CHAPTER

The Standard Atmosphere

Sometimes gentle, sometimes capricious, sometimes awful, never the same for
two moments together; almost human in its passions, almost spiritual in its tenderness,
almost divine in its infinity.
John Ruskin, The Sky

erospace vehicles can be divided into two basic categories: atmospheric

A vehicles such as airplanes and helicopters, which always fly within the
sensible atmosphere; and space vehicles such as satellites, the Apollo
lunar vehicle, and deep-space probes, which operate outside the sensible atmo-
sphere. However, space vehicles do encounter the earth's atmosphere during
their blastoffs from the earth's surface and again during their reentries and recov-
eries after completion of their missions. If the vehicle is a planetary probe, it
may encounter the atmospheres ofVenus, Mars, Jupiter, and so forth. Therefore,
during the design and performance of any aerospace vehicle, the properties of the
atmosphere must be taken into account.
The earth's atmosphere is a dynamically changing system, constantly in a
state of fl. ux. The pressure and temperature of the atmosphere depend on altitude,
location on the globe (longitude and latitude), time of day, season, and even
solar sunspot activity. To take all these variations into account when considering
the design and performance of flight vehicles is impractical. Therefore, a stan-
dard atmosphere is defined in order to relate flight tests, wind tunnel results, and
general airplane design and performance to a common reference. The standard

110
 CHAPTER 3 The Standard Atmosphere 111

PREVIEW BOX

Before you jump into a strange water pond or dive coming back from space through the atmosphere. In
into an unfamiliar swimming pool, there are a few all these cases, the performance of the flight vehicle
things you might like to know. How cold is the is going to be dictated in part by the properties of the
water? How clean is it? How deep is the water? atmosphe~the temperature, density, and pressure
These are things that might influence your swimming of the atmosphere.
performance in the water or even your decision to go What are the properties of the atmosphere? We
swimming at all. Similarly, before we can study the know they change with altitude, but how do they
performance of a flight vehicle speeding through the change? How do we find out? These important ques-
air, we need to know something about the proper- tions are addressed in this chapter. Before you can go
ties of the air itself. Consider an airplane flying in any further in your study of flight vehicles, you need
the atmosphere, or a space vehicle blasting through to know about the atmosphere. Here is the story-
the atmosphere on its way up to space, or a vehicle please read on.

atmosphere gives mean values of pressure, temperature, density, and other prop-
erties as functions of altitude; these values are obtained from experimental bal-
loon and sounding-rocket measurements combined with a mathematical model
of the atmosphere. To a reasonable degree, the standard atmosphere reflects
average atmospheric conditions, but this is not its main importance. Rather, its
main function is to provide tables of common reference conditions that can be
used in an organized fashion by aerospace engineers everywhere. The purpose
of this chapter is to give you some feeling for what the standard atmosphere is all
about and how it can be used for aerospace vehicle analyses.
We might pose this rather glib question: Just what is the standard atmo-
sphere? A glib answer is this: The tables in Apps. A and Bat the end ofthis book
Take a look at these two appendixes. They tabulate the temperature, pressure,
and density for different altitudes. Appendix A is in SI units, and App. B is in
English engineering units. Where do these numbers come from? Were they sim-
ply pulled out of thin air by somebody in the distant past? Absolutely not. The
numbers in these tables were obtained on a rational, scientific basis. One purpose
of this chapter is to develop this rational basis. Another purpose is to show you
how to use these tables.
The road map for this chapter is given in Fig. 3 .1. We first run down the left
side of the road map, establishing some definitions and an equation from basic
physics (the hydrostatic equation) that are necessary tools for constructing the
numbers in the standard atmosphere tables. Then we move to the right side of the
road map and discuss how the numbers in the tables are actually obtained. We go
through the construction of the standard atmosphere in detail. Finally, we define
some terms that are derived from the numbers in the tables-the pressure, den-
sity, and temperature altitudes-that are in almost everyday use in aeronautics.
Note that the details of this chapter are focused on the determination of the
standard atmosphere for earth. The tables in Apps. A and Bare for the earth's
112 CHAPTER 3 The Standard Atmosphere

I The standard atmosphere

I
I

-1 Some definitions I Construction of the standard

atmosphere: Variation
- Absolute altitude ofp, T, and r with altitude
~ Geometric altitude
1- Geopotential altitude
Definition of pressure, density,
Some physics: The and temperature altitudes
hydrostatic equation

Figure 3.1 Road map for Chapter 3.

