Room Air Distribution – Engineering Data

Engineering
Data

Engineering Data
Engineering Data

A
ROOM AIR DISTRIBUTION
Air Diffusion – Outlet Characteristics 2A & 3A
Expansion and Contraction of Aluminium Linear Grilles 16A
Fan Laws 23A
Geometric Formulae 23A
Jet Performance 4A & 5A
Outlet Location and Selection 7A-9A
Overhead Heating 14A
Pressure and Duct Design 15A
Psychrometric Chart (Effective Temperature and Comfort Zone) 16A
References 22A
Sheet and Wire Gauges 22A
S.I. Metric Conversions 20A & 21A
Sound – Overview 10A-13A
(NC Curves and Ratings) 12A & 13A
2A
Variable Air Volume Systems 17A-19A 1A
 Engineering Data – Room Air Distribution

Room Air Distribution

Air Diffusion
Air distribution for heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems While studying the following diagrams, which represent outlet performance
ranges from directional jets for spot heating, cooling, or air make-up, to in these categories, note that:-
totally diffused air streams of uniform velocity and direction for scientific 1. Primary air envelopes from outlets down to approximately 0.75 m/s
Engineering Data

and other specialised uses. Each type of application demands that its own are drawn as irregular lines enclosing plain colour. They are the same
needs be satisfied and there is no single method of distributing supply air for heating or cooling.
which will meet the variety of requirements encountered in practice. 2. Total air, shown by irregular lines enclosing colour with diagonal lines,
A design engineer must be familiar with the various means available to is of relatively high velocity, but less than 0.75 m/s and generally
him and will make design decisions on major plant based upon the ability within 0.5°C of room temperature. It is influenced by environment and
of the air stream to effectively offset the space load. tends to drop during cooling or rise during heating.
The most common requirement is to meet the needs of human comfort, 3. Natural convection currents form a stagnant zone from the ceiling
and in this regard, the thermal balance which matches the load to heated down during cooling and from the floor up during heating. It should
or cooled supply air, must be achieved within parameters beyond the be noted that this zone is formed below the terminal point of the
simple issue of temperature equilibrium and must include air motion, total air during heating and above the terminal point during cooling.
relative humidity and noise level. Since this zone is a result of the natural convection currents, the air
The object of air diffusion in HVAC systems is to ensure an acceptable velocities within the zone are usually low (0.075 to 0.100 m/s), and
combination of these factors with the thermodynamic performance of the the air stratifies in layers of increasing temperatures from a low to
system. The key to the achievement of this is correct use of the principles a high level. The concept of a stagnant zone is an important tool in
of air diffusion. the proper application and selection of outlets, since it permits due
consideration of the natural convection currents from warm and cold
Air outlets have been classified into five groups:-
surfaces and internal loads.
1. Group A: Outlets mounted in or near the ceiling and discharging the 4. Location of return air collection points is of significance only within
air horizontally. (Figures 1 & 2) the immediate vicinity and should be chosen mainly from the
2. Group B: Outlets mounted in or near the floor and discharging the viewpoint of localised drafts created by them. By selecting a location
air vertically in a non-spreading jet. (Figure 3) in the stagnant zone, summer and winter conditions are optimised.
3. Group C: Outlets mounted in or near the floor and discharging the Induction and entrainment and therefore, load pick-up characteristics
air in a vertical spreading jet. (Figure 4) of the outlet, should be the main guide to acceptability of any given
4. Group D: Outlets mounted in or near the floor and discharging the location when minimising short circuiting.
air horizontally. (Figure 5) 5. The general room air motion, shown by clear areas, is a gentle drift
5. Group E: Outlets mounted in or near the ceiling and projecting the towards the total air. Room conditions are maintained by induction at
primary air vertically. (Figure 6) the diffuser and entrainment of the room air into the total air stream.

Air Motion Characteristics of Group A Outlets

X
X
Isovel
Supply Near Ceiling
Isovel Outlet
Near Ceiling

Section X-X Section X-X

Profile of Jet Section X-X
Primary Air X Plan Profile of Jet Plan
Primary Air

Stagnant
Stagnant
Section X-X Section X-X Section X-X Section X-X
Cooling Heating Cooling Heating

Total & Room Air Total & Room Air

Sidewall Outlet Ceiling Outlet
Figure Horizontal
1. projection from wall outlet. Total air can be made
.
Circular horizontal projection from ceiling outlet. Note influence of
to follow wall down to floor if projection is sufficiently long.
Figure 2
natural convection currents on total air pattern. Greater spread of
During heating this will result in a smaller stagnant zone. this pattern results in more uniform space temperatures during
cooling than those obtained from two-jet pattern of Sidewall outlet.

2A
 Room Air Distribution – Engineering Data

Air Motion Characteristics of Group B Outlets Air Motion Characteristics of Group D Outlets

Engineering Data
Profile
Profile Outline Plan Outline Near Floor

Primary Air Primary Air

Stagnant Stagnant

Stagnant

Cooling Heating Cooling Heating

Total & Room Air Total & Room Air

Outlet in or Near Floor Outlet in or Near Floor

Figure 3. Non-Spreading Vertical Jet. Figure 5. Horizontal Discharge.

Air Motion Characteristics of Group C Outlets Air Motion Characteristics of Group E Outlets

Ceiling Ceiling
Stagnant

Outline Floor Floor

Profile 45° 0° 45° Heating Cooling

Blade Settings Total & Room Air

Primary Air

Stagnant

Stagnant
Cooling Heating

Total & Room Air

Outlet in or Near Floor

Non-Spreading Vertical Jet. Vertical Projection from Ceiling Outlet.

Figure 4. Figure 6.

3A
 Engineering Data – Room Air Distribution

Performance of Jets
All of the illustrated examples of room air distribution, figures 1 to 6 follow
the rules that relate to the performance of jets, modified to the extent that
their discharge shape and environment may influence flow.
Free isothermal jets perform to predictable effect. It is not the purpose
Engineering Data

of this publication to examine these effects in detail, but it is pertinent Throw

to identify the four zones of jet expansion1 They are illustrated in the
accompanying diagram (Figure 7).
Zone 1 extends only about four diameters or widths from the outlet face.
Maximum velocity is practically constant.
Figure 8. Isothermal Jet Near Ceiling.
Zone 2 over a further distance of about eight diameters or widths
(depending on aspect ratio) the maximum velocity varies
inversely as the square root of the distance from the outlet. Ceiling Diffuser Obstructions
As a rule of thumb, it can be taken that where the depth of an air stream
Zone 3 is the zone of fully established turbulent flow and may be a further
from a ceiling diffuser exceeds 150 mm, its velocity and ∆t are unlikely to
25 to 100 diameters long. Maximum velocity varies inversely with
create uncomfortable down drafts if it strikes an obstruction.
distance from the outlet.
Surface mounting fluorescent lights are notorious for creating such down
Zone 4 is the terminal zone in which velocity diminishes rapidly to still
drafts and they should be avoided in well designed buildings. Where they
air (below 0.25 m/s) in a few diameters.
can not be avoided, lowering them by 150 mm on rigid or chain supports
can overcome their effect.
Zones of Expansion The throw of a diffuser, or grille, once the ceiling effect is established,
1 2 3 4 can follow the line of the ceiling and down the wall, if over-blow is
evident. Provided it is understood and designed for, it need not result in
discomfort.

Non-isothermal Jets
22° With the exception of Series LD, CSRLA & EL (see Performance Notes) air
diffuser ratings are tabulated as isothermal. The designer should allow
for the effect of non-isothermal jets tending to rise during heating and
drop during cooling. In both cases throw is reduced when compared with
Throw
an isothermal supply, where velocities fall below 0.75 m/s. In the case of
cooling, drop - or the collapse of ceiling effect will tend to occur sooner
(Figure 9). For this reason diffuser design must ensure that at this point,
Figure 7. Isothermal Jet Near Ceiling.
mixing by induction and entrainment has minimised the room ∆t.
Induction and Entrainment
The rate at which air from a jet can exchange heat with air from its
environment is determined apart from ∆t by induction and entrainment.
For further discussion of this topic, refer to the section dealing with VAV
air distribution.
For the vast majority of HVAC applications, the faster this heat exchange is
performed, the better, and this usually calls for modification of a free jet.
Throw
Ceiling Surface (Coanda) Effect
If a jet is directed parallel and in close proximity to any surface, and in
particular a ceiling, its own motion creates a low pressure area between Throw
it and the surface, due to its inability to induce or entrain air from the
environment bounded by that surface (Figure 8).
This low pressure area causes a bodily shift of the jet so that it clings to
that surface until its energy is either sufficiently dissipated, or some other
influence such as high ∆t or an obstruction separates the two. Figure 9. Cooling Jet Near Ceiling.
The resulting reduction in induced or entrained air flow allows the energy
of the jet to carry it for a greater distance and it is this feature which
establishes the throw of ceiling, or near ceiling outlets designed for
comfort cooling.
In the case of a sidewall outlet, this surface effect will be established if
it is located such that its near boundary is within 300 mm of the surface
in question - usually ceiling - and while it forms an angle of less than 40º
with the surface.
1
See references on page 22A.
4A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013
 Room Air Distribution – Engineering Data

Effect of Vanes V0 = 5 m/s 0.5 m/s

More ceiling effect is achieved for sidewall grilles, by directing the air to = 11K 1 m/s tx = 0.9K
toward the ceiling. This causes the air stream to spread on the ceiling
after impact and is effected by setting the horizontal vanes. A further
improvement can be obtained by setting vertical vanes to give the air
T 1.0 T 0.5
stream a spread to the 45º horizontal setting. Spreading the air stream

