Escapism in relation to Leisure Activity Engagement

A study on escapism in relation to leisure activities in relationship with

depression, interpersonal problems and self esteem
among Delhi University students.

Priyambada Bhagawati

Under the supervision of

Dr. Preeti Kapur

Department of Psychology

Daulat Ram College

Delhi University
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “Escapism in relation to Leisure Activity
Engagement” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the degree of
Bachelor of Arts in Psychology (honors) from Daulat Ram College, University of
Delhi, Delhi, is a faithful record of bonafide research work carried out by
Priyambada Bhagawati under my guidance and supervision. No part of this project
has been submitted for any other degree. All the assistance received during the
course of investigation has been acknowledged by her.

Dr. Preeti Kapur

Department of Psychology,

Daulat Ram College,

University of Delhi,

Delhi
 Acknowledgement
Every work, big or small, is invariably a product of collective effort. This project, in this regard,
is no different. First, I would like to acknowledge my research partners, Neti Ranjan and Nishtha
Jain without whom it would have been impossible to carry out this research. This research is an
output of collaboration of their great minds and collective hardwork.

I would like to acknowledge my project guide Dr. Preeti Kapur. She guided me at every stage
very patiently and actually turned out to be the wind beneath my wings by her constant
encouragement. At times when I was myself not very sure about the direction the project was
taking, she egged me on and also saw to it that my faith in myself returned. I am deeply indebted
to her for my growth as a researcher as well as a person during the last two months of working
on this project. She is my inspiration.

In their own way, my parents and siblings also have had much to contribute. My heart thanks to
all of these special people in my life, for just being there.

I wish to express special thanks to the Department of Psychology (Daulat Ram College) for
providing its best facilities and resources for the purpose of carrying out this project.

Priyambada Bhagawati
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables

List of Figures

Abstract

Chapter Topic Page No.

No.

1. Introduction 8-25

2. Methodology 26-28

3. Analysis 29-36

4. Interpretation and Discussion 37-40

Conclusion 40

Limitation of the Study 41

Implications and Significance of the Study 41

References

Appendices
 List of figures

S.No. Figure Title Page No.

No.

1 3.1 Pie Diagram indicating the type of escapism of the 30

sample.

2 3.2 Pie Diagram indicating the type of escapism of female 30

participants.
3 3.3 31
Pie Diagram indicating the type of escapism of male
participants.

Pie diagram: depicting the relation between the type of 32

4 3.4
escapism with high depression

Pie diagram: depicting the relation between the type of 32

5 3.5
escapism with moderately high depression

6 3.6 Pie diagram: depicting the relation between the type of

32
escapism with moderately low depression

7 3.7 Pie diagram: depicting the relation between the type of

33
escapism with low depression

8 3.8 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of

33
escapism and high interpersonal problems
9 3.9 34
Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of
escapism and moderately high interpersonal problems

Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of

10 3.10 34
escapism and moderately low interpersonal problems

11 3.11 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of 34

escapism and low interpersonal problems
12 3.12 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of 35
escapism and low self esteem

Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of 35

13 3.13 escapism and moderately low self esteem

Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of

36
14 3.14 escapism and moderately high self esteem

Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of

15 3.15 36
escapism and high self esteem
 ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to study the concept of escapism in relation to leisure activities
in relationship with depression, interpersonal problems and self esteem among Delhi University
students. In other words, the research was conducted to study the type of escapism (self
expansion or self suppression) of the sample taken and its relationship with depression,
interpersonal problems and self esteem. For this the sample of 40 students (males=20,
females=20) was taken from Delhi university using purposive sampling technique. The data was
collected using self constructed interview schedule and College Adjustment Scale (Anton
&Reed, 1991) was used to measure the three variables. The results show that self suppression in
relation to activity engagement is positively related to depression and interpersonal problems and
negatively related to self esteem. Vice versa, self expansion in relation to activity engagement is
negatively related to depression and interpersonal problems and positively related to self esteem.
Thus the way we indulge in leisure activities and more importantly why we indulge in leisure
activities has an impact over our other life domains.
 INTRODUCTION

A common understanding of escapism might be that it represents different types of reliefs from
the routines and obligations of everyday life (Cohen & Taylor, 1992). Escapism has even been
proposed to be a survival mechanism typical of humans (Tuan, 1998). However, the term raises
several questions: From what do we escape? To where do we escape? How do we escape? In the
psychological literature, the escapism term has been used to describe coping with emotional
distress by repressing acknowledgement of the stressors causing the stressful situation (Folkman
& Lazarus, 1980, 1985; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In a similar manner, Baumeister (1990,
1991) describes suicide attempts, eating disorders, and drug abuse as escapes from the self.
Individuals may find relief in these harmful activities because they withdraw focus from the self
and direct it toward the execution of concrete actions. Baumeister suggests that performance of
these actions induces cognitive narrowing, a state characterized by lowered self-awareness and
decreased self-evaluation. At the same time, research conducted in sports and leisure contexts
indicates that individuals engage in health-promoting activities in order to momentarily reduce
self-awareness and forget about their daily hassles (e.g., Hutchinson, Baldwin, &Oh, 2006;
Iwasaki, 2003). For example, the phenomenon of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), described as a
highly satisfying psychological state obtained through activity engagement, is characterized by
an enhanced focus on one’s actions and reduced self-evaluation. In other words,
Csikszentmihalyi’s flow state, regarded as nourishment for one’s well-being, resembles
Baumeister’s description of cognitive narrowing in behaviors associated with psychological
malfunctioning. This illustrates a paradox in the sense that an escape from the self is found in
both self-destructive acts and activities regarded as conducive to optimal psychological
functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

1.1 The State of Escape

Different interpretations of escape have been linked to several types of activity engagement.
Manfredo, Driver, and Tarrant (1996) reported “escape from personal–social pressure” as one of
15 categories of leisure motivation. Similarly, Ledgerwood and Petry (2006) identified escapism
as one of three basic psychological experiences that result from gambling. Escape has also been
identified as a motivating element in other studies of gambling activities (Getty,Watson &Frisch,
2000), alcohol consumption (McCreary&Sadava, 1998), and leisure activities such as watching
TV and listening to music (Hutchinson et al., 2006). The consistent findings of escapism in these
studies indicate that the phenomenon can be linked to different types of activities. These studies
have also shown that escape from the self by means of activity engagement is pleasurable.
However, any elaboration of these findings is difficult, as no general definition of escapism in
activity engagement has been devised. Activities entail different sets of affordances (Gibson,
1979; Norman, 1988) in terms of psychological experiences. In the same way that physical
objects invite specific actions, activities provide an opportunity to utilize specific experiences.
When this idea is applied to the present conceptualization of escapism, we suggest that the
experience of escapism in activity engagement rests on three basic affordances embedded in the
activity, these being task absorption, temporary dissociation, and reduced self-evaluation.

1.2 Definitions of Leisure

The concept of leisure can be traced back to the Ancient Greece, where philosophers like Plato
and Aristotle regarded leisure as an ideal state of being devoted to contemplation, discourse, and
self-expression (Kleiber, 1999). Typical leisure activities in Athens around 400 B.C. included
gymnastics, reading and writing poems, and various play pursuits. In other words, they were not
much different from popular leisure engagements nearly two and a half millennia later. Modern
definitions of leisure deviate from those of Plato and Aristotle in the way that they often define
leisure as opposed to time devoted for work. In the aftermath of the industrial revolution – and
the growth of societies which in many ways suppressed humans’ volitional initiative and
thwarted their sense of freedom - leisure time was seen as an increasingly unique and valuable
part of people’s lives. In line with this post-industrial understanding of leisure, Russel (2005, p.
32) defines leisure as “time available after obligations” and “the residual time that remains after
such tasks as work, study, and personal maintenance are completed”. However, this definition
illustrates a weakness in the mainstream conceptualization of leisure. Typical definitions of the
leisure domain are based on what it is not, and not on what it is. However, this might be a
consequence of the complexity of leisure. Leisure time is spent in so many ways that it is hard to
capture some essence or general aspects of how individuals choose to use their time off from
obligations.
Contemporary leisure research is an interdisciplinary field including sociology, anthropology,
sport sciences, and psychology. Several journals are dedicated to the publication of research
papers on leisure (Leisure Sciences, Leisure Studies, Journal of Leisure Research), and papers
presented in these journals contain a wide array of philosophical and methodological viewpoints.
Despite that leisure is mostly conceived as a personal affair, the number of studies on leisure
from a psychological perspective is relatively few. If leisure is a “state of mind” (Russel, 2005),
it is time to try to describe this state of mind in light of psychological theories. When we start to
investigate leisure behavior from a psychological viewpoint, we will be in a position to define
what leisure is, and not only what it is not.