atmosphere. However, the physical principles and techniques discussed in this

chapter also apply to constructing model atmospheres for other planets, such
as Venus, Mars, and Jupiter. The applicability of this chapter thus reaches far
beyond the earth.
It should be mentioned that several different standard atmospheres exist,
compiled by different agencies at different times, each using slightly different
experimental data in the models. For all practical purposes, the differences are
insignificant below 30 km (100,000 ft), which is the domain of contemporary
airplanes. A standard atmosphere in common use is the 1959 ARDC model
atmosphere. (ARDC stands for the U.S. Air Force's previous Air Research and
Development Command, which is now the Air Force Research Laboratory.)
The atmospheric tables used in this book are taken from the 1959 ARDC model
atmosphere.

3.1 DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE

Intuitively, we all know the meaning of altitude. We think of it as the distance
above the ground. But like so many other general terms, it must be more precisely
defined for quantitative use in engineering. In fact, in the following sections we
define and use six different altitudes: absolute, geometric, geopotential, pressure,
temperature, and density altitudes.
First imagine that we are at Daytona Beach, Florida, where the ground is at
sea level. If we could fly straight up in a helicopter and drop a tape measure to
the ground, the measurement on the tape would be, by definition, the geometric
altitude ha-that is, the geometric height above sea level.
If we bored a hole through the ground to the center of the earth and extended
our tape measure until it hit the center, then the measurement on the tape would
be, by definition, the absolute altitude h.. If r is the radius of the earth, then
h.= ha + r. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.2.
The absolute altitude is important, especially for space flight, because the
local acceleration of gravity g varies with h•. From Newton's law of gravitation,
 3. 2 Hydrostatic Equatioo 113

he

Figure 3.2 Definition of altitude.

g varies inversely as the square of the distance fr{)m the center of the earth. By
letting g0 be the gravitational acceleration at sea level, the local gravitational
acceleration g at a given absolute altitude h. is

g=go(!._)2
h.
=go( r )2
r+ho
(3.1)

The variation of g with altitude must be taken into account when you are deal-
ing with mathematical models of the atmosphere, as discussed in the following
sections.

3.2 HYDROSTATIC EQUATION

We will now begin to piece together a model that will allow us to calculate
variations of p, p, and T as functions of altitude. The foundation of this model
is the hydrostatic equation, which is nothing more than a force balance on an
element of fluid at rest. Consider the small stationary fluid element of air shown
in Fig. 3.3. We take for convenience an element with rectangular faces, where
the top and bottom faces have sides of unit length and the side faces have an
infinitesimally small height dhr;. On the bottom face, the pressure pis felt, which
gives rise to an upward force of p x 1 x 1 exerted on the fluid element. The top
face is slightly higher in altitude (by the distance dha); and because pressure
varies with altitude, the pressure on the top face will differ slightly from that on
the bottom face by the infinitesimally small value dp. Hence, on the top face the
114 CHAPTER 3 TheStandardAtmosphere

p +dp

T dhG .
______l
Q)

·---
"0
::3

"'
ell
.s

.~
:q
~

-=
(.)

,..>- ---1 p
Figure 3.3 Force diagram for the hydrostatic equation.

pressure p +dp is felt. It gives rise to a downward force of (p + dp)(1 )(1) on the
fluid element. Moreover, the volume of the fluid element is ( 1)(1) dha =dhc;; and
because p is the mass per unit volume, the mass of the fl. uid element is simply
P(l )(1 )dha =p dhr;. If the local acceleration of gravity is g, then the weight of
the fluid element is gp dha, as shown in Fig. 3.3. The three forces shown in
Fig. 3.3-pressure forces on the top and bottom, and the weight-must balance
because the fluid element is not moving. Hence

Thus dp = - pgdha (3.2)

Equation (3.2) is the hydrostatic equation and applies to any fluid of density p;
for example, water in the ocean as well as air in the atmosphere.
Strictly speaking, Eq. (3.2) is a differential equation; that is, it relates an
infinitesimally small change in pressure dp to a corresponding infinitesimally
small change in altitude dha, where in the language of differential calculus, dp
and dha are differentials. Also note thatg is a variable in Eq. (3.2); g depends on
ha as given by Eq. (3.1).
To be made useful, Eq. (3.2) should be integrated to give what we want: the
variation of pressure with altitude p = p(hG). To simplify the integration, we
make the assumption that g is constant throughout the atmosphere, equal to its
value at sea level go. This is something of a historical convention in aeronautics.
 3.3 Relation Between Geopotential and Geometric Altrtudes 116

