UNIT 1 PHYSICAL CHANGES (EARLY

ADULTHOOD, MIDDLE AGE, OLD

AGE)
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Early Adulthood
1.2.1 Physical Changes
1.3 Middle Age/ Middle Adulthood
1.3.1 Physical Changes
1.4 Old Age
1.4.1 Physical Changes
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Unit End Questions
1.7 Answer to the Self Assessment Questions
1.8 Suggested Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The distinction between childhood and adulthood varies considerably among cultural
and social groups. The personal and social significance of the passage of years is
shaped by the cultural age system. All societies divide the lifespan into recognised
stages. These life stages or periods are marked by certain physical, psychological
and social milestones. The life stages are commonly identified as prenatal stage (from
conception until birth), infancy (from birth to the end of second year of life), early
childhood (ages three to six years), middle childhood (six years until puberty),
adolescence (start of puberty to adulthood), young adulthood (ages twenty to forty),
middle adulthood (ages forty to sixty-five) and later adulthood or old age (sixty-five
and older). This unit will help you understand the physical changes of all the three
stages of adulthood.
Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old,
who are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance,
child bearing and careers. It is the first stage of adulthood in which the body physically
changes and is one of the hardest times in our lives after teenage years. In this stage,
a person may continue to add a bit of height and weight to her teenage frame. The
body continues to undergo significant hormonal changes.
In middle adulthood, an important challenge is to develop a genuine concern for the
welfare of future generations and to contribute to the world through family and work.
Midlife is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution to society.
It is found that the best works of scientists, writers and artists are produced during
the late forties and early fifties. Middle adulthood is the second stage of adulthood
in which one of the most noticeable change is loss of elasticity in the skin, especially
in the face. This results in lines and wrinkles that are seen as one of the first signs
of ageing.
5
Adulthood and Ageing Late adulthood or old age is the period of life in every individual that follows the
period of his or her life after he/she turns 65 years of age. Old age consists of ages
nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings, and thus the end of the
human life cycle. This period is marked by the process of growing old, resulting in
part from the failure of body cells to function normally or to produce new body cells
to replace those that are dead or malfunctioning.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
z discuss and understand the period of early adulthood;
z understand the physical changes during early adulthood;
z discuss and understand the period of middle adulthood;
z understand the physical changes during middle adulthood;
z discuss and understand the period of old age; and
z understand the physical changes during old age.

1.2 EARLY ADULTHOOD

Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old,
who are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance,
child bearing and careers. It is the first stage of adulthood in which the body physically
changes and is one of the hardest times in our lives after teenage years. One has to
deal with so much in this time and it seems to be real time of self search as well as
preparation. During this time in our life we find ourselves with a new sense of
independence and for the first time in life we really feel free. However, along with
that comes a lot of added personal responsibility to both ourselves and others and
we really begin to learn more about ourselves as well as others through social
interaction.
During the period of young adulthood one sees himself or herself as an autonomous
and independent adult. In this period the individual becomes financially less dependent
on the parental family. A major development task is during this period is the choice
of a career. Young men and women tend to settle down in a career of their choice.
In addition a young adult tries to settle down and start a family life. They are also
concerned about various social issues and forming close relationships with one’s
professional peers and members of community. The duties of a person demand two
fold responsibilities which are towards oneself as well as the society.
The stage of young adulthood is characterised by new tasks and challenges in life
such as establishing financial and emotional independence and entering into marital
relationship. Unemployment and marital discord are two typical crisis conditions
during early adulthood.
According to Erickson, this period is characterised by a crisis of intimacy versus
isolation. The young adults must develop the ability to form deep intimate relationships
with others particularly in marriage. Otherwise, they can become socially and
emotionally isolated. Most young adults develop a dream of future accomplishments
or a vision of what they want to achieve as a life goal. Such dreams motivate the
young adults towards goal directed efforts. Occupational and marital choices and
establishment of social and economic independence are some major tasks of early
6
adulthood.
According to Sigmond Freud, adulthood is a time for work and love. Our lives Physical Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
centers around our careers and relationships, leaving less time for anything else. Old Age)

1.2.1 Physical Changes

In this stage, a person may continue to add a bit of height and weight to her teenage
frame. The body continues to undergo significant hormonal changes. These changes
may make beards grow a bit thicker and the voice to become a slightly deeper and
richer. This is the period in which women usually have children so it is the time in
which women gain a little weight and finish their full breast development.
The Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood
The age period from 18 to 25 years has been labeled as “emerging adulthood” as
individuals have often left dependency of childhood but have not yet assumed adult
responsibilities.
Females reach their adult heights by age 18, and, except for some males who
continue to grow in their early 20s, most have reached their adult heights by the age
of 21. However, muscles continue to gain mass- especially among males, and both
genders continue to add body fat. Average weight gain for both men and women
is about 15 pounds.

1.3 MIDDLE AGE/ MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

In middle adulthood, an important challenge is to develop a genuine concern for the
welfare of future generations and to contribute to the world through family and work.
This period is aged between 40-60 years of life.
Erik Erickson refers to the problem posed at this stage as generativity versus self
absorption. He characterises the middle adulthood as a phase of crisis. Unless a
person makes this period of meaningful contribution he or she may become
preoccupied with selfish needs and desires. The midlife transition is also the period
of turbulence of the forties.
From the period of twenties and thirties, the individual arrives at middle age in the
forties and fifties. Middle age is characterised by competence, maturity, responsibility
and stability. This is the time when one wants to enjoy the success of job, satisfaction
derived from the family and social life. People look forward to the success of their
children. Attention gets more focused on health, the fate of children, ageing parents,
the use of leisure time and plans of old age.
Midlife is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution to society.
It is found that the best works of scientists, writers and artists are produced during
the late forties and early fifties.

1.3.1 Physical Changes

Individuals vary in the rate at which the changes occur, all middle aged people notice
signs of deterioration in some aspects of their physical functioning. Very often, during
the early thirties individuals make a reappraisal of their choices and seek to make
specific changes in their career choices as well as their social relations. These
experiences are described as “age thirty transition”. In the 40s, for example, there
is usually a decline in near vision a condition known as presbyopia. The lens of the
eyes become less elastic and loses its ability to accommodate to objects at dose
range. Reading glasses or bifocal may be required for the first time. The individual 7
Adulthood and Ageing may also notice increased sensitivity to glared-on the windshield of the car, for
example, or in brightly lit stores. In their 50s people often find that it takes their eyes
longer to adapt to the change in illumination when they enter a darkened theater or
when they go outside on a bright sunny day. Some degrees of hearing loss is also
found in many people over 50.
Middle adulthood is the second stage of adulthood in which one of the most noticeable
change is loss of elasticity in the skin, especially in the face. This results in lines and
wrinkles that are seen as one of the first signs of ageing. Most individuals get a little
shorter through the years. Hair starts graying, skin is wrinkling, bodies are sagging
and teeth are yellowing. Some adults strive to make themselves look younger by
having plastic surgery, dying their hairs, wearing wigs, joining exercise programs or
taking heavy vitamin doses.
Men usually gain weight in the abdominal region, while women gain weight in the hips
and thighs. Strength and flexibility in both genders wane. Men during this period
show greater concern towards their health, strength, power and sexual potency.
For women, menopause occurs between the ages of forty-five and fifty. Women
usually experience hormonal changes during this period that result in the loss of the
ability to reproduce, a process called menopause. Menopause is supposed to be
accompoanied by some distressing physical and psychological symptoms in women.
Both genders may experience graying of the hair or hair may be thin.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Answer the following in True or False:
i) Young adults are vibrant, active and healthy.
ii) Young adults tend to get isolated due to crisis.
iii) Individual add a bit of height during middle adulthood.
iv) Attention gets focused on health and fate of children during middle age.
v) Individuals in middle age are unstable.
2) Fill in the blanks:
i) A decline in near vision is a condition known as ____________________.
ii) During middle age, there is a loss of _____________________ in skin.
iii) Women between the ages of 45 and 50, experiences ________________.
iv) Early adult’s focus on friendship, romance, _____________________
and careers.
v) Individuals due to crisis, tends to get ___________________________
during middle adulthood.

1.4 OLD AGE

Late adulthood or old age is the period of life in every individual that follows the
period of his or her life after he/she turns 65 years of age. Old age consists of ages
nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings, and thus the end of the
human life cycle. People can be considered old because of certain changes in their
8 activities or social roles. Old people have limited regenerative abilities and are more
prone to disease, syndromes, and sickness than other adults. For example, people Physical Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
can be considered as old when they become grandparents, or when they begin to Old Age)
do less or different work, or when they get to the age of retirement.
This period is marked by the process of growing old, resulting in part from the failure
of body cells to function normally or to produce new body cells to replace those that
are dead or malfunctioning. This in turn results in significant physical, psychological
and cognitive changes, like cardio-vascular, digestive malfunctioning, depression, and
impaired memory functioning and so on.

1.4.1 Physical Changes

As an individual moves towards their old age, there are changes which occurs
naturally and not due to any disease. These changes include sensory changes, digestion,
circulation and sexuality. The physical changes that occur in the bodies of the individuals
can be divided into two main categories – external changes and internal changes.
These changes are the outward signs of ageing, and are quiet obvious to notice. They
consists of changes in hair, skin, posture, etc. most people’s hair becomes distinctly
gray and eventually turns white, and it may also thin out. The skin becomes less
elastic, more wrinkled, dry and thin. The wrinkles are formed partly because of loss
fatty tissue under the skin.
Functional age is the actual competence and performance a person displays, regardless
of chronological age. People age biologically at different rates:
Young-old elderly appear physically young for their years.
Old-old elderly appear frail and show signs of decline.
Sensory Changes
Human receives and process information from the environment through hearing,
vision, taste, smell and touch. With ageing, these senses are often diminished and
incoming information may be distorted or difficult to understand. As a result, the
older person may give up some enjoyable activities or lose contact with friends and
family who are important sources of support.
Hearing
Hearing loss affects the older persons ability to talk easily with others. According to
studies, about 30% of people over 60 have a hearing impairment, but about 33%
of those 75 to 84, and about half of those over 85, have hearing loss. For example,
older people have trouble hearing higher pitched tones. They also may not be able
to make out sounds or words when there is background interference
Older persons may be frustrated or embarrassed about not being able to understand
what is being said. They may have to ask people to repeat themselves, or endure
shouting when a speaker tries to be heard. Older persons may hold back from
conversation out of a fear of making inappropriate comments. They may tire from
concentrating and straining to hear. As a result, the older person may withdraw from
friends and family and outside activities.
Vision
Even though changes to the eye take place as a person ages, many older people
have good-to-adequate vision. Nevertheless, beginning in the late 30s and early 40s,
an individual may begin to notice some changes. She or he may have to hold the 9
Adulthood and Ageing paper farther away to read it due to changes in the ability of the lens to change its
shape to accommodate to distance.
With ageing, peripheral vision is reduced. A person may need to turn her or his head
to see to the sides. The flexibility of the eye decreases and it takes an older person
more time to accommodate to changes in light. Adaptations in lifestyle and behaviours
must be made to cope with this change. An individual might give up driving at night.
Placing more lights evenly around the room so that the entire room is lit is also
helpful.
Degeneration of eye muscles and clouding of the lens are associated with ageing.
Several changes in vision result from this. Older people tend to have trouble focusing
on near objects, but eyeglasses may correct this problem. In addition, the ability to
see colors changes with age as the lens yellows. Red, yellow, and orange are easier
to see than blue and green. This is why fabrics in warmer shades may be more
appealing to the older person.
i) Cataracts are cloudy areas in the lens which blur vision and can cause blindness
if there is no surgery. There is poorer dark adaptation when coming in from the
light. Depth perception is also compromised since binocular vision declines, as
well as visual acuity.
ii) Macular degeneration occurs when light-sensitive cells in the macula, the central
region of the retina break down, resulting in blurry central vision, and eventual
blindness. A diet high in anti-oxidants can delay this condition. Driving may need
to be curtailed at a certain point, as the older driver has a harder time discriminating
the road distractions and signs. This is a hard thing to give up, since it signals
physical dependence on others. Elders also are at higher risk of stumbling and
serious falls at this point, as they don’t see changes in the floor and accommodate
smoothly.
Taste and Smell
Some loss in taste sensitivity takes place with ageing. However, the loss is minor and
does not seem to occur in most people until well after 70. There is also a loss of
smell, but this is not severe.
Nevertheless, older people often complain that their meals are tasteless or that they
no longer like their favorite foods. Most experts feel that these complaints are caused
by a sense of loneliness at meals, or an unwillingness or inability to cook. Also, older
persons may not buy more enjoyable foods when they have difficulty chewing due
to poor dentures or dental problems, or are stretching their food dollars due to a
limited budget.
Touch
The skin serves a protective function by buffering us from the environment. Skin
changes leave the older person vulnerable to discomfort and harm. Due to reduced
sensitivity, heat sources such as heating pads, hot water bottles, and pot handles can
hurt the skin before the elder realises that damage is occurring.
An older person may develop a greater sensitivity to cool temperatures and drafts.
This is caused by a decline in sweat gland activity, a decrease in the ability to
maintain a normal body temperature due to poorer circulation, and a thinning of the
skin. Wrinkling, drying, and scaling also occur. The skin tears and breaks more
10 easily, increasing the chance of injury and infection.
The sensation of touch connects us with others no matter what our age. Thus, touch Physical Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
is important in maintaining the elder’s emotional well-being. Use of touch during Old Age)
communication should be practiced to show that you are there for support and that
you care.
Changes in Bones and Muscles
Ageing adults, especially the very old, are vulnerable to broken bones. In addition,
joints stiffen and connecting ligaments between bones lose their elasticity. Hand and
foot pain may result.
Although there is no known way to prevent sometimes painful changes in ageing
muscles, bones, and ligaments, regular exercise helps to assure continuing mobility in
old age. Most physicians feel that walking, along with adequate rest and a nutritious
diet, are tremendously valuable for maintaining mobility and fitness in the later years.
It is very important to prevent falls. Due to changes in bone mass and strength, falls
often result in injury, hospitalisation, and continued declines in health.
Teeth and Mouth
Older adults are more likely to lose teeth to gum disease than to problems with the
teeth themselves. However, with proper personal care, regular checkups, and improved
dentistry methods, older people are more able to retain their natural teeth throughout
their lives. Older people who do lose their teeth may now expect and demand
comfortable, well-fitting, and durable dentures.
Digestion
The digestive system is very sensitive to emotions. An older person may experience
an upset stomach or lack of appetite when lonely, depressed, or worried. Regular
contact with friends and relatives, through visits and telephone calls, can help prevent
these problems.
It is fairly common for older people to have less frequent bowel movements and to
suffer from constipation. This is due to changes in tissue and muscles and reduced
thirst. Regular exercise, such as a daily walk, can prevent constipation. A well-
balanced diet that includes adequate fiber and fluid intake also encourages normal
bowel function and minimises the need for laxatives. In contrast, self-prescribed
laxatives are an expensive substitute for foods that naturally keep the gastrointestinal
system running smoothly, such as bran cereals, fruits, and vegetables. Overuse of
laxatives can interfere with the availability of nutrients for healthy body functioning.
Adequate fluid intake is essential for maintaining proper body temperature and
functioning of the digestive system. However, some older people make the mistake
of limiting their fluid intake in order to avoid frequent urination. Dehydration is a
serious problem for the elderly. This is due to their decreased sense of thirst and
reduced capacity to conserve water. In addition, laxative abuse, diuretic therapies,
infections, immobility, or excessive use of alcohol or caffeine tend to promote
dehydration.
Circulation
The older heart slows down and is less able to pump blood through the body than
the younger heart. This results in older people having less energy and stamina for
physical work. Decreased circulation also contributes to cold sensitivity, particularly
in the hands and feet. Because oxygen necessary for proper physical and cognitive 11
Adulthood and Ageing functioning is carried through the blood, the elder with poor circulation may experience
forgetfulness and other symptoms of poor cognition.
Blood vessels, which play an important role in the circulation of blood throughout the
body, lose elasticity as we age. This causes blood to tend to “pool” in the feet and
legs. This means that swelling (edema) may occur in the extremities. Consequently,
the heart, which undergoes muscle changes as we age, must pump harder in order
to carry the blood to all parts of the body.
Changes in circulation make the older person more susceptible to the development
of “little strokes” (TIAs) than when younger. Symptoms of such episodes include
headache, vision disturbances, loss of balance, confusion, and dizziness when standing
quickly from a sitting or reclining position. Because “little strokes” can be harbingers
of a larger stroke, consult with the older person’s primary health care provider,
should these occur.
Many older people are on medications that impact circulation. Be familiar with these
medications, and their side effects. This may prevent complications, which may arise
from their use.
Pressure ulcers, a skin problem found in people with limited mobility, are due to
impaired circulation. When an older person is unable to move about, tissue may die
due to lack of an adequate blood supply to the skin. Areas particularly susceptible
to these ulcers are those over bony prominences such as hips, shoulders, elbows,
knees, ankles, and the heels of the feet.
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems
They are affected by ageing as the heart muscle becomes more rigid and some cells
enlarge, thickening the left ventricle. Arteries stiffen and accumulate plaque. So the
heart pumps with less force, and blood flow slows. So during activity, sufficient
oxygen may not be delivered to critical tissues. Lung tissue also loses elasticity and
capacity is reduced by half. The blood absorbs less oxygen and expels less carbon
dioxide. People feel more out of breath when exercising. This is more of a problem
for people who have smoked, had a high-fat diet, or been exposed to pollutants.
Exercise facilitates respiratory function.
Immune system declines as T cells become less effective.
Auto-immune response is a problem when the immune system turns against normal
body tissues. This puts elders at risk of infectious diseases, CVD, cancers, rheumatoid
arthritis, or diabetes. The more impaired the immune system is, the more at risk the
person is to a variety of agents.
Sleep is essential for healthy functioning all one’s life, but as we age, sleep is harder
to come by, as elders sleep less, more lightly, and have more trouble going to sleep.
Men seem to have more sleep problems than women, due to the enlargement of the
prostate gland and the need to urinate more often at night.
Sleep apnea is a condition where breathing ceases for 10 sec. or more, causing the
person to awaken with a start to breathe again. This afflicts more men than women,
but overweight people have problems with this condition, as more weight is pressing
on the lungs, requiring more effort to keep breathing. Legs also move rapidly during
the night- “restless legs” and this can disrupt sleep, too. Unfortunately poor sleep can
afflict daytime energy, resulting in a cycle of downward energy, even depression.
12
More prescriptions for sleep aids are given to older adults, but they can have Physical Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
rebound effects later with greater insomnia. Old Age)