1.2.1 Leisure as One of Life’s Domains

Leisure time is for most people more or less filled with different types of structured activities.
These activities can range from cultural activities, such as going to the movies, reading books,
and painting, to sports activities like jogging, playing football, and parachuting. Different types
of spiritual experiences may also qualify as leisure activities: going to the church and joining
Yoga-lessons may both fit conventional definitions of leisure. These examples illustrate that
leisure activities vary a lot on the contextual level, but importantly, they seem to have a common
denominator: they are psychologically rewarding. In the context of positive psychology
(Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), leisure activities should have a positive impact on life
satisfaction, and several studies imply such a relationship. In addition to offering the individual
stimulating experiences when engaging in the activity, engagement in leisure activities seems to
have a spill-over effect on general well-being (Edginton, De Graaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006).
According to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), activity engagements that are
motivated out of autonomous reasons will facilitate need satisfaction and positive affect. So, if
leisure is “time left after obligations”, then leisure activities should at least be nutritious in terms
of self-actualization and optimal functioning.
A study by Vallerand et al. (2003) shows the prominent role that leisure activities play in
people’s lives. When asking college students to define their favorite activity, a large majority
named activities that traditionally belong to the leisure domain. However, having a favorite
activity might not only be a blessing. Like most things in life that are psychologically
stimulating, some people tend to get an increased craving for it. The literature on leisure has
mostly taken for granted that leisure activity engagements respresent an exclusively positive part
of people’s lives. Studies on leisure and life satisfaction have mostly focused on the obstacles to
leisure, and have discussed the negative effects from not having time and possibilities to engage
in leisure activities. Not many have explored the negative effects of devoting too much time to
leisure activities. But if one allows including e.g. gambling and drug use into the leisure concept
through the favorite activity concept, then it becomes evident that leisure time is not only spent
in activities known to be positive for the individual in the long run.

Although the characteristics, the number, and the importance of domains must be regarded as a
personal issue, most people have one thing in common: these domains are constantly tapping
from the same sources of energy, time, and money available in our lives. We only possess a
limited number of hours pr. day, and we have to attend to our daily and weekly obligations to
function in a modern society. This matter of limited resources entails that we constantly have to
regulate the resources invested into the different life domains. In this context, the leisure domain
constitutes a potential source of conflict and distress when having a craving to unconditionally
allocate large portions of resources into a leisure activity. On the other hand, a life domain
perspective on leisure may also highlight the uniqueness of the leisure domain in opposition to
other life domains. Humans are determined to dedicate their resources to activities that have
some sort of contingencies attached to them (Deci & Ryan, 2000). People’s appreciation of
leisure activities and their strong motivation to engage in them indicate that these activities offer
inputs that are less available in other life domains.
Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) suggests that optimal functioning depends on
the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, namely autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Applied to a leisure activity context, the satisfaction of individuals’ need for autonomy
(deCharms, 1968) involves the experience of engaging in an activity for intrinsic reasons, and
that engagement in the activity is in accordance with one’s personal goals and values. The
satisfaction of the need for competence (White, 1969) involves a feeling of being capable of
mastering the challenges the activity brings, and about perceiving some sort of progression
through one’s engagement in the activity. The need for relatedness (Baumeister & Leary, 1995)
pertains to the experience of being included in a social context, and applied to people’s favorite
activities this implies that one feels close to individuals that one cares for and is appreciated by
when engaged in the activity. Several studies have shown that autonomy, competence, and
relatedness satisfaction are closely attached to well-being (see Deci & Ryan, 2000) In accordance
with the leisure-domain approach, one of the reasons that leisure activities are so highly
appreciated may be that they contribute uniquely to the satisfaction of these three basic
psychological needs.
In the study by Vallerand et al. (2003), where people were asked to name their favorite activity,
the average time spent pr. week in the activity was 8.4 hours. Later studies on people’s favorite
activities have reported mean values of around ten hours (Vallerand, Rousseau, Grouzet,
Dumais, Grenier, & Blanchard, 2006; Vallerand, et al., 2007). That such an amount of time is
devoted to people’s favorite activity indicates that the activity has a special position in their
everyday lives, and that the activity is not one of several activities of a similar character.

1.2.2 Theories on Leisure Motivation

Leisure researchers have been describing motivation for leisure engagement from several
scientific viewpoints. Some of these suggestions are heavily context-related, like the overview
made by Driver and Brown (1986; in Edginton et al. 2006), including categories such as
“enjoying nature”, “outdoor learning”, and “family kinship”. Others are more inspired by
sociological theory, which is evident in some of the categories of leisure motivation presented by
Tinsley, Teaf, and Colb (in Edginton et al. 2006), including “sense of power/control” and
“service to others”, besides the more psychologically laden motives described as “self
expression” and “stimulation”. Also relevant is the taxonomy of leisure motivation by Cheek and
Burch (1976; in Edginton et al. 2006). They propose that leisure motivation stems from three
categories of needs to be met in leisure engagement, namely sociological (e.g. comparison,
identity, communication), psychological (e.g. sensation-seeking, confidence), and physical (e.g.
fitness, skills, strength). Together, these examples illustrates the wide set of leisure motives
incorporated in the current literature.
1.3 The Dualistic Model of Passion
The Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand, Rousseau, Grouzet, Dumais,
Grenier, & Blanchard, 2006; Vallerand, et al., 2007) addresses individual diversity in relation to
motivation for engagement in activities. Empirical investigations of the model are based upon
individuals’ descriptions of their experiences in relation to their favorite activity, or more
specifically, an activity that they define as a passion, that they like, that are important to them,
and in which they spend a significant amount of time on a regular basis. The model distinguishes
between two dimensions of engagement in activities that correspond to these criteria.
Harmonious passion is described as an autonomous, balanced, and dynamic engagement in one’s
favorite activity, whereas obsessive passion is described as a controlled, conflicted, and
inflexible type of activity engagement. Studies have found harmonious passion to be related to
positive affect (Vallerand et al., 2003; Mageau & Vallerand, 2007), and adaptive psychological
adjustment (Amiot, Vallerand, & Blanchard, 2006). In a more general context, harmonious
passion has also been found to predict life satisfaction (Vallerand et al., 2007). However, many
of these studies also found obsessive passion to be related to the opposite of these constructs, that
is, negative affect (Vallerand et al., 2003) and maladaptive adjustment (Amiot et al., 2006). In
other words, having a passion activity may be conducive to well-being, but for some individuals,
engagement in seemingly healthy activities induces negative psychological consequences.

The Dualistic Model of Passion (Vallerand et al., 2003; 2006; 2007) has recently gained
additional power through a number of studies investigating its applicability in different
populations such as professional dancers (Rip, Fortin, & Vallerand, 2006), dramatic art students
(Vallerand et al., 2007), and different categories of athletes including basketball players, water
polo players, synchronized swimmers (Vallerand et al., 2006) and hockey players (Amiot et al.,
2006). Most of the findings are compatible with the model’s theoretical assumptions in terms of
the proposed dualism of passion towards activities. The theoretical background of the model
derives from the principles regarding internalization of behavior as outlined by self-
determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000). In SDT, internalization refers to the integration
of values, beliefs, and attitudes from the environment into the self, and thereby constitutes an
important part of the process of socialization. Thus, when certain activities are internalized into
the self, they may become central parts of one’s identity. When the activity has been transformed
from being an action to being stated as a personal feature, then the internalization process has run
its course. As shown in previous studies (Vallerand, 1997; see also Deci & Ryan, 2000), values
and regulations concerning activities can be internalized into one’s identity in either a controlled
or an autonomous fashion.
The Dualistic Model of Passion proposes that obsessive passion stems from a controlled
internalization of the passion activity, while harmonious passion stems from an autonomous
internalization of the activity into one’s identity. A controlled internalization is posited to derive
from intrapersonal or social pressure, like performing to be rewarded, to enhance self esteem, or
because the excitement experienced through the activity takes control over the individual and
leads to a more excessive involvement in the activity. Vallerand and his coworkers (2006) found
support for the existence of these two distinctive ways of internalization in relation to passion
activities. In a study on recreational athletes they found that harmonious passion was related to
an autonomous personality orientation, whereas obsessive passion was related to a controlled
personality orientation. Since personality orientations are likely to be stable over time, these
findings support the idea that the way the activity has been internalized is a highly relevant
predictor for the development of harmonious or obsessive passion. Furthermore, individual
differences regarding internalization may explain several of the consequences that are observed
in relation to the two types of passion. A controlled internalization helps explain a compulsive
pattern of activity engagement and its negative consequences, including lack of positive affect
(Vallerand et al., 2003) and addiction-like psychological effects when prevented from
engagement in the activity (Mageau & Vallerand, 2007; Vallerand et al., 2003, study 1). When
internalizing an activity for causes beyond one’s own, one seems to loose the intrinsically driven
initiative that supports healthy engagement in the activity. In contrast, when internalizing the
activity freely without any contingencies attached to it, this seems to assure the positive spin-offs
observed in relation to harmonious passion, including positive affect (Vallerand et al. 2003) and
subjective well-being (Vallerand et al., 2007).