Engineering Data
by either or both means, reduces both throw and drop and for cooling
or heating use, sidewall grilles are always best selected with double
Room Velocities Less Than 0.25 m/s
deflection vanes. tx = 0
The greater the volume of air being projected by one outlet, the greater 0.25 m/s
T 0.25 tx = 0.4K
the drop. It is therefore wise to select a number of registers rather than
a single grille handling a large flow, within the throw requirements of the
space. Figure 10. Typical Sidewall Jet Showing Room Air Velocities
and Temperatures.
Establishing a good ceiling effect is critical to most comfort air conditioning
applications. It is seldom good practice to direct the cooling air stream at
a heat load in the space. Similarly, it is seldom good practice to direct a
Use of the three terminal velocity throw figures in the performance tables
heating air stream at a heat loss area.
will provide an image of the throw envelopes for the diffuser or register in
Room air motion, induction and entrainment should be used to offset question, so that the designer may then avoid discomfort in the occupied
the load without the need for confrontation of two air streams of widely zone, while achieving his thermal balance.
different qualities. The best systems use these surfaces to best effect.
Note in Figure 10, that where this is done, the high velocity sections of the Room ∆T Reduces with Distance
air stream have less tendency to enter the occupied space. Where there may be doubt about temperature differences which may
It is not necessary to maintain a measurable level of air movement. Most occur in the occupied zone due to such considerations as ceiling height
of us still live in homes that are not air conditioned. Natural convection limitations, drop, lack of ceiling effect, etc, then local temperature
currents and other inherent air moving features of an untreated space differentials may be approximately predicted by the use of the formula:-
are usually adequate to maintain comfort. In support of this, it has been
shown that reducing the space temperature by 0.5ºK is equivalent to (Equation 1)
increasing velocity by 0.08 m/s. ∆ tx ºK = 0.8 ∆ to Vx / Vo
Jet Temperature, Velocity and Room ∆T Where ∆ to = d ifference between room temperature and jet
Comfort heating and cooling, unless there is a particular reason for temperature at outlet (ºK).
turbulent air in occupied spaces, we invariably require that high velocities ∆ tx = difference between room temperature and jet
are kept in unoccupied zones. For practical purposes, in addition to ceiling temperature at distance X from outlet (ºK).
areas, unoccupied zones are usually considered to include a space up to Vo = Centre line velocity of air stream at outlet (m/s).
300 mm away from walls. Vx = Centre line velocity of air stream at distance X
Occupied zone velocities must be held below 0.25 m/s and of course there from outlet (m/s).
can be no temperature differential (∆T) between the supply air stream and
the surrounding air in this region. In other words, complete blending of supply
and room air must be achieved in the unoccupied zones. For a typical sidewall register, discharging supply air at 5 m/s and an
initial ∆T of 11ºK, the temperature difference derived by this formula,
Choice of Terminal Velocity at various velocities would be as shown in the following table:-
The occupied zone air motion must naturally be less than the chosen
terminal velocity (Vt), so it follows that first choice of throw should be to
a Vt of 0.25 m/s, which is the longest of the three tabulated throw figures Table 1
included in each of the performance tables of this manual. A knowledge Vx (m/s) 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25
of the type of occupancy, ceiling height, ceiling and wall obstructions, etc,
∆ tx°K 5.28 4.40 3.52 2.64 1.76 1.32 0.88 0.44
is necessary for reasonable judgement of the true extent of acceptable
throw, to a Vt of greater than 0.25 m/s.
Throw to a Vt of 0.5 m/s from a typical ceiling diffuser, if taken to the Comfort Criteria
intersection of wall and ceiling, will usually result in the 0.25 m/s Vt In 1974, A.S.H.R.A.E. developed its comfort standard 55-74, in which it
being reached within the practical unoccupied zone, at a point down the defined a zone of comfort for the most common parameters (wide ranging
wall before the floor is reached. However, sidewall registers typically environmental applications are more fully dealt with in standard 55-80).
have a much greater carrying distance between these two isovels and The parameters for standard 55-74 were:-
great care should be taken to check the 0.25 m/s Vt before any selection 1. Altitudes from sea level to 2134 m.
is finalised. 2. Mean radiant temperature is nearly equal to dry bulb air
Mixing, and the resultant changes in room ∆T, are illustrated in figure 10, temperature.
where it can be seen that a ∆T of 11ºK where supply air enters the space 3. Air velocity is less than 0.2 m/s.
at 5 m/s, reduces to 0.9ºK by the time the air stream velocity reaches 0.5 4. Occupants are in average clothing and at average levels of activity.
m/s, and 0.4ºK at 0.25 m/s.

5A
 Engineering Data

6A
11 120 130 0.35
0
30
130
29
10
0
28
30 0.40

e
27

%
0.95

cal

90
0

S
90 26

e
120

ur
25

%
t

80
0.45

era
A.S.H.R.A.E Comfort Zone 24

p
80
23

%
em

70
eT
Wet
Lines of Constant ET* 22

v
Bul 110 0.50
b

cti
21
Tem

%
70

60
25
per

Eff
at ure 20
3 0.55
0°C19

%
50
60 18 100 0.60

°C
kg
J/

35
k 17

ure
lpy 0.65

rat
ha 16
Volu

%
nt

pe
E

40
m

50
20 15 0.70

Tem
em

n
3

2.2 14 90 0.75
3
/

tio
Engineering Data – Room Air Distribution

40 ra 13 0.80
%
kg D

tu 25
Moisture Content g/kg

a 30 0.85
S 9.4 12
2
0.90
y Ai
r

15 11
0.95
30 .7 10 80
26 1.00
%
0.92

20 9
5

9 20
23. 8

10
20
1 7
21.
70
6
18.3

5
15
ty10% 5 Sensible Heat
Psychrometric Chart with Effective Temperature and Comfort Zone

10
15.5 umidi Total Heat
ve H 4

0
10 Relati
3
5 60
50
2

0 1

0.80
0.82
0.85
0.87
0.90

0
5
0
5
0

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Dry Bulb Temperature (°C)
50
0 10 20 30 40
Enthalpy kJ/kg

Barometric Pressure
101.325 kPa

© Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013

 OutletRoom
Location & Selection – Engineering Data
Air Distribution

A new Effective Temperature (ET*) scale was developed in the 1960’s and Methods of Selection
this superseded the old effective temperature scale that dates back to 1923. 1. A.D.P.I. Method
Further studies were conducted in 1963 and onward, resulting in further Identification of the best type of diffuser, once a decision has been made
definition of physiological stress related to environment, activity, period of on which of the five groups it belongs to (ceiling, wall etc.), can be further
exposure, sex and clothing. These studies relate comfort to lines of instant refined by reference to the ASHRAE Air Distribution Performance Index

Engineering Data
effective temperature and for young sedentary occupants, wearing light (A.D.P.I.) data. This subject is dealt with on page 17A and 18A (air diffuser
weight clothing, the following ET* v Stress relationships were observed:- types), in the section which discusses the design of air distribution
systems for variable air volume. The A.D.P.I. chart is also reproduced
ET* Physiological Condition
on page 18A in order to apply a VAV desirability rating, based on throw
41.5 Intolerable tolerance for different diffuser types. This same data can be used to
40 Very Uncomfortable identify the range of throws that are acceptable for fixed air volume
35 Uncomfortable diffusers and Table 2 below summarizes the range of acceptable throw
30 Slightly Uncomfortable ratios for various types of outlet, to give optimum comfort conditions and
an expected A.D.P.I. of 80, or better.
23.5 Neutral Comfort
below 20 Zone of Body Cooling
The A.D.P.I. is the percentage of (many) locations where measurements
were taken which meet an effective draft temperature between -1.7 and
+1.1° (and where air velocity is below 0.35 m/s). The nearer to an A.D.P.I.
The Psychometric chart on the previous page shows in shaded colour, the
of 100, the better the air distribution and it is generally considered that
comfort zone defined in 1974 by ASHRAE (average clothing & activity)
an A.D.P.I. of 80 will meet the most critical appraisal.
and the new effective temperature scale, from which 23.5 ET*, the neutral
comfort level for lightly clothed sedentary occupants, can be identified. Effective draft temperature can be calculated from:
The two sets of criteria can be met by:- (Equation 2)
1. Dry bulb temperature = mean radiant temperature Ø = (tx - tc) - 8(Vx - 0.15)
2. ET* = 23.5ºC Where tx = local temperature °C
3. Relative humidity range 22% to 65% tc = room average temperature °C
4. Air velocity BELOW 0.2 m/s Vx = local velocity m/s

2. Jet Performance Method

Selection and Location of Supply Air Devices By using the three tabulated velocities from the particular performance
data and with a knowledge of the way jets behave, (see Figures 1 - 6 on
As shown in preceding pages, there are five groups of supply air outlets.
pages 2A and 3A and Performance of Jets, on page 4A), a mental picture
This alone calls for five fundamental differences in design. Many
can be formed by the envelope mapping for each isovel.
variations within each of these groups are necessary to achieve particular
performance features and beyond that, size, which often dictates This system is usually quite adequate where there is a good understanding
construction methods, must ultimately be determined by flow, throw, of the space shape and likely occupied zone, since the envelopes enclosed
acoustic and architectural considerations. For these reasons, it is not by the three isovels will provide information from which judgement can
possible for any manufacturer to hold stocks that meet all possible needs. be used. For example a shopping mall may well be best served by “busy”
The development of manufacturing techniques, tooling and equipment in air, with low ∆T, in which the 0.5 m/s isovel should be encouraged to enter
Holyoake plants has been and continues to be guided by the need for fast the occupied zone, while a library could not tolerate even the intrusion of
delivery of items built entirely from placement of order. a light fixture in the 0.5 m/s air stream.

System design engineers therefore, have a virtually unlimited range 3. N.C. (Noise Criteria) Method
to choose from and their choice must be made carefully and with the The subject of room noise criteria is covered more fully in following pages.
sympathetic understanding of architects and building designers. However, a common procedure is to assume a 10 dB room absorption and
Errors or omissions are likely to be costly, if not impossible to correct a 1.5 m direct field from the single source and select on the basis of the
once a building is occupied. tabulated outlet N.C. level as being equal to, or better than the desired
space noise criterion.
The three methods of selection that follow are complementary, and
The effect of number of outlets, distance, room absorption, etc, should be
for best results, the other two methods should be kept in mind when
taken into account for critical areas, as described in the following material.
concentrating on a selection by one of the three.
Of course jet performance must be considered in making selections based
on acoustic criteria.
Table 2
T.25 and T.5 are throw distances to terminal
Ceiling Diffusers velocities of 0.25 and 0.5 m/s respectively.
High Sidewall
Description Light Sill Grilles ‘L’ is the characteristic length of the room, defined
Registers Round Perforated Louvered Slot
Troffer as the distance from the outlet to the nearest
boundary wall in the principal horizontal direction
Series DDL-20, 32 CRA, CSR CPS, CPT CMP, EL CSD, CSDE LTD All Types
of air flow, or half the distance between outlets plus
T.25 / L 1.3 - 2.0 0.5 - 1.3 1.0 - 2.7 1.0 - 2.7 1.5 - 3.3 to 4.5 0.8 - 1.5 downward travel of mixed air streams to reach the
T.5 / L 0.3 - 1.5
occupied zone.