Sexuality
Sexual desires and the physical capacity to engage in sex continue throughout life.
Loss of interest in sex is usually due to emotional causes, drug use, or disease, and
not necessarily to ageing. Changes in sexual response and in the sex organs lead to
changes in frequency and pattern of performance. However, the older person’s own
health and a healthy and willing partner are important factors in sexual expression.
Sharing feelings and closeness with another person are very important to sustaining
emotional and physical intimacy.
Physical Disabilities
They do increase toward the end of the lifespan, especially illnesses such as CVD
and cancer. Respiratory diseases also climb in late adulthood – emphysema is caused
by loss of elasticity in lung tissue – most result from smoking. As the immune system
declines, more people are at risk of pneumonia, severe lung inflammation. Stroke is
4th most common killer in the elderly. There is a blockage of blood flow in the brain
which leads to death of neural tissue and accompanying loss of function. Osteoporosis
rises in late adulthood, as well as arthritis. Adult-onset diabetes and unintentional
injuries also increase in late adulthood. These illnesses are not caused by ageing, but
are related to age – they occur more often in the aged.
Primary ageing – biological ageing that occurs even in the context of good health.
Secondary ageing – is declines in function due to hereditary defects and negative
environmental influences, poor diet, lack of exercise, disease, substance abuse,
environmental pollution, and stress.
Arthritis is a condition of inflamed, painful, stiff or swollen joints and muscles. There
are two forms:
Osteo-arthritis is the most common type – due to deteriorating cartilage on the ends
of bones – “degenerative joint disease”. Cartilage that cushions the bones in joints
deteriorates, so there is more discomfort with movement. Obesity can place abnormal
pressure on joints and damages cartilage, too.
Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disease that involves the whole body. There
is inflammation of connective tissue, there is stiffness, inflammation, and aching.
Deformed joints develop, reducing mobility.
Adult-onset diabetes occurs when the insulin output of the pancreas can’t control
blood sugar after a meal. High blood sugar damages the blood vessels, increases risk
of stroke, heart attack, circulatory problems in the legs, and injury to the eyes,
kidneys, and nerves. If there is severe loss of blood flow, it can result in amputations
and blindness. It may require oral insulin or even shots to maintain blood sugar in the
healthy range.
Unintentional injuries- death rate from injuries increases after age 65- mostly due to
car collisions and falls.
Motor vehicle accidents are responsible for ¼ of injury mortality later in life. But
older adults have higher rates of traffic tickets, accidents, and fatalities per mile
driven than any other age group, except for teens. Deaths due to injury are greater
13
Adulthood and Ageing for men than women in late life. Driving is especially impaired as vision is impaired.
They also have a slower reaction time, and don’t always read and interpret road
signs effectively. They are also at risk on foot at intersections when they can’t
determine when to walk.
Falls – 30% of those over 65, and 40% of those over 80 have had a fall within the
past year. Serious injury results about 10% of the time- most commonly a hip
fracture. This type of break increases 20% from 65 to 85. It associates with a 12
– 20% increase in mortality. Half never regain the ability to walk without assistance
again. Unfortunately, once someone falls, s/he will tend to avoid activities that may
be associated with instability, so they restrict social contact and exercise.
Prevention may entail corrective eyewear, improved safety in the home or car, and
other family members taking on some of the responsibility for the elder’s transportation.
Self Assessment Questions
3) Answer the following in True or False:
i) Old age starts from the age of 50 years. ( )
ii) Old people have limited regenerative abilities and are more prone to
disease, syndromes, and sickness than other adults. ( )
iii) Young-old elderly appear frail and show signs of decline. ( )
iv) With ageing, peripheral vision is reduced. ( )
v) The older heart slows down and is less able to pump blood through the
body than the younger heart. ( )
4) Fill in the blanks:
i) Degeneration of eye muscles and ________________ of the lens are
associated with ageing.
ii) The skin serves a ________________ function by buffering us from the
environment.
iii) Regular exercise, such as a daily walk, can prevent ______________.
iv) Immune system declines as _________________ become less effective.
v) ________________ is a condition of inflamed, painful, stiff or swollen
joints and muscles.

1.5 LET US SUM UP

Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old,
who are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance,
child bearing and careers. It is the first stage of adulthood in which the body physically
changes and is one of the hardest times in our lives after teenage years. During the
period of young adulthood one sees himself or herself as an autonomous and
independent adult. In this period the individual becomes financially less dependent on
the parental family. A major development task is during this period is the choice of
a career. The stage of young adulthood is characterised by new tasks and challenges
in life such as establishing financial and emotional independence and entering into
marital relationship. Unemployment and marital discord are two typical crisis conditions
during early adulthood.
14
Females reach their adult heights by age 18, and, except for some males who Physical Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
continue to grow in their early 20s, most have reached their adult heights by the age Old Age)
of 21. However, muscles continue to gain mass – especially among males, and both
genders continue to add body fat. Average weight gain for both men and women
is about 15 pounds.
In middle adulthood, an important challenge is to develop a genuine concern for the
welfare of future generations and to contribute to the world through family and work.
This period is aged between 40-60 years of life. From the period of twenties and
thirties, the individual arrives at middle age in the forties and fifties. Middle age is
characterised by competence, maturity, responsibility and stability. This is the time
when one wants to enjoy the success of job, satisfaction derived from the family and
social life. People look forward to the success of their children.
Middle adulthood is the second stage of adulthood in which one of the most noticeable
change is loss of elasticity in the skin, especially in the face. This results in lines and
wrinkles that are seen as one of the first signs of ageing. Most individuals get a little
shorter through the years. Hair starts graying, skin is wrinkling, bodies are sagging
and teeth are yellowing. Some adults strive to make themselves look younger by
having plastic surgery, dying their hairs, wearing wigs, joining exercise programs or
taking heavy vitamin doses.
Late adulthood or old age is the period of life in every individual that follows the
period of his or her life after he/she turns 65 years of age. Old age consists of ages
nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings, and thus the end of the
human life cycle. People can be considered old because of certain changes in their
activities or social roles. Old people have limited regenerative abilities and are more
prone to disease, syndromes, and sickness than other adults.
Functional age is the actual competence and performance a person displays, regardless
of chronological age. The ageing body does change. Some systems slow down,
while others lose their “fine tuning”. Slight gradual change is common, and most of
these are not problems to the person who experiences them. Serious and dramatic
change may indicate serious health problems.
As an individual moves towards their old age, there are changes which occurs
naturally and not due to any disease. These changes include sensory changes, digestion,
circulation and sexuality. The physical changes that occur in the bodies of the individuals
can be divided into two main categories – external changes and internal changes.
These changes are the outward signs of ageing, and are quiet obvious to notice. They
consists of changes in hair, skin, posture, etc. most people’s hair becomes distinctly
gray and eventually turns white, and it may also thin out. The skin becomes less
elastic, more wrinkled, dry and thin. The wrinkles are formed partly because of loss
fatty tissue under the skin.

1.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What are the physical changes that take place in early adulthood?
2) What are the developmental tasks during this period?
3) What are the physical changes that take place in middle adulthood?
4) What are the developmental tasks of this period?
5) What are the physical changes that take place during old age?
15
6) What are the developmental tasks of this period?
Adulthood and Ageing
1.7 ANSWERS TO THE SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS
1) i) True
ii) True
iii) False
iv) True
v) False
2) i) Presbyopia
ii) Elasticity
iii) Menopause
iv) Child Bearing
v) Self absorption
3) i) False
ii) True
iii) False
iv) True
v) True
4) i) Clouding
ii) Protective
iii) Constipation
iv) T Cells
v) Arthritis

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Stuart-Hamilton, Ian (2006). The Psychology of Ageing: An Introduction. London:
Jessica Kingsley Publishers
Diane F. Gilmer; Aldwin, Carolyn M. (2003). Health, illness, and optimal ageing:
biological and psychosocial perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications

16
UNIT 2 COGNITIVE CHANGES (EARLY
ADULTHOOD, MIDDLE AGE, OLD
AGE)
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Early Adulthood
2.2.1 Cognitive Changes
2.3 Middle Adulthood
2.3.1 Cognitive Changes
2.4 Old Age
2.4.1 Cognitive Changes
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Unit End Questions
2.7 Suggested Readings
2.8 Answers to the Self Assessment Questions

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Young adulthood is a time when most of us finish school, find a career we enjoy, and
create a family of our own. The cognitive stages during the early adulthood can be
discussed as a period of realistic and pragmatic thinking; reflective and relativistic thinking.
According to Piaget, he thought that young adults were quantitatively advanced in their
thinking (they have more knowledge), however, they are qualitatively similar. He also
believed that adults increase their knowledge in a specific area.
In this unit we will be dealing with all the three stages of adulthood and examine the
physical, cognitive and other changes that come about. Particularly the focus will be on
cognitive development.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
z define and describe the period of early adulthood;
z describe the cognitive changes during early adulthood;
z explain the characteristics of middle adulthood;
z delineate the cognitive changes during middle adulthood;
z define and describe the period of old age; and
z analyse the cognitive changes during old age.

2.2 EARLY ADULTHOOD

Young adulthood is a time when most of us finish school, find a career we enjoy, and
create a family of our own. Physically, it is a time where we are our healthiest and will
reach our peak performance. Cognitively, it is a time to grow up and make life decisions. 17
Adulthood and Ageing Socioemotionally, it is a time to take on roles of independence, lifestyles, marriage, and
family.
According to Erik Erikson’s eight stages of development, this is a time of intimacy vs.
isolation. One either gets involved in an intimate relationship or isolates oneself. According
to the literature, many areas of development are paramount during early adulthood.
The cognitive stages during the early adulthood can be discussed as a period of realistic
and pragmatic thinking; reflective and relativistic thinking. According to Piaget, he thought
that young adults were quantitatively advanced in their thinking (they have more
knowledge), however, they are qualitatively similar. He also believed that adults increase
their knowledge in a specific area.
Between the ages of 35-60, we find vast changes in many areas of our lives. The most
obvious changes related to our lifestyle include: physical development and health, career
and finances, marraige, and leisure activities. For many, midlife is a time when they start
to think about “how much time they have left”. Individuals begin to reexamine their
lives, their relationships, their work, and even to question the meaning of it all. This
process has been referred to as a mid-life crisis. Clearly, middle adulthood is a time
change and development.
Middle adulthood is the period in which an individual changes in their cognitive
functioning as concerned to their intelligence: crystallized and fluid; information processing
and memory; expertise; career, work and leisure; religion, health and coping; and meaning
in life.
While the adult years are generally a time of vitality and good health, their are health
concerns. The main health problems of middle adulthood are cardiovascular disease,
cancer, and menopause. Another major problem that effects health and behaviour is
stress. Overall this is a time of major change and development physically and mentally.
During the middle adult years there is a noticeable change in how adults view their
careers. By this time most individuals have settled into their careers and between the
ages of 40-45 have ceased to advance up the career ladder. In general, job satisfaction
and commitment tend to be high and continue to increase into our sixties.
It is also at this time that adults adjust their idealistic hopes to realistic possibilities. This
adjustment to attainable goals is dependent on how much time is left before retirement,
with retirement planning being a major area of financial concern. These reassesments
may lead to stress and sadness over unaccomplished goals, which for a small few may
lead to a midlife career change.
Crystallized intelligence improves through middle age and on. The ability to remember
and use information acquired over a lifetime is increased, and also depends on education
and culture of the individual. An individual is able to use stored information’s and process
automatically in their daily lives.
Many psychologists believe that fluid intelligence was primarily genetic and that
crystallized intelligence was primarily learned. This nature-nurture distinction is probably
invalid, in part because the acquisition of crystallized intelligence is affected by the
quality of fluid intelligence.
Another financial adjustment that tends to take place for many midadults is the planning
for college and setting aside the necessary funds for their children. In response to these
growing financial needs and greater free time, due to their children getting older, many
women enter or reenter the workforce. In short, this tends to be a time of career and
18 financial readjustment and planning for both men and women.
Leisure holds an important place in helping adults to deal with life experiences. Not Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
only does leisure enhance ones well-being it is also a buffer to the stresses of life. Old Age)

Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old,
which are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance,
child bearing and careers. It is the first stage of adulthood in which the body physically
changes and is one of the hardest times in our lives after teenage years. One has to deal
with so much in this time and it seems to be real time of self search as well as preparation.
During this time in our life we find ourselves with a new sense of independence and for
the first time in life we really feel free. However, along with that comes a lot of added
personal responsibility to both ourselves and others and we really begin to learn more
about ourselves as well as others through social interaction.
Young adulthood is a time when most of us finish school, find a career we enjoy, and
create a family of our own. Physically, it is a time where we are our healthiest and will
reach our peak performance. Cognitively, it is a time to grow up and make life decisions.