1.3.1 Passion and Well-being

The relationship between passion and well-being has been explored in several studies on the
Passion Model. Vallerand et al. (2003, study 1) found positive correlations between harmonious
passion and self-reported positive emotions experienced after activity engagement in a sample of
college-students, whereas obsessive passion correlated positively with measures of negative
cognitions and negative affect when individuals were prevented from engaging in their passion
activity. Furthermore, in a sample of football players, Vallerand et al. (2003, study 2) found that
harmonious passion predicted increased levels of general positive affect at the end of the football
season as compared to the beginning of the season, whereas obsessive passion predicted
increased general negative affect during the same period. Surprisingly, despite the increased
negative affect reported by players with a dominantly obsessive approach towards the activity,
only obsessive passion predicted intentions to proceed with the activity the following season.
The authors discussed these findings in light of the rigid persistence that may evolve when
internalizing an activity for non-autonomous reasons.
This line of interpretation of the forces behind the two types of passion is also supported by
the findings made by Amiot, Vallerand, & Blanchard (2006). They applied a longitudinal design
(3 waves) to investigations of psychological adjustment in relation to harmonious and obsessive
passion. The results support the interpretation of passion as dependent on the context in which it
unfolds. Concordance or conflict between the type of passion one has developed for one’s
favorite activity and the demands of the environment jointly predicts psychological outcomes.

In other words, if one belongs to an environment that fully accepts an obsessive approach to
activity engagement, then no detrimental effects on well-being might be present. Likewise,
being a harmonious individual in an obsessive environment, this conflict might attenuate or
evaporate the positive effects on well-being expected from this approach to the activity.

1.3.2 Passion in a Life Domain Context

As mentioned previously, the definition of passion activities may count for many leisure
activities. In line with passion activities, people describe their leisure activities as activities that
they like, that are important to them, and in which they spend a significant amount of time on a
regular basis (Edginton et al., 2006). As Vallerand et al. argue (2003), an internalization process
provides that the passion activity becomes a part of one’s identity; it becomes a personal feature
which one carries with oneself in different contexts. Combined with a high degree of
engagement, this implies that passion for a leisure activity affects life outside the activity itself.
From a life domain perspective, being passionate about a leisure activity may have both positive
and negative spill-over effects on the different domains of one’s life. Approaching the activity in
a harmonious manner may assure engagement that is nutritious for need satisfaction, positive
affect, and subsequently for general well-being. The individual will be able to regulate the
resources put into the activity in a way that fits to a broader scope of obligations situated in other
life-domains. The positive outcomes of engaging in the activity are experienced and highly
valued, but because the individual is in control of the passion these personal incentives will be
postponed when apprehending a need to invest resources into other life domains. In this way,
harmonious passion for a leisure activity will function as a continuous contribution to life
balance.
In contrast, obsessive passion for an activity is derived from a controlled internalization of the
activity, which in turn leads to a less autonomous and flexible engagement. Since the
engagement in the activity is less rooted in one’s own interest and preferences, the obsessive
individual will experience problems in relation to the exertion of control of the engagement. On
an applied level, such an approach towards a leisure activity may lead to conflicts regarding the
resources which are invested in the activity. When the activity takes control over the individual,
as described by Vallerand et al. (2003), the strong interest feeds on resources that may have been
invested into other life domains. Obsessive passion may therefore inflict conflicts of both an
intrapersonal and interpersonal level. As a result, an obsessive engagement in the leisure activity
will be detrimental to life balance and general well-being.

1.4 The Two-Dimensional Model of Escapism

Escapism is a rarely seen term in psychology texts. Even in the Oxford Dictionary of Psychology
(Colman, 2001) - which contains more than 10,500 entries - the word “escapism” in not
included. Is this because escapism is not a psychological phenomenon? Probably not, but I
suppose the term often has been judged as too ethereal to be scrutinized on the realm of modern
psychology. However, although theoretical elaborations of the term have been sparse, the work
by Baumeister (1990, 1991) on escape from self is highly relevant for the approach to activity
engagements. Baumeister links the act of escaping self to engagement in specific behaviors. In
his article titled Suicide as Escape from Self (1990), Baumeister presents a causal chain which
eventually may lead to suicide or suicide attempts.
This chain starts which events where the individual fail to live up to own and/or others standards
and expectations. These events are attributed internally, which thereby leads to decreased self-
worth. This condition makes self-awareness painful and therefore intentions to avoid self-
evaluation evolve. Then, the person will search for actions that reduce self evaluation to escape
this painful state, more explicitly, approach situations and acts which entail cognitive narrowing.
Cognitive narrowing is characterized by i.e. proximal goals, concrete thinking, distorted time
perception, and cognitive rigidity. Baumeister argues that suicide ideation is one way to enter a
state of cognitive narrowing, in the sense that the mere act of suicide demands planning and
performance of concrete actions. In this way, suicide becomes an escape from self both on a
psychological and physiological level. Baumeister also argues that other harmful and seemingly
irrational acts can be derived from the need to escape from self, like binge eating, sexual
masochism, and drug abuse (Baumeister, 1990, 1991).
Cognitive narrowing may be experienced in relation to engagement in many activities, including
activities seen as healthy to the individual. In fact, many leisure activities may be said to contain
activity affordances in order to promote the experience of cognitive narrowing. In relation to
engagement in leisure activities, cognitive narrowing is obtained through action attention. Action
attention is characterized by a state where the individual experiences 1) task absorption, 2)
temporary dissociation, and 3) reduced self-evaluation. Together, these psychological
experiences work in the direction of the individual experiencing an escape from self. It may be
said to characterize the mere “state of escape”, and therefore, we suggest that escapism can be
investigated in relation to leisure activities.
Action attention is associated with cognitive narrowing in the sense that it reduces self awareness
in directing focus on concrete actions, proximal goals, and limited aspects of self. However,
unlike Baumeister’s conceptualization of escapism, we suggest that this condition should not
always be conceived as negative to the individual. The experience of action attention is not
harmful in itself. To illustrate this, we argue that there are several similarities between cognitive
narrowing and the flow state as described by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). The flow state is argued
to be attained through engagement in different activities such as sports, arts and even work.
Csikszentmihalyi identifies nine factors as accompanying an experience of flow: 1) clear goals,
2) concentrating and focusing, 3) loss of the feeling of self consciousness, 4) distorted sense of
time, 5) direct and immediate feedback, 6) balance between ability level and challenges, 7) a
sense of control, 8) intrinsically rewarding, 9) general immersion in the activity. Several of these
factors may be argued to resemble the description of cognitive narrowing made by Baumeister
(1990, 1991), like clear goals, loss of self-consciousness, and distorted time perception. These
similarities may seem paradoxical: whereas cognitive narrowing is related to self-destructive
behaviors like suicide and eating disorder, the flow state is seen exclusively as a positive
experience conducive to well-being. In other words, the utilization of the activity affordance of
action attention may give very different outcomes.