Hence we can write Eq. (3.2) as

(3.3)
However, to make Eqs. (3.2) and (3.3) numerically identical, the altitude h in
Eq. (3.3) must be slightly different from ha in Eq. (3.2) to compensate for the fact
that g is slightly different from g0 • Suddenly we have defined a new altitude h,
which is called the geopotential altitude and which differs from the geomet-
ric altitude. To better understand the concept of geopotential altitude, consider
a given geometric altitude, ha, where the value of pressure is p. Let us now
increase the geometric altitude by an infinitesimal amount, dha, such that the
new geometric altitude is ha+ dhc;. At this new altitude, the pressure is p + dp,
where the value of dp is given by Eq. (3.2). Let us now put this same value of dp
in Eq. (3.3). Dividing Eq. (3.3) by (3.2), we have

1=(~ )(::J
Clearly, because g0 and g are different, dh and dha must be different; that is, the
numerical values of dh and dha that correspond to the same change in pressure,
dp, are different. As a consequence, the numerical values of h and ha that corre-
spond to the same actual physical location in the atmosphere are different values.
For the practical mind, geopotential altitude is a ''fictitious" altitude, defined
by Eq. (3.3) for ease of future calculations. However, many standard atmosphere
tables quote their results in terms of geopotential altitude, and care must be taken
to make the distinction. Again, geopotential altitude can be thought of as that fi cti-
tious altitude that is physically compatible with the assumption of g =const =go.

3.3 RELATION BETWEEN GEOPOTENTIAL

AND GEOMETRIC ALTITUDE S
We still seek the variation of p with geometric altitude p =p(ha). However, our
calculations using Eq. (3.3) will give, instead, p =p(h). Therefore, we need to
relate h to ha, as follows. Dividing Eq. (3.3) by (3.2), we obtain

1= go dh
g dha

or dh= ~dha (3.4)

go
We substitute Eq. (3.1) into (3.4):
2
dh= r dha (3.5)
(r +ha)2
By convention, we set both h and ha equal to zero at sea level. Now consider a
given point in the atmosphere. This point is at a certain geometric altitude ha, and
118 CHAPTER 3 The Standard Atmosphere

associated with it is a certain value of h (different from ha). Integrating Eq. (3.5)
between sea level and the given point, we have

rhdh = fila r2 dha = rl1ilo dha

Jo Ja (r+ha)' o (r+ha?

h:r2 (r:~f =r(r ~~G +~)=rz(-[r~::)hra )

Thus (3.6)

where h is geopotential altitude and ha is geometric altitude. This is the desired

relation between the two altitudes. When we obtain relations such asp= p(h), we
can use Eq. (3.6) to subsequently relate p to he;.
A quick calculation using Eq. (3.6) shows that there is little difference
between h and ha for low altitudes. For such a case, ha « r, r/fr + ha) "" I; hence
h"" ha. Putting in numbers, r= 6.356766 x 106 m (at a latitude of 45°), and if ha=
7 km (about 23,000 ft), then the corresponding value of his, from Eq. (3.6), h =
6.9923 !an-about O.I of I percent difference! Only at altitudes above 65 km
(213,000 ft) does the difference exceed I percent. (Note that 65 km is an altitude
at which aerodynamic heating ofNASA's Space Shuttle becomes important dur-
ing reentry into the earth's atmosphere from space.)

3.4 DEFINITION OF THE STANDARD

ATMOSPHERE
We are now in a position to obtain p, T, and pas functions of h for the stan-
dard atmosphere. The keystone of the standard atmosphere is a defined variation
of T with altitude, based on experimental evidence. This variation is shown in
Fig. 3.4. Note that it consists of a series of straight lines, some vertical (called
the constant-temperature, or isothermal, regions) and others inclined (called
the gradient regions). Given T= T(h) as defined by Fig. 3.4, thenp =p(h) and
p= p(h) follow from the laws of physics, as shown in the following.
First consider again Eq. (3.3):
dp= -p~dh

Divide by the equation of state, Eq. (2.3):

dp = _ Pgadh _go dh (3.7)

p pRT RT
Consider first the isothermal (constant-temperature) layers of the standard atmo-
sphere, as given by the vertical lines in Fig. 3.4 and sketched in Fig. 3.5. The
temperature, pressure, and density at the base of the isothermal layer shown in
 3.4 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere 117

100
a4 = 4 X w-3 K/m

80 -79
I
165.66 K a3 = - 4.5 X I o-3 K/m

60
E
~

~
. -53

-<
"0

·--
;j
- 47
I
40 282.66 K

a2 "' 3 X 10- 3 K/m

25-
20

11- a1 = - 6.5 X 10- 3 K/m

I 288.16 K
216.66 K
0 I
160 200 240 280 320
Temperature, K
Figure 3.4 Temperature distribution in the standard atmosphere.