2.2.1 Cognitive Changes

The cognitive stages during the early adulthood can be discussed as a period of realistic
and pragmatic thinking; reflective and relativistic thinking. According to Piaget, he thought
that young adults were quantitatively advanced in their thinking (they have more
knowledge), however, they are qualitatively similar. He also believed that adults increase
their knowledge in a specific area.
Realistic and Pragmatic Thinking
Realistic thinking means looking at all aspects of a situation (the positive, the negative,
and the neutral) before making conclusions. In other words, realistic thinking means
looking at yourself, others, and the world in a balanced and fair way.
Some experts argue that the idealism of Piaget’s formal operational stage declines in
young adulthood, replaced by more realistic, pragmatic thinking. Schaie argues that
adults use information differently than adolescents.
According to K.Warner Schaie, adults progress beyond adolescents only in their use
of intellect. We typically switch from actually acquiring knowledge to applying that
knowledge in our everyday lives. To support his theory of development, he included
the following two stages to describe the cognitive changes in adults:
z Achieving Stage
Involves applying ones intelligence to situations that have profound consequences on
achieving long term goals, such as those involving careers. This stage of development
includes mastering the cognitive skills needed to monitor one’s own behaviour. Young
adults in this stage will also acquire a considerable amount of independence.
z Responsibility Stage
This stage of development begins in early adulthood and extends into middle adulthood.
This is the time when a family is established and attention is given to the needs of a
spouse and children. Young adults incur social responsibilities, deal with starting a career,
and must take on some level of responsibility for others at work and in the community.
According to Labouvie-Vief, there are many changes that take place in the thinking of
young adults, including a new integration of thought. Young adults rely less on logical
analysis when solving problems. Idealised logic is replaced with commitment, and youth 19
Adulthood and Ageing focus their energy on finding their niche in the work place and society. During young
adulthood, logical skills don’t decline because cognitive abilities are strong.
Reflective and Relativistic Thinking
William Perry said that adolescents often engage in dualistic, absolute thinking, whereas
adults are more likely to engage in reflective, relativistic thinking. The term dualistic
thinking is used to describe an adolescents view of the world. Everything is seen in the
polar terms or opposites. Examples for this are right/wrong or good/bad.
As youth mature, dualistic thinking is replaced by multiple thinking. They gradually
become aware of the diversity of opinion in other people and realise that authority may
not have all the answers. Young adults begin to create their own style of thinking, and
believe that others are entitled to the opinion they hold and that one opinion is good as
anyone’s else’s. This leads to the next form of thinking, relative subordinate thinking.
Here, personal opinions begin to be challenged by others, and a logical evaluation of
knowledge is actively pursued. This leads to the final form of thinking, which is full
relativism. In this stage of thinking, young adults completely understand that truth is
relative, and knowledge is constructed and not given, contextual and not absolute.
Post formal thought is qualitatively different than Piaget’s formal operational thought. It
involves understanding that the correct answer to a problem requires reflective thinking,
may vary from one situation to another, and that the search for truth is often an ongoing,
never-ending process. Along with this is the belief that solutions to problems need to be
realistic and that emotion and subjective factors can influence thinking.

2.3 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Middle age is the period of age beyond young adulthood but before the onset of old
age. Various attempts have been made to define this age, which is around the third
quarter of the average life span of human beings.
In middle adulthood, an important challenge is to develop a genuine concern for the
welfare of future generations and to contribute to the world through family and work.
This period is aged between 40-60 years of life.
From the period of twenties and thirties, the individual arrives at middle age in the
forties and fifties. Middle age is characterised by competence, maturity, responsibility
and stability. This is the time when one wants to enjoy the success of job, satisfaction
derived from the family and social life. People look forward to the success of their
children. Attention gets more focused on health, the fate of children, ageing parents, the
use of leisure time and plans of old age.
Middle aged adults often show visible signs of ageing such as loss of skin elasticity and
graying of hair. Physical fitness usually wanes, with a 5-10kg accumulation of body fat,
reduction in aerobic performance and a decrease in maximal heart rate. Strength and
flexibility also decrease throughout middle age. However, people age at different rates
and there can be significant differences between individuals of the same age.
Midlife is also viewed as a period of creativity and significant contribution to society. It
is found that the best works of scientists, writers and artists are produced during the
late forties and early fifties.
The changes that occur from adolescence to young adulthood may be stressful at times,
but between the ages of 19 and 30 we are at our prime physically, and our cognitive
skills are becoming finalised. Sure, sometimes it seems like we’re dealing with a million
20 things all at once and that one of any number of things could change the rest of our lives,
but that’s the best part about it. Young adulthood is when (most of us) decide exactly Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
what it is that we want to do with the rest of our lives whether it’s raise a family, start a Old Age)
career, or both.

2.3.1 Cognitive Changes

Middle adulthood is the period in which an individual changes in their cognitive
functioning as concerned to their intelligence: crystallized and fluid; information processing
and memory; expertise; career, work and leisure; religion, health and coping; and meaning
in life.
Intelligence
Cognitive development is multidirectional. It gains in some area and losses in others.
Cross sectional measures of intelligence show decreases with age. There may be cohort
effect of better or more schooling. Longitudinal measures show increase, at least until
the age of 50s. It may be inflated due to practice effects and attrition. Cognitive abilities
are more likely to increase than decrease, with exception of arithmetic skills, which
begin to shift slightly downwards by age 40.
Fluid intelligence refers to our ability to see relationships, use abstract reasoning, and
analyse information. Crystallized intelligence refers to our ability to use knowledge,
experience, vocabulary, and verbal memory (Horn & Hofer, 1992). Fluid intelligence
declines with age, but crystallized intelligence continues to grow as we learn more during
middle age.
z Fluid Intelligence
Fluid intelligence is the flexible reasoning and is made up of the basic mental abilities
such as inductive reasoning, abstract thinking and speed of thinking required for
understanding any subject. It is fast and abstract reasoning, in adults, there is a decline
with age. It includes nonverbal abilities and nonverbal puzzle solving, novel logic
problems; allows best works at age 20s and 30s by mathematicians, scientists and
poets.
Fluid intelligence peaks during the early adulthood and then declines ability to apply
mental powers to new problems, perceiving relationships, forming concepts and drawing
inferences. It declines probably due to changes in brain. These differences might be due
to cohort effects related to educational differences rather than to age.
z Crystallized Intelligence
Crystallized intelligence is the verbal reasoning that holds across the lifespan which
reflects accumulated knowledge and vocabulary. It allows best works at age of 40s,
50s, and older by historians, philosophers, prose writers. It refers to the accumulation
of facts, information and knowledge that comes with education and experience within a
particular culture.
Crystallized intelligence improves through middle age and on. The ability to remember
and use information acquired over a lifetime is increased, and also depends on education
and culture of the individual. An individual is able to use stored information’s and process
automatically in their daily lives.
Many psychologists believe that fluid intelligence was primarily genetic and that
crystallized intelligence was primarily learned. This nature-nurture distinction is probably
invalid, in part because the acquisition of crystallized intelligence is affected by the
quality of fluid intelligence. 21
Adulthood and Ageing Fluid intelligence declines during adulthood, although this decline is temporarily masked
by an increase in crystallized intelligence.
IQ tests may lack ecological validity as the reaction time slows down with age and
results may be due to physical changes and not cognitive changes.
Robert Sternberg proposed that intelligence is composed of three distinct parts:
z Analytic / Academic
It consists of mental processes that foster efficient learning, remembering and thinking.
Multiple choice tests, with one and only one right answer reward analytic intelligence.
They tend to have an extensive, highly organised knowledge of a particular domain and
increase in work satisfaction. There is a greater commitment towards the job. They
have greatest physical and psychological well-being. The current middle-aged worker
faces more challenges, and increased career challenges lead to career changes. The
midlife career changes can be self-motivated or imposed by others.
z Creative
Creativity is another important adult skill related to intelligence. Like intelligence, though,
it is hard to agree what it is. We know that some kinds of creativity, like writing, peaks
during middle adulthood. Creativity and practical intelligence often combine to create
people we call experts in their fields, whether repairing cars, farming, writing, or designing
a spacecraft.
It involves the capacity to be flexible and innovative when dealing with new situations.
Expertise increases in the middle adulthood years. They tend to use the accumulated
experience of their life situations to solve problems. There is more creativity and flexibility
in their domain than novices.
They prefer to make their own decisions and plans. They prefer their own judgment to
that of others and don’t tend to back down in the face of criticism or disagreement.
They are most resourceful when faced with unique circumstances or problems. They
show an imaginative use of many different words. They show more flexibility in their
approach to problems, are eager to try new avenues, and are not bound to rules or
accepted ideas of the way things work. They show originality and do not often come up
with off the shelf solutions.
z Practical
It enables the person to adapt his/her abilities to contextual demands. They tend to
have a pleasant time after work. They have more time and money to pursue activities
and interests. There is decreased rate of heart disease and death due to vacations and
leisure. During this time they are preparing themselves for retirement.
Information Processing and Memory
During the middle adulthood the speed of information processing, reaction time, and
memory declines. The use of effective memory strategies can decrease the decline.
Religion, Health, Coping and Meaning in Life
Religion and spirituality is an important dimension of life during this stage. A significant
increase in religiosity and spirituality is seen during middle age. There is an individual
difference in religious interest, as the females show a stronger interest in religion than
males do. Positive association of religious participation and longevity is noticed. Religion
22 promotes physical and psychological health and positive functions of religious coping.
According to Victor Frankl, the examining of the finiteness of our existence leads to Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
exploration of meaning in life. Many middle-aged individuals increasingly examine life’s Old Age)
meaning.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Answer the following statements with True or False:
i) Young Adults is the time of freedom and when they find a sense of
independence. ( )
ii) Piaget thought that young adults are not quantitatively advanced in their
thinking. ( )
iii) William Perry gave views about realistic thinking. ( )
iv) As youth mature, dualistic thinking is replaced by multiple thinking.
( )
v) Crystallized intelligence is in peak during middle adulthood. ( )
2) Fill in the blanks:
i) Creativity involves the capacity to be ____________ and innovative when
dealing with new situations.
ii) ________________________ refers to our ability to see relationships,
use abstract reasoning and analyse information.
iii) _____________________ means looking at all aspects of situations before
making conclusions.
iv) Cognitive development is ________________________.
v) Religion and _____________________ is an important dimension of life
during middle adulthood.

2.4 OLD AGE

Late adulthood (old age) is generally considered to begin at about age 65. Erik Erikson
suggests that at this time it is important to find meaning and satisfaction in life rather than
to become bitter and disillusioned, that is, to resolve the conflict of integrity vs. despair.
Despite the problems associated with longevity, studies of people in their 70s have
shown that growing old is not necessarily synonymous with substantial mental or physical
deterioration. Many older people are happy and engaged in a variety of activities.
Gerontology, an interdisciplinary field that studies the process of ageing and the ageing
population, involves psychology, biology, sociology, and other fields.
Late Adulthood is the period in an individual’s life beginning at ages sixty or seventy and
ending at death. This life period, like any other, is one of continuing change and adjustment
both in the physical and the psychosocial realms.
Theories of successful ageing include the following:
The disengagement theory states that as people age, their withdrawal from society is
normal and desirable as it relieves them of responsibilities and roles that have become
difficult. This process also opens up opportunities for younger people; society benefits
as more-energetic young people fill the vacated positions.
The activity theory contends that activity is necessary to maintain a “life of quality,” 23
Adulthood and Ageing that is, that one must “use it or lose it” no matter what one’s age and that people who
remain active in all respects—physically, mentally, and socially—adjust better to the
ageing process. Proponents of this theory believe that activities of earlier years should
be maintained as long as possible.
Ageism may be defined as the prejudice or discrimination that occurs on the basis of
age. Although it can be used against people of all ages, older people are most frequently
its target and it may often result in forced retirement. Stereotyping of the elderly is also
an aspect of ageism, as seen in such a statement as “He drives like a little old lady.”

2.4.1 Cognitive Changes

Cognitive development is a general loss cognitively as people move closer to the end of
life. The study of cognitive changes in the older population is complex. Response speeds
(neural and motor) have been reported to decline; some researchers believe that age-
related decrease in working memory is the crucial factor underlying poorer performance
by the elderly on cognitive tasks.
Selective optimisation with compensation is one means of making best use of their
cognitive skills. They narrow their goals, select personally valued activities so as to
optimise or maximise returns from their energy. They find means to compensate for
losses.
Factors related to Cognitive change – mentally active people are likely to maintain their
cognitive abilities into advanced old age. Retirement can bring about changes in cognitive
abilities depending on how those years are used. Terminal decline is a steady, marked
decrease in cognitive functioning prior to death.
Memory
The older adults are taking in information more slowly, and they use strategies less,
can’t inhibit irrelevant information and retrieve important information from long-term
memory. So memory failure increases. Slower processing speed means there will be
less retained from current activities. They also forget context, which helps us recall
information. Recognition memory does not decline as much as free recall.
z Deliberate vs. automatic memory
Implicit memory is memory without conscious awareness. This memory is more
intact than deliberate memory, trying to recall information.
z Associative memory
Associative memory deficit is a problem creating and retrieving links between
pieces of information. This is more common for elders.
z Remote memory is very long-term recall. It is not any clearer than recent recall for
seniors, even though the myth is that seniors remember the past better than recent
events.
z Autobiographical memory is memory for your own personally experienced events.
Seniors best recall their adolescent and early adulthood experiences better than
later life experiences. There was a lot of novelty in those times, as well as life
choices being made- spouses, jobs, educational choices. These experiences were
more emotionally charged, so they are remembered better. They become part of
a person’s life story, and are remembered often.
z Prospective memory is remembering to do planned activities in the future. There is
more forgetfulness and absentmindedness as people age. They tend to do better
24 on event-based memory tasks than time-based tasks.
Language processing Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
The two aspects of language processing diminish in older age: finding the right words Old Age)

and planning what to say and how to say it. Their speech will have more pronouns,
unclear references, they will speak more slowly, pause more often, and have trouble
finding the right words. There will be more hesitations, false starts, sentence fragments,
word repetitions as they age. They tend to simplify their grammatical structures, so they
can better retrieve the words they want.
Problem solving
The problem solving declines in late adulthood so married people tend to collabourate
more in problem-solving. They will be better at solving problems they think are under
their control. They will make more rapid decisions in areas of health, as that is an area
they feel they have learned a lot about.
Wisdom includes practical knowledge, ability to reflect on and apply that knowledge,
emotional maturity, listening skills, and creativity in a way that helps others. This does
increase with age. It occurs as people deal with more difficulties in life and find various
means to adapt to change. Those with wisdom tend to have better education and are
physically healthier. It requires insight into the human condition and often follows that
people with this ability are found in high positions in business and politics and religion.
z Knowledge about fundamental concerns of life: human nature, social relationships,
emotions.
z Effective strategies for applying that knowledge to making life decisions, handling
conflict, giving advice.
z A view of people that considers multiple demands of their life contexts.
z Concern with ultimate human values, the common good, respect for individual
differences in values.
z Awareness and management of the uncertainties of life – many problems have no
perfect solution.
Intellectual changes in late adulthood do not always result in reduction of ability.
While fluid intelligence (the ability to see and to use patterns and relationships to
solve problems) does decline in later years, crystallized intelligence (the ability to
use accumulated information to solve problems and make decisions) has been shown
to rise slightly over the entire life span. K. Warner Schaie and Sherry Willis reported
that a decline in cognitive performance could be reversed in 40% to 60% of elderly
people who were given remedial training.
Retirement
Retirement at age 65 is the conventional choice for many people, although some
work until much later. People have been found to be happier in retirement if they are not
forced to retire before they are ready and if they have enough income to maintain an
adequate living standard. Chronic health problems such as arthritis, rheumatism, and
hypertension increasingly interfere with the quality of life of most individuals as they age.
Widowhood
Women tend to marry men older than they are and, on average, live 5 to 7 years longer
than men. One study found ten times as many widows as widowers. Widowhood is
particularly stressful if the death of the spouse occurs early in life; close support of
friends, particularly other widows, can be very helpful. 25
Adulthood and Ageing Death and dying
Death and dying has been studied extensively by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, who suggested
that terminally ill patients display the following five basic reactions.
z Denial, an attempt to deny the reality and to isolate oneself from the event, is
frequently the first reaction.
z Anger frequently follows, as the person envies the living and asks, “Why should I
be the one to die?”
z Bargaining may occur; the person pleads to God or others for more time.
z As the end nears, recognition that death is inevitable and that separation from
family will occur leads to feelings of exhaustion, futility, and deep depression.
z Acceptance often follows if death is not sudden, and the person finds peace with
the inevitable.
People who are dying are sometimes placed in a hospice, a hospital for the terminally
ill that attempts to maintain a good quality of life for the patient and the family during the
final days. In a predictable pattern after a loved one’s death, initial shock is followed by
grief, followed by apathy and depression, which may continue for weeks. Support
groups and counseling can help in successfully working through this process.
Cognitive interventions
Lifelong learning
z Types of programs include Elderhostel, which encourages older adults to live on
college campuses and take courses from experts, as well as travel the world.
Many universities offer classes at low or no cost for seniors.
z Benefits of continuing education include learning new information, understanding
new ideas, making new friends, and developing a broader perspective on the
world. This may serve to shake up their stereotypes and value diversity in a new
way.
Self Assessment Questions
3) Fill in blanks:
i) The study of the process of ageing and the ageing population is called
__________________.
ii) Ageism is defined as the ___________________ that occur on the basis
of age.
iii) ________________________ is the memory without conscious
awareness.
iv) ________________ memory is very long term recall.
v) ________________ memory is remembering to do plannedc activities in
the future.