The Two-Dimensional Model of Escapism makes use of Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT;
Higgins, 1998) to explain why action attention can be related to both ill-being and well-being.
Based on the hedonic principle that people approach pleasure and avoid pain, RFT states that
behaviors performed to obtain well-being origins from two very different motivational
directions, namely promotion focus or prevention focus. A promotion focus directs individuals
towards the obtainment of their superior standards and ideals. Promotion focus motivates the
person towards nurturance of the self and to allocate attention towards the positive outcomes of a
desired end-state. In contrast, motivation incited from a prevention focus leads the individual
towards obtainment of concordance between one’s actions and perceived duties and obligations.
Engagement based on prevention focus draws one’s attention towards the inhibition of negative
outcomes related to a potential failure of reaching a desired end-state. A prevention focus
complies with motivation to protect the self from threats towards its unity and stability. Inspired
by the hedonic principle incorporated in Regulatory Focus Theory, we suggest that individuals
differ in their self-regulatory viewpoint with regards to intentions to engage in escape-facilitating
activities. Specifically, while one person can approach action attention to promote the
achievement of prospective positive experiences in activity engagement, another person might
engage in order to prevent thinking on precedent negative experiences or prospective challenges.
The goal of obtaining the state of action attention through activity engagement will be similar for
both persons and both will be concerned with the temporary enhancement of well being.
However, their initiative for entering the pleasant state of escape is instigated from very different
standpoints. The promotion-guided person engages in order to attain positive affect, whereas the
prevention-guided person will engage in order to experience absence of negative affect. A
promotion focus in escapist engagement will be accompanied by a favourable anticipation of the
positive experiences attainable through getting immersed in the activity. The activity is viewed
upon as a self-developing opportunity which offers complementary experiences compared to
other important activities in life. Individuals with a promotion focus are inclined to evaluate their
engagement in their favorite activity in a positive manner, both regarding the situational
outcomes in terms of i.e. affect and need satisfaction, but also in a more holistic context by
means of a positive apprehension of it’s impact on life satisfaction. Escapist engagement out of
promotion intentions will correspond to a volitional organismic integration process known to be
facilitative for optimal functioning (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Accordingly, this type of activity
engagement is defined as self-expansion. In contrast, approaching action attention with a
prevention focus will be accompanied by a deconstructive apprehension of one’s attributes,
which in turns restricts the person’s possibilities with regards to obtaining self-developing
experiences through activity engagement. The activity is viewed upon as an instrument to avoid
the apprehension of negative aspects of self and to temporary direct one’s attention away from
disturbing memories or future obstacles. In line with principles of emotion dynamics (Gross &
Levenson, 1993), an allocation of the cognitive resources in direction of a moderation of
negative affect will also reduce the likelihood of enhancement of positive affect. Engaging out of
prevention intentions will temporary block self-threatening objects from consciousness, but it
will not facilitate the self-enhancing and satisfying experiences in activity engagement known to
be conducive to well-being. Therefore, escapist engagement out of prevention motives is defined
as self-suppression.

1.4.1 The Escapism Model in a Life Domain Context

As emphasized previously, leisure activities exist within a broader system of life activities
situated in different life domains. Consistent with such a dynamic understanding of leisure
activity engagement, we propose that self-expansion and self-suppression are differently affected
by the person’s life circumstances. The self-expansion approach will supposedly be largely
independent of negative life events and emotional distress, mostly because individuals with a
promotion orientation hold a stable apprehension of the purifying outcomes in relation to a
temporary escape from self, but also because they possess self regulation resources which protect
them from exploiting the activity in a suppressive manner when energy should be allocated
elsewhere. When individuals with a promotion focus are experiencing trouble in other life
domains their engagement in their favorite activity will either be put to a hold, or be approached
in order to relieve stress by doing something that promotes positive affect. In contrast, self-
suppression will supposedly be enforced by poor life circumstances. Since self-suppressive
engagement is motivated by prevention of negative thoughts and emotions, this type of
engagement will supposedly elevate during troubled times. Individuals with a dominantly self-
suppressive approach will intensify their maladaptive escapism-engagement in order to
temporarily remove disturbing elements from consciousness. When individuals with a prevention
focus are experiencing trouble in life domains outside the activity, the favorite activity will be
regarded as a “safe haven” and be approached more intensely to suppress negative thoughts.
However, this might lead to a downward spiral because this type of activity engagement will not
result in elevated energy or vitality, but only drain resources that should be allocated in direction
of sorting out the sources for the problematic life situation.

In sum, the Passion model and the Escapism may complement each other towards a better
understanding of peoples’ engagement in leisure activities.

1.5 Psychological Variables under study

1.5.1. Depression
Depression is a common emotional disorder, which causes distress and impairs functioning. The
cognitive, physiological, behavioural and motivational symptoms are the core features of this
disorder (Beck, 1967) and different combinations of these symptoms are experienced by
depressed individuals (Hair et al., 1998). The severity of these symptoms of depression can range
from mild to severe (Angst and Merikangas, 1997). While depression is a community wide
problem which affects many people of all ages, gender and cultures (APA, 2000), university
students (the term refers to university and college students) also commonly experience
depression. Estimates of depression in the university population ranges from 30% of students
experiencing some level of depression to around 15% of students experiencing clinical levels of
depression at any one time (McLennan, 1992; Rosenthal and Schreiner, 2000). Depression is a
serious problem for university students. Depressed students are shown to have problems with
university academic work and motivation, and report receiving lower grades than non-depressed
students (Lyubomirsky et al., 2003; Vredenburg et al., 1988). Depression also causes more
global problems for students, such as decreased quality of life and increased risk of suicide (Beck
and Young, 1978; Simpson et al., 1996).
1.5.2. Interpersonal Problems
An interpersonal relationship is a strong, deep, or close association/acquaintance between two or
more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring. This association may be based on
inference, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or some other type of social
commitment. Interpersonal relationships are formed in the context of social, cultural and other
influences. The context can vary from family or kinship relations, friendship, marriage, relations
with associates, work, clubs, neighborhoods, and places of worship. They may be regulated by
law, custom, or mutual agreement, and are the basis of social groups and society as a whole.
Interpersonal problems are recurrent difficulties in relating to others, and are a common reason
why people seek psychotherapy (Horowitz, Rosenberg, & Bartholomew, 1993). A social
cognitive approach to understanding interpersonal problems assumes that people who react
differently to social situations think differently about those situations. When two or more parties
have to solve a problem together, their judgment is often clouded by avoidable conflicts and
emotional tensions. We try to develop methods that help them to reformulate the problem
towards a win-win situation, using methods such as emotional management, empathetic
understanding of the other's perspective, and systematic analysis of the preconceptions
underlying the problem.

1.5.3. Self Esteem

Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect person's overall emotional evaluation of his
or her own worth. It is a judgment of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self. Self-esteem
encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am competent," "I am worthy") and emotions such as
triumph, despair, pride and shame. Smith and Mackie define it by saying "The self-concept is
what we think about the self; self esteem, is the positive or negative evaluations of the self, as in
how we feel about it." Self-esteem is also known as the evaluative dimension of the self that
includes feelings of worthiness, prides and discouragement. One's self-esteem is also closely
associated with self-consciousness.

Self-esteem is a disposition that a person has which represents their judgments of their own
worthiness. In the mid-1960s, Morris Rosenberg and social-learning theorists defined self-
esteem as a personal worth or worthiness. Nathaniel Branden in 1969 defined self-esteem as "the
experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life and being worthy of
happiness." According to Branden, self-esteem is the sum of self-confidence (a feeling of
personal capacity) and self-respect (a feeling of personal worth). It exists as a consequence of the
implicit judgment that every person has of their ability to face life's challenges, to understand
and solve problems, and their right to achieve happiness, and be given respect

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Psychological escapism: predicting the amount of television viewing by need for cognition
By Henning, Vorderer (2006)
Abstract:
Germans spend an average of more than 3 hours watching television each day. Among them,
there are many who turn on their TV sets for less than 1.5 hours a day, and others who do this for
more than 8 hours a day. What accounts for these differences? The central thesis in this paper is
that individuals may be distinguished by their attitude toward thinking and that differences in
their need for cognition explain the differences in their time spent with TV. The lower viewers'
need for cognition is, the less pleasant they feel when they have nothing to do because there is
nothing left to do but think. The easiest way for individuals to escape this pressure to think is by
watching TV. Thus, individuals will watch more TV when they have a lower need for cognition.
Results of a survey study show that the concept of escapism proves to be useful in explaining TV
use when it takes over a psychological perspective as well as a sociological one.