Fig. 3.5 are T~, p~, and /)I, respectively. The base is located at a given geopo-
tential altitude h 1. Now consider a given point in the isothermal layer above the
base, where the altitude is h. We can obtain the pressure p at h by integrating
Eq. (3.7) betweenh1 andh:

& Jh
I -dp =--RT
p
PI p
dh
hi
(3.8)
118 CHAPTER 3 TheStandardAtmosphere

lsothermal layer

h------- .--- r, p , P

hJ --------ti&!- - -Base of isothermal layer

I
I
I
I

TJ, PI· PI
Figure 3.5 Isothermal layer.

Note that g0, R, and Tare constants that can be taken outside the integral. (This
clearly demonstrates the simplification obtained by assuming that g =go =const,
and therefore dealing with geopotential altitude h in the analysis.) Performing
the integration in Eq. (3.8), we obtain

ln L .. - ~(h -ht)
P• RT

or £.. =e-[~oi(Rr)lh-h,) (3.9)

P1
From the equation of state,
p - pT - p
- ----
PI p.:z; p.

Thus f!_= e-[.o.(tn)lA- hJ) (3.10)

p.
Equations (3.9) and (3.10) give the variationofp andpversus geopotential alti-
tude for the isothermal layers of the standard atmosphere.
Considering the gradient layers, as sketched in Fig. 3.6, we find that the
temperature variation is linear and is geometrically given as
T - 7; dT
- =a
h - h. dh
where a is a specified constant for each layer obtained from the defined tempera-
ture variation in Fig. 3.4. The value of a is sometimes called the lapse rate for
the gradient layers.
 3.4 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere 119

Gradient region
h---------
1
II Base of gradient region
I
I
I -------111
I
T,p,p I
I

Figure 3.6 Gradient layer.

Thus dh= !.. aT

a

We substitute this result into Eq. (3.7):

dp = - ~ dT (3.11)
p aR T

Integrated between the base of the gradient layer (shown in Fig. 3.6) and some
point at altitude h, also in the gradient layer, Eq. (3.11) yields

Pdp
IP!p -g Jr-dT
- =- aRT1T 0

P go T
ln-= - - l n -
p, aR r.

Thus
(!...)
.!!... = 81W(• R)
(3.12)
p, r.
120 CHAPTER 3 TheStandardAtmosphere

From the equation of state,

Hence Eq. (3.12) becomes

or (3.13)

Recall that the variation of T is linear with altitude and is given the specified
relation

T =T.+a(h - h1 )1 (3.14)

Equation (3.14) gives T = T(h) for the gradient layers; when it is plugged into
Eq. (3.12), we obtainp =p(h); similarly, from Eq. (3.13) we obtainp= p(h).
Now we can see how the standard atmosphere is pieced together. Looking
at Fig. 3.4, start at sea level (h = 0), where standard sea level values of pressure,
density, and temperature--p., p., and T., respectively-are

p_, = l. Ol325xl05 Nlm2 = 2116.2lb/ft2

p, = 1.2250 kg/m 3 = 0.002377 sl ugfff
T.. = 288. 16 K= 518.69°R

These are the base values for the first gradient region. Use Eq. (3.14) to obtain
values of T as a function of h until T = 216.66 K, which occurs at h = 11.0 km.
With these values ofT, use Eqs. (3.12) and (3.13) to obtain the corresponding
values of p and pin the first gradient layer. Next, starting at h = 11.0 km as the
base of the first isothermal region (see Fig. 3.4), use Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) to cal-
culate values ofp and p versus h, until h = 25 km, which is the base of the next
gradient region. In this manner, with Fig. 3.4 and Eqs. (3.9), (3.10), and (3.12) to
(3.14), we can construct a table of values for the standard atmosphere.
Such a table is given in App. A for SI units and App. B for English engineer-
ing units. Look at these tables carefully and become familiar with them. They
are the standard atmosphere. The first column gives the geometric altitude, and
the second column gives the corresponding geopotential altitude obtained from
 3.4 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere 121