7A
 Engineering Data – Outlet Location & Selection

Examples: Allowing for “Drop”

For an office 4.5 x 3 x 2.7 m high, with a load of 125 W/m2, 0.146 m3/s The illustration in Figure 12 shows a free space cooling air pattern, i.e.
air flow and 11ºK ∆ T, with room absorption of 10 dB re 10-12 W, select a there are no walls and may, or may not be a ceiling.
sidewall register located as shown in Figure 11, so that the space NC is
less than 30.
Engineering Data

Drop
4.3m 5.5m T.75
t = 1.65 °k t = 1.1 °k
2.7m

T.25

Elevation 7.9m Floor

4.5m t = 0.55 °k
Figure 12.

The buoyancy effect of the lower temperature supply air causes it to drop
as it approaches the end of its trajectory. The reverse is the case for warm
3m
air supply.
As discussed earlier, velocities in the occupied zone must normally be
kept below 0.25 m/s and for comfort applications, the drop of the 0.25m/s
isovel should be kept above the occupied zone.
Plan
Air mass and ∆T are the major influences on drop. The larger the quantity,
Figure 11. the greater the drop. For this reason, larger numbers of smaller diffusers
(see also page 5A “effect of vanes”) are usually preferred.
Figures 13 and 14 on page 9A illustrate the extent of drop of a cool air
1. Select on A.D.P.I. method
supply, to a V T 0.25 limit, both with and without a ceiling. The diagrams are
(a) Table 2 on page 7A indicates T.25/L should lie between 1.3 and 2.
for a sidewall grille with zero deflection both horizontally and vertically.
(b) L = 4.5 m
(c) V T 0.25 = 4.5 x 1.3 min. = 5.85 or V T 0.25 = 4.5 x 2 max. = 9.00 No Ceiling Effect
From page 196E, a 350 x 125 DDL-20, with damper, will throw 9.8, Where there is no ceiling, or where the ceiling is more than 600 mm
7.9 and 4.9m to V T 0.25 for straight, 22.5º and 45º vane settings. above the register, vertical deflection by 20º will reduce the drop by
Use model DDL-20 size 350 x 125 with vanes set 22.5º divergent. approximately 1m at the lowest point of the profile illustrated in Figure 14,
on page 9A and at , with all other outlet velocity lines following a similarly
2.Jet Performance Method raised locus while retaining a largely unchanged throw.
Check jet performance of this selection from page 196E, VT.25 is 7.9 m,
In the same case, i.e. where there is no ceiling, setting the vertical vanes
V T 0.5 is 5.5 m, and V T 0.75 is 4.3 m. Initial velocity Vo is 4 m/s.
for horizontal divergence of 45º, will reduce the throw in proportion to the
From equation 1:- tabulated values in the performance ratings, but reduce the drop by a full
at VT 0.25 tx = 0.8 x 11 x 0.25/4 = 0.55ºK (at 7.9 m) 1.5 m at the lowest point on the profile in Figure 14, and 1 m at , due to
at VT 0.5 tx = 0.8 x 11 x 0.5/4 = 1.1ºK (at 5.5 m) the wider distribution of the cold air stream, faster reduction of ∆T, and
reduced buoyancy of the surrounding warm air.
at VT 0.75 tx = 0.8 x 11 x 0.75/4 = 1.65ºK (at 4.3 m)
Sidewall register performance ratings, (other than those for long throw
3. N.C. (Noise Criteria) Method e.g. series MDD and JD), are all based on the existence of a ceiling effect,
Is the noise level capable of meeting NC 30? Refer again to page 196E, so the tables may be used directly to establish the throw distance.
where tabulated NC rating is 22. From page 192E note that NC values
are based on a room absorption of 10 dB re 10-12 watts and that for 22.5º
divergence listed noise levels should be increased by 1 NC.
Therefore, actual expected level of 23 NC is within the required noise
criteria.
Note that in the above examples, several sizes of register would be
acceptable in terms of these three selection criteria. In practice, the
smaller the register, the higher its velocity and therefore its aspirating
effect. Higher initial velocities would reduce the ∆T’s listed above. For
these reasons, as long as throw and noise levels are acceptable, a smaller
register is likely to be a better selection than a larger one.

8A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013

 Outlet Location & Selection – Engineering Data

With Ceiling Effect Typical 0.5 m/s Envelope

Where there is a ceiling, as is most commonly the case, vanes should Ceiling
0
be set to give sufficient upward deflection to establish the ceiling effect 5 m/s 7.6 m/s
and the various outlet velocities will produce drop of the V T 0.25 isovel as 1.5 0.09 m3/s Outl
0.19 m3/s et Velo
shown in Figure 13. 0.28 m3/s
A
city
Drop 3 0.38 m3/s 3.5
0.47 m3/s 2.5 m/s

Engineering Data
Setting vertical vanes to give a 45º divergence, will reduce the throw m/s

1.5
Metres 0.71 m3/s

m/
0.94 m3/s
as shown in the performance ratings and reduce the drop by approxi- 4.5

s
FLOW
mately 1.8 m, at the lowest point on the profile illustrated in Figure
13 and 1 m at , again due to the reduced buoyancy of surrounding 6
0 3 6 9 12 15
warm air. Throw (m)
Double deflection sidewall grilles are usually the best choice so that Figure 13. Mounted within 300mm of Ceiling. Vertical & Horizontal Deflection = 0°.
full advantage can be taken of these effects.

Allowing for Drop Typical 0.5m/s Envelope

In the above diagrams:- 0
Outle
1. Throw and drop values are for a terminal velocity of 0.25 m/s. t Veloc
ity
2. Values are for free space (no walls) and 11ºK ∆T. 1.5 0.09 m3/s
Drop 7.6 m
0.19 m /s
3
/s
3. Data used is that for DDL or DDS -20, with OBD. Refer to page 192E Metres 3 0.28 m /s
3 A
5m
for corrections for other models. 0.38 m /s
3

0.47 m /s
3
2.5
3.5
m/
/s
m/ s
4. Small circle in the white area of each diagram shows the 4.5 0.71 m /s
3 s

1.5
comparative performance of one size grille handling 0.14 m3/s at FLOW

m/
0.94 m /s
3

s
3 m/s.
0 3 6 9 12 15
5. Refer to page 192E for deflection settings and resulting patterns. Throw (m)
6. The Light Blue shaded area to the upper right of each profile Figure 14. No Ceiling. Vertical & Horizontal Deflection = 0°.
indicates noise levels above NC 30.

Drop with Linear Diffusers Drop with Ceiling Diffusers

As with the sidewall application, drop can be reduced with other types The selected air discharge pattern influences the drop with round and
of diffuser by reducing the volume handled, increasing spread and rectangular ceiling diffusers, as with sidewall registers, by virtue of
establishing a ceiling effect. Linear diffusers Series CSD which have volumes being handled from different segments, or sides. However, it
excellent ceiling effect characteristics, can achieve this by the inclusion of is unlikely that drop will be of any concern in these cases, since the air
inactive sections alternating with active sections, by using more than one quantity per diffuser is compatible with ceiling height.
slot and directing the air two ways, or a combination of these. Minimum
Provided that air quantities are kept within the maximum values shown
length of inactive sections to achieve best results should be as shown
in Table 4, for the various ceiling heights, drop of the air stream will be
in Table 3.
maintained at a level that will satisfy the A.D.P.I. 80 criteria, or better.
Table 3
Table 4
Length of Active Sections 300 1500 3000
Maximum Air Flow in m3/s for Ceiling Height Listed
Length of Inactive Sections 300 600 900
Outlet Ceiling Height (mm)
Series 2400 2700 3000 3600 4200 4800
Linear Diffuser Active v Inactive Sections to Minimise Drop
CRA 0.260 0.613 1.040 1.890 1.990 4.390
CSR 0.520 1.080 2.360
Design considerations should be based upon active diffuser lengths of CPS
CPT 0.095 0.165 0.260 0.425 0.660 0.755
1.5 to 3 m and an inactive proportion of 30% of the total installed length.
CMP*
EL*
LTD* 0.075 0.120 0.190 0.285 0.380 0.470
CSD*

* m3/s per side

Note that Series CSD should be installed with inactive sections to break up
large flow levels. See also Table 3.