2.5 LET US SUM UP

Young adulthood is a time when most of us finish school, find a career we enjoy, and
26 create a family of our own. Physically, it is a time where we are our healthiest and will
reach our peak performance. Cognitively, it is a time to grow up and make life decisions. Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
Socioemotionally, it is a time to take on roles of independence, lifestyles, marriage, and Old Age)
family.
Erik Erikson, a prominent theorist in the field of emotional development, assigns specific
goals to different periods of life. Those in early adulthood are said to be struggling with
intimacy as opposed to isolation. This refers to the desire for a stable long-term
relationship. Those who have achieved intimacy are thought to host a range of positive
attributes, such as confidence and acceptance. Alternatively, those in isolation are more
likely to fear loneliness and abandonment. Intimacy requires an individual to sacrifice
some of his independence for another person. After successfully traversing the struggle
of isolation and intimacy, an individual will deal with generativity, which is the desire to
improve society for future generations.
Between the ages of 35-60, we find vast changes in many areas of our lives. The most
obvious changes related to our lifestyle include: physical development and health, career
and finances, marraige, and leisure activities. For many, midlife is a time when they start
to think about “how much time they have left”. Individuals begin to reexamine their
lives, their relationships, their work, and even to question the meaning of it all. This
process has been referred to as a mid-life crisis. Clearly, middle adulthood is a time
change and development.
One of the major aspects of middle adulthood are the physical and biological changes
that occur in the body. Two of the most noticeable changes are seeing and hearing.
Each of these begin to decline in the middle years. One of the physical changes that
occur is in height. Most individuals get a little shorter through the years. Also, hair is
graying, skin is wrinkling, bodies are sagging, and teeth are yellowing. Some adults
strive to make themselves look younger by having plastic surgery, dying their hair, wearing
wigs, joining exercise programs, or taking heavy vitamin doses.
While the adult years are generally a time of vitality and good health, their are health
concerns. The main health problems of middle adulthood are cardiovascular disease,
cancer, and menopause. Another major problem that effects health and behaviour is
stress. Overall this is a time of major change and development physically and mentally.
It is also at this time that adults adjust their idealistic hopes to realistic possibilities. This
adjustment to attainable goals is dependent on how much time is left before retirement,
with retirement planning being a major area of financial concern. These reassessments
may lead to stress and sadness over unaccomplished goals, which for a small few may
lead to a midlife career change.
Another financial adjustment that tends to take place for many mid adults is the planning
for college and setting aside the necessary funds for their children. In response to these
growing financial needs and greater free time, due to their children getting older, many
women enter or reenter the workforce. In short, this tends to be a time of career and
financial readjustment and planning for both men and women.
Adults demonstrate much variation in their intimate lifestyles. Nearly all of us are married
at least some time during our adult lives. Many marriages either improve or deteriorate
during middle age. If a couple form a relationship appropriate to this new period of life,
their marriage will likely grow stronger. But if they cannot adapt to the new conditions
of their lives, their marriage may develop problems. Regardless, intimacy, marriage,
and family concerns are a priority during middle adulthood. Some specific issues include
the empty nest syndrome, late parenting, divorce, sexuality, remarriage, and grand
parenting. 27
Adulthood and Ageing Late adulthood (old age) is generally considered to begin at about age 65. Erik Erikson
suggests that at this time it is important to find meaning and satisfaction in life rather than
to become bitter and disillusioned, that is, to resolve the conflict of integrity vs. despair.
Late Adulthood is the period in an individual’s life beginning at ages sixty or seventy and
ending at death. This life period, like any other, is one of continuing change and adjustment
both in the physical and the psychosocial realms.
Cognitive development is a general loss cognitively as people move closer to the end of
life. The study of cognitive changes in the older population is complex. Response speeds
(neural and motor) have been reported to decline; some researchers believe that age-
related decrease in working memory is the crucial factor underlying poorer performance
by the elderly on cognitive tasks.
Retirement at age 65 is the conventional choice for many people, although some
work until much later. People have been found to be happier in retirement if they are not
forced to retire before they are ready and if they have enough income to maintain an
adequate living standard. Chronic health problems such as arthritis, rheumatism, and
hypertension increasingly interfere with the quality of life of most individuals as they age.

2.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss critically the cognitive changes in ealry adulthood.
2) What are the important cognitive changes that come about in middle adulthood?
3) How does old age affect cognitive development?
4) Compare age differences in implicit and explicit memory.
5) How does each part of information procesing system such as the sensory register,
short term and long term memory knowledge base etc.?

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

P.J. Whitehouse and G.C.Gilmore (eds) (1989). Memory, Ageing and Dementia.
New York, Springer
S.L.Willis and J.D.Reid (Eds) (1999). Life In the Middle . San Diego, CA, Academic
Press.
Lachman, M.E.(Ed). (2001). Handbook of Midlife Development. New York, Wiley.

2.8 ANSWERS TO THE SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1) i) True
ii) False
iii) False
iv) True
v) True
2) i) Flexible
28 ii) Fluid intelligence
 iii) Realistic Thinking Cognitive Changes (Early
Adulthood, Middle Age,
iv) Multidimensional Old Age)

v) Spirituality
3) i) Gerontology
ii) Prejudice
iii) Implicit memory
iv) Remote
v) Prospective

29
 UNIT 3 PSYCHOSOCIAL CHANGES (EARLY
ADULTHOOD, MIDDLE AGE, OLD
AGE)
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Development During Adult Years
3.2.1 Stage Theories versus the Contextual Approach
3.3 Psychosocial Changes During Early Adulthood
3.3.1 Eric Erikson’s Theory
3.3.2 Levinson’s Seasons of Life Theory
3.3.3 Attachment Patterns and Romantic Relationships
3.4 The Family Life Cycle
3.5 Psychosocial Changes During Middle Adulthood
3.5.1 Four Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood
3.5.2 Individual Differences in Personality Traits
3.5.3 Changing Parent-child Relationships

3.6 Psychosocial Changes During Old Age

3.6.1 Stability and Change in Self-Concept and Personality
3.6.2 Relationships in Late Adulthood
3.6.3 Retirement and Leisure

3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Unit End Questions
3.9 Suggested Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will be dealing with development during adult years. The period of
adulthood is marked by society’s expectation of performing one’s duty as an adult.
Some special roles and relationship like family and career are the major milestones of
adulthood. While discussing development during adult years stage theories will be put
forward to explain the adult years. This will be seen in contrast to the contextual
theories. This unit will discuss psychosocial changes during early and middle adulthood
and the various changes that come about as one grows older. Finally the unit will
discuss the various growth and development issues related to old age.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
z describe the development during adult years in terms of stage vs Contextual
theories;
z explain the psychosocial changes during early adulthood;
z delineate the psychosocial changes during middle adulthood; and
30
z analyse the psychosocial changes during old age.
 Psychosocial Changes
3.2 DEVELOPMENT DURING ADULT YEARS (Early Adulthood, Middle
Age, Old Age)
The spurt of growth during adolescence stabilises by adulthood and the individual looks
forward to more concrete roles in the society. The capabilities and behaviours of the
individuals continue to change as they grow older not only because of the biological
growth process but also because of their understanding and the way they interact with
their environment.
In the Indian tradition the period of adulthood is referred to as Grihastha ashram. During
this stage an individual enters the social life and accepts responsibilities of family, marriage
and entering into one’s career. The stages of adulthood have sub periods such as young
adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood.
Perhaps middle adulthood is best known for the midlife crisis. This is a time of
reevaluation that leads to questioning long held beliefs and values. The midlife crisis
may also result in a person divorcing his or her spouse, changing jobs, or moving from
the city to the suburbs.
Typically beginning in the early or mid 40s, the crisis often occurs in response to a sense
of mortality, as middle age persons realise that their youth is limited and that they have
not accomplished all of their desired goals in life. Of course, not everyone experiences
stress or upset during middle age, instead they may simply undergo a midlife transition,
or change, rather than going through the emotional upheaval of a midlife crisis.
Other middle age adults prefer to reframe their experience by thinking of themselves as
being in the prime of their lives rather than in their declining years.
The field of life-span development seems to be moving away from a normative crisis
model to a timing of events model, so as to explain such events as the midlife transition
and the midlife crisis. The former model describes psychosocial tasks as occurring in a
definite age related sequence, while the latter describes tasks as occurring in response
to particular life events and their timing. In other words, whereas the normative crisis
model defines the midlife transition as occurring exactly between ages 40 and 45, the
timing of events model defines it as occurring when the persons begin the process of
questioning their own life desires, values, goals, and accomplishments.
Later adulthood or the period of old age begins at the age of sixty. During this stage
most individuals lose their jobs because they retire from active service. They begin to
fear about their physical and psychological health. In our society, the elderly are typically
perceived as not so active, deteriorating intellectually. They tend to become narrow
minded and seem to attach significance to religion. Many of the old people lose their
spouses and suffer from emotional insecurity. However, this may not be true of everybody.
Many people at the age of sixty or above remain very healthy and active in life. The life
style including exercise, diet, and regular health check up helps people to enjoy meaningful
and active life.
Involvement in grand parenting helps elderly satisfy many of their personal and emotional
needs. Grandparents can serve as important role models. Old people find these roles
emotionally self fulfilling and tend to derive self satisfaction through achievement of their
grand children.
Successful ageing occurs when elders have developed many ways to minimize losses
and maximise gains.
How and why does a change occur during our adult years? Is it purely the result of
biological processes, alteration in our bodies and brains as we grow older? Certainly, 31
Adulthood and Ageing such changes must play an important role, but are they the entire story? Let’s discuss
these important questions according to psychologist’s stage theories or contextual
approach.

3.2.1 Stage Theories Versus the Contextual Approach

Stage Theories: Stage theories suggest that all human beings, no matter where or
when they live, move through an orderly progression of stages in their development.
The individual grows in a systematic process. According to Eric Erikson’s eight stages
of life, development proceeds through a series of distinct stages, each defined by a
specific crisis. These crisis, in return results from the fact that as an individual grows
older, they confront new combinations of biological drives and societal demands. The
biological drives reflect the expectations and requirements of society for people at
different ages.
During adulthood, every individual passes through three major crises. The first of these
is the crises of integrity versus isolation. During late adolescence and early adulthood,
individual must develop the ability to form deep, intimate relationships with others. This
does not simply mean sexual intimacy, rather, it involves the ability to form strong
emotional attachment to others. In other words, the first crisis of adult life centers in the
capacity to love, to care deeply and consistently with others. People who fail to resolve
it successfully will live in isolation, unable to form truly intimate, lasting relationships.
Erikson labeled the second crisis of adult life, that is the crisis of generativity versus
absorption. The need for individuals to overcome selfish, self-centered concerns and to
take an active interest in helping and guiding the next generation. For parents, such
activities are focused on their children. After children have themselves grown up into
adults, however, the tendency towards the generativity may involve serving as mentor
or guide for members of younger generation, helping them in their careers and lives.
People who do not become parents can express generativity by providing help and
guidance to young people such as students, younger co-workers, nieces and nephews,
and so on. Individuals who successfully resolve this crisis become absorbed in their
own lives and gradually cut themselves off from an important source of growth and
satisfaction.
Erikson termed the final crisis of adult development as integrity versus despair. Individuals
in this stage reach the final decades of their life and look back and analyse themselves
with questions like “Did my life have any meaning?” “Did my being here really matter?”
If the individual is able to answer “yes” for the questions, and to feel that they have
reached many of their goals, they attain a sense of integrity. If, instead, they find their
lives to be lacking on such dimensions, they may experience intense feelings of despair.
Successful resolution of this final crisis can have important effects on how individuals
come to terms with their own mortality, the inevitable fact of death, and on their
psychological and physical health during the final years.
According to Erikson and others who view adult development in terms of discrete
phases or stages, development during human adult years follows an orderly plan,
reflecting the fact that at different times in people’s lives, everyone experiences the
same problems, events, challenges, or as mentioned crises. The way in which an individual
deals with each of these turning points determines the course and nature of people’s
lives from that point on.
Contextual Approach: Contextual theories of development take careful account of
many of the differences that exist in one’s life and situations. The context and situation
of each individual varies a great deal and these in fact account for the individuals to
32 experience the crises in their life differently.
Contextual theories of development hold that it is the context or environment under Psychosocial Changes
(Early Adulthood, Middle
which a child grows, that is more important than inbuilt mechanisms. These theorists Age, Old Age)
believe that infants and children develop and grow according to the environmental and
contextual influences they are exposed to and that these contextual factors are what
makes them fully functioning adults or disordered adults. Biological influences are seen
as secondary if not completely ignored.
Two of the most important contextual theories were put forward by American
psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner and Lev Vygotsky. According to Bronfenbrenner’s
theory development is influenced by experiences arising from broader social and cultural
systems as well as a child’s immediate surroundings. Ecological Systems Theory, also
called “Development in Context” or “Human Ecology” theory, specifies four types of
nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the
systems.
This ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner presents the sociocultural view of development
which focuses on the changing relations between individuals and the environments in
which they live. It consists of five environmental systems ranging from the individual’s
direct interactions with social agents to the broad-based inputs of culture. The five
systems in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory are the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
The microsystem in ecological theory is the setting in which an individual lives
(Bronfenbrenner 1979). This context includes the person’s family, peers, school,
neighbourhood, etc. is the immediate environment in which a person is operating. The
individual directly interacts with this environment and the latter has a direct impact on a
child’s biological and psychological development. The key concept is the “direct contact”
between the child and the niche. The mesosystem in ecological theory involves linkages
between Microsystems. Behaviourists like John Watson and B.F. Skinner defined
environment as “any and all external focuses that shape the individual’s environment”.
While environment is extremely important , there are others who are of the view that the
individual in addition has an important role to play.
That is, it is not just that he/she gets influenced by environment, but the developing
individual is not all passive but actively influences also the environment in which he/she
grows up .
Self Assessment Questions
1) Delineate the Characteristic features of development during early adulthood.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) What are the important features of development during midyears and old age?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Describe the stage theory of development.
..................................................................................................................... 33
Adulthood and Ageing
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) How does stage theory differ from contextual theory?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.3 PSYCHOSOCIAL CHANGES DURING EARLY

ADULTHOOD
Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old, who
are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance, child
bearing and careers. It is the first stage of adulthood in which the body physically
changes and is one of the hardest times in our lives after teenage years. One has to deal
with so much in this time and it seems to be the time for self search as well as preparation
for the future coming years of old age.
During this time in one’s life, people find themselves with a new sense of independence
and for the first time in life they really feel free. However, along with that comes a lot of
added personal responsibility to both individuals and others and the persons really
start learning more about themselves as well as others through social interaction.