A dualistic approach to leisure activity engagement : on the dynamics of passion, escapism,

and life satisfaction
Stenseng, Frode(2009)

Abstract:

In three papers, the present thesis examined the applicability of psychological theories on
motivation in a leisure activity engagement context. It is argued that research on leisure
motivation could benefit from a less contextual and a more idiosyncratic perspective on leisure
activities. The concept of activity affordances is presented in order to highlight the person-
activity fit that takes place when a certain activity is approached. This concept suggests that
activities with different attributes may offer the same psychological experiences as well as
proposing that individuals may approach identical activities with different mindsets depending
on their well-being, need satisfaction motives, personality characteristics, and so on. These
motivational dynamics that evolve between the person and the activity is the primary objective of
the present thesis. In these three papers, the Dualistic Model of Passion is investigated in a
leisure context. This model is dualistic in the sense that it proposes two distinctively different
motivational constructs in relation to passionate engagement in activities. Specifically, the
Passion model includes harmonious passion, a motivation which origins from an autonomous
interest in an activity that leads to positive emotions and general well-being, and obsessive
passion, which stems from a controlled internalization of the activity that undermines flexible
engagement in the activity and constitutes a threat to well-being. In addition, the present thesis
includes the development of another dualistic model in relation to leisure activity engagement
that pertains to motives to escape from the self through investing interest in an activity. Two
dimensions of escapism were proposed: self-suppression and self-expansion. Self-suppression
escapism derives from motivation to avoid negative evaluation of self by getting focused on an
activity, whereas self-expansion is motivated from facilitations of positive experiences by getting
immersed in an activity. The results supported the theoretical proposals, showing that these two
dimensions have different determinants and outcomes. Self-suppression was related to ill-being
and poor psychological adjustment, whereas self-expansion was related to flexible activity
engagement and positive affective outcomes. The findings from the studies in the present thesis
give conditional support for a motivational dualism in leisure activity engagement. Harmonious
passion and self-expansion were related to positive affective outcomes and subjective well-being,
whereas obsessive passion and self-suppression were related to general and activity-related
negative effect, poor psychological adjustment, and intrapersonal conflicts regarding the
resources invested in the activity. The Passion model and the Escapism model complemented
each other in terms of affective outcomes from activity engagement. In sum, these findings show
that leisure activity engagement can be conducive to well-being, but also, and in contrast to the
traditional view upon leisure activity engagement, that leisure activities also may pose a threat to
life satisfaction.
The dark side of leisure: obsessive passion and its covariates and outcomes
Stenseng, Rise & Kraft (2009)
Abstract:
The present paper challenges the notion that engagement in leisure activities is exclusively
conducive to well‐being. By applying the Dualistic Model of Passion in a leisure context on 467
participants, the measurement of obsessive passion for a leisure activity was related to indicators
of ill‐being and unrelated to general well‐being. In Study 1, obsessive passion for a leisure
activity was associated with activity addiction, escapism engagement, and intrapersonal
conflicts. In Study 2, obsessive passion was negatively related to basic need satisfaction in
activity engagement as well as positively related to negative affective outcomes from activity
engagement. We argue that the present findings may lead towards a broader understanding of
motivation and outcomes in leisure activities

PRESENT STUDY

Escapism has been proposed to be a survival mechanism typical of humans (Tuan, 1998). To
cope with the complexities of life and break the shackles of responsibilities and duties we often
indulge in so called ‘healthy leisure activities’. Leisure time is for most people more or less filled
with different types of structured activities. These activities can range from cultural activities,
such as going to the movies, reading books, and painting, to sports activities like jogging,
playing football, and parachuting. But are these leisure activities really healthy? Or does it have
an impact over our lives? A leisure activity becomes passion for people if they like it, it is
important to them, and in which they spend a significant amount of time on a regular basis.
Individuals approach their favorite activities with different escapism motives according to their
regulatory focuses and their life circumstances. According to the dualistic model of escapism,
escapism is of two types: self expansion and self suppression. Even though two individuals may
engage in the same activity for the same amount of time, they might not get equal amount of
satisfaction from the activity. It is because the motive behind the indulgence can be quite
different depending on various factors. Thus it becomes important to know not only what activity
we indulge in but also why we indulge in it. Also, our indulgence in various leisure activities
seems to have an impact on other life domains.
Two of the most common leisure activities that the youth indulges in are television viewing and
reading books. For some, TV viewing and reading are not just leisure activities, but it has come
to play a critical and vital part of their life. With time such activities have become very important
to them and they often spend a significant amount of time for it. Thus, this research has been
conceptualized to study the type of escapism that results in the indulgence of either of the two
activities i.e. TV viewing and reading books among youth and it’s relationship with depression,
interpersonal problems and self esteem.

OBJECTIVES
The objective of the present research is to study escapism in relation to leisure activity
engagement namely tv viewing and book reading in relationship with depression, interpersonal
problems and self esteem.
HYPOTHESES

On the basis of the concepts and review of literature discussed above, the following hypotheses
were arrived at:

1. There will be a significant relationship between depression levels and type of escapism
a. The individuals with self suppression type of escapism will have higher depression
levels.
b. The individuals with self expansion type of escapism will have lower depression
levels.
2. There will be a significant relationship between interpersonal problems and type of
escapism.
a. The individuals with self suppression type of escapism will have higher interpersonal
problems.
b. The individuals with self expansion type of escapism will have lower interpersonal
problems.
3. There will be a significant relationship between self esteem levels and type of escapism.
a. The individuals with self suppression type of escapism will have higher self esteem
levels.
b. The individuals with self expansion type of escapism will have lower self esteem
levels.
 METHODOLOGY

The present study focuses on the dualistic concept of escapism in relation to leisure activities on
the dynamics of depression, interpersonal conflicts and self esteem.

Design of the Study

There is a healthy and an unhealthy approach to engagement in favorite activities, and that they
evolve dependent on conjunctive effects of personality characteristics and external factors. To
explore this journey that is undertaken, it was decided to study university students who engage in
either tv viewing or reading books or both.

Mixed method approach was used to collect data and towards this end, both qualitative and
quantitative methods were employed because of the resultant methodological pluralism which
results in richer data. The quantitative measure used was College Adjustment Scale (Anton and
Reed, 1991). The qualitative measure used was structured interview schedule. It was employed
to gain an insight as to whether the indulgence in the leisure activities i.e television viewing and
reading novels is driven by self expansion or self suppression type of escapism.

Delhi university students were decided upon as the sample. The age of the participants ranged
from 18 to 23 years. College students were taken as sample as with the sudden increase in
responsibilities and with the increasing competition and expectations, students indulge in various
activities as a way of coping mechanism. The two of the most common leisure activities that
today’s youth indulge in are tv viewing and reading novels. Thus, only those students who
indulge in either of these two activities were selected in the sample.

Sample and Sampling Technique

For the purpose of this study, 40 Delhi University students were taken as a representative
sample. Of the 40 students, 20 were male students and 20 were female students. The subjects
were selected following the purposive sampling procedure. Kerlinger and Lee (2000) explained
purposive sampling as another type of non-probability sampling, which is characterized by the
use of judgment and a deliberate effort to obtain representative samples by including typical
areas or groups in the sample.

Tool Used

The following tools were used for the purpose of data collection on 120 Delhi University
students:

1. College Adjustment Scale (Anton & Reed, 1991)

The College Adjustment Scale (CAS; Anton & Reed, 1991) was developed as a screening
inventory for students at college counseling centers to assess psychological
maladjustment (Pinkney, 1992). The CAS assesses nine areas of adjustment difficulties:
Anxiety, Depression, Suicidal Ideation, Substance Abuse, Self-esteem Problems,
Interpersonal Problems, Family Problems, Academic Problems, and Career Problems.
Students rate the 108 CAS items on a 4-point scale ranging from false, not at all true to
very true. Responses are entered on a carbonless, self-scoring Answer Sheet. Scores are
then easily transferred to the profile area. Reliability and validity for the CAS has been
reported to be adequate (Pinkney, 1992).
A sample copy of the CAS Item Booklet and CAS Answer Sheet is presented in the
Appendix A.
2. Self constructed structured interview schedule
The interview schedule was constructed on the basis of the review of literature. The aim
of the interview was to categorize the participants into the two types of escapism in
relation to the leisure activities. These two types of escapism are further divided as high
and low.
A sample copy of the interview schedule is presented in the Appendix A.

Procedure

After the sample and the measures had been selected, a pilot study was carried out on a sample
of 4 Delhi University students. On the basis of their responses on interview, certain changes were
made before the final data collection.
After a brief introduction of self, a casual conversation was made with the subject in order to
make him/her feel relaxed and a brief explanation of the purpose of the study was given. Then,
two interviewers took the interview of the participant. One interviewer was involved in the
interaction process while the other was silently recording the responses. Probe questions were
asked during the interview. After taking the interview, the participant was asked to fill the CAS
answer sheet. Instructions were given as per the manual. The doubts or queries put forth by the
participants were resolved. The participants were requested to give free and frank responses,
preferably the responses that come first to mind. It was made clear to the participants that there
were no right or wrong answers. They were also assured that their responses would be kept
confidential and used strictly for the purpose of the research. To maintain the confidentiality of
the participants, unique codes were assigned to them. The 4 letter code was formed by taking the
first two alphabets of the participant’s name followed by the short form of his/her college.