Notes
Throughout this manual references are made to the quantities Ac and Ak.
Ac = Diffuser or register core or neck area
Ak = Diffuser or register net jet area

9A
 Engineering Data – Sound

Sound
Nature of Sound Sound Pressure
Sound is the sensation perceived by the human ear resulting from rapid The pressure variations produced when a sound wave propagates through
fluctuations in air pressure. These fluctuations are usually created by the air are extremely small when compared with atmospheric pressure.
some vibrating object which sets up longitudinal wave motion in the air. The threshold of hearing for an average young adult corresponds to a
In the case of air outlets it is caused by turbulence which creates rapid sound pressure of 0.00002 Pa (1 Pa = 1 Nm2). This sound pressure is
Engineering Data

pressure pulses on the grille surfaces. superimposed on the ambient atmospheric pressure, which is in the order
Most people have some intuitive idea of what constitutes a continuous of 105 Pa.
wave, for example by observing the ripples created by a pebble striking The concept of sound pressure is extremely important, because it is the
the surface of water. Sound waves are a particular type of a general class one universally chosen as the measurement basis for the evaluation of
of waves known as elastic waves, which can occur in media which possess the strength of a sound wave.
the properties of mass and elasticity. If a particle in such a medium is
displaced, then the elastic forces present will tend to pull the particle back Decibels and Reference Base
to its original position. While sound pressure is correctly expressed in Pascals and sound power
The displaced particle possesses inertia and can therefore transfer in Watts, both of these values become very cumbersome if used directly
momentum to a neighbouring particle, so that the initial disturbance can for practical measurement and equipment rating. In addition, the human
be propagated throughout the medium. ear does not evaluate sound by absolute values of pressure, or power
fluctuation, but rather by subjectively judging the relative loudness of two
The major distinction between sound waves and the ripples on the surface
sounds by the ratio of their intensities. This is a logarithmic behaviour and
of water, when using this as an analogy, is that water ripples are
it is convenient to express sound levels, whether pressure or power,
transversal, i.e. the particle velocity is at right angles to the direction of
logarithmically. The most commonly used logarithmic scale for this
propagation, while sound in air is propagated by longitudinal waves, in
purpose is the decibel scale.
which the particle velocity is in the direction of propagation.
One decibel is the energy or power ratio, r, defined by:
A number of terms in common use describe the nature of propagation of
a sound wave e.g. plane, diverging, spherical, progressive and standing Log10 r = 0.1
waves. For sound pressure ratios, r, the definition is:
Log10 r = 0.05
Frequency of Sound
Repetitive, regular disturbances caused for example by a fan blade turning It is important to recognise that decibels give a relative measurement,
at constant speed, create recurring oscillations of the same cycle of each value in decibels being an expression of a ratio, relative to a reference
particle movement and the number of cycles per second is referred to as pressure, or power, (or whatever other quantity is being considered).
frequency, ‘f’. The unit of frequency is the Hertz (1 cycle/ second) and the By international agreement the reference base for each of the two values
time taken for the oscillation to repeat itself is the period, ‘T’. is:-

Wave Length Wo, Sound Power: 10-12 Watts or 1 pW

Wavelength, λ, is the distance between two successive pressure peaks Po, Sound Pressure: 2 x 10-5 Pa or 20µPa
in a plane wave. The speed of sound, ‘C’, is dependent on the mass and
elasticity of the medium, which in turn is affected, in the case of air, by
Sound Power and Pressure Levels
atmospheric pressure and density. At ordinary room temperature and
Sound pressure level SPL (or Lp) of a sound of root mean square pressure
pressure, the speed of sound is approximately 340 m/s.
Prms is defined by:-
The relationship between wavelength λ, frequency f, and speed C, is:-

SPL = 20 log10 (Prms)

Po
Where Po is the sound pressure reference base.

SPL is the quantity actually measured when a microphone is placed in a

sound field and Table 6 on page 11A gives some typical sound pressure
Wavelength (Metres) levels.
20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05 Sound power level SWL (or Lw) is a measure of the energy output of a
10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 5000 10000 sound source and is defined by:-
Frequency (Hz)

Amplitude SWL = 10 log10 (W)

Wo
The maximum displacement experienced by a vibrating particle is known
as the amplitude of vibration and for airborne sound this is the range from
10-7 mm, at which sound is just perceptible by the human ear, to a few
mm, at which the ear would suffer damage.

10A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013

 Sound – Engineering Data

It is not sufficient to quote equipment noise levels by sound pressure Room Acoustics and N.C. Curves
level measured using the A-weighting network, since this is influenced by The study of room acoustics is a science on its own and it is normally
the environment. For this reason the power emitted by the device should beyond the scope of an HVAC engineer’s brief to be precise in his
be determined, as this is the fundamental indication of noise output and specification of acoustic performance, this generally being a matter for

Engineering Data
is virtually independent of the environment. Some typical sound power specialists in acoustics for special purpose rooms. A general expectation
outputs of various sources are shown in Table 7 below. however, can be identified by the use of NC Curves. In most cases, an
intuitive understanding of the particular room acoustics is all that is
Loudness and Weighting Networks possible and of course the room plays a most important part in achieving
Due to the response mechanism and characteristics of the human ear, desired results.
sound intensity expressed in W/m2, (which incidentally is nearly identical
numerically to Prms in µPa), loudness, as subjectively judged by the
ear, cannot be measured as a simple function of sound pressure level.
A sound pressure level of 20 dB would be clearly audible at 1000 Hz, but
inaudible at 100 Hz.
The Phon is the unit of loudness level and the loudness level in phons of
any sound, is defined as being numerically equal to the intensity level in
decibels of a 1000 Hz tone, that is judged by the average observer to be
equally loud.
Weighting networks were originally introduced to modify sound pressure
levels in order to make them correspond as closely as possible to perceived
loudness levels.
Four weighting networks, A, B, C & D were selected to cover the ranges
in phons, respectively of less than 55; 55-85; greater than 85 and lastly
to account for the increase in annoyance produced by certain aircraft
noises.
Recent work has not supported these associations and frequency
weightings, while now being a matter of convention, are of doubtful
value in measuring, or rating noise levels of air distribution devices.
Furthermore, the A scale is now frequently specified for rating sounds,
irrespective of level.

Table
Table
6– 6
Some
– Some
Typical
Typical
Sound
Sound
Pressure
Pressure
Levels.
Levels. Table
Table
7– 7
Some
– Some
Typical
Typical
Sound
Sound
Power
Power
Levels.
Levels.

Sound
Sound
Pressure
Pressure
(Pa)(Pa)Sound
Sound
Pressure
PressureLevelsLevels
(dB re(dB2 re 2 -5x 10
x 10 Pa)-5 Pa) Power
Power
(Watts)
(Watts) Power
Power
LevelLevel
140 140 (dB10re-1210
(dB re W)-12 W)
100000000
100000000
130 130
NearNear
a jet aaircraft
jet aircraft
takingtaking
off off 100,000,000
100,000,000 200 200 Saturn
Saturn
rocket
rocket (50,000,000
(50,000,000
W) W)
120 120 1,000,000
1,000,000 180 180
10000000
10000000
110 110
10,000
10,000 160 160 Jet airliner
Jet airliner (50,000
(50,000
W) W)
100 100
NearNear
a pneumatic
a pneumatic drill drill
1000000
1000000 100 100 140 140
90 90 LargeLarge
orchestra
orchestra (10 W)
(10 W)
Inside
Inside
of motorcar
of motorcar
80 80 0 0 120 120 Chipping
Chipping
hammer
hammer (1 W)(1 W)
100000
100000
70 70
0,01 0,01 100 100
60 60General
General
officeoffice Shouted
Shouted
speech
speech (0,001
(0,001
W) W)
1000050 50
10000 0,000,1
0,000,1 80 80
Conversational
Conversational
speech
speech 10-6
(20 x(20 W)-6 W)
x 10
40 40QuietQuiet
livingroom
livingroom 0,000,001
0,000,001 60 60
10001000
30 30 0,000,000,01
0,000,000,01 40 40
20 20QuietQuiet Whisper
Whisper (10-9(10
W)-9 W)
100 100 countryside
countryside 0,000,000,000,1
0,000,000,000,1 20 20
10 10
20 200 0 Threshold
Threshold
of hearing
of hearing 0,000,000,000,001
0,000,000,000,0010 0

11A
 Engineering Data – Sound

Growth and Decay; Reverberation; Room Absorption Every room imposes its own characteristics on those of any sound
The extent to which an air outlet affects the room noise level is influenced source present, so that the fluctuations in sound pressure which
by the sound absorbing characteristics of the room. Sound intensity, occur as a microphone is moved from one position to another, may
as measured at a particular point, will increase in a series of small completely obscure the true output characteristics of the source. Duct
increments, due to the arrival of reflection from walls, floors, ceilings, borne noise from fans, dampers, turning vanes, etc, may well be greater
etc, until equilibrium is established and the energy absorbed by the room than the noise generated by air passing through a grille or diffuser and
Engineering Data

is equal to the energy radiated by the sound source. When the sound these may require special and separate treatment.
source is abruptly stopped, sound intensity will fade at a rate of decay
Table 8
determined by the amount and positioning of absorbing material in the
room. This lingering of sound is known as reverberation and the rate of Typical absorption coefficients of 1 m2 of material
room absorption of sound energy is mainly proportional to the sound Frequency, Hz
intensity (W/m2). Material
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
An imperical relationship was first developed, between the volume of an Air, per cu. m. nil nil nil 0.003 0.007 0.02
auditorium, the amount of absorptive materials in it and reverberation Acoustic Panelling 0.15 0.30 0.75 0.85 0.75 0.40
time, at the beginning of the 20th century by W.C. Sabine, whose formula
Plaster 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
states that:-
Floor, Concrete 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.05

RT = 0.161V / A Floor, Wood 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

Where RT = reverberation time defined as the time taken for a Floor, Carpeted 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.30
sound to decay by 60 dB after the sound source is abruptly stopped. Brick Wall 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.05

V = volume of auditorium in m3 Curtains 0.05 0.12 0.15 0.27 0.37 0.50

A = total absorption of the auditorium in m2-SABINS. Total absorption of one

0.18 0.40 0.46 0.46 0.51 0.46
seated person

The absorption unit of 1 m²-SABIN represents a surface capable of Dampering

absorbing sound at the same rate as 1 m² of perfectly absorbing surface,
e.g. an open window. Where an accessory damper is attached to a grille or diffuser, its noise
The absorption coefficient of a material is the ratio of sound absorbed generation can not be separately attenuated and consideration should
by it, to that absorbed by the same area of an open window. be given to its effect. Ratings listed will increase due to pressure drop
A perfect absorption coefficient, would be 1. increases across such an assembly, due to dampering, approximately
Sabine’s formula gives a good indication of expected behaviour of fairly as shown in table 9. Where possible, in noise critical applications,
reverberant rooms with a uniform distribution of absorptive materials. dampering should be done at the branch takeoff.
Inaccuracies increase as the room becomes more dead and derivations
of this formula have been developed for these and other cases. Table 9
Sound absorption is usually different for the same material at Effect of Integral Dampering
different frequencies, as illustrated by table 8. Room absorption Times Rated Total Pressure 1 2 3 4
can be calculated by measuring the reverberation time for each
dB Increase 0 7 12 18
frequency of interest and predicted from shape, volume and the
amount and types of absorptive materials used in its construction.

Noise Criteria Curves and Ratings Notes

NC curves, as developed by Beranek in the USA, are intended as a guide
to average acceptability of noise as expressed by sound pressure levels Note that the NR-40 curve is shown for approximate comparison.
and are the most widely used in Australasia. N.R. curves are similarly (See also Section G for large scale NC chart and acoustic selection
intended and are common in Europe. Although they are similar, one of Series HCV equipment.)
should not be confused with the other - refer to Figure 15.