DESIGN BOX

The first step in the design process of a new aircraft is atmosphere. When the specifications dictate certain
the determination of a set of specifications, or require- performance at a given altitude, this altitude is taken
ments, for the new vehicle. These specifications may to be the standard altitude in the tables. Therefore, in
include such performance aspects as a stipulated the preliminary design of an airplane, the designer
maximum velocity at a given altitude or a stipulated uses the standard atmosphere tables to define the pres-
maximum rate-of-climb at a given altitude. These sure, temperature, and density at the given altitude.
performance parameters depend on the aerodynamic In this fashion, many calculations made during the
characteristics of the vehicle, such as lift and drag. In preliminary design of an airplane contain information
turn, the lift and drag depend on the properties of the from the standard altitude tables.

Eq. (3.6). The third through fifth columns give the corresponding standard values
of temperature, pressure, and density, respectively, for each altitude, obtained
from the previous discussion.
We emphasize again that the standard atmosphere is a reference atmosphere
only and certainly does not predict the actual atmospheric properties that may exist
at a given time and place. For example, App. A says that at an altitude (geometric)
of3 km,p = 0.70121 x lOS N/m2, T= 268.67 K, andp= 0.90926 kg/m:l. In reality,
situated where you are, if you could right now levitate yourself to 3 km above sea
level, you would most likely feel a p, T, and p different from the values obtained
from App. A. The standard atmosphere allows UlS only to reduce test data and
calculations to a convenient, agreed-upon reference, as will be seen in subsequent
sections of this book.
Comment: Geometric and Geopotential Altitudes Revisited We now can
appreciate better the meaning and significance of the geometric altitude, ha,
and the geopotential altitude, h. The variation of the properties in the standard
atmosphere are calculated from Eqs. (3.9) to (3.14). These equations are derived
using the simplifying assumption of a constant value of the acceleration of grav-
ity equal to its value at sea level; that is, g =constant= g0 . Consequently, the alti-
tude that appears in these equations is, by definition, the geopotential altitude, h.
Examine these equations again-you see go and h appearing in these equations,
not g and hG- The simplification obtained by assuming a constant value ofg is the
sole reason for defining the geopotential altitude. This is the only use of geopo-
tential altitude we will make in this book- for the calculation of the numbers that
appear in Apps. A and B. Moreover, because hand ha are related via Eq. (3.6),
we can always obtain the geometric altitude, he;, that corresponds to a specified
value of geopotential altitude, h. The geometric altitude, he;, is the actual height
above sea level and therefore is more practical. That is why the first column in
Apps. A and B is he;, and the entries are in even intervals of hG- The second col-
umn gives the corresponding values of h, and these are the values used to gener-
ate the corresponding numbers for p, p, and Tvia Eqs. (3.9) to (3.14).
122 CHAPTER 3 TheStandardAtmosphere

In the subsequent chapters in this book, any dealings with altitude involving
the use of the standard atmosphere tables in Apps. A and B will be couched in
terms of the geometric altitude, ha. For example, if reference is made to a "stan-
dard altitude" of 5 km, it means a geometric altitude of ha = 5 km. Now that we
have seen how the standard atmosphere tables are generated, after the present
chapter we will have no reason to deal with geopotential altitude.
You should now have a better understanding of the statement made at the
end of Sec. 3.2 that geopotential altitude is simply a "fictitious" altitude, defined
by Eq. (3.3) for the single purpose of simplifying the subsequent derivations.

Calculate the standard atmosphere values of T, p, and pat a geopotential altitude of 14 km.

• Solution
Remember that T is a defined variation for the standard atmosphere. Hence, we can
immediately refer to Fig. 3.4 and find that at h = 14 km,

T = 216.66K

To obtainp and p, we must use Eqs. (3.9) to (3.14), piecing together the different regions
from sea level up to the given altitude with which we are concerned. Beginning at sea
level, the first region (from Fig. 3.4) is a gradient region from h '" 0 to h '" 11.0 km. The
lapse rate is

= dT = 216.66- 288.16 _ Kik

65
a dh 11.0 - 0 m

or a = - 0.0065 Kim

Therefore, using Eqs. (3.12) and (3.13), which are for a gradient region and where the
base of the region is sea level (hen ce p 1 = 1.01 x 105 N/m 2 and Pt = 1.23 kg/m3), we find
that ath = 11.0 km