3.3.1 Eric Erikson’s Theory

According to Erikson, the socialisation process consists of eight phases – the “eight
stages of man.” His eight stages of man were formulated, not through experimental
work, but through wide - ranging experience in psychotherapy, including extensive
experience with children and adolescents from low - as well as upper - and middle -
social classes. Each stage is regarded by Erikson as a “psychosocial crisis,” which
arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated.
These stages are conceived in an almost architectural sense: satisfactory learning and
resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is to manage the next and subsequent
ones satisfactorily. It is like the foundation of a house which is essential to the first floor,
which in turn must be structurally sound to support the second floor as it gets built up.
Some of the important crises of the adulthood include the following:
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Intimacy requires that an independent persons give up some of their independence and
redefine their identity to include the interests of another person or others in their lives.
The adult life is a conflict of intimacy vs. independence, and includes differing needs
for connection, fears of abandonment or being overwhelmed, and it’s a challenging
work in progress.
People who have achieved intimacy are cooperative, tolerant, and accepting of
differences. They can accept times of aloneness without fear of loneliness. If there is
too great a sense of isolation, there will be fears of forming close ties, due to fears of
loss of identity or freedom.
Such people are more competitive than cooperative. They get easily threatened if any
person gets too close, and not accepting of another’s differences. If there is successful
34
resolution of this conflict, a person can go on to develop generativity, which means
caring for the next generation and helping to improve society. In women, child bearing Psychosocial Changes
(Early Adulthood, Middle
usually occurs in the 20s and 30s, while contributions to society may occur later. As Age, Old Age)
children come into the picture, values and focus will shift with those demands.

3.3.2 Levinson’s Seasons of Life Theory

Levinson sought to find a common path of change in adulthood. He believed that there
were stages with tasks inherent to each one. He was of the view that each stage began
with a transition, lasting about 5 years. Between transitions there are periods of 5 – 7
years that are stable, during which a person builds a life structure.
Life structure is the underlying design of a person’s life, which involves relationships
with significant others and occupations. This structure is designed to harmonize inner
and outer demands to enhance quality of life. Early adulthood is the time of greatest
energy, contradiction and stress. It is also a time of intense satisfaction, as a person
charts his/her own course in love, sexuality, family, occupation, setting life goals, etc.
Dreams and mentors: In Levinson’s theory, during the early adult transition (age 17
– 22) most people construct a dream, an image of themselves in the adult world that
will guide their decision making. The more specific the dream, the more motivating it is.
Men’s dreams are said to be more individualistic and often entail success in business
and career. On the other hand if they include women, their dreams are invariably related
to their being supporters of their goals.
Age-30 transition serves as a time to reevaluate their life structure. If the person is still
single, she/he will begin looking for a partner. Women who had immersed in marriage
and child-bearing may begin to assert more individualistic goals. This period can be a
real crisis if neither relationships nor occupation is successful.
Settling down for Men means focusing on certain relationships and aspirations, and
leaving others behind. They try to establish a niche in society consistent with their values:
family, wealth, power, achievement.
Continued instability for Women occurs as women often get side-tracked from a
professional focus by child-bearing and family responsibilities. Most women don’t attain
the stability that men achieve in the early 30s until middle age.
The Social clock is the age-graded expectations that we hold for life events, such as
first job, getting married, having children, buying a house, retirement. Women who
followed a feminine social clock (marriage and child bearing in the 20s) are considered
to be responsible, self-controlled, tolerant, and caring, but do seem to feel their self-
esteem decline, and are said to feel more vulnerable as they aged.
Women who followed a masculine social clock (early career development) became
more dominant, sociable, independent, and intellectually effective. Women who had
not followed a social clock are said to be suffering from self-doubt, feelings of
incompetence, and loneliness.
Close relationships require finding a partner, building emotional bonds, and learning
how to engage in true intimacy with another person.
Romantic Love entails finding a partner to share one’s life and dreams with. It enhances
self-concept and well-being.
Selecting a mate usually means finding someone of similar background, age, ethnicity,
socio-economic status and religion, in places where people like that congregate. It
requires some physical proximity to develop a meaningful relationship. 35
Adulthood and Ageing Components of love: The triangular theory of love (Sternberg) suggests love has 3
components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Intimacy has to do with emotions of
tenderness, warmth, concern for others, desire for partner to reciprocate. Passion is
the sexual component, as well as romance, which is the physical arousal component.
Passionate love is the stuff of the beginning of a relationship – the courting, sexual
attraction. It declines as the partner becomes more known, less idealised. Few long-
term relationships maintain this level of attraction.
Companionate love is formed with intimacy and commitment, as partners develop
warm, trusting affection and offer caregiving. Solid long-term relationships involve both
types of love at different stages. It requires this glue to hold a couple together as the
newness of a relationship wears off. Commitment determines if a relationship will survive.
Communication of commitment requires warmth, forgiveness, sensitivity, acceptance,
and respect.

3.3.3 Attachment Patterns and Romantic Relationships

Early attachment patterns predict the quality of later intimate relationships. That early
attachment bond sets up an internal working model, or expectations about love figures.
It also relates to quality of parenting and attachments formed in those relationships.
The attachment is itself of various types which are discussed below:
i) Secure attachment – those with secure attachments to a caregiver viewed
themselves as likable, open to others, comfortable with intimacy, with few fears of
abandonment or intimacy. They describe their love relationships as trusting, happy,
and the partner as a friend. They were willing to turn to the partner for comfort,
and they described satisfying sexual behaviour.
Avoidant attachment – those with an avoidant attachment history (demanding,
disrespectful, critical parents) had internal models heavy on independence,
mistrusting of partners, and anxious about people getting too close. They believe
others dislike them and true love is hard to find or doesn’t last. Their relationships
are characterised by jealousy, emotional distance, little enjoyment of physical
contact. They may become workaholics or engage in affairs to prove their theory
that love can’t be counted on.
ii) Resistant attachment – this includes parents who were unpredictable or unfair.
These people set up intense relationships characterised by fears of abandonment
and smothering of the partner. They experienced extreme highs and lows in a
relationship. They have poor boundaries with others, disclosing inappropriately to
others too early in the relationship.
Characteristics of the partner also affect romantic relationships. Those partners who
feel internal security about themselves fostered security in their partner. So a healthy
relationship can help a person from a troubled background overcome some of the
deficits of their background.
Friendships are usually similar in background, age, interests and needs. Friends offer
affirmation and acceptance, support during difficulty. Sharing deep feelings and needs
may be more open in a friendship than a marriage, especially for women.
Same-sex friendships are more intimate for women than men. Women enjoy just talking,
while men choose to do some activity together, especially sports. Unfortunately men
feel competitive with other men, so they describe barriers to deep friendships with
36 other men, in the form of resistance to revealing any vulnerabilities or needs unmet.
Other-sex friendships occur less often and don’t last as long as same-sex friendships. Psychosocial Changes
(Early Adulthood, Middle
Men and women disclose more to women, but women can learn important things about Age, Old Age)
male motivations and taking a more objective stance from a male friend.
Siblings as friends – especially sisters become companions in adulthood. Rivalries from
the past subside as sibs develop a different type of supportive relationship. Close sib
relationships predict mental health.
Self Assessment Questions
1) According to Erikson’s theory indicate the conflict cum crisis that takes place
during adulthood.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Put forward Levinson’s theory and its features in adult development.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) What is meant by social clock? How is it important for development in adulthood?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Describe attachment patterns and romantic relationships.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.4 THE FAMILY LIFE CYCLE

This is a sequence of phases in the development of most families. Early adulthood,
people live on their own, then marry and bear children. In middle age children leave
home, parenting responsibilities diminish and people spend more time and money on
themselves if they don’t have to care for an elderly parent, finally retiring, getting older,
and loss of a spouse.
Leaving home happens more often at earlier ages now than in the past. People leave
for school, military, and for jobs, so they leave at different ages. Youth in chaotic and
disturbing homes leave home earlier to escape the tension. Most leave home to experience 37
Adulthood and Ageing their independence, even though that may mean living with a number of roommates to
be able to afford it. If there are financial setbacks, however, most people feel they can
return home if they have to.
Joining of families in marriage – people are waiting longer to marry today: ages 25
(M) and 27 (W). Marriage represents connection between 2 family systems, with all
the traditions and expectations inherent.
Marital roles encompass meals, time together and apart, leisure time decisions, sexual
needs, financial decisions. Some of these things are not as emotionally charged as others,
but the partners rarely know which topics are potential explosions until they face them.
Without good communication and negotiation skills, the openness of the marriage will
be compromised.
Traditional marriages involve a clear division of labour between husband and wife.
Man’s responsibilities include economic provision; woman’s responsibilities have to do
with making a home and providing for children.
Egalitarian marriages have spouses relating as equals, with power and authority being
shared. Both partners try to balance devotion to work with family responsibilities. Better-
educated women expect this sort of marriage. Even so, division of labour in the home
may not be equal.
Marital satisfaction – Men relate being happier in marriage than women. Being married
enhances men’s health, due to feelings of attachment, belonging, social support. Women
need a certain relationship quality to feel satisfied in a relationship. So women suffer
more when the relationship is having problems. Women also suffer under multiple role
demands, feel overwhelmed by the needs of all the people in their circle. Women are
more willing to work on the relationship through discussion, but men are more willing to
withdraw from conflict, leading to frustration in the women.
Parenthood has become an active choice for couples, as birth control is available and
effective today. There is less stigmatisation for couples who remain childless. The decision
to have children is based on financial circumstances, religious values, health concerns.
Women with more traditional identities usually choose to have children. Those with high
status, demanding jobs choose less often to have children.
Advantages of having children include warmth and affection, the fun that children offer,
learning experiences, desire to pass on values, family name, feelings of accomplishment
in raising successful children.
Disadvantages of having children include loss of freedom, burdens financially and in
being tied down. The conflict between work responsibilities and family also is cited as
a problem.
Transition to parenthood occurs in all areas: loss of sleep, new tasks and responsibilities,
less time for the couple, increased expenses. The roles become more traditional, even
for egalitarian couples, so this can impose frustration on the couple. Loving, supportive
marriages can usually manage the strain and will describe themselves as happy. Troubled
marriages seem to become more distressed after a baby. Husband’s negativity or out-
of-control conflict predicts a drop in mother’s satisfaction. The greater the difference in
caregiving responsibilities, the greater the decline in marital satisfaction after childbirth.
Interventions such as group experiences with other couples can get fathers more involved
and enhance the father’s appreciation of what caregiving entails, increasing affirmation
of mother, and satisfaction.
38
Career development aids in establishing a satisfying identity- as adults with satisfying Psychosocial Changes
(Early Adulthood, Middle
work develop skills, sense their accomplishments, make friends and feel more financially Age, Old Age)
independent and secure.
Establishing a career
Men enter their careers earlier, as soon as they finish school, and they stay in the
marketplace continuously. Promotion often seems to depend on job commitment and
competitiveness in the worker. Very successful men emphasise their jobs over family
responsibilities and leisure activities. Also a sense of self-efficacy makes a difference in
promotion. Those people with fears of failure will tend to set lower goals for themselves.
Combining work and family
Dual-career marriage are challenging, particularly for women who carry so many role
responsibilities- role overload. This links to stress, poorer marital relationships, poorer
parenting, and child behaviour problems. It is particularly a problem for people in poorer
paying jobs, with fewer options about child care, time off, etc. Career decisions are
more flexible for professional people, but moves are difficult, since both careers must
be considered. Women are particularly afflicted with overload.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Elucidate the family life cycle during adulthood and related factors.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of having children early?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) What are the transitional aspects involved in parenthood?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Discuss career development during adulthood.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................... 39
Adulthood and Ageing
3.5 PSYCHOSOCIAL CHANGES DURING MIDDLE
ADULTHOOD
Eric Erikson’s Theory
Erikson stated that the primary psychosocial task of middle adult- hood—ages 45 to
65—is to develop generativity, or the desire to expand one’s influence and commitment
to family, society, and future generations. In other words, the middle adult is concerned
with forming and guiding the next generation. The middle adult who fails to develop
generativity experiences stagnation, or self-absorption, with its associated self-indulgence
and invalidism.
Generativity means reaching out to others in ways that give to and guide the next
generation. In early adulthood it occurs as parents train children and develop a career.
In midlife this extends beyond the nuclear family to a community or social group. Now
people are trying to integrate their goals with the welfare of the larger world. Generativity
includes all things people generate that can outlive them and improve society. Parenting
is one way, but there are other ways, such as mentoring in the workplace, volunteering,
community involvement, creative endeavors. People need to be needed and feel like
their lives amount to something eternal.
There are certain social clock imperatives toward generativity, but there is also an
optimistic “belief in the species” that we want to be part of. This means finding ways to
be part of improving humanity. The alternative to finding a means to generativity is
stagnation- becoming self-centered and narcissistic. These people place their own
comfort/ security above challenges that include other people. There is a detachment
even from their own children, a self-centered focus on what they can get from others,
not what they can give, losing interest in being productive at work or developing their
talents. Generative people are better adjusted, low in anxiety and depression and high
in self-acceptance and life satisfaction. They are more open to others’ differences in
point of view, have leadership qualities, care about the welfare of others, and care more
about their work than financial gain. Fatherhood seems to enhance generativity in men
more than women.
Levinson’s Seasons of life – middle adulthood begins with a transition (40-45), followed
by a life structure (45-50). This structure is re-evaluated (50-55) and ends in a culminating
life structure (55-60).
Midlife Transition occurs around age 40, when people evaluate their success in meeting
their adult goals. They are realising there is more time behind them than ahead of them.
In response to the valuation of time, they often make big changes in their lives- family,
occupation. They may turn inward, focusing on their own needs, instead of allowing
themselves to be distracted by the people around them. They seem to re-evaluate
everything.