80

70
NR NC - 60
Octave 60 - 40
Not recommended for any office
Band SP, 50 NC - 50
dB NC - 40 Large engineering and drafting rooms
40
Medium sized offices, hotel rooms
Th Hea

NC - 30
res rin
Of

30
ho g

NC - 20 Private offices, libraries

ld

20
63 250 1000 4000 Executive offices, suburban homes
Third-Octave Frequency Band
Figure 15. N.C. (Noise Criteria) Curves.

12A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013

 Sound – Engineering Data

Care should also be taken to ensure even air distribution across a diffuser This is not to say that the measured sound pressure level or its
or grille. Misalignment of a flexible connection by 0.5 times the outlet calculated sound power output follow the NC curve. In fact, for a typical
diameter can raise the sound level by 12 to 15 dB, while misalignment ceiling diffuser, it is likely that the sound pressure level, after room
by up to 0.125 D will have no appreciable effect. effect is deducted, would be 30 dB or so lower at 125 Hz and 10 dB
Ranges of NC levels most commonly considered acceptable for different lower at 4000 Hz, while meeting the NC curve only at 500 or 1000 Hz,
applications are shown in Table 10. or both. These are the frequencies that commonly determine the NC

Engineering Data
rating of a diffuser.
Table 10
Corrections for Outlet NC Rating
Recommended NC values for various environments
A more thorough assessment of the effect that a room would have on noise
Range of NC Levels criteria may be found in 2003 “HVAC Applications” Chapter 47. However
Environment
likely to be acceptable the corrections shown in Table 11 below will provide an approximation, in
Factories (heavy engineering) 55 - 75 which a room may be identified on the basis of volume and general type of
Factories (light engineering) 45 - 65
space and corrections established for both direct and reverberant fields,
RA and RA1 respectively.
Kitchens 40 - 50
For the direct field, the volume and type of room and the distance from
Swimming baths & sports areas 35 - 50
the outlet are needed. For the reverberant field, the number of outlets for
Department stores & shops 35 - 45 the same room are required.
Restaurants, bars, cafeterias & canteens 35 - 45
The specification will be satisfied when the outlet NC level does not exceed
Mechanised offices 40 - 50 the specified NC, plus the smaller of the two corrections RA and RA.1
General offices 35 - 45 Note that ‘Q’ is the directivity factor, for which a value of 2 is used where
Private offices, libraries,court rooms & school ceiling outlets are centered in a room and mounted flush and a value of
30 - 35
rooms
4 where side-wall, or baseboard outlets are located near the junction of
Homes, bedrooms 25 - 35
two surfaces.
Hospital wards & operating theatres 25 - 35
Refer also Section G for calculation example for VAV application of NC.
Cinemas 30 - 35
Theatres, assembly halls & churches 25 - 30
Concert & opera halls 20 - 25
Broadcasting & recording studios 15 - 20

Noise ratings published in this manual are based upon a room

absorption at all frequencies, of 10 dB re 10-12 W, in the direct field and
about 1.5 m from a single source, i.e. the NC rating is established in SPL
(or Lp) by subtracting 10 dB from the sound power level (SWL) of the
outlet, to account for a likely and average room effect.

Table 11
3 Corrections for Room Attenuation
Room Volume (m )
Direct Field, One Outlet RA
Reverberant
Field Ceiling Height (m) Distance from Outlet to Listener (m)
Hard Average Soft Ceiling Outlets: Q = 2 Sidewall or Baseboard: Q = 4
RA1 2.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 9.0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5
400 75 - -2 -4 -3 -2 -2 -2 -4 -2 -2 -2 -2
2000 280 45 2 -2 -1 2 2 2 -2 1 2 2 2
5000 1000 120 5 -1 1 4 5 5 -1 2 4 4 5
13000 2300 375 9 0 3 6 7 9 0 4 6 7 8
50000 8500 1275 12 0 4 8 9 11 0 5 8 9 10
Corrections for number of outlets in reverberant field

No. of Outlets in Space 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 More than 12

Correction, k 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Noise in Direct Field: Outlet NC Level = NC + RA

Noise in Reverberant Field: Outlet NC Level = NC + (RA1 - k)

13A
 Engineering Data – Overhead Heating

Overhead Heating
Engineers are generally aware of the problems that arise with heating Room ∆T
systems dependant upon overhead air distribution. Buoyancy of warm The difference between room and supply air temperature should be
air, already discussed under the heading of “allowing for drop”, must be limited to a maximum of 14°K and preferably less, otherwise buoyancy
overcome by the strategic placement and selection of diffusers and such forces will overcome the momentum of the supply air and turn it back
air distribution systems should be avoided in favour of other types of low toward the ceiling.
Engineering Data

level heating, e.g. under sill, or floor supply, skirting convectors, or panel
heating. Consider both Heating and Cooling
The problem is exaggerated in colder climates where it may be necessary Select throw to reach the wall on heating, but prevent over-blow on cooling.
to employ double glazing to reduce heat loss and high velocity down drafts A good selection will have the heating 0.75 m/s throw just reaching the
at windows. wall, while the 0.25 m/s throw on cooling must not exceed the distance
Where it can not be avoided however, the compromise can be improved to the wall plus the height of the wall.
by using the following guide lines.
Care with Vertical Projection
Diffuser Types and Location Where vertical projection is being used to drive warm air downwards and
Use diffusers that have a high induction ratio and preferably multi slot this assumes a “heating only” duty, the notes on the performance data
linear. Locate the diffuser at least a metre away from the exterior wall so for each type of diffuser should be carefully considered.
that the air stream can spread across the ceiling and wall, entraining room Data for adjustable diffusers, normally used in heating systems, are
air as it does so. Do not drive the air at the windows, or vertically project provided with either specific data for heating differentials, or a statement
near them. See Figure 16 below. as to the basis of the performance table.
If drapes or double glazing are used, the velocity of natural convection air Models CRA and Model CSRLA give vertical throw based on 11°K differential
may be low enough to be neutralised by room air circulation induced in and V T 0.25 m/s.
the opposite direction, by setting linear diffusers to throw inwards, rather Unless otherwise stated in the performance tables, all other vertical
than outwards and the selection of CSD series with more than one slot projection figures are for isothermal supply (zero ∆T) and allowances
allows the greatest flexibility for on site adjustment. should be made accordingly.

Heating
0.75m/s

Cooling

0.25m/s

This Not This Or This

Air Spreads Over Ceiling and Wall

Figure 16. Outlet locations for overhead heating.

14A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013

 Pressure & Duct Design – Engineering Data
50
Pressure & Duct Design 45
40

1.5
Take-off to Outlet

1.0
30
Throw of registers, grilles and diffusers is assumed, for design purposes,

0.8
25
to be uniformly centred about the outlet. The fact that it may not be so,

Vu =
20

1.0 0.8

Vn/
may be of little or no importance, but without due attention being paid to

Vu =

eB
15

1.5
the approach condition behind the outlet, the pattern is most likely to be

Typ
Vn/

Engineering Data
Take-Off

pe A
asymmetrical, due to the approach angle of the supply air.

y
Loss 10

17 T
Where it is important that symmetrical diffusion patterns be established, 9
(SPu - TPn) 8

re
Figu
then it is essential for branch take-offs to outlets to be fitted with curved Pa 7
splitters or guide vanes (see pages 360K - 361K for suitable types). If 6
5
space or other considerations preclude this, then straight blade equalizing
4
grids (refer to page 358K) may be used, but with somewhat less effect.
A single bladed scoop type of deflector at the outlet is not desirable. 3
Refer to figure 17 below.
2
Tabulated performance data gives the outlet total pressure (TPn) in
pascals. This is the sum of the static and velocity pressures in a straight
approach supply duct to the outlet and at a point 1.5 diameters upstream
of it. Velocity pressure is the pressure corresponding to the duct velocity. 0
0 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
The outlet static pressure then equals the total pressure minus the Diffuser Neck Velocity (Vn) m/s
velocity pressure and it is actually measured at the above duct position,
in accordance with industry standards.
The duct static pressure required upstream from a take-off, to obtain Velocity Distribution from Linear And Slot Diffusers
required flow with various accessories, may be established by using the When a linear diffuser is fed from one end, air stream profiles are
take-off loss from figure 18. The duct static pressure will be outlet total determined by the ratio of the area of the slot, to the area of the
supply duct. The air discharge angle from a slot in a tapered duct will
pressure, plus take-off loss:-
be uniform, while from a slot in a duct of constant area, the profile
shape is determined by the percentage of slot area at any point along
SPu = Take-off loss + TPn its length. See figure 19.

So called cushion heads, or chambers, have no beneficial effect. Percent of Length of Slot

As/Ad
Vu = 0.376 = 0.75 = 1.06 = 1.43
SPu 25 50 75100 25 50 75100 25 50 75100 25 50 75100

OBD (Open)
VPn & Vn In both cases, the angle of discharge can be calculated by:-

cot θ = As Cd
Ad
Where θ = discharge angle in degrees
Distortion of Diffusion Pattern As = Area of slot m2
Type A
Ad = Cross sectional area of duct at upstream end, m2
Cd = Coefficient of discharge

Vu Table 12 gives a guide to the air stream angles for different slot/duct
area ratios.
SPu
Table 12
Ducts for Linear Diffusers
Ratio As/Ad 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5
VPn & Vn
Angle of discharge θ 68˚ 59˚ 51˚ 33˚

Linear outlets with inactive sections are desirable to minimise drops

and they may be fed from one end. Duct design can take advantage of
Symmetrical Diffusion Pattern this by arranging for the take-off from the main duct to be attached to
Type B a diffuser plenum at an inactive section. The air will then be divided to
Figure 17. Effect of air approach. equally, or proportionally serve the two active lengths.
Holyoake straightening vanes similar to Model TV on page 360K are available
to eliminate this effect if required.
15A
 Engineering Data – Room Air Distribution

Expansion & Contraction of Aluminium Linear Grilles

Figure 20 below gives the amount of linear expansion and contraction
caused by changes in the temperature of aluminium continuous diffusers,
or grilles. In most cases the small amount of clearance that naturally
occurs between the ends of diffuser lengths butted together, is sufficient
to meet commonly encountered temperature changes. Installation is
Engineering Data

normally carried out in ambient conditions and it is only the rise from this
temperature to the maximum operating temperature, that is significant.
Double duty (heating and cooling) grilles will contract on cooling, causing
no problem and expand on heating. Unless specifically required otherwise,
linear grilles and slot diffusers are furnished in maximum 2400 lengths,
for convenient handling both in the factory and on-site. The gap per piece
therefore, need only be 1 mm for a 17°K temperature rise. Alignment strips
available with both types will slide easily to accommodate movement and
make it easy to allow for this slight clearance.