T )-g,i(aR) . • (216.66 )-91~-0.006~:• )1

P • P1 ( 7; = (. u . x tn ) .1
288 6
where g 0 = 9.8 m/s2 in SI units. Hence p (at h = 11.0 km) = 2.26 x 10"' N/m2 •

T )-(8
01(.1)<-11
P • P1 ( 1j
216 66)" 1 '8 ~-0.,.AS(2S7)]<- 1}
21
= ( I )( 288:16
= 0.367 kg/m 3 at 11 • . 1.0 km
 3.4 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere 123

These values of p and p now form the base values for the first isothermal region (see
Fig. 3.4). The equations for the isothermal region are Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10), where now
P1 = 2.26 x 10' N/m2 and/)! = 0.367 kg/m3. For h = 14 km, h - h1 = 14 - 11 = 3 km =
3000 m. From Eq. (3.9),
P _ p e-lk t<RT>X•-ht> _ ,2 .26 ,. Hl4)e.[9M87(216.t6)X3000)
1
4
p = 1.411.10 N/m2

FromEq. (3.10),
p p
=

04
= jo 23 k 1 ' I
41 1
Hence p
_PI Pl
£.. = o·367 2.26
1. "
v l0~ gm

These values check, within roundoff error, with the values given in App. A. Note: This
example demonstrates how the numbers in Apps. A and B are obtained.

For approximate, closed-form engineering calculations of airplane performance (Ch. 6), a

simple equation for the variations of density with altitude is useful. Denoting the standard
sea-level density by Po, an approximate exponential variation of density with altitude h
can be written as

-
P = e-nA
(3.15)
Po
where n is a constant.
(a) Derive the value ofn so that Eq. (3.15) gives the exact density ath = 36,000 ft (11
km, which is the upper boundary of the first gradient region shown in Fig. 3.4).
(b) Using this value of n, calculate the density at 5000 ft, 10,000 ft, 20,000 ft,
30,000 ft, and 40,000 ft from Eq. (3.15), and compare your results with the exact numeri-
cal values from Appendix B.
• Solution
(a) From Appendix B, for 36,000 ft, P= 7.1028 x 10-4 slug!ft3. From Eq. (3.15), written
ath = 36,000 ft,

7 .I 028 X I 0-4 -36,000 n

e
2.3769xlo-3
0.2988 = e-36•000 "
/n(0.2988) - 36,000 n
n = -1. 208 3.3555xlo-s
-36,000
124 CHAPTER 3 TheStandardAtmosphere

p = e-3.3SSSxto- 5 h
Hence, Po
-h
or E.. =ez9,soo (3.16)
Po
where h is in feet.
(b) Comparing the results fromEq. (3.16) with the exact results from App. B, we have

~ (Eq. 3.16) 1fo (App. B)

h
(I) (1) (•;a) Difference
5,000 0.00201 0.00205 2%
10,000 0.00170 0.00176 3.4%
20,000 0.00121 0.00127 4.7%
30,000 0.000869 0.000891 2.5%
40,000 0.000621 0.000587 -5.8%

Comment From sea level to 40,000 ft, Eq. (3 .16) yields the atmospheric density to within
5.8%, or better. These results are accurate enough for approximate engineering calcula-
tions. Eq. (3.16) is used in Example 6.12 for the approximate calculation of the absolute
ceiling for an airplane.

In both the gradient and isothermal regions of the standard atmosphere, the pressure
decreases with an increase in altitude. Question: Does pressure decrease faster in the
gradient regions or in the isothermal regions?

• Solution
Consider an infinitesimally small increase in altitude, dh. The corresponding infinitesi-
mally small change in pressure is dp, and is given by Eq. (3.7), repeated here:

t!pJ!.. =- RT
go dh (3.7)

To interpret the physical meaning of the differential relationship given by Eq. (3. 7),
consider a given altitude h where the pressure is p. Ifwe increase altitude by an infini-
tesimally small amount, dh, the corresponding infinitesimally small change in pres-
sure is dp. The ratio dp/p is the fractional change in pressure. (You can also interpret
this as a "percentage change" in pressure, which in reality is given by 100 (dp/p).)
The rate of change of this fraction with respect to a change in altitude, dh, is repre-
sented by
dp
.!- =- ~ (3.17)
dh RT
 3.6 Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes 126

obtained from Eq. (3 .7). To properly answer the question posed in this example, we need
to evaluate the value of (a;) in the isothermal regions and the gradient regions. Clearly,
dh
fromEq. (3.17), this value depends only on the local temperature at the given altitude h.
From this, we make the following observations:
1. In the first gradient region, where T decreases with altitude (see Fig. 3.4), the absolute