3.5.1 Four Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood

Following are the developmental tasks of this stage of development:
i) Young-Old- seeking new ways of being young and old- giving up some youthful
qualities that no longer seem appropriate, and transforming others, finding positive
meaning in changes.
ii) Destruction-Creation. They re-evaluate past hurtful acts- there may be attempts
to apologise and make amends, or general attempts to be kinder, more creative,
40 other-focused.
iii) Masculinity- Femininity. Middle-aged people must find a way to recognise and Psychosocial Changes
(Early Adulthood, Middle
integrate the masculine and feminine aspects of their personality- men become Age, Old Age)
more empathic/ caring; women becoming more autonomous/ assertive
iv) Engagement- Separateness. Middle-aged people are trying to find a better balance
between engagement with the outside world and their interior needs. Men often
pull back from occupational ambition and achievement focus; women may shift
their interests from family to job or community and accomplishment.
Modifying the Life Structure
Gender similarities and differences are seen as people try to find a balance between
youth and age. They may face life-threatening illnesses, or have to cope with ageing
parents’ needs. Women often fear the ageing process, as our society places so much
emphasis on women’s youth and looks as their value. Women will tend to perceive
themselves as younger than they are – that gap increases with age. The more people
integrate their masculine and feminine characteristics, the more androgynous they become,
which is an adaptive approach to life.
Life Structure in Social Context is enabled through supports in the environment-
poverty, unemployment and lack of personal value subverts this process. Even high-
powered careers and great financial success can sabotage self-development, as the
focus is on material concerns, not self development.
Midlife Crisis was cited by Levinson as people moved to middle adulthood. This is the
idea that adults get to a certain point and question their life choices, resulting in a
restructuring of the personality. The changes seen were slow and steady. Changes for
men may occur around the early forties, but for women may occur in the late 40s and
50s, as they are freer from child responsibilities.
Stage vs. Life Events approach
There is controversy about whether midlife is actually a stage of development, like
Erikson described. Many theorists just seen midlife transitions as adaptations to life
events- children moving out or having to move back in, parents ageing concerns,
retirement. There certainly is no specific age when changes will occur. Most midlife
people describe troubling moments that prompt new goals and internal changes.
Stability and Change in Self-Concept and Personality
Possible Selves are all the ideas a person has about what one can become or what one
fears becoming. Possible selves generated in the 20s are varied, positive and idealistic.
As people age, possible selves become more realistic, fewer in number and more modest,
related to competence in the areas already selected. The future no longer seems to hold
endless opportunities, so people adjust to cope.
Self-Acceptance, Autonomy, and Environmental Mastery .
People become more introspective as they enter the second half of life. They have often
made choices to change their lifestyle to suit their needs.
Coping strategies. These include finding the “silver lining” in a difficult situation,
planning better ways to handle problems, evaluate alternatives to manage situations,
and use humor to express themselves more effectively.
Gender Identity shifts in response to shifting proportions of sex hormones
Women adopt more masculine traits of assertiveness and self-confidence, and men 41
Adulthood and Ageing often become more sensitive, caring, and considerate. People become more
androgynous. Men may turn to their relationships as they seen they have fewer
opportunities to develop influence at work. Women may have taken steps out of a bad
marriage and have chosen to be more autonomous and assertive to survive.

3.5.2 Individual Differences in Personality Traits

Some people maintain consistent traits over the lifetime, while others adjust in some
ways in response to life.
Relationships at Midlife
This period of the family life cycle is called “launching children and moving on.” In the
past it was known as the “empty nest,” but it is no longer seen in such a negative light,
even for women. This period may last as long as 20 years before retirement. It also
relates to establishing different relationships with children and finding new relationships
with in-laws and grandchildren. They also must cope with elderly parents and their
needs.
Marriage and Divorce
Households at this stage are well off economically compared to other age groups.
Adults between 45 and 54 have the highest annual income. This can allow for expansion
of opportunities to learn, travel, etc. If the marital relationship is shaky, many people
choose this time to divorce and start over. At midlife, divorce seems to be more
manageable emotionally.
Feminisation of poverty
This is a trend in which women who support themselves or their families have become
the majority of the adult poverty population, regardless of age and ethnic group.
Causes of divorce
Women who cite poor communication, husband’s substance abuse, husband’s physical
or verbal abuse, or their desire for autonomy will adjust better, since it indicates a
remnant of self-esteem in spite of the failure. Women who do survive divorce successfully
tend to be more tolerant, comfortable with uncertainty, nonconforming, and self-reliant.

3.5.3 Changing Parent-child Relationships

This adjustment is more positive when parents have interesting activities of their own,
beyond parenting and focus on children. Parents who relinquish authority over their
adult children will have more positive relationships with them after they move out. The
authoritative parenting style links to better contact after the child leaves home, and
better life satisfaction for the parents.
Grandparenthood is such a stage in this age, as it is a relationship with fewer responsibilities
and mostly fun. Meanings of Grandparenthood are more significant than people think
until they face that transition. The gratifications include:
z Valued elder
z Immortality through descendants
z Reinvolvement with personal past
z Indulgence
42
Grandparent-Grandchild relationships are somewhat dependent on the age of the child. Psychosocial Changes
(Early Adulthood, Middle
As the child grows older, the grandparents shift from play to warmth, support, information Age, Old Age)
and advice-giving. The closer the families live geographically, the better chance the
children can relate more closely to the grandparents, especially the grandma.
Siblings report declining contact in midlife, but this increases as one or more experience
life events. Families gather for weddings, and support one another when a child divorces,
or has a baby. Siblings reconnect as their children leave home and they rediscover it’s
fun to do things together. They often reconnect in response to the parents’ illnesses or
needs. Sister relationships are usually closer than brother relationships. If only one
sibling holds the responsibility for elder care, there can be enormous resentment build
up against the other sibs.
Friendships still cleave across genders – men are more likely to bond with men, and
women with women. Women seem to have more close friends and offer and get more
emotional support than men report. Numbers of friends decline with age, since people
get more selective about friendships. If it is a close friendship, though, people will try to
maintain it with care. Friendships are sources of emotional support, pleasure and enhance
well-being.
Career Development
Job Training is less available to older workers, but if a person wants to upgrade his/her
job, training is important. Unfortunately older worker have less supportive supervisors
who tend to believe the ageing stereotypes and expect less of older workers.
Gender and Ethnicity
The Glass Ceiling is the unspoken, invisible barrier to advancement to women and
ethnic minorities. Women managers are just as effective as male managers – they tend
to be more inspiring and considerate than male managers. The current emphasis on
team building is perfect for female skills in consensus-building.
Career Change at Midlife – usually they entail leaving one line of work for a related
one. Some people find another line of work to find more stimulating work, others to
more relaxing, less rigid or demanding work. Drastic job shifts usually signal personal
crisis.
Unemployment has been a serious problem in the past 2 years as the technology industry
cratered and many jobs went with it. Highly trained and well-paid workers were suddenly
on unemployment lines. Middle-aged workers are more affected by unemployment, as
they recognise they won’t be the most employable, or they won’t command the same
salary they had before. This can seriously affect a worker’s sense of self worth at this
point.
Planning for Retirement
This is not always adequate, as people tend to believe they will work as long as they
want, but illness or family crisis will sometimes short-circuit this plan. The other aspect
of planning has to do with how one wants to spend their time. If people don’t develop
hobbies, community interests, etc., boredom can trigger depression and hopelessness.
Even the idea of relocation requires much thought, since moving to be with children
may impact that relationship very negatively.

43
Adulthood and Ageing
Self Assessment Questions
1) Differentiate between generativity and stagnation.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Discuss four developmental tasks of middle adulthood.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
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.....................................................................................................................
3) Discuss an individual’s relation with siblings and friends.
.....................................................................................................................
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4) Discuss psychosocial changes in mid adulthood.
.....................................................................................................................
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5) What is the importance of Levinson’s seasons of life?
.....................................................................................................................
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6) Put forward the developmental tasks of mid adulthood.
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7) What is meant by modifying life structure?
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44
 Psychosocial Changes
3.6 PSYCHOSOCIAL CHANGES DURING OLD AGE (Early Adulthood, Middle
Age, Old Age)
The social world of older adults is varied. In general, older adults place a high value on
spending time with friends, sometimes more so than time with family. This might be
because of life events wherein family members are not always nearby or readily available.
Also, many elders prefer not to interfere with or be a burden to their extended family.
They strive to be independent and enjoy life with members of their own cohort. Within
a marriage, couples may have trouble adjusting to retirement. This is most true for more
traditional marriages. However, evidence suggests that married persons tend to be
happier in late adulthood than single persons, though those who have never married
often cope the best with feelings of loneliness in late life.
Erikson’s Theory
Ego Integrity vs. Despair is the final stage of life. This involves coming to terms with
one’s life. If there is a sense of integrity, people feel whole, complete, and satisfied with
their life choices and achievements. They have accepted the setbacks and
disappointments and celebrated the successes and found a way to meaning within all
these life events. Everything gets put into a perspective which allows a certain contentment
with life. Increased age is associated with greater maturity and well-being. There is
even a peace about one’s mortality, even as close to the end as these people are.
Despair, on the other hand occurs when seniors feel they have made wrong decisions,
but life is too short to remedy any life directions. They display bitterness, defeat and
anxiety about death, a hopelessness.
Peck’s Theory: Three Tasks of Ego Integrity are involved in finding integrity:
Ego differentiation vs. work-role preoccupation. This task comes out of retirement,
as people who have been invested in careers find other ways to self-worth. They must
find another role to invest in and find meaning.
Body transcendence vs. body preoccupation. This task requires finding a way to
transcend physical limitations, disabilities, loss of youth and beauty, to find value in
cognitive, social strengths and relationships.
Ego transcendence vs. ego preoccupation. This task involves finding a constructive
way of facing the reality of death. Elders must find a future beyond their own mortality,
through giving back to a younger generation.
Labouvie-Vief’s Theory
Emotional Expertise. Early adulthood is all about pragmatic choices- finding ways to
solve real-world problems, at work as well as within relationships. Elders are becoming
more in touch with their feelings and must use those feelings to reflect on their life
experiences. This emotional sensitivity allows elders to detach from experiences in order
to choose better how to respond. Younger people are more impulsively emotional in
their coping and problem-solving. Elders are better at emotional self-regulation.

Reminiscence and Life Review

Reminiscence is telling stories about people and events from one’s past, and reporting
thoughts and feelings. Life review is reminiscence in which the person reflects on past
experiences, considering their meaning with the goal of achieving greater self-
understanding. Middle age was also assessed as satisfying, with childhood and
adolescence ranked as less satisfying.
45
Adulthood and Ageing 3.6.1 Stability and Change in Self-Concept and Personality
Secure and Multifaceted Self-Concept- after a lifetime of self-knowledge, people
feel more secure about whom they are, and their self-concepts become more complex
and multi-faceted.
Agreeableness, Sociability, and Acceptance of Change – there are 3 shifts in
personality at this point: a more flexible and optimist approach to life is present.
Agreeableness – generosity, acquiescence, and good-naturedness are higher for
many people at this point.
Sociability drops to some extent, as people become more selective about relationships
and significant people die or move away.
Acceptance of change seems to link to well-being. They develop a capacity to accept
life’s vagaries, and they are resilient in the face of adversity.
Spirituality and Religiosity – their sense of spirituality encompasses their lives more
meaningfully. Often there develops a sense of truth and beauty in art, nature, and
relationships. Religion gives people rituals that stabilise life and give meaning to the life
struggle. Spirituality advances to a higher level in late life- to a more reflective approach
that is more at ease with the unknowable aspects of life.
Individual differences in Psychological Well-Being- Control Vs Dependency
Dependency-support script is a script in which dependent behaviours are attended to
immediately, reinforcing the weaker member in her dependency.
Independence-ignore script is a script where independent behaviours are ignored,
also reinforcing dependency in the weaker member. Unfortunately, being dependent is
not a happy state, so the helper is often resented, even though the elder may recognise
s/he needs the help. These negative feelings can foster depression. Context makes a
difference however, since the more lovingly the help is offered, the easier it is to accept
without regret. Elders will need help, but we can offer it without expressing disgust or
impatience for their needs.
Elder Suicide is not always evident. Sometimes elders quit eating, taking care of emotional
or physical problems, refusing to take meds, refusing relationships that could be
encourageing.
Health is a strong predictor of well-being in late adulthood. When people face illness or
chronic disabilities, they feel a loss of personal control. Not only does helplessness
increase, but social isolation increases, too. Then as mental health declines, it affects
physical health, as people eat more poorly, get out less, distract themselves less from
their ailments.
Negative Life Changes occur more often in late adulthood- loss of friends, spouses,
poor health issues, financial strain and greater dependency. This issues hit women more
often, but they still report that they have people who depend on them emotionally, so
they retain some of their former identity, even though many relationships often feel
strained, due to the women’s lower ability to care for others.
Social Support and Social Interaction – social support reduces stress, so it promotes
health and well-being, and increases the odds of living longer. If elders require much
assistance from others, though, they often feel distressed that they can no longer
reciprocate.
46
3.6.2 Relationships in Late Adulthood Psychosocial Changes
(Early Adulthood, Middle
Social convoy is a cluster of family members and friends who provide safety and Age, Old Age)
support. Some bonds become closer with age, others more distant, a few are gained,
and some drift away. Elders do try to maintain social networks of family and friends to
preserve security and life continuity.
Marriage – marital satisfaction rises from middle to late adulthood if perceptions of
fairness in the relationship increase. If couples engage in joint leisure activities and enjoy
more positive communication, their relationships become more satisfying.
Siblings- Bonds with sisters are generally closer than those with brothers. Siblings
enjoy reminiscing as they enter later adulthood. This allows them to feel a family continuity
and harmony, as well as begin to put their lives into a perspective as they naturally do a
life review.
Friendships function to offer intimacy and companionship, acceptance, a link to the
larger community, and protection from the toll of loss- physical and emotional. Women
are more likely to have both intimate friends and secondary friends- people who are
acquaintances they do some activities with occasionally.

3.6.3 Retirement and Leisure

Decision to retire depends on affordability, health status, opportunities to pursue
meaningful activities, early retirement benefits, gender and ethnicity. Women retire earlier
than most men because of family demands.
Adjustment to Retirement is affected by health status, financial stability, sense of
personal control over life events, including the retirement decision, characteristics of the
work they did, satisfaction derived from work, social support and marital happiness.
Leisure Activities engaged in relate to physical and mental health, but they also relate
to reduced mortality. It is best to develop hobbies and interests and volunteer activities
before retirement that can be invested in more seriously after retirement.
Successful ageing occurs when elders have developed many ways to minimize losses
and maximise gains. Social contexts can foster successful ageing. These are such things
as well-funded social security plans, good health care, safe housing that adjusts to
changes in elders’ needs, social services, opportunities for lifelong learning. Better in-
home help, adapted housing and sensitive nursing home care could make a difference in
ageing, too.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Differentiate between ego integrity versus despair.
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2) Discuss reminiscence and life review.
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..................................................................................................................... 47
Adulthood and Ageing
3) Explain how is spirituality and religion important during the late adulthood.
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3.7 LET US SUM UP

During the period of young adulthood one sees himself or herself as an autonomous and
independent adult. In this period the individual becomes financially less dependent on
the parental family. A major developmental task during this period is the choice of
career.Young men and women tend to settle down in a career of their choice. In addition
a young adult tries to settle down and start the family life. They are also concerned
about various social issues and forming close relationships with one’s professional peers
and members of community. The duties of a person demand two fold responsibilities
which are towards oneself as well as the society.
Perhaps middle adulthood is best known for its infamous midlife crisis: a time of
reevaluation that leads to questioning long-held beliefs and values. The midlife crisis
may also result in a person divorcing his or her spouse, changing jobs, or moving from
the city to the suburbs. Typically beginning in the early- or mid-40s, the crisis often
occurs in response to a sense of mortality, as middle adults realise that their youth is
limited and that they have not accomplished all of their desired goals in life. Of course,
not everyone experiences stress or upset during middle age; instead they may simply
undergo a midlife transition, or change, rather than the emotional upheaval of a midlife
crisis. Other middle adults prefer to reframe their experience by thinking of themselves
as being in the prime of their lives rather than in their declining years.
During the male midlife crisis, men may try to reassert their masculinity by engageing in
more youthful male behaviours, such as dressing in trendy clothes, taking up activities
like scuba diving, motorcycling, or skydiving.
During the female midlife crisis, women may try to reassert their femininity by dressing
in youthful styles, having cosmetic surgery, or becoming more socially active. Some
middle adult women try to look as young as their young adult children by dying their
hair and wearing more youthful clothing. Such actions may be a response to feelings of
isolation, loneliness, inferiority, uselessness, nonassertion, or unattractiveness.
The field of life-span development seems to be moving away from a normative-crisis
model to a timing-of-events model to explain such events as the midlife transition and
the midlife crisis. The former model describes psychosocial tasks as occurring in a
definite age-related sequence, while the latter describes tasks as occurring in response
to particular life events and their timing. In other words, whereas the normative-crisis
model defines the midlife transition as occurring exactly between ages 40 and 45, the
timing-of-events model defines it as occurring when the person begins the process of
questioning life desires, values, goals, and accomplishments.
Later adulthood or the period of old age begins at the age of sixty. During this stage
most individuals lose their jobs because they retire from active service. They begin to
fear about their physical and psychological health. In our society, the elderly are typically
perceived as not so active, deteriorating intellectually, narrow-minded and attaching
significance to religion. Many of the old people lose their spouses and suffer from
48 emotional insecurity. However, this may not be true of everybody. Many people at the
age of sixty or above remain very healthy and active in life. The life style including Psychosocial Changes
(Early Adulthood, Middle
exercise, diet, and regular health check up helps people to enjoy meaningful and active Age, Old Age)
life.
Involvement in grand parenting helps elderly satisfy many of their personal and emotional
needs. Grandparents can serve as important role models. Old people find these roles
emotionally self-fulfilling and tend to derive self-satisfaction through achievement of
their grand children.