12 50

45
10
40

35
8

30
Change of Temperature
Length 6 25 Change
in mm in °K
20

4
15

10
2
5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 10

Length of Grille in Metres

Figure 20. Expansion & Contraction of Aluminium Linear Grilles and Diffusers.

16A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013

 VariableRoom
Air Volume Systems – Engineering Data
Air Distribution

Variable Air Volume Systems

Introduction Air Diffuser Types
Variable Air Volume has become a preferred system for most buildings It has been known for years that complaints of drafts far outweigh
where occupancy is of the type which demands unobtrusive, but closely complaints of lack of air movement. People may talk about stuffiness
controlled air conditioning. It has gained acceptance in office buildings of and there are certainly minimum air change rates and outside air
all types and has almost displaced some of the more complex and energy ventilation ratios, that must be maintained to avoid this. Even too low a

Engineering Data
wasteful systems, such as constant volume dual duct and high pressure relative humidity, or too high a temperature can be responsible, but rarely
induction systems. It is important therefore, that the subject be given due insufficient breeze.
attention in this handbook. The A.D.P.I. or Air Diffusion Performance Index system of rating occupier
As with any system, the air distribution devices need to be selected comfort, as expounded in ASHRAE Fundamentals, identifies the percentage
with great care, for VAV applications more so. The range of compatible air of a large number of locations where measurements are taken, which fall
diffusers is smaller and it is less likely that a field adjustment, to correct between +1.1° and -1.7°C effective draft temperature and below 0.35 m/s.
a draft complaint, will suit all conditions of air flow. At these conditions a high percentage of people are comfortable in office
occupations. (Refer to Table 13 on page 18A)
Two Basic System Concepts Effective draft temperature is not directly related to dry bulb temperature,
The first decision the designer must make relates to which of the two relative humidity, or mean radiant temperature, but is a function of the
broad categories of system type is to be used. With a reasonably flexible local temperature difference from the room average, as amended by local
interpretation of the terms, all VAV air distribution systems can be air velocity. (Refer to Equation 2 on page 7A).
categorised as either “fixed orifice-velocity re-set”, or “variable orifice-
pressure compensated”. It is important to recognise that a minimum velocity is not set and that
high levels of satisfaction can only be achieved below 0.35 m/s. This
By “fixed orifice-velocity re-set” we refer to systems in which the basic emphasizes the need for draftless air distribution.
components are more or less conventional air diffusers, selected with
an understanding of their intended flow variations and volume control By examining the results of applying the A.D.P.I. method to the various
assemblies fitted into the ductwork, one assembly per zone, as shown in types of diffuser, it can be seen that modern architectural trends are not
the layout on page 244G for the offices designated conference, director, the only reason for the virtual demise of sidewall registers, in favour of
reception and general office. ceiling diffusers of various types in office applications.
The alternative approach, referred to as “variable orifice-pressure Light troffers and linear ceiling diffusers are clearly more suitable to
compensated”, uses diffusers which are specifically designed for this varying air flows (and therefore throws), than say sidewall registers.
type of system. They incorporate some type of actuator for opening 0.005 m3/s with a 11°K differential is a load of about 60 W/m2, so in most
and closing the gap or orifice, through which the air is released into the office applications, the bottom two lines (60 & 130), would cover most
space. A regulating device in the duct feeding a number of diffusers, centre zones and the 190 W/m2 line would suit most perimeter areas.
senses changes in demand and opens or closes, to suit these changes. Types have been rated in order of preference, based upon the breadth of
Such a system could look like the one shown again on page 244G for the the range of ratios T 0.25/L, consistent with high A.D.P.I. values, because
laboratory, senior analyst and accountant. the throw varies in a VAV system.
The basic device required to regulate air flow in the supply duct is the Note also that the 0.25 m/s isovel is given prominence, again emphasizing
same in both cases, with different control systems. Both types of system the lower velocities that maintain minimum draft levels.
are very flexible in terms of layout and tenancy changes and there is no All of the configurations listed need a ceiling for draft-less air distribution.
reason why the system types should not be mixed, making a composite In fact the most important component of an air distribution device for
of the two typical layouts. office type air conditioning is the ceiling itself.
In either case, the above ceiling arrangement can be very straight forward ASHRAE gives formulae for calculating both entrainment and induction
and could easily consist of components available off the shelf, or at least ratios, which illustrate the reason for superior performance of a slot over
of compatible construction, requiring little in the way of sheet metal trade a square or circular jet.
skills, or fabrication labour, as shown in the illustration on page 244G.
Diffuser types can be categorised as an extension of one or the other.
Note that for variable volume systems, it is preferable to use Spiroset
For example a light troffer and a linear diffuser are obviously slots. While
(Semi Rigid) run-outs, rather than Spiroflex or similar “floppy” duct, to
these slots are actually in the plane of the ceiling, the design of their
avoid any possibility of duct movement as pressures fluctuate. Holyoake
does not recommend the use of “floppy” flexible duct in any VAV system.
discharge opening, which involves a certain amount of intricate detail
and streamlining is such that the air is immediately turned through 90°
Attenuation of noise created by dropping up to 500pa between the when it emerges, so that the effect is to drive a column of air along the
main supply system and the diffuser run-out and conditioned space, is ceiling surface.
achieved by either attenuators supplied as part of the regulating device
package, or lined ductwork. It is usually very successful. In some types A plaque type of diffuser with circular neck, such as the type used for
of equipment, the pressure reducing device and fixed orifice diffuser are variable orifice systems is, in effect, a slot wrapped around in a circle.
contained in the one item, with acoustic treatment being concentrated in
the diffuser and plenum assembly, but it is fair to say that these systems
are more prone to noise level fluctuation, especially where duct pressures
are capable of varying between 250 and 1250 Pa.

17A
 Engineering Data

A circular ceiling diffuser, including those which have a square face and Table 13
smooth transition from a round neck, is similar, with the exception that
Air diffusion performance index (based on A.S.H.R.A.E. fundamentals)
the air stream is divided by louver face pressings, giving the effect of a
and VAV diffuser rating
wider slot and higher induction ratio.
Room For ADPI
The traditional rectangular “multi-pattern” louver face diffuser is Terminal Load
T0.25/L for Maximum greater Range of VAV
Device Max. ADPI ADPI T.25/L Rating*
essentially a collection of square or circular jets and of course, side wall W/m2 than
Engineering Data

or sill grilles are more obviously square, or modified square jets. 250 1.8 68 - -
There are two features of diffuser performance that should be highlighted. High 190 1.8 72 70 1.5-2.2
These are:- Sidewall 5
Grilles 130 1.6 78 70 1.2-2.3
1. Entrainment, which is also called “secondary air motion”. It is the 60 1.5 85 80 1.0-1.9
effect of the movement of a column of air as it draws room air along 250 0.8 76 70 0.7-1.3
with it. The entrainment ratio is the total volumetric flow of air at a Circular
Ceiling 190 0.8 83 80 0.7-1.2
given distance from the discharge, divided by the volumetric flow Diffusers/ 3
of primary air at the same point. Because the entrainment effect is Swirl 130 0.8 88 80 0.5-1.5
Diffusers
dominant in the turbulent zone, mixing is not predictable, or reliable. 60 0.8 93 90 0.7-1.3
2. Induction, which is also called “aspiration”. This is the room air drawn 250 1.7 61 60 1.5-1.7
into an outlet by the primary air stream. Mixing is complete and Sill Grille 190 1.7 72 70 1.4-1.7
Straight 5
highly effective. The induction ratio is the volumetric flow of total Vanes 130 1.3 86 80 1.2-1.8
air at the discharge, divided by the volumetric flow of primary air 60 0.9 95 90 0.8-1.3
delivered to that point by the supply duct. The higher the induction
250 0.7 94 90 0.8-1.5
ratio the shorter the distance before room ∆T is insignificant.
Sill Grille 190 0.7 94 80 0.6-1.7
High induction ratios bring supply air temperatures up close to room Spread 5
temperature rapidly by mixing with room air. The throw of a diffuser as Vanes 130 0.7 94 - -
tabulated is mainly critical to the extent that it actually exists, where low 60 0.7 94 - -
turndowns are involved. 250 0.3* 85 80 0.3-0.7
In other words, if the tabulated throw at a terminal velocity of 0.25 m/s Ceiling 190 0.3* 88 80 0.3-0.8
does not extend further than the adjacent wall and say halfway down, Slot 2
Diffusers 130 0.3* 91 80 0.3-1.1
then over-throw will not cause drafts at maximum flow.
60 0.3* 92 80 0.3-1.5
At the other end of the scale, if the turned down air quantity is so low that 190 2.5 86 80 3.8
no tabulated values can be found for it, then the diffuser is probably too Light
Troffer 130 1.0 92 90 3 1
large, or turn down too low. Diffusers
60 1.0 95 90 4.5
However, as long as there is a ceiling effect and a high induction ratio,
the load will be taken care of, either at minimum or maximum volume. Perforated 35 - 160 2.0 96 90 1.4-2.7
&
Refer to page 244G for a selection of compatible diffusers for velocity 4
Louvered 80 1.0-3.4
reset control. Diffusers
Tv = Throw distance at terminal velocity, V. *T0.5 / L
Variable Orifice Diffusers L = Characteristic room length (diffuser to wall, etc).
Systems that use variable orifice diffusers with static pressure
compensation, have the advantage of maintaining a constant centre
This equates to 0.003 m3/s per m2 for a 2.6 m ceiling height and that
line velocity at all flow levels and this feature maintains a more or less
in turn contrasts with the results of the N.R.C. survey, of a maximum of
constant induction ratio, rather than a falling one, as volume flow is reduced.
0.0015 m3/s per m2, for any of the cases analysed.
The throw of these devices must reduce as mass is reduced, but to a
Where a high proportion of natural fabrics and less finishes exuding heady
lesser extent than with fixed orifice types, since constant pressure,
mixtures of gaseous contaminants can be expected, this figure could be
which is the force per unit area behind the jet, means constant discharge
reduced, but there has to be a minimum for dilution somewhere. Ideally
velocity, so that mV2/2g, the conservation of momentum statement, is
it should be identified with the intended contents of a building.
not affected by the dominant variable. Refer to Section D for examples of
variable orifice type diffusers. Model CSRVL, on page 168D combines the
features of variable orifice and fixed orifice louver face types. These should
also be used with upstream pressure regulators.