It took approximately 10-15 minutes for each participant to complete the CAS answer sheet and
7-10 approximately to take the interview of one participant. The participants were thanked
thereafter for their time and cooperation.

After the data was collected, the responses were analyzed and the results obtained have been
reported in the next section.
 DATA ANALYSIS

Data resulted in both quantitative and qualitative input.

Quantitative Analysis

The CAS answer sheets of 40 participants were scored as per the instructions given in manual.
The raw scores thus obtained were converted into percentiles using norms tables ( Table1, Table
2, Table 3, Table 4;Appendix C). Out of the 9 scales assessed, only 3 scales namely depression,
interpersonal problems and self esteem were taken into consideration. The percentiles for each of
the scales were divided into low (<P25), moderately low (P25 – P50), moderately high (P50 – P75)
and high (>P75). The mean of the raw scores for each of the scale was also calculated.

Qualitative Analysis

For analyzing the responses obtained on the interview schedules, the categories of behavior
consistent with the type of escapism were organized in a tabular format (Table 1, Appendix B).
Based on the responses obtained on the interview schedules of 40 participants an analysis table
was constructed. The dualistic concept of escapism is better viewed on a scale ranging from
high to low within the two dimensions. While analyzing the responses it was seen that some of
the participants had extremely high levels of self expansion or self suppression type of escapism
while some had only borderline levels of self expansion or self suppression type of escapism.
Thus, each of the participants was categorized into: high self expansion, low self expansion, high
self suppression or low self suppression.

The results showed that out of 40 participants, only 10 participants had a self expansion type of
engagement in the leisure activities under study (tv viewing and reading books). Out of theses 10
participants, 4 participants had high self expansion type of engagement in the leisure activities
while 6 had low self expansion type of engagement. The remaining 30 participants had a self
suppression type of engagement in the above mentioned leisure activities. Out of these 30
participants, 10 participants had low self suppression while 20 participants had high self
suppression type of engagement in the leisure activities.

Type of Escapism

high self suppression

low self suppression
high self expansion
low self expansion

Fig. 3.1 Pie Diagram indicating the type of escapism of the sample.

An interesting fact to be noted here is, out of the 20 females participants, only 3 participants had
low self expansion type of escapism while 11 participants had high self suppression and the
remaining 6 participants had low self suppression type of escapism. Of the 20 male participants,
only 4 participants had high self expansion type of escapism, 3 had low self expansion type of
escapism while 9 participants had high self suppression and 4 participants had low self
suppression type of escapism.

Females

high self suppression

low self suppression
high self expansion
low self expansion

Fig.3.2 Pie Diagram indicating the type of escapism of female participants.

 Males
high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig.3.3 Pie Diagram indicating the type of escapism of the male participants

After the quantitative and qualitative analysis, the levels of depression, interpersonal problems
and self esteem were compared with the type of escapism of the participant. As we can see from
Table 6 (Appendix D), out of the 40 participants,10 participants have high depression levels
(>P75) of which 6 participants fall in the category of high self suppression type of escapism, 3
participants in low self suppression and only 1 participant falls in low self expansion escapism.
11 participants have moderately high depression levels of which 8 participants fall in the
category of high self suppression type of escapism, 2 participants in low self suppression
escapism while only 1 participant falls in the category of high self expansion type of escapism.
10 participants have moderately low depression levels of which 5 participants fall in the category
of high self suppression type of escapism, 2 participants in low self suppression, 2 participants in
low self expansion and 1 participant in high self expansion. 9 participants have low depression
levels of which 1 participants fall in the category of high suppression escapism, 3 participants in
low self suppression escapism, 2 participants in high self expansion escapism while 3 participant
in low self expansion escapism.
 High Depression

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig 3.4 Pie diagram: depicting the relation between the type of escapism with high depression

Moderately High Depression

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig 3.5. Pie diagram: depicting the relation between type of escapism and moderately high depression

Moderately Low Depression

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig.3.6. Pie Diagram: depicting the relation between type of escapism and moderately low depression
 Low Depression
high self
suppression
low self
suppression
hish self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig.3.7. Pie Diagram: depicting the relation between type of escapism and low depression

As we can see from Table 7 (Appendix D), out of the 40 participants, 9 participants have high
interpersonal problems of which 5 participants fall in the category of high self suppression
escapism and 4 participants in low self suppression escapism. 10 participants have moderately
high interpersonal problems of which 6 participants fall in the category of high self suppression
type of escapism, 1 participants in low self suppression escapism, only 1 participant in low self
expansion escapism while 2 participant falls in the category of high self expansion type of
escapism. 14 participants have moderately low interpersonal problems of which 8 participants
fall in the category of high self suppression type of escapism, 5 participants in low self
suppression and 1 participant in high self expansion escapism. 7 participants have low
interpersonal problems of which 1 participants fall in the category of high suppression escapism,
1 participants in high self expansion escapism while 5 participant in low self expansion
escapism.

High Interpersonal Problems

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self expansion

low self expansion

Fig 3.8 Pie Diagram: depicting the relation between type of escapism and high interpersonal problems
 Moderately High Interpersonal
Problems

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion

Fig 3.9 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of escapism and moderately high interpersonal
problems

Moderately Low Interpersonal

Problems

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig. 3.10 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of escapism and moderately low interpersonal
problems.

Low Interpersonal Problems

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig 3.11 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of escapism and low interpersonal problems
As we can see from Table 8 (Appendix D), out of the 40 participants,10 participants have low
self esteem of which 6 participants fall in the category of high self suppression type of escapism,
4 participants in low self suppression. 11 participants have moderately low self esteem levels of
which 7 participants fall in the category of high self suppression type of escapism, 2 participants
in low self suppression escapism and 2 participant falls in the category of low self expansion
type of escapism. 11 participants have moderately high self esteem levels of which 4 participants
fall in the category of high self suppression type of escapism, 2 participants in low self
suppression, 4 participants in low self expansion and 1 participant in high self expansion. 8
participants have high self esteem levels of which 2 participants fall in the category of high
suppression escapism, 2 participants in low self suppression escapism, 3 participants in high self
expansion escapism while 1 participant in low self expansion escapism.

Low Self Esteem

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig. 3.12 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of escapism and low self esteem

Moderately Low self esteem

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig.3.13 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of escapism and moderately low self esteem
 Moderately High Self Esteem

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig. 3.14 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of escapism and moderately high self esteem

High Self Esteem

high self
suppression
low self
suppression
high self
expansion
low self
expansion

Fig.3.15 Pie Diagram: depicting relation between type of escapism and high self esteem
 INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION

The objective of the present research was to study escapism in relation to leisure activity
engagement namely tv viewing and book reading in relationship with depression, interpersonal
problems and self esteem. In other words, the research was conducted to study the type of
escapism (self expansion or self suppression) of the sample taken. Also, to study the relationship
of self expansion with depression, interpersonal problems and self esteem and the relationship of
self suppression with depression, interpersonal problems and self esteem. For this the sample of
40 students (males=20, females=20) was taken from Delhi university using purposive sampling
technique. The data was collected using self constructed interview schedule and College
Adjustment Scale (Anton &Reed, 1991) was used to measure the three variables.

