some types of metal loss damage be distinguished from geometric features.

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9.5 Ghost/Mirror Signals.

These may result from locating the transducer tool close to a large symmetrical reflector e.g. Flange or
from incomplete cancellation of unwanted wave modes. Fig 9.12.
D Pipe ends

Tool

30
Weld

‘Ghost’
20

st
lo
v
i
lli 10
M

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
2D Metres

Figure 9.12 – Ghost Signal

When using the Torsional wave mode if cancelation has not been optimised a mirror signal of an
indication may be visible in the opposite scan direction. As the T(0,1) wave mode is non-dispersive the
mirror signal will appear at the exact opposite distance of that of the real feature. (I.e. a flange at -3m
would appear in the +3m position when viewing A-scan WRT Tool).
When using the Longitudinal wave mode extra care must be taken as in some cases it may be possible
to receive Ghost/mirror signals from the dispersive L(0,1) wave mode. In most cases the L(0,1) wave
mode is destroyed before leaving the transducer tool, however, at non optimum frequencies small
amounts of this wave mode may propagate along the pipe.
Detection of this type of Ghost/mirror signals can be more complicated as the group velocity (Vg) of the
L(0,1) wave mode is approximately half that of L(0,2). Remember an un-cancelled L(0,1) signal will
usually have a broader base due to its dispersive nature.
As this system calculates the time of flight of the wave modes it is assumed when using Longitudinal
that the received signals will be travelling at the group velocity (Vg) of that of L(0,2) which is
approximately 5900m/s
In cases where we receive signals from the L(0,1) wave mode the signals will appear at approximately
twice the distance of the real feature due to the fact that the wave is travelling at approximately half the
speed therefore taking twice the time to cover the same distance.

9.6 Anomalies
A signal is characterised as an anomaly by a process of elimination. Anomalies require further
investigation to determine their true nature.
An anomaly need not be corrosion.
Typically, corrosion reflects flexural, F(1,2) and F(1,3) wave modes, rather than symmetrical signals
from incident L(0,2) or T(0,1) waves. Corrosion could only be expected to reflect solely L(0,2) and
T(0,1) waves if it is symmetrical about the pipe circumference.
The identification and assessment of any corrosion from any anomaly is qualitative.
Guided Wave ultrasonics is a screening tool, not an assessment tool.
Anomalies identified on A-scans are grouped into three broad categories with respect to their signal
amplitude.

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If the peak signal of an anomaly is below the –26dB DAC curve it is categorised as Cat 1. If it is
between the –26dB and –20dB DAC curves it is categorised as Cat 2 and if it is greater than the –20dB
DAC curve it is categorised as Cat 3. Fig 9.13

Figure 9.13 – DAC curves and anomaly categorisation levels

Along with the initial amplitude categorisation, where possible, circumferential distribution information is
taken into account. This information is gathered by conducting supplementary focus tests. Further
details of both amplitude and circumferential categorisations are to be found in the following subsection
9.7.
As an aid to data interpretation the Teletest software allows a visual representation of all signal
amplitudes within a data set. This takes the form of pseudo C-scan presentation known as the
Amplitude map (A-map). Use of this feature is explained in a software based tutorial which is access as
shown in Fig 9.14

Figure 9.14 – Access to A-Map tutorial

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9.7 Principles of Operation and Interpretation (Teletest specific)

Teletest employs low frequency guided waves, operating just above audible frequencies, propagated
from a ring of transducers fixed around the pipe. These low frequencies (in ultrasonics terms) are
necessary to enable the appropriate wave modes to be generated. At these frequencies a liquid
couplant between the transducers and the surface is not necessary, satisfactory ultrasonic coupling
being achieved with mechanical or pneumatic pressure applied to the back of the transducers to
maintain contact with the pipe surface. The uniform spacing of the ultrasonic transducers around the
pipe circumference allows guided waves to be generated which propagate symmetrically about the
pipe axis. These may be visualised as a circular wave that sweeps along the pipe. The whole of the
pipe wall thickness is excited by the wave motion, the pipe acting as a wave guide - hence the term
guided waves.