Minimum Turn-down
It is suggested that turn-down air quantities be held to a minimum of
0.003 m3/s/m2. A study of the incidence of complaints of “stale air”
in Canadian buildings with VAV systems, refers to data collected by the
National Research Council of Canada and offers a consensus of the opinions
of engineering design consultants, that suggests a minimum air circulation
rate of four air changes per hour, which assumes adequate dilution of the
various contaminants present in a commercial space, e.g. vapours from
synthetic materials used in wall linings, furniture, clothing, etc.
18A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013
 Engineering Data

VAV Assembly and Control Devices

Volume control assemblies which provide either reset velocity control, or Electronic velocity reset control can be either analog, or digital, stand
static pressure control, are to be found in Section G. alone, or part of a building management system. For air velocity sensing,
It is a very risky business to allow volume to be controlled directly by most depend upon the heat lost by a heated element, compared with an
a thermostat. Upstream pressures must vary and differing flow levels unheated element, to an air stream passing over both.
can be expected for the same thermostat signal. Furthermore, the control There are most often single point sensors, sampling air velocity at, or near

Engineering Data
feedback loop is too long and loose, if there is any such variation in the the centre of the air stream.
flow for a given setting, hunting is inevitable. More recent developments have introduced an approximation of average
For these reasons units that are able to maintain downstream flow or velocity sensing, which depends upon the continuous measurement of
static pressure, independently of upstream pressure fluctuations, are velocity pressure, or ∆ p, at several points in the air stream.
essential.The control devices for these units fall into two broad categories: Pneumatic controls readily accommodate this, but electronic systems
Pneumatic or electronic. require either a pressure transducer, or similar device, which will convert
Few can maintain the often specified ±5% control tolerance, over zero the air pressure differential to an electronic signal. It uses a similar
(or very low minimum) volume flow, through to maximum and over inlet principle to the single point sensor, in that the averaged velocity pressure
static pressures between minimum and 1000 Pa. produces a minute flow through a small device containing a chip, which
This tolerance requirement was introduced in the days of mechanical measures heat lost to the air stream and relates this to mass flow.
constant volume controllers, where the one flow, not reset by temperature, Pick-ups used in conjunction with any such electronic ∆ p measuring
could with great care, be maintained over a wide inlet static pressure system vary widely in quality. Cheap plastic devices should be avoided, but
range. All air passed through the controller. with good quality, performance rated pick-ups, VAV device performance,
Specifiers should recognise the futility of such tolerances in the light of with less than ideal inlet conditions, is greatly enhanced by the averaging
uncontrolled air inlet conditions on site and simply nominate the type of ∆ p method.
controls that are acceptable. Electronic control manufactures rarely publish data on the accuracy,
Briefly, ∆ p means that the difference between total and static pressure, as or overall tolerance of their systems. When such data is provided, it
a measure of velocity is translated into a control signal, which maintains normally relates to individual elements only and the aggregation of these
a predetermined velocity by referring it to the desired value dialed into tolerances does not indicate highly accurate performance. Typically ±5%
the controller. of full scale, which at low velocities may mean ±15%.
The direct ∆p needs amplification at the sensing probe to increase In practice, we have found that most commercial systems can be made
accuracy at low velocities. to operate within ±5% at velocities above 3 m/s.
Since ∆p = 1/2 v2 (where = density & v = velocity). It moves as the The other features available with electronic controls, such as immediate
square of the velocity. temperature and live flow readings from thermostat locations and the
ability to incorporate them into a building supervisory system, are
The controller is essentially a diaphragm and spring assembly, which uses advantages which must be seen as being of far greater significance than
a throttling range, or proportional band to position the damper between absolute air velocity accuracy.
open and closed. A good quality commercial controller has a throttling
range of 250 Pascals.
By calculating a series of velocities from high to low, a point will be
found where a step down of 2.5 Pascals represents the required control
tolerance as a percentage of velocity.
Each manufacturer makes his own decision on amplification of sensed
∆ p, and in the case of the Holyoake series HCV, the critical velocity for
±5% is 2.5 m/s. However, control extends well below this and at ±7%, it
is 2.0 m/s.

19A
 Engineering Data – S.I. Metric Conversions
Base & Simple Derived Units luminous flux Im lumen (= cd sr)
length m metre illumination Ix lux (= Im/m2)
mass kg kilogram angle rad radian
time s second solid angle sr steradian
electric current A ampere force N Newton (= kgm/s²)
therm. temperature K Kelvin pressure Pa Pascal (= N/m²)
measured temperature ºC Celsius energy J Joule (= Nm)
luminous intensity cd candela power W Watt (= J/S)
Engineering Data

Acceleration m/s² density (dry air) 1.2 kg/m3 at 21°C

1 ft/sec² = 0.3048 m/s² density (moist air) 1.184 kg/m3 at 21°C 50% RH
32.2 ft/sec² = 9.80665 m/s² density (air) 1.2 x kPa x 294
101.325 k
Air Flow Per Area m/s m² = m3/s m² density (water) 1 kg/litre
1 cfm/sq ft = 0.00508 m /sm²
3
1 kg/dm3
1000 kg/m3
Angle rad 1 tonne/m3 = 1 kg/litre = 1 g/millilitre
1 degree = 0.017453 3 rad
1 minute = 0.290888 x 10-3 rad Energy J=Nm=Ws
1 second = 4.84814 x 10-6 rad 1 kWhr = 3.6 MJ
1 BTU = 1.05506 kJ
Area m² 1 Therm = 105.506 MJ
1 sq in = 645.16 mm² 1 ft Ibf = 1.35582 J
= 6.4516 x 10-4m²
1 sq ft = 92903.04 mm² Enthalpy kJ/kg
0.09290304 m² (In Psychr. Charts Enthalpy = O at t = O°C)
1 sq yd = 0.836127 m² 1 BTU/lb = 2.326 kJ/kg
1 sq mile = 2.589999 km²
1 acre = 4046.86 m² Force N
(0.404686 ha) 1 Ibf = 4.44822 N
1 are = 100 m² 1 tonf = 9.9640 kN
1 centare = 1 m² 1 kip = 4.44822 kN
1 hectare = 10 000 m²
Force Per Unit Length N/m
Bending Moment Nm 1 Ibf/ft = 14.5939 N/m
1 Ibf in = 0.113 Nm 1 kip/ft = 14.5939 kN/m
= 113 Nmm 1 tonf/ft = 32.6903 kN/m
1 1bf ft = 1.35582 Nm
Heat Flow W =(J /s)
Coefficient Of Heat Transfer (conductance) W/m²K
1 BTU/hr ft² °F = 5.67826 W/m²K 1 BTU/hr = 0.293071 W
1 Ton (Refr.) = 3.51685 kW
Conductivity (Thermal) (Conductance per unit length) W/m K
1 BTU in/hr ft² °F = 0.144228 W/m K Illumination Ix (= lm/m²)
1 BTU/hr ft °F = 1.73073 W/m K 1 foot-candle = 10.7639 lx

Decimal Multipliers Latent Heat Formula

Tera T = 1012 2950 x m3/s x Δ g/kg = Latent heat in Watts
giga G = 109 2.95 x d m3/s x Δ g/kg = Latent heat in Watts
mega M = 106 2.95 x m3/s x Δ g/kg = Latent heat in kW
kilo k = 103 2950 = 2500 KJ/kg
hecto h = 102 0.845 m3/kg
deca da = 10
deci d =10-1 2500 = Heat required to evaporate or condense unit kJ/kg mass of water
centi c =10-2 0.845 = Specific volume m3/kg of moist air
milli m =10-3
micro µ =10-6 Length m
nano n = 10-9 1 inch = 25.4 mm
pico p = 10-12 = 0.0254 m
femto f =10-15 1 foot = 304.8 mm
atto a = 10-18 = 0.3048 m
1 yard = 0.9144 m
Density kg/m3 1 chain = 20.1168 m
1 Ib/in3 = 2.768 x 104 kg/m3 1 mile = 1.609344 km
= 27.68 kg/litre
1 Ib/ft3 = 16.0185 kg /m3

20A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013

 S.I. Metric Conversions – Engineering Data

Lighting Per Unit Area W/m2 Resistance m2 K/W

1 watt/sq ft = 10.7639 W/m2 1 sq ft °F hr/BTU = 0.1761 m K/W
2

= 176.1 m2 K/kW
Liquid Flow litre/s
1 imp gpm = 0.075 7682 litre/s Resistivity m K/W
= 0.00007577 m3/s 1 ft2 hr ˚F/BTU in = 6.934 m K/W
1 US gpm = 0.0631 litre/s
= 0.0000631 m3/s Sensible Heat Formula