Traditionally, engagement in leisure activities has been regarded exclusively as favorable for
well-being. In opposition to this view, the present research suggests that leisure also has a dark
side previously unexplored in the leisure literature. By applying the Dualistic Model of Passion
and the Two-Dimensional Model of Escapism on engagement in leisure activities, it becomes
evident that leisure activity engagement can take forms related to maladaptive psychological
functioning. Both models propose that there is a healthy and an unhealthy approach to
engagement in favorite activities, and that they evolve dependent on conjunctive effects of
personality characteristics and external factors. The Dualistic Model of Passion suggests that the
development of either harmonious or obsessive passion is dependent on the onset of the activity.
Harmonious passion evolves from an autonomous internalization of the activity, whereas
obsessive passion evolves from a controlled internalization of the activity. The Escapism model
is built upon the promotion vs. prevention distinction in Regulatory Focus Theory (Higgins,
1998). In relation to task engagement, one of these regulatory focuses will dominate the person’s
motivation. Approaching the task with a promotion focus relates to an emphasis on the positive
outcomes from an accomplishment of the task, whereas a prevention focus relates to an emphasis
on the negative outcomes in case of failing the task.
The Passion model and the Escapism model both illustrate the dualism of leisure activity
engagement. Further, the escapism model is better understood on a scale ranging from high to
low within the two dimensions. In other words, self expansion as well as self suppression has
been further divided as high and low. On the basis of this concept the interview schedules were
analyzed. The results showed that (Table 1; Appendix B) out of 40 participants, only 10
participants had a self expansion type of engagement in the leisure activities under study (tv
viewing and reading books). Out of theses 10 participants, 4 participants had high self expansion
type of engagement in the leisure activities while 6 had low self expansion type of engagement.
The remaining 30 participants had a self suppression type of engagement in the above mentioned
leisure activities. Out of these 30 participants, 10 participants had low self suppression while 20
participants had high self suppression type of engagement in the leisure activities. This stark
difference could be because the sample consisted of only college students of age 18-23 years.
College is a high point in a person’s life. A lot of changes occur during the transmission from
school to college. The freedom comes with a burden of responsibilities. Not only academic
commitments but a person also has to face peer pressure. During the interview, a lot of
participants said that scoring low grades, breakup with boyfriend or girlfriend or family issues
caused emotional distress at some point of time in their life. Although at a glance, gaining
knowledge seems to be a major reason for engaging in the leisure activities namely tv viewing
and reading books but at a deeper level the drive behind engaging in the two activities is quite
shocking. Most of the students are indulging in the activities to eliminate the negative threats in
the immediate consciousness and to seek relief. The increasing competition and expectation of
parents and self are the major causes behind the change in the motive for engagement in the
leisure activities by students. They regard tv viewing and/or book reading as their “safe haven”
and approach these more intensely to suppress negative thoughts. However, this might lead to a
downward spiral because this type of activity engagement will not result in elevated energy or
vitality, but only drain resources that should be allocated in direction of sorting out the sources
for the problematic life situation. The activity is viewed upon as an instrument to avoid the
apprehension of negative aspects of self and to temporary direct one’s attention away from
disturbing memories or future obstacles.

An interesting fact to be noted here is, out of the 20 females participants, only 3 participants had
low self expansion type of escapism while 11 participants had high self suppression and the
remaining 6 participants had low self suppression type of escapism. Of the 20 male participants,
only 4 participants had high self expansion type of escapism, 3 had low self expansion type of
escapism while 9 participants had high self suppression and 4 participants had low self
suppression type of escapism. This is a new trend that has been seen as no previous research has
been done regarding the gender differences in type of escapism.

The College Adjustment Scale was used to measure the depression, interpersonal problems and
self esteem of the participants. The raw scores were converted to percentiles using the self
constructed norm tables. The percentiles for each of the scales were divided into low (<P25),
moderately low (P25 – P50), moderately high (P50 – P75) and high (>P75). As we can see from
Table 6 (Appendix D), most of the participants with self suppression type of escapism have high
or moderately high depression while most of the participants with self expansion have low or
moderately low depression. This is in line with the hypotheses, though we cannot say that the
relationship between the two variables is high but nonetheless there seems to be a relation
between the two variables. When the individual fail to live up to own and/or others standards
and expectations feelings of loneliness and helplessness inculcate. These events are attributed
internally, which thereby leads to decreased self-worth. This condition makes self-awareness
painful and therefore intentions to avoid self-evaluation evolve. Then, the person will search for
actions that reduce self evaluation to escape this painful state (Baumeister, 1990). Thus, the
participants with self suppression escapism seek comfort in their favorite leisure activities as
they have a hold on the activity and may feel competent in this domain thereby removing the
negative feelings of helplessness from immediate consciousness. In line with principles of
emotion dynamics (Gross & Levenson, 1993), an allocation of the cognitive resources in
direction of a moderation of negative affect will also reduce the likelihood of enhancement of
positive affect. Engaging out of prevention intentions will temporary block self-threatening
objects from consciousness, but it will not facilitate the self-enhancing and satisfying
experiences in activity engagement known to be conducive to well-being. From Table 7
(Appendix D), it is evident that only participants with self suppression have high interpersonal
problems and most of the participants with self expansion escapism have low interpersonal
problems. The term self-expansion has previously been used in relation to interpersonal
closeness. Aron, Aron, Tudor, & Nelson (1991) described the inclusion of other into one’s self as
self-expansion (see also Blanchard, Perreault, & Vallerand, 1998). The need for relatedness
(Baumeister & Leary,1995) pertains to the experience of being included in a social context, and
applied to people’s favorite activities this implies that one feels close to individuals that one
cares for and is appreciated by when engaged in the activity. Interpersonal problems are
recurrent difficulties in relating to others (Horowitz, Rosenberg, & Bartholomew, 1993). People
with self suppression escapism have low self worth and hence they immerse themselves in their
favorite leisure activities to avoid communicating with people, that is, to reduce self evaluation
by others and also by self. As a result, interpersonal problems develop. To avoid facing these
problems, the person will again seek comfort in their favorite leisure activities, forming a vicious
circle. From Table 8 (Appendix D), participants with self suppression escapism have mostly low
or moderately low self esteem while participants with self expansion escapism have mostly high
or moderately high self esteem. In the event where a person’s self esteem goes down, the favorite
activity will be regarded as a “safe haven” and be approached more intensely to suppress
negative thoughts. However, this might lead to a downward spiral because this type of activity
engagement will not result in elevated energy or vitality, but only drain resources that should be
allocated in direction of sorting out the sources for the problematic life situation.

The affective outcomes from self suppression in activity engagement were not consistent. the
dualism of passion and escapism is not fully “black or white”. Although both obsessive passion
and self-suppression are associated with subjective ill-being, these approaches towards a favorite
activity might also entail positive experiences, but notably, to a significant less degree than for
harmonious passion engagement and self expansion escapism.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the results show that self suppression in relation to activity engagement is
positively related to depression and interpersonal problems and negatively related to self esteem.
Vice versa, self expansion in relation to activity engagement is negatively related to depression
and interpersonal problems and positively related to self esteem. Thus the way we indulge in
leisure activities and more importantly why we indulge in leisure activities has an impact over
our other life domains.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The sample size for the present study was very small; hence the results of the study cannot be
generalized. To draw more valid and reliable conclusions, the study needs to be replicated with a
large sample size. Also, the College Adjustment Scale (Anton & Reed, 1991) is constructed on
American population. Though, Indian norms were constructed for the purpose of this research,
but due to the small sample size, the norms are not completely reliable.
IMPLICATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This research paper represents a promising path for future research on leisure activity
engagement, as well as a contextual approach to activity engagement which complements
laboratory research on human motivation and self-regulation. The present approach also
demonstrates that engagement in leisure activities exists within a broader system of life domains.
In line with a dualistic approach towards leisure motivation, engagement that origin from
adaptive motivational sources, such as harmonious passion and self-expansion, assures that the
engagement is felt as a contribution to other domains and is conducive to general well-being. In
contrast, engagement that origin from maladaptive motivational sources, such as obsessive
passion and self-suppression, inflicts outcomes from leisure activity engagement that are felt as
detrimental to general well-being.
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APPENDIX
 Table of contents

S. No. Title

APPENDIX A The interview schedule and the College Adjustment Scale

APPENDIX B Tables showing the various degrees and types of escapism

APPENDIX C Raw scores of the participants and norm tables of all the three
variables under study