value of (r ) becomes larger ash increases (i.e., the pressure decreases at a faster
rate). For example, at the base of the first gradient region, where h = 0 and T =
288.1 6 K, we have, from Eq. (3.17)

a; =_go 9 ·8 - l.l85xlO_.permeter
dh RT (287)(288.16)
At the top of the first gradient region, where h = 11 km and T = 216.66 K, we have
dp
..!... = go 9.8
dh RT (287)(216.66)
Clearly, in the first gradient region, the pressure decreases at a faster rate ash increases.
In contrast, in the isothermal region, because T is constant in this region, the pressure
decreases at the same rate with altitude; that is, from h = 11 km to h = 25 km, the value
dp

of dh = - 1.576 x 10- 4
per meter; it does not change with altitude. However, examining
the second gradient region in Fig. 3.4, where T increases with an increase in h, the press-
ure decreases at a slower rate ash increases.
Conclusion: There is no pat answer to the question posed in this example. The frac-
tional rate of change of pressure with respect to altitude at any altitude just depends on
the value ofT at that altitude.

3.5 PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE,

AND DENSITY ALTITUDES
With the tables of Apps. A and B in hand, we can now define three new
"altitudes"--pressure, temperature, and density altitudes. 1bis is best done by
example. Imagine that you are in an airplane flying at some real, geometric alti-
tude. The value of your actual altitude is immaterial for this discussion. However,
at this altitude, you measure the actual outside air pressure to be 6.16 x 1()4 N/m2 .
From App. A. you find that the standard altitude that corresponds to a pressure
of 6.16 x 104 N/m2 is 4 km. Therefore, by definition, you say that you are flying
at a pressure altitude of 4 km. Simultaneously, you measure the actual outside
air temperature to be 265.4 K. From App. A, you find that the standard altitude
that corresponds to a temperature of265.4 K is 3.5 km. Therefore, by definition,
you say that you are flying at a temperature altitude of 3.5 km. Thus, you are
simultaneously flying at a pressure altitude of 4 km and a temperature altitude of
3.5 km while your actual geometric altitude is yet a different value. The definition
128 CHAPTER 3 TheStandardAtmosphere

of density altitude is made in the same vein. These quantities-pressure, tempera-

ture, and density altitudes--are just convenient numbers that, via App. A or B,
are related to the actual p, T, and p for the actual altitude at which you are flying.

If an airplane is flying at an altitude where the actual pressure and temperature are 4.72 x
1()4 N/m2 and 255.7 K, respectively, what are the pressure, temperature, and density
altitudes?
• Solution
For the pressure altitude, look in App. A for the standard altitude value corresponding to
p = 4.72 x 1()4 N/m2 • This is 6000 m. Hence

[PreSSure altitude = 6000 m = 6 km I

For the temperature altitude, look in App. A for the standard altitude value corresponding
to T =255.7 K. This is 5000 m. Hence

!Temperature altitude- 5000 m - 5 km J

For the density altitude, we must first calculate p from the equation of state:
4
p 4.72 x 10 3
p = RT = 287(255.7) 0 · 643 kg!m

Looking in App. A and interpolating between 6.2 and 6.3 km, we find that the standard
altitude value corresponding top= 0.643 kglm3 is about 6240 m. Hence

fi?eii"sity altitude = 6240 m - 6 2'1 km J

Note that temperature altitude is not a unique value. The answer for temperature alti-
tude could equally well be 5.0, 38.2, or 59.5 km because of the multivalued nature of the
altitude-versus-temperature function. In this section, only the lowest value of temperature
altitude is used.

The flight test data for a given airplane refer to a level-flight maximum-velocity run made
at an altitude that simultaneously corresponded to a pressure altitude of 30,000 ft and
density altitude of 28,500 ft. Calculate the temperature of the air at the altitude at which
the airplane was flying for the test.