Engineering Data
1 imp gph = 1.26280 x 10-3 litre/s 1213 x m3/s x ∆ K = Sens. heat in watts
1.213 x dm3/s x ∆ K = Sens. heat in watts
Load Distribution N/m
1.213 x m3/s x ∆ K = Sens. heat in kW
1 Ibf/ft = 14.5939 N/m
1.213 = 1.025 kJ/kgK
Loading Rate W/m2 0.845 m3/kg
1 BTU/hr ft2 = 3.155 W/m2 1.025 KJ/Kg K = specific heat of moist air
0.845 m3/kg = specific volume of moist air
Mass kg
1 oz = 28.3495 g Specific Heat Capacity kJ/kgK
= 0.02835 kg 1 BTU/Ib °F = 4.1868 kJ/kgK
1 Ib = 0.45359237 kg For Dry Air = 1.005 kJ/kgK
1 ton = 1.01605 Mg or tonne For Water
= 1016.05 kg Vapour = 1.89 kJ/kgK
Mass of 1 litre of water = 1kg For Moist Air = 1.025 kJ/kgK
For Water = 4.1868 kJ/kgK
Mass Flow Rate kg/s
1 Ib/hr = 0.00012599 kg/s Specific Volume m3/kg
1 Ib/m = 0.00756 kg/s 1 cu ft/Ib = 0.062428 m3/kg
1 1 b/s = 0.453592 kg/s = 62.428 litre/kg
Specific volume for
Mass Flow Rate Per Unit Area kg/sm2 dry air = 0.833 m3/kg at 21°C
1 Ib/hr ft2 = 0.0013562 kg/sm2 moist air = 0.845 m3/kg at 21°C 50% RH
water = 0.001 m3/kg
Mass Per Unit Length kg/m = 1 litre/kg
1 Ib/ft = 1.48816 kg/m
Stress Pa
Modulus Of Elasticity Pa
1 psi = 6.89476 kPa
1 kip/in2 = 6.89476 MPa
= 0.00689476 MPa
1 tonf/in2 = 15.4443 MPa
29 000 000 psi = 0.2 x 106 MPa 1000 psi = 6.89476 MPa

Moisture Content kg/kg Thermodynamic Temperature K

1 Ib/lb = 1 kg/kg 1R = 273.15
K ≈ .555 K
1 grain/Ib = 0.1428 g/kg 491.67
°C = K –273.15
Moment Of Area mm4
1 in4 = 416 231.4256 mm4 Temperature Difference K
10 F = 5.55 K
Moment Of Inertia kg m2 9F =5K
1 Ib ft2 = 0.04214 kg m2
= 42140 kg mm2 Temperature °C
1 Ib in2 = 0.000292 kg m2 °F = 1.8°C + 32
= 292.64 kg mm2 °C = (°F - 32)
1.8
Power W =(J /s)
1HP = 0.7457 k W Torque Nm
1 Ibf ft = 1.35582 Nm
Pressure Pa 1 kip ft = 1.35582 kNm
1 psi = 6.89476 kPa 1 ton ft = 3.03703 kNm
1 in Hg = 3.38639 kPa TORQUE FORMULA
1 in Water = 0.24908 kPa
Torque in Nm = kW (output) x 9560
1 ft Water = 2.98896 kPa
rpm
1 tonf/in2 = 15.4443 MPa
9560 = 60 x 1000
14.696 psi = 101.325 kPa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa 2TT
Atmospheric pressure
14.696 psi = 101325 Pa Total Heat Formula
= 101.325 kPa 1184 x m3/s x ∆ kJ/kg = total heat in Watts
= 1013.25 mbar 1.184 x dm3/s x ∆ kJ/kg = total heat in Watts
= 1.01325 bar 1.184 = m3/s x ∆ kJ/kg = total heat in kW
1.184 = density of moist air, kg/m3
Pump Power Input kW
Power input in kW = litre/s x kPa x S.G
1000 x Pump efficiency
21A
 Engineering Data – Sheet & Wire Gauges
Universal Gas Constant J/kmol K
Sheet Steel Weight
8315 J/kmol K
gas constant, air = 287 J/kg K Metric Equivalent
gas constant, water vapour = 462 J/kg K Kg/m2 Sheets per Tonne
mm
2400 x 900 x 2.0 16.112 31
Velocity m/s
1 fps = 0.3048 m/s 2400 x 1200 x 2.0 22
1 fpm = 0.00508 m/s 2400 x 900 x 1.6 12.889 37
Engineering Data

1 mph = 0.44704 m/s

= 1.609344 km/h 2400 x 1200 x 1.6 27
2400 x 900 x 1.2 10.253 49
Velocity Pressure Pa
2400 x 1200 x 1.2 37
Velocity pressure in Pascals = 1/2 pv2
p = density, kg/m3 2400 x 1200 x 1.0 8.251 59
v = velocity m/s 2400 x 1200 x 1.0 44
For moist air (50% RH) at 21ºC
250 Pa ≈ 20.55 m/s ≈ 4045 fpm 2400 x 900 x 0.8 6.640 74
2400 x 1200 x 0.8 55
Volume m3, litre 2400 x 900 x 0.6 4.980 98
1 cu in = 16387 mm 3

= 1.6387 x 10-5 m3 2400 x 1200 x 0.6 74

= 16.3871 ml 2324 x 1137 x 0.6 72
1 cu ft = 28.3 x 106 mm3
2400 x 900 x 0.5 3.906 118
= 0.0283168 m3
= 28.3168 litres 2400 x 1200 x 0.5 88
1 cu yd = 0.764555 m3
1 imp. gal = 0.00454609 m3 Sheet & Wire Gauges
= 4.54609 litres
1 US gal = 0.003785 m3 Imperial Standard Wire
= 3.785 litres Gauge (S.W.G.)
Gauge No.
1 pint = 0.568261 litres mm inches
1 fl oz = 0.028413 litres
14 2.03 0.08
Volumetric Flow 15 1.83 0.072
1 cfm = 0.000471947 m3/s 16 1.63 0.064
= 0.471947 dm3/s (litre/s) 17 1.42 0.056
1ft3/s = 0.0283168 m3/s 18 1.22 0.048
VOLUME FLOW FOR B.S. 1042 : 1943 19 1.02 0.040
Q = 1.111 cZeED2 P/p 20 0.91 0.036
where 21 0.81 0.032
Q = m3/s 22 0.71 0.028
1.111 = π /2 2 0.61
23 0.024
D = internal diameter in m
P = pressure in Pa 24 0.56 0.022
= density in kg/m3 25 0.51 0.020
26 0.46 0,018
Water Cooling 27 0.42 0.016
COOLING in kW = 4.187 x litre/s x Δ K 28 0.38 0.015
COOLING in WATTS = 4187 x litre/s Δ K 29 0.35 0.014
4.187 = specific heat capacity of water 30 0.32 0.012
kJ/kg K
FOR 10F rise
COOLING in kW = 23.2 x litre/s References:-
1. A.S.H.R.A.E. Handbook of Fundamentals.
2. A.I.R.A.H. Design Aids.
3. Alfred Koestel: Paths of Horizontally Projected Heated & Chilled Air
Performance Data Air Flow Rates Jets (A.S.H.A.E. Transactions Vol. 61).
4. Bruel & Kjaer - Architectural Acoustics (K.B. Ginn).
For the user’s ease of calculation of total air quantities, velocities, 5. A.S.H.R.A.E Handbook of Systems.
duct areas, etc, performance ratings in this manual generally show 6. P.L. Miller & R.T. Nash: A Further Analysis of Room Air Distribution
volumetric flow in m3/s. Performance (A.S.H.R.A.E. Transactions Vol. 77).
To convert to l/s (litres or cubic decimetres) per second, shift the 7. H.E. Straub: Principles of Room Air Distribution (Heating, Piping and
Air Conditioning).
decimal point three places to the right.
8. R.T. Tamblyn: Beating the Blahs for VAV (A.S.H.R.A.E Journal).
In most all cases, values are shown to three decimal places, so that 9. A.S.H.R.A.E. Handbook of Equipment.
to convert the performance rating from Cubic Metres Per Second, 10. A. Koestel and G.L. Tuve: The Discharge of Air From a Long Slot
Ignore The Decimal Point And Read As Litres Per Second. (A.S.H.V.E. Transactions Vol. 54).

22A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013

 Fan Laws – – Engineering Data

Variable Constants Law Equation

Rotational Speed Fan Size 1. Flow is directly proportional to speed q1 N1
Air Density q2 = N2
Duct System
2. Pressure is directly proportional to speed2 P1 N 1 2
=
P2 N2
3. Air power is directly proportional to speed3 A 1 N1 3
=

Engineering Data
A 2 N2
Fan Size and Tip Speed 4. Flow and air power are directly proportional to diameter2 q1 A 1 D 1 2

Air Density = =
Rotational Speed q2 A 2 D 2
5. Speed is inversely proportional to diameter N1 D 1
=
N2 D 2

6. Pressure remains constant

P1 = P 2

Fan Size Rotational Speed 7. Flow is directly proportional to diameter3 q1 D 1 3

Air Density =
q2 D 2

8. Pressure is directly proportional to diameter2 p1 D 1 2

=
p2 D 2

9. Air power is directly proportional to diameter5 A1 D1 5

=
A2 D2
1
Rotational Speed Fan Size 10. Speed, flow and air power are inversely proportional to √density N1 q 1 A 1 2
2

and Air Density Pressure = = =

N2 q 2 A 2 1

Air Density Rotational Speed 11. Pressure and air power are directly proportional to density P1 A 1 1
Fan Size = =
P2 A 2 2
Duct System
12. Flow remains constant
q1 = q 2

Symbols: A = Air power in watts

Notes
D = Impeller diameter in metres 1. Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Velocity Pressure
N = Number of revolutions per second 2. A = P x q
3. Shaft Power = A / Efficiency
P = Total pressure in pascals (Fan efficiencies usually range between 0.45 and 0.8)
q = Volume flow in m3/s 4. System resistance usually varies as the square of velocity.
5. Fan laws apply accurately only to geometrically similar fans operating at
= Density in kg/m3 the same point on the characteristic curve.

Geometric Formulae and Trigonometric Relationships

Volume: Ellipsoid of revolution
about “a” axis 4/3 π b2a r a
b
Ellipsoid of revolution
about “b” axis 4/3 π a b2

r
Sphere 4/3 π r3
Cylinder π r2 l l a
Cone π b2a / 12
b
Circumference: Circle 2πr
b
Area: Circle π r2
a
Ellipse π ab
Sphere 4 π r2
Cylinder 2 π r [r+l]
Triangle 1/2 ab
r a
b
Trigonometric sin θ = y / r
Ratios: cos θ = x / r r
r y
tan θ = y / x
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 x
l a

b 23A
b
 Engineering Data
Engineering Data

24A © Holyoake Air Management Solutions – 2013