APPENDIX D Tables showing various degrees of depression, inter-personal

problems and self-esteem along with type of escapism
S. NO. CODE GENDER DEPRESSION INTER-PERSONAL SELF-ESTEEM
1 RARJ F 16 14 29
2 ARK F 21 25 24
3 AAKM F 23 21 30
4 SEMR F 14 30 31
5 AFDR F 19 26 30
6 ANDR F 32 35 36
7 RAMR F 21 25 31
8 AKDR F 15 23 18
9 SADR F 12 17 22
10 SODR F 19 18 24
11 CHDR F 15 16 18
12 STDR F 18 21 22
13 AALS F 16 18 26
14 KADR F 32 38 39
15 ANRJ F 15 17 23
16 DIDR F 17 28 23
17 SHDR F 13 18 21
18 KVDR F 25 29 31
19 PADR F 19 28 27
20 PRDR F 20 23 29
21 KHRJ M 25 29 20
22 BIRJ M 17 27 25
23 ARKM M 13 22 17
24 ADKM M 22 26 18
25 AMHR M 17 23 18
26 NEH M 19 26 23
27 DEHR M 21 32 25
28 YAHR M 27 27 31
29 EHHR M 16 19 30
30 RIHR M 13 16 20
31 ATHR M 13 12 18
32 SASR M 18 26 18
33 MAKM M 30 30 33
34 GASR M 14 21 31
35 MIST M 14 23 21
 36 ANKM M 26 31 39
37 NIHR M 27 28 25
38 SWSR M 40 30 31
39 AMH M 15 17 14
40 ALRJ M 13 21 20

Table 3: Norm table for the depression scale normalized on a sample of 40 participants
SCORE FREQUENCY PERCENTILE
40 1 >99
39 0 97.5
38 0 97.5
37 0 97.5
36 0 97.5
35 0 97.5
34 0 97.5
33 0 97.5
32 2 97.5
31 0 92.5
30 1 92.5
29 0 90
28 0 90
27 2 90
26 1 85
25 2 82.5
24 0 77.5
23 1 77.5
22 1 75
21 3 72.5
20 1 65
19 4 62.5
18 2 52.5
17 3 47.5
16 3 40
15 4 32.5
14 3 22.5
13 5 15
12 1 <2.5
Table 4: Norm Table for inter-personal scale normalized on a sample of 40
participants

SCORES FREQUENCY PERCENTILE

38 1 100
37 0 97.5
36 0 97.5
35 1 97.5
34 0 95
33 0 95
32 1 95
31 1 92.5
30 3 90
29 2 82.5
28 3 77.5
27 2 70
26 4 65
25 2 55
24 0 50
23 4 50
22 1 40
21 4 37.5
20 0 27.5
19 1 27.5
18 3 25
17 3 17.5
16 2 10
15 0 5
14 1 5
13 0 2.5
12 1 2.5
Table 5: Norm Table for the self-esteem scale normalized on a sample of 40
participants

SCORES FREQUENCY PERCENTILE

39 2 100
38 0 95
37 0 95
36 1 95
35 0 92.5
34 0 92.5
33 1 92.5
32 0 90
31 6 90
30 3 75
29 2 67.5
28 0 62.5
27 1 62.5
26 1 60
25 3 57.5
24 2 50
23 3 45
22 2 37.5
21 2 32.5
20 3 27.5
19 0 20
18 6 20
17 1 5
16 0 2.5
15 0 2.5
14 1 2.5
APPENDIX D: Tables showing various degrees of depression, inter-
personal problems and self-esteem along with types of escapism

Table 6: Tables showing relation between depression and escapism

Table 6 (a): High depression (>P75, P75=22)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

AAKM F 77.5 High self suppression
ANDR F 97.5 High self suppression
KADR F 97.5 High self suppression
KVDR F 82.5 Low self suppression
KHRJ M 82.5 High self suppression
YAHR M 90 High self suppression
SWSR M >99 Low self suppression
MAKM M 92.5 High self suppression
ANKM M 85 Low self suppression
NIHR M 90 Low self suppression

Table 6 (b): High moderate depression (P50-P75, P50=18, P75=22)

CODE GENDER PERCENTLE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

AFDR F 62.5 High self suppression
RAMR F 72.5 High self suppression
SODR F 62.5 Low self suppression
STDR F 52.5 High self suppression
ARK F 72.5 Low self suppression
PRDR F 65 High self suppression
PADR F 62.5 High self suppression
ADKM M 75 High self suppression
NEH M 62.5 High self suppression
DEHR M 72.5 High self suppression
SASR M 52.5 High self expansion
Table 6 (c): Low Moderate depression (P25 –P50, P25 =15, P50 =18)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

AKDR F 32.5 High self suppression
DIDR F 47.5 High self suppression
ANRJ F 32.5 High self suppression
CHDR F 32.5 Low self suppression
RARJ F 40 Low self suppression
AALS F 40 Low self suppression
BIRJ M 47.5 High self suppression
AMH M 32.5 Low self suppression
EHHR M 40 High self suppression
AMHR M 47.5 High self expansion

Table 6 (d): Low depression (<P25 =15)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

SEMR F 22.5 Low self suppression
SADR F <2.5 Low self expansion
SHDR F 15 Low self suppression
ARKM M 15 High self expansion
RIHR M 15 Low self expansion
ATHR M 15 Low self expansion
ALRJ M 15 Low self suppression
GASR M 22.5 High self suppression
MIST M 22.5 High self expansion
Table 7: Tables showing relation between inter-personal problems and escapism

Table 7 (a): High interpersonal problems (>P75, P75=28)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

SEMR F 90 Low self suppression
ANDR F 97.5 High self suppression
KADR F >99 High self suppression
KVDR F 82.5 Low self suppression
KHRJ M 82.5 High self suppression
DEHR M 95 High self suppression
MAKM M 90 High self suppression
ANKM M 92.5 Low self suppression
SWSR M 90 Low self suppression

Table 7 (b): Moderately high interpersonal problem (P50 –P75, P50 =23, P75 =28)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

PADR F 77.5 High self suppression
PRDR F 50 High self suppression
BIRJ M 70 High self suppression
ADKM M 65 High self suppression
AMHR M 50 Low self suppression
NEH M 65 High self suppression
YAHR M 70 High self suppression
SASR M 65 High self expansion
MIST M 50 High self expansion
NIHR M 77.5 Low self expansion
Table 7(c): Moderately low interpersonal problems (P25 –P50, P25 =18, P50 =23)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

ARK F 55 Low self suppression
AFDR F 65 High self suppression
RAMR F 55 High self suppression
AKDR F 50 High self suppression
SODR F 25 Low self suppression
STDR F 37.5 High self suppression
AALS F 25 Low self suppression
DIDR F 77.5 High self suppression
AAKM F 37.5 High self suppression
SHDR F 25 Low self suppression
ARKM M 40 High self expansion
EHHR M 27.5 High self suppression
GASR M 37.5 High self suppression
ALRJ M 37.5 Low self suppression

Table 7 (d): Low interpersonal problems (<P25 =18)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

RARJ F 5 Low self expansion
SADR F 17.5 Low self expansion
CHDR F 10 Low self expansion
ANRJ F 17.5 High self suppression
RIHR M 10 Low self expansion
ATHR M <2.5 Low self expansion
AMH M 17.5 High self expansion
Table 8: Tables showing relation between self-esteem and escapism

Table 8 (a): Low self esteem (>P75, P75=30)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

YAHR M 90 High self suppression
ANKM M >99 Low self suppression
MAKM M 92.5 High self suppression
GASR M 90 High self suppression
SWSR M 90 Low self suppression
SEMR F 90 Low self suppression
RAMR F 90 High self suppression
ANDR F 95 High self suppression
KVDR F 90 Low self suppression
KADR F >99 High self suppression

Table 8 (b): Moderately low self esteem (P50 –P75, P50=24, P75 =30)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

DEHR M 57.5 High self suppression
BIRJ M 57.5 High self suppression
NIHR M 57.5 Low self expansion
EHHR M 75 High self suppression
AALS F 60 Low self suppression
RARJ F 67.5 Low self expansion
PADR F 62.5 High self suppression
PRDR F 67.5 High self suppression
ARK F 50 Low self suppression
AFDR F 75 High self suppression
AAKM F 75 High self suppression
Table 8 (c): Moderately high self esteem (P25 –P50, P25=20, P50 =24)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

NEH M 45 High self suppression
MIST M 32.5 High self expansion
RIHR M 27.5 Low self expansion
ATHR M 20 Low self expansion
ALRJ M 27.5 Low self suppression
KHRJ M 27.5 High self suppression
SADR F 37.5 Low self expansion
SODR F 50 Low self suppression
DIDR F 45 High self suppression
ANRJ F 45 High self suppression
RARJ F 67.5 Low self expansion

Table 8 (d): High self esteem (<P25 =20)

CODE GENDER PERCENTILE TYPE OF ESCAPISM

AMHR M 20 Low self suppression
ADKM M 20 High self suppression
ARKM M 5 High self expansion
SASR M 20 High self expansion
AMH M <2.5 High self expansion
AKDR F 20 High self suppression
CHDR F 20 Low self expansion
SHDR F 20 Low self suppression