• Solution
FromApp. B:
For pressure altitude = 30,000 ft:
p = 629.66 lb/ft2
For density altitude = 28,500 ft:

p = 0.9408 x 10-3 sluglft3

 3.6 Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes 127

These are the values of p and p that simultaneously existed at the altitude at which the
airplane was flying. Therefore, from the equation of state,

T- .!!.. - 629.66 IJ.SW)OR I

- pR- (0.94082xW' )(1716)

Consider an airplane flying at some real, geometric altitude. The outside (ambient) pres-
sure and temperature are 5.3 x 104 N/m2 and 253 K, respectively. Calculate the pressure
and density altitudes at which this airplane is flying.
• Solution
Consider the ambient pressure of5.3 x 104 N/m2• lnApp. A, there is no precise entry for
this number. It lies between the values p 1 = 5.331 x 10' N/m2 at altitude hG,l = 5100 m
andp2 = 5.2621 x 104 N/m2 at altitude hG.z = 5200 m. We have at least two choices. We
could simply use the nearest entry in the table, which is for an altitude h az = 5100 m, and
say that the answer for pressure altitude is 5100 m. This is acceptable if we are making
only approximate calculations. However, if we need greater accuracy, we can interpolate
between entries. Using linear interpolation, the value of hG corresponding top = 5.3 x
IO'N/m2 is

p p
he =ha.1+ (ha. . - ha1)
. p. - Pz

5 331 5 3
h = S.100+ (5200-5!00)( · - )
(J 5.331- 5.2621
= ~100 + 100(0.4662) : 5146.6 m

The pressure altitude at which the airplane is flying is 5146.6 m. (Note that in this
example and in Examples 3.4 and 3.5, we are interpreting the word altitude in the
tables to be the geometric altitude h G rather than the geopotential altitude h. This is
for convenience because h G is tabulated in round numbers, in contrast to the column
for h. Again, at the altitudes for conventional flight, the difference between hG and h
is not significant.)
To obtain the density altitude, calculate the density from the equation of state:

p 5 3xl04 3
p = iff = (28 )( ) 0.72992 kg!m
7 253
Once again we note that this value ofp falls between two entries in the table. It falls between
ha 1 = 5000 m where/)! = 0.73643 kg/m3 and haz = 5100 m where /)2 = 0.72851 kg/m3 • (Note
that these subscripts denote different lines in the table from those used in the first part of this
example. It is good never to become a slave to subscripts and symbols. Just always keep in
mind the significance of what you are doing.) We could take the nearest entry, which is for
128 CHAPTER 3 TheStandardAtmosphere

an altitude h 0 = 5100 m, and say that the answer for the density altitude is 5100 m. However,
for greater accuracy, let us linearly inte1p0late between the two entries:

he : htn, +(ha, . ha,)

, (p.-p)
A-fh,

= SOOQ + (SIOO _SOOO)( 0.73643- 0.72992)

0.73643-0.72851
= 5000 + 100(0.82197) = 5082.2 m

The density altitude at which the airplane is flying is 5082.2 m.

The ambient temperature in the air ahead of an airplane in flight is 240 K. At what tem-
perature altitude is the airplane flying?
• Solution
The purpose of this example is to show the ambiguity of the use of temperature altitude.
First, just examine Fig. 3.4. Go the abscissa and find T = 240 K. Then, simply cast your
eyes upward. Within the scale of this figure, there are three different altitudes that have
a temperature of240 K. Using App. A, these altitudes are (to the nearest entry) 7.4 km,
33 Jan, and (returning to Fig. 3.4) about 63 Jan. Of course, the airplane cannot be at all
three altitudes simultaneously. W:e conclude that the definition of temperature altitude
has Iim.ited usefulness.

3.6 HISTORICAL NOTE: THE STANDARD

ATMOSPHERE
With the advent of ballooning in 1783 (see Ch. I), people suddenly became inter-
ested in acquiring a greater understanding of the properties of the atmosphere
above ground level. However, no compelling reason for such lmowledge arose
until the coming of heavier-than-air flight in the 20th century. As we will see in
subsequent chapters, the flight performance of aircraft depends on such proper-
ties as the pressure and density of the air. Thus, a lmowledge of these properties,
or at least some agreed-upon standard for worldwide reference, is absolutely
necessary for intelligent aeronautical engineering.
The situation in 1915 was summarized by C. F. Marvin, Chief of the U.S.
Weather Bureau and chairman ofanNACA subcommittee to investigate and report
on the existing status of atmospheric data and lmowledge. In his ''Preliminary
Report on the Problem of the Atmosphere in Relation to Aeronautics," NACA
Report No.4, 1915, Marvin wrote;
The Weather Burean is already in possession of an immense amount of data con-
cerning atmospheric conditions, including wind movements at the earth's surface.
This information is no doubt of distinct value to aeronautical operations, but it needs
to be collected and put in form to meet the requirements of aviation.