3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss stage versus life events approach.
2) What are the differences in individual personality traits?
3) Discuss the dynamics of relationship in middle age.
4) Discuss the importance and characteristics of grand parenthood.
5) What are the psychosocial changes that occur in old age?
6) What importance has retirement in late adulthood?

3.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agich, G (2009). Dependence and Autonomy in Old Age. Cambridge university
Press, Cleveland
Sigelman, Carol K. & Rider Elizabeth A. (2009). Lifespan Human Development.
Wardworth, NY

49
 UNIT 4 CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN
AGEING PROCESS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Ageing Process
4.2.1 Ageing Process in Women
4.2.2 Ageing Process in Men
4.3 Ageing Issues and Challenges in Early Adulthood
4.4 Ageing Issues and Challenges in Middle Adulthood
4.5 Ageing Issues and Challenges in Late Adulthood
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Unit End Questions
4.8 Suggested Readings
4.9 Answer to the Self Check Questions

4.0 INTRODUCTION
As we age, our bodies change in many ways that affect the function of both individual
cells and organ systems. These changes occur little by little and progress inevitably over
time. However, the rate of this progression can vary differently for different persons.
The ageing process brings with it many challenges, as for instance not being physically
as strong as in the earlier years, facing different types of responsibilities , crisis and
conflicts. For tackling these challenges one must have varying coping abilities which
itself is a challenge. In this unit we will be dealing with the type of challenges one faces
as one grows old and the varying coping strategies that they need to have to overcome
the same.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
z define and describe the ageing process in men and women;
z explain the ageing issues and challenges in early adulthood;
z analyse the ageing issues and challenges in middle adulthood; and
z explain the ageing issues and challenges in late adulthood.

4.2 AGEING PROCESS

Ageing or ageing is a process that accumulates changes in organisms or objects over
time. Human ageing process involves multidimensional changes on physical, psychological,
cultural and social levels.
As soon as an individual is born, their body begins to age. This process continues
throughout our life. Ageing is not simply about old age. It is the lifelong process by
50 which we define the social, mental, and biological stages in our lives.
A newborn baby is developing new cells and shedding dead cells daily. The “peach Challenges and Issues in
Ageing Process
fuzz” hair is replaced with new hair that is stronger and more colored. The skin begins
to adapt to the “out-of-umbilical-fluid” environment.
Bodies continue to grow in the toddler years into puberty and adolescence. Constant
changes take place in the body until the height, determined by genetics, is reached.
Then the body starts to spread a little here and there, taking a new shape of body style
in the adult years.
Changes in our body are sometimes described as deterioration, such as gray hair,
wrinkles, loss of hearing, the need for bifocals. These are just normal changes as the
body progresses. A person over the age of 50 can still be vital and healthy. Hardening
of the arteries, bone density loss, and slowing metabolism are more signs of the normal
ageing process.
Ageing retardation could stretch out our entire life cycle like a rubber band, extending
the time we spend in infancy, childhood, adolescence, prime, and senior years. Yet
there is always the risk of a serious rift between the maturity of the body/mind and the
expectations and requirements of life.
The ageing process in humans is a complex biochemical process which includes all the
changes taking place socially, psychologically and physically. The process of ageing in
the human body is inevitable and there are many signs of ageing occurring both within
and outside the human body. Ageing, also known as senescence, is a process that
every human being goes through, but the ageing process in women slightly differs from
the ageing process in men. As we age, there are a number of changes taking place in the
various systems of the human body, which may, at times cause age-related problems
and disorders.
The intensity of problems and challenges depends on a combination of both genetic and
environmental factors. Again recognising that every individual has his or her own unique
genetic makeup and environment, which interact with each other, helps us understand
why the ageing process can occur at such different rates in different people. Overall,
genetic factors seem to be more powerful than environmental factors in determining the
large differences among people in ageing and lifespan.
Ageing or ageing is a process that accumulates changes in organisms or objects over
time. Human ageing process involves multidimensional changes on physical, psychological,
cultural and social levels.
Heredity, diet, exercise, social involvement, and spirituality all play a large part in your
physical wellbeing. Eating right and exercising will keep your body healthier and may
stave off some of the effects of ageing, or at least slow the ageing process.
Women are naturally obsessed with their looks and their world revolves around their
looks and looks only. Ageing is an inevitable natural process and there is no treatment
for ageing process. Although, it is true that women face much different challenges than
men in ageing process, the key to fight ageing process in women, solely depends upon
her perspective about life. If she decides to age gracefully, nothing can deter her from
leading a beautiful life.
Ageing, from the male perspective, is frequently associated with loss of physical and
mental function and vitality. The implied stigma that comes with ageing often prevents
men from dealing with important health issues associated with the process.
During middle adulthood, the two primary long-term relationships characteristic are 51
Adulthood and Ageing cohabitation and marriage. Cohabitors are unmarried people living together in a sexual
relationship, often state their reason for cohabiting as either a trial for marriage or an
alternative to marriage.
Middle adulthood refers to the people who are experiencing changes and development
in their central lives. It is basically about the midlife transition or the period of life beyond
young adulthood but before the commencement of old age.
Elder care can be thought of as an umbrella of care and services for the frail elderly.
These include a broad range of services including: meals and socialisation, personal
care, light housekeeping, residential facilities, and adult day care.
The process of ageing in the human body starts at middle age around 45. The process
and its effects depend on both, the genetic as well as environmental factors and hence,
some of the aspects of the ageing process may differ from person to person. To
understand the human ageing process better, let us try and understand the cellular changes
that occur along with the ageing process.
Ageing causes some amount of reduction in the rate of human cell multiplication (cellular
senescence) and also causes some of the cells to function inappropriately. It also
interferes with the growth and development of the body tissues which leads to the
development of various immune system related disorders.
Heredity, diet, exercise, social involvement, and spirituality all play a large part in your
physical wellbeing. Eating right and exercising will keep one’s body healthier and may
stave off some of the effects of ageing, or at least slow the ageing process.

4.2.1 Ageing Process in Women

Women are considerably concerned with their looks and their world revolves around
their looks and looks only. It’s as though physical appearance is the only thing that
matters to them in the world. Obviously, when the first few physical signs of ageing start
showing up, their world is shattered into bits. Besides, being the more sensitive gender,
the emotional and psychological changes that accompany ageing are difficult to cope.
Ageing brings about changes on the physical, psychological and social front of a
woman’s life.
Physical Challenges
Menopause is the word that immediately comes to one’s mind when we say ageing
process in women. The woman’s life is divided into two phases premenopausal and
postmenopausal. The hormonal changes in the body cause many ageing problems. The
body starts losing out on bone mass and muscle strength. These weakened bones often
result in osteoporosis and arthritis, which accompany the woman throughout the rest of
her life. The skin becomes sunken and sallow and eventually, wrinkles begin to appear.
The immune system is no longer able to produce sufficient anti bodies, thereby making
the body susceptible to various illnesses. Most vital organs show diminished performance,
which affects the entire health of the woman.
Psychological Challenges
These are to an extent related to physical status of the individual. Menopause is the
buzz word here. The hormonal changes during menopause bring about plethora of
behavioural changes in a woman. The very fact that they are no longer fertile, is enough
to send many women into depression. Emotional insecurity haunts their mind due to the
fear that since she is no longer physically attractive, her spouse may not love her. She
52
may become extremely moody and irritated as she may not be able to cope with the
many changes that happen all at once in her life. Lastly, there is this daunting feeling of Challenges and Issues in
Ageing Process
ageing that she somehow relates with the ‘end’. However, some optimistic women may
take this as an opportunity to fulfill their unaccomplished dreams and lead a life the way
they always wanted to.
Social Challenges
During ageing process in women, their social life entirely depends upon their own attitude
towards life and most importantly their health. Some women, due to their poor health
or some other reason, may completely shut themselves away from the world. While the
other, more outgoing group, may engage themselves in community activities or some
hobbies and interests. Most women in this age group are financially settled and have a
family that is no longer dependent upon them. Thus, this period poses a golden chance
for them to live the life for themselves.
Ageing is an inevitable natural process and there is no treatment for ageing process.
Although, it is true that women face much different challenges than men in ageing process,
the key to fight ageing process in women, solely depends upon her perspective about
life. If she decides to age gracefully, nothing can deter her from leading a beautiful life.

4.2.2 Ageing Process in Men

Ageing, from the male perspective, is frequently associated with loss of physical and
mental function and vitality. The implied stigma that comes with ageing often prevents
men from dealing with important health issues associated with the process. Ageing
process in men has always been related with the decrease of mental and physical
functions. The ageing process in men brings physiological changes in the body. Men, in
their middle age, do bulge around the middle due to accumulation of a lot of unburned
fat and lack of exercises. Ageing process in men does not treat all the men in the same
way. The day you notice a grey hair, standing out among the rest of your black hair, you
may observe your boss, who is senior in age to you, darting from one place to another,
as if he is a 16 year old kid. This may make you wonder, how this chap is manageing to
stay so fit, at his age.
Whole health
When the ageing process starts, a whole foods diet high in fiber, low in saturated fat,
and rich in nutrients is the best health-promoting approach. Eating fresh vegetables and
fruits rich in antioxidant nutrients and fiber helps reduce the risk factors for cancer.
Consistent moderate exercise promotes cardiovascular health as well as reduces the
risk factors for obesity, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Together with an approach to stress
management, diet and exercise form the foundation of an overall health plan.
Mental health
Mental health is an important concern for many men, as Alzheimer’s Disease and
Dementia which are common to occur during this age may afflict the individual.
Maintaining mental health and function as we age is a growing concern. Herbal extracts
like ginkgo biloba and nutrients like phosphatidyl serine and DHA (docosahexaenoic
acid), a component of fish oil can greatly assist in promoting mental health and function.
Standardized ginkgo extracts help increase circulation to the brain and extremities, act
as an antioxidant in the brain and retina, and protect nerve cells through a reduction in
platelet aggregation. By promoting blood flow to the brain and reducing potential damage
to nerve cells, ginkgo supports cognitive function and can help stave off diseases such
as Alzheimer’s Disease and Senile Dementia. 53
Adulthood and Ageing Heart health
The most obvious concern for men as they age is heart health and disease. Cardiovascular
disease is still among the most common causes of death among men. Diet and lifestyle
play a significant role in the progression of cardiovascular disease and are also central
to its treatment. Natural medicines can also play a key role in helping to reduce the risk
and complications of heart disease.
High fiber foods and a reduced intake of meats high in fat combined with a program of
daily exercise and stress reduction techniques have shown very positive results in even
the worst heart disease.
Prostate health
Prostate health is a consideration for men once they reach the age of 40. Over the age
of 40, it is estimated that 60 percent of men will have an enlarged prostate (also known
as BPH, benign prostatic hyperplasia). As men age, the likelihood that they will develop
BPH increases. Although the initial symptoms of prostate enlargement may be considered
minimal, and only slightly bothersome, proactive care can greatly reduce the risk for
more serious complications.
Standardized extracts of herbs like saw palmetto, nettle, and pygeum are frequently
recommended along with pollen extracts. Natural therapies like pollen extracts and
saw palmetto can also help reduce the effects of testosterone breakdown products on
prostate cells. High levels of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) have been associated with
prostate cancer.
Skeletal health
Joint and bone health issues are also common problems for men in which past sports
injuries and wear and tear can lead to osteoarthritis. As one ages, our connective tissue
is not able to repair itself as efficiently as when we were younger. Additional nutrition is
often necessary to promote cartilage healing and prevent further breakdown of joint
tissue associated with osteoarthritis.
Although many men do not think about osteoporosis, it, too, is a major concern for
men as they age. Although women have bone health risks related to changes in hormone
levels, as many as one-sixth of all men will fracture a hip during their lifetime.
The ageing process is a natural one. Ageing, however, does not have to mean loss of
function or vitality. In fact, healthful eating habits in combination with focused nutrients
and herbs can combine to make the 40-plus years the best of any man’s life.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss the ageing process in females.
.....................................................................................................................
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.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) What are the important factors associated with ageing in males?
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54
 Challenges and Issues in
..................................................................................................................... Ageing Process

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) What are the typical health issues associated with ageing ?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
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4.3 AGEING ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN

EARLY ADULTHOOD
Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old, who
are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance, child
bearing and careers. It is the first stage of adulthood in which the body physically
changes and is one of the hardest times in our lives after teenage years.
Neither intimacy nor individual development can exist alone. The birth of a child initiates
a human being into a life-long process of mutual adaptation between the child, his or her
intimate relationship partners and the broader social environment. Intimate interactions
and relationships affect adaptations to the changing needs and stresses that evolve with
each stage of development throughout one’s lifetime. Intimate interactions from early
life serve as the basis upon which relationships later in life are formed. Environmental
contingencies to which individuals must adapt are rooted in these relationships. In an
attempt to adapt to other people’s styles of relating, one must adjust his or her own
behaviours.
Maturity
Children entering adolescence must begin to adapt to the adult world and its institutions
while coming to terms with emerging parts of themselves. They discover themselves as
having new emotional and sexual needs. As they make these discoveries, adolescents
begin to realise the limitations of their parents. Taking responsibility for aspects of their
own character requires distancing from authoritative.
Friendships
Over the course of social development, the role of friends and parents changes
significantly. As an adolescent undergoes physical and emotional changes, he or she
seeks out relationships that enhance efforts to adapt to new needs and stresses.
Adolescents seek to share their thoughts and feelings with those who are experiencing
similar changes. Intimate interactions increase between friends during this stage in life
because they provide teens with opportunities for self-clarification. Through the formation
of co-constructive dialogues between friends, teens can participate together in exploring
and constructing selves.
Multiple Selves
During late adolescence, one must first confront the problem of multiple selves. For the
first time, an adolescent realises that his or her personality changes from one situation to 55
Adulthood and Ageing the next. This is the stage of life during which one looks to craft a narrative of the self
that provides a sense of sameness and continuity. The importance of intimate friendship
and romance formed during early adulthood stems from the valuable and adaptive
contribution dialogues made with friends during adolescence. Personality differences
can be identified by capacities to form intimate relationships characterised by
commitment, depth, and partner individuation based on interactions of early life.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Fill in the blanks:
i) Human ageing process involves __________________ changes on physical,
psychological, cultural and social levels.
ii) Eating fresh vegetables and fruits rich in ____________ nutrients helps
reduce the risk factors for cancer.
iii) High levels of ___________________ have been associated with prostate
cancer.
iv) Neither __________________ __________________ nor individual
development can exist alone.
v) Joint and bone health issues can lead to ________________________.
2) Answer the following statements with True or False:
i) Ageing process continues throughout our life.
ii) Eating right and exercise can keep the ageing process slow.
iii) The hormonal changes in the body is not concerned with ageing problems.
iv) Prostate health is a consideration for women once they reach the age of 40.
v) The ageing process is a natural one.
3) What are the ageing issues and challenges in early adulthood?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