The propagation of these guided waves is governed principally by the frequency of the wave and the
material thickness. Where the wave encounters a change in pipe wall thickness, whether an increase
or a decrease, a proportion of the energy is reflected back to the transducers, thereby providing a
mechanism for the detection of discontinuities. In the case of a pipe feature such as a girth weld, the
increase in thickness is symmetrical around the pipe, so that the advancing circular wave front is
reflected uniformly. Thus the reflected wave is also symmetrical, consisting predominantly of the same
wave mode as the incident wave. In the case of an area of corrosion, the decrease in thickness will be
localised, leading to scattering of the incident wave in addition to reflection and mode conversion will
occur. The reflected wave will therefore consist of the incident wave mode plus the mode converted
components. The mode-converted waves tend to cause the pipe to flex as they arise from a non-
uniform source. The presence of these signals is a strong indicator of discontinuities such as corrosion.
Teletest is able to detect and to distinguish between symmetrical and flexural waves and both types
are displayed.

The reflections are displayed as rectified signals in an amplitude vs distance 'A-scan' display, similar to
that used in conventional ultrasonics, but with a time-base range measured in tens of metres rather
than centimetres.

A major complication for guided wave systems as distinct from conventional ultrasonics is the
dispersive nature of guided waves, that is to say, the velocity of most guided waves varies with their
frequency. This causes a variety of complications, one being that to calibrate the time base of the A-
scan to read distance and not time, requires a computer program to read in a velocity for the selected
test frequency from a calibration, or 'dispersion' curve. There is a library of dispersion curves built into
the Teletest software for a range of pipe diameter/wall-thickness combinations.

Girth welds in the pipe produce dominant signals in the A-scan and act as important markers, used to
set a distance amplitude correction (DAC) curve on the display with which signals from anomalies can
be compared.

Before the signals on the A-scan can be interpreted, DAC curves are placed on the display. The
signals from girth welds in the pipe that decay away gradually with distance make ideal reflectors with
which to set the DAC. From experience, it is known that the reflection from a girth weld with normal cap
and root profile is 14dB (a factor of 5) less intense than the reflection from the pipe end (i.e. total
reflection). Furthermore, experience also shows that an area of thinning which has resulted in a loss of
cross-sectional area of 9% in the pipe wall will produce a signal that is a further 12dB less intense than
the signal from the girth weld. This –26dB level is used as a threshold for evaluating signals.

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Under certain circumstances the general level of background noise may be such that it is not possible
to distinguish any features on the time-base. In this situation it is not possible to set the test sensitivity
and the test will be deemed as Inconclusive. This may also apply where, due to a very high attenuation
rate, it has not been possible for the ultrasound to propagate any usable distance. This can occur when
the external surface of the pipework is in poor condition, if the internal surface is generally pitted, if the
pipe is coated with an attenuative coating, for instance ‘Denso’ and Bitumastic wrappings, or there is
an internal build up of scale or sludge.

DAC curves
There are up to 5 DAC curves on the A-scan:

0 DB CURVE
A pipe end or flange acts as a near perfect reflector. This may be demonstrated on a single length of
pipe in the laboratory and may be used to set an absolute reference sensitivity. This reference is
normally described as a 0dB reflector. If displayed on the A-scan view, this DAC is the black curve.

-14 DB CURVE
A field girth weld typically provides a reflectivity equivalent to 20% (-14dB) of a pipe end. Whilst there is
a small amount of variability from weld to weld, this premise does hold up well in practice. The –14dB
DAC curve is a blue line on the A-scan.

-20 DB CURVE
This line is the mid point between the -14dB (Weld) curve and the -26dB (9% Threshold Level) curve. It
marks the break point between Category 2 and 3 anomalies. The –20dB DAC curve is a red line on the
A-scan.

-26 DB CURVE
A metal loss feature having a cross-sectional area equivalent to 9% of the pipe wall cross-section gives
a reflectivity equivalent to 5% (-26dB) of that from the pipe end. This threshold level, viewed on the A-
scan as a green line, is used to sentence anomalies. Anomalies giving signals that are close to, but do
not break the –26dB curve are normally sentenced as Category 1. Anomalies, which provide signals
that exceed the –26dB curve but do not exceed the -20dB curve, are described as Category 2.
Anomalies that provide signals that exceed the –20dB curve are described as Category 3.

-32 DB CURVE
This curve is used to determine the effective test range. This enables a callable anomaly (-26dB) to
have a signal to noise ratio of 6dB or better. This level of signal to noise is necessary for effective
interpretation of the test data and effectively acts as a limit of both testing range and sensitivity to
smaller anomalies.

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Reporting
The Teletest operator uses the A-scan display for interpretation purposes. For normal service work, the
client is provided only with a series of reports that are generated by the Teletest software. To record
signals in the report, the test operator simply selects relevant signals in the A-scan with the screen
cursor. The program automatically measures the peak of the signal as a value above or below the –
26dB DAC curve (the signal amplitude obtained from 9% reflectors) and measures the distance of the
leading edge of the signal from the centre line of the transducer. An offset may be entered which allows
distance to be measured from a known datum point rather than from the transducer.
The Teletest report also contains information about the test that was entered by the operator prior to
collection of data, for example pipe identification, test location and pipe size.

Flaw Classification
The -26dB line is the reporting level, such that a signal exceeding this is giving a response equivalent
to an idealised 9% area flaw. Teletest is a screening tool, so that the classification of a response as
'Category 2' or 'Category 3' identifies that, in the opinion of the interpreter, further investigation of that
area is desirable. A 'Category 3' classification denotes that the amplitude of the response was such that
the presence of a large flaw is likely. A 'Category 1' classification denotes that a definite signal was
observed, but it did not break the reporting level. Such indications are recorded, as for some
applications the detection of small flaws is desirable and it may be required to monitor the area for
possible growth of such flaws with time. Information about 'Category 1' indications therefore provides a
valuable baseline for such exercises.

The classification of 'Category 1', 'Category 2' and 'Category 3' for anomalies detected is qualitative.
Whilst there is a relationship between the amplitude of reflection from idealised defects and their size,
such that large reflections arise from large defects, responses from real flaws are much more complex.
Therefore, while large responses are only likely to arise from large flaws, the converse is not
necessarily true as the shape and orientation also affect the response amplitude.

Indications identified on the A-scan plots are evaluated on the basis of a combination of their signal
amplitude and their directionality from any focused scans conducted (focused scans available for pipe
diameters 6” and above). This takes into account that large amplitude responses will be from a large
cross-sectional area defect. Small defects cannot produce large amplitude reflections. However, a
small amplitude response does not necessarily mean that the defect is small, as the response may be
affected by a number of factors.
In order to provide a means of identifying defects which are potentially significant in terms of the
integrity of the pipe it is also necessary to examine how localised the response is in terms of the pipe
circumference. This may be obtained from the focused tests and is plotted on a polar response chart.
The results from focused tests are analysed in terms of the directionality of the response.

If the polar plot shows a high level of directionality, indicated by a single peak in the plot at one focus
angle, it is classified as directionality 3 Fig 9.15. This indicates that the defect is highly localised on a
narrow part of the circumference, so that it is likely to be deep for a given amplitude of response.

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Figure 9.15 Directionality 3 responses from focused tests

If the polar plot has two adjacent high amplitude responses it is classified as directionality 2 Fig 9.16.
This suggests that the defect is localised, but has some circumferential length.

Figure 9.16. Directionality 2 responses from focused tests

If the polar plot has 3 or more adjacent high amplitude peaks it is classified as directionality 1 Fig 9.17.
This suggests that the defect is spread over a wide area of circumference, so that it is likely to be less
deep for a given response amplitude.

Figure 9.17. Directionality 1 response from a focused test

If the polar plot shows a reduced level of directionality, indicated by a multiple peaks at several angles,
it is classified as directionality 0 Fig 9.18. Under these circumstances the anomaly can only be
classified using signal amplitude criteria.
This situation may occur when focusing on circumferential features such as clamped pipe supports. In
these circumstances the response should be given a directionality score of 1.

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Figure 9.18. Directionality 0 response from a focused test

The overall classification is obtained by multiplying the two values, category x directionality. A score of
3 or greater gives a recommendation for a High priority follow up, a score of 2 gives a Medium priority
and a score of 1 gives a low priority. This is summarised in the table below.

Category Directionality Score Follow up priority

3 3 9 High
3 2 6 High
3 1 3 High
2 3 6 High
2 2 4 High
2 1 2 Medium
1 3 3 High
1 2 2 Medium
1 1 1 Low

Table 9.1 – Follow up matrix

Hence a defect with a high amplitude response always results in a high priority follow up (unless
deemed to be a feature such as a weld), as does a low amplitude response which is highly directional.
Interpretation of the Teletest signals requires a thorough understanding of the factors which influence
the test output and, as with any other sophisticated examination method, experience of the
interpretation process.

Quantitative inspections such as Radiography or Conventional UT are recommended on all

classifications of anomalies.

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