4.4 AGEING ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
Middle adulthood refers to the people whom are experiencing changes and development
in their central lives. It is basically about the midlife transition or the period of life beyond
young adulthood but before the commencement of old age.
Physical Appearance
The changes in physical appearance are some of the most notable parts for many people
as they experience middle adulthood physical development. Hair begins turning gray or
white as teeth fade from white to yellow. More wrinkles appear, especially on the face,
56 and skin begins to sag.
Hearing and Vision Challenges and Issues in
Ageing Process
The ability to hear high-pitched noises disappears during middle adulthood as most
people begin recognising hearing loss around 40. Men experience twice as much hearing
loss as women during this life stage. Vision also decreases for both sexes as their ability
to focus declines, and they need brighter lights to see.
Health
This stage of development generally refers to the diseases experienced by the individuals
and the diseases are few infectious yet more chronic. Heart diseases and cancer are the
two most common sicknesses for people in midlife period. The experience of health
decline is different for men and women. Men are more prone to heart disease, cancer
and stroke especially on the incidence that men had experience or are experiencing
divorce. For women, non-fatal illnesses like goiter, gout or arthritis and lung and breast
cancer. Though death is fewer for females than in males, diabetic cases are inclined on
the female’s part more than the males. The gain or lost in this domain generally depends
on how people take care of themselves while they are still young and capable to do so.
Strength and Coordination
As adults pass through middle adulthood their strength begins to diminish as some of
their muscle is replaced with fat. Flexibility also decreases, and the reaction time of
individuals in middle adulthood decreases as well.
Sexuality
The start of middle adulthood often signifies the end of a woman’s ability to bear children.
They proceed to go through menopause during this middle-age stage in their life. Men
still possess the ability to reproduce although their fertility decreases in middle adulthood
as they age.
Disease
Diabetes, heart disease and cancer are just a few of the common diseases discovered
during middle adulthood. While chances are these diseases have been building up in an
individual throughout their life, the discovery and treatment of them often occurs when
people are in middle age.
Relationships during Middle Adulthood
During middle adulthood, the two primary long-term relationships characteristic are
cohabitation and marriage. Cohabitors are unmarried people living together in a sexual
relationship, often state their reason for cohabiting as either a trial for marriage or an
alternative to marriage.
By middle age, most of the adults are married. Marital satisfaction is often described in
terms of a U-curve: People generally affirm that their marriages are happiest during the
early years, but not as happy during the middle years. Marital satisfaction then increases
again in the later years, once finances have stabilised and parenting responsibilities have
ended.
Divorce
Middle adults are not immune to problems in relationships. The reasons for dissolving a
relationship are many and varied, just as relationships themselves differ in their make-
up and dynamics. In some cases, the couple cannot handle an extended crisis. In other
cases, the spouses change and grow in different directions. In still others, the spouses 57
Adulthood and Ageing are completely incompatible from the very start. However, long-term relationships rarely
end because of difficulties with just one of the partners. Both parties are usually responsible
for the factors that may lead to a relationship’s end, such as conflicts, problems, growing
out of love, or empty-nest issues that arise after the last child leaves his or her parent’s
home.
Love changes over time, and such changes may become evident by middle adulthood.
The ideal form of love in adulthood involves three components: passion, intimacy, and
commitment—termed consummate love, or complete love. This variety of love is
unselfish, devoted, and is most often associated with romantic relationships. Getting
started is easy; sticking to it is much harder.
For many middle-aged couples, passion fades as intimacy and commitment build. In
other words, many middle adults find themselves in a marriage typified by companionate
love, which is both committed and intimate, but not passionate. Yet a relationship that
has lost its sexual nature need not remain this way, nor do such changes necessitate the
end of a long-term relationship. In fact, many middle adult couples find effective ways
of improving their ability to communicate, increasing emotional intimacy, rekindling the
fires of passion, and growing together. The understanding that evolves between two
people over time can be striking.
Relationships that last
Long-term relationships share several factors, including both partners regarding the
relationship as a long-term commitment; both verbally and physically expressing
appreciation, admiration, and love; both offering emotional support to each other; and
both considering the other as a best friend.
Essential to preserving a quality relationship is the couple’s decision to practice effective
communication. Communication is the means by which intimacy is established and
nurtured within a relationship; it helps partners better relate to and understand each
other. Communication helps them feel close, connected, and loved.
Friends
Friends offer support, direction, guidance, and a change of pace from usual routines.
During this period, life responsibilities are at an all-time high, so having extra time for
socialising is usually rare. For this reason, middle adults may have less friends than their
newlywed and retired counterparts. Yet where quantity of friendships may be lacking,
quality predominates. Some of the closest ties between friends are formed and nourished
during middle adulthood.
Children
As adults wait later to marry and start families, more and more middle adults find
themselves rearing small children. Middle adults and their adolescent children are both
prone to emotional crises, which may occur at the same time. For adolescents, the
crisis involves the search for identity; for middle adults, the search is for generativity.
These two crises are not always compatible, as parents try to deal with their own issues
as well as those of their adolescents.
Parents respond to their children’s adolescence in different ways. Some middle adults
attempt to live out their own youthful fantasies—sexual and otherwise—through their
children. They may try to make their teenage children into improved versions of
themselves. For example, some parents may force their teenagers to take music lessons
58 or make them join a sports team, while other parents may insist that their children
attend a certain college or enter the family business.
Witnessing their children on the verge of becoming adults can also trigger a midlife crisis Challenges and Issues in
Ageing Process
for some middle adults. The adolescent journey into young adulthood is a reminder to
middle-aged parents of their own ageing processes and inescapable settling into middle
and later adulthood.
Middle-aged parents typically maintain close relationships with their grown up children
who have left home. Many parents report feeling as if they continue to give more than
receive from relationships with their children, including helping with their finances or
watching their pets when they are out of town. Still, most middle adults and their grown
children tend to value their time together, even as their respective roles continue to
change.
Parents
Most middle adults characterise the relationship with their parents as affectionate. Indeed,
a strong bond is often present between related middle and older adults. Although the
majority of middle adults do not live with their parents, contacts are usually frequent
and positive. And perhaps for the first time, middle adults are able to see their parents
as the fallible human beings that they are.
One issue facing middle adults is that of caring for their ageing parents. In some cases,
adults, who expected to spend their middle-age years traveling and enjoying their own
children and grandchildren, instead find themselves taking care of their ailing parents.
Some parents are completely independent of their adult children’s support, while others
are partially independent of their children; and still others are completely dependent.
Children of dependent parents may assist them financially (paying their bills), physically
(bringing them into their homes and caring for them), and emotionally (as a source of
human contact as the parents’ social circle diminishes). Daughters and daughters-in-
law are the most common caretakers of ageing parents and in-laws.
Even though the death of a parent is never welcome, some long-term adult caretakers
express ambivalent feelings about the event. The grown children of parents dying of a
lingering illness, for example, usually do not want to see their loved ones suffer—even
if alleviation means death. These children may find themselves hoping simultaneously
for a cure and for a peaceful release from the pain that their parent is experiencing.

4.5 AGEING ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN LATE

ADULTHOOD
Elder care can be thought of as an umbrella of care and services for the frail elderly.
These include a broad range of services including: meals and socialisation, personal
care, light housekeeping, residential facilities, and adult day care.
There are few physical differences among a group of first graders. But if you check out
the same group 65 years later, their physical differences outnumber their similarities.
Some will be the epitome of health, while others will be manageing one or more chronic
conditions. Some will be vigorous, while others will be lethargic.
As we get older, we become physically less like our peers. That’s because we are the
sum of our life experiences. At age six, not too much has happened to our bodies to
make us radically different from our peers. But by middle and old age, we’ve had
decades to develop and maintain habits that have an impact on our health, both negatively
and positively.
59
Adulthood and Ageing Ageing may be inevitable, but the rate of ageing is not. Why and how our bodies age is
still largely a mystery, although we are learning more and more each year. Scientists do
maintain, however, that chronological age has little bearing on biological age. The number
of candles on your birthday cake merely serves as a marker of time; it says little about
your health.
The human body goes through a variety of changes as it gets older. In general, muscles,
blood vessels and other tissues lose their elasticity. The heart becomes less efficient,
bones become weaker and the metabolism slows down.
In spite of the changes to the rest of the body, a lot of people focus primarily on changes
to their appearance as they age. These include:
Wrinkles
Fibers in the skin called collagen and elastin break down and lose strength as a person
gets older. Sun exposure throughout life contributes to this process. Without these fibers,
the skin cannot hold its shape as well. Older skin retains less fat, making it look less
supple. The pull of gravity also causes the skin to sag.
Dry skin
Older people produce less sweat and oil, causing their skin to be drier. Excessively dry
skin can emphasise the appearance of wrinkles.
Age spots
Dark spots on the skin, particularly the arms, hands, face and feet, stem from cumulative
exposure to the sun. Most people call these marks liver spots, but they are unrelated to
liver function. They actually stem from overproduction of the pigment melanin in areas
of the skin that have experienced the most exposure to the sun.
Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome
It is seen that most of the adults aged 60 and older are overweight or obese. Obesity is
related to type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, breast and colon cancer, gall bladder
disease, and high blood pressure.
Women in perimenopause and menopause tend to accumulate fat around the waist and
hips, and men get the gut. The food intake should be in check by reducing calorie intake
and alcohol intake because a lot of alcohol calories go right to the gut. Also, increase in
healthy fat intake such as omega-3 fatty acids and unsaturated fats, and eliminate trans
fats completely. Foods sweetened with high-fructose corn syrup should be avoided.
The common sweetener is found in everything from sodas to breakfast cereal to low-
fat yogurt.
Arthritis
Arthritis affects nearly half the elderly population and is a leading cause of disability.
The keys to prevention is to avoid overuse, do steady, regular exercise rather than in
weekend spurts, and stop if you feel pain.
Manageing one’s weight is just as essential for joint health as cardiovascular health.
Osteoporosis and Falls
Osteoporosis and low bone mass affect most of the adults age 50 and older, most of
them are women. According to the National Osteoporosis Association, osteoporosis is
60 not part of normal ageing. Healthy behaviours and treatment, when appropriate, can
prevent or minimize the condition. Weight-bearing exercise also helps to keep bones Challenges and Issues in
Ageing Process
healthy.
Cancer
Risk for developing most types of cancer increases with age. As women age, the rate of
cervical cancer decreases, and endometrial cancer increases. The risk of prostate cancer
increases with age, and black men have a higher rate than white men. Screening should
start in your 40s, and at the very least should involve a digital rectal examination.
Lung cancer accounts for more deaths than breast cancer, prostate cancer, and colon
cancer combined.
Vision and Hearing Loss
Age-related eye diseases such as macular degeneration, cataract, diabetic retinopathy,
and glaucoma affects people aged 40 and older. Eating foods with high antioxidant
content may be helpful in reducing vision loss due to macular degeneration. Regular eye
exams should include screening for glaucoma, which is called “the sneak thief of sight”
for the fact that the first symptom is vision loss. The disease can be arrested, but vision
lost to glaucoma cannot be restored.
The incidence of hearing loss increases with age. Hearing loss takes a toll on the quality
of life and can lead to depression and withdrawal from social activities. Although hearing
aids can help, only one out of four people use them.
High-frequency hearing loss is common in old age and made worse by a lifestyle that
includes exposure to loud sounds.
Mental Health: Memory and Emotional Well-being
Staying mentally active is as important as staying physically active. One of the perplexing
problems of ageing is Alzheimer’s disease. Depression is often underdiagnosed and
untreated. Many people mistakenly believe that depression is a natural condition of old
age. One of the biggest life changes is retirement. Many people have their sense of
worth tied up with work. In retirement, depression and suicide rates rise.
Self Assessment Questions
3) Fill in the blanks:
i) Diabetes, ___________________ and cancer are common diseases
discovered during middle adulthood.
ii) _____________________ is often described in terms of a U-curve.
iii) Passion fades as intimacy and _____________________ build.
iv) Older skin retains _____________ fat.
v) In retirement, depression and ____________ rates rise.
4) Answer the following statements with True or False:
i) Men experience twice as much hearing loss as women during middle life
stage.
ii) Women are more prone to heart disease, cancer and stroke.

61
Adulthood and Ageing
iii) Long term relationship requires long term commitment.
iv) Daughters and daughters-in-law are the most common caretakers of ageing
parents and in-laws.
v) Older people produce more of sweat and oil.

4.6 LET US SUM UP

The ageing process depends on a combination of both genetic and environmental factors.
Recognising that every individual has his or her own unique genetic makeup and
environment, which interact with each other, helps us understand why the ageing process
can occur at such different rates in different people. Overall, genetic factors seem to be
more powerful than environmental factors in determining the large differences among
people in ageing and lifespan.
Ageing or ageing is a process that accumulates changes in organisms or objects over
time. Human ageing process involves multidimensional changes on physical, psychological,
cultural and social levels.
Women are naturally obsessed with their looks and their world revolves around their
looks and looks only. Ageing is an inevitable natural process and there is no treatment
for ageing process. Although, it is true that women face much different challenges than
men in ageing process, the key to fight ageing process in women, solely depends upon
her perspective about life. If she decides to age gracefully, nothing can deter her from
leading a beautiful life.
Menopause is the word that immediately comes to the mind when we say ageing process
in women. The woman’s life is divided into two phases premenopausal and
postmenopausal. The hormonal changes in the body invite many ageing problems. The
body starts losing out on bone mass and muscle strength.
During ageing process in women, their social life entirely depends upon their own attitude
towards life and most importantly their health. Some women, due to their poor health
or some other reason, may completely shut themselves away from the world.
Ageing, from the male perspective, is frequently associated with loss of physical and
mental function and vitality. The implied stigma that comes with ageing often prevents
men from dealing with important health issues associated with the process.
Prostate health is a consideration for men once they reach the age of 40. Over the age
of 40, it is estimated that 60 percent of men will have an enlarged prostate (also known
as BPH, benign prostatic hyperplasia).
Early adulthood is the stage of our life between the ages of about 20-40 years old, who
are typically vibrant, active and healthy, and are focused on friendship, romance, child
bearing and careers. Intimate interactions and relationships affect adaptations to the
changing needs and stresses that evolve with each stage of development throughout
one’s lifetime. Intimate interactions from early life serve as the basis upon which
relationships later in life are formed.
By middle age, most of the adults are married. Marital satisfaction is often described in
terms of a U-curve: People generally affirm that their marriages are happiest during the
early years, but not as happy during the middle years. Marital satisfaction then increases
again in the later years, once finances have stabilised and parenting responsibilities have
62 ended.
As we get older, we become physically less like our peers. That’s because we are the Challenges and Issues in
Ageing Process
sum of our life experiences. At age six, not too much has happened to our bodies to
make us radically different from our peers. But by middle and old age, we’ve had
decades to develop and maintain habits that have an impact on our health, both negatively
and positively.

4.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the ageing process in humans.
2) Ageing process in male and female – discuss the differences.
3) What are the ageing issues and challenges in early adulthood?
4) Discuss the various types of illness one can suffer in middle adulthood.
5) What are the issues and challenges in late adulthood?

4.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Stuart-Hamilton, Ian (2006). The Psychology of Ageing: An Introduction. London:
Jessica Kingsley Publishers
Diane F. Gilmer; Aldwin, Carolyn M. (2003). Health, Illness, and Pptimal Ageing:
Biological and Psychosocial Perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications

4.9 ANSWER TO THE SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1) i) Multidimensional
ii) Antioxidants
iii) Dihydrotestosterone
iv) Intimacy
v) Osteoarthritis
2) i) True
ii) True
iii) False
iv) False
v) True
3) i) Heart disease
ii) Marital satisfaction
iii) Commitment
iv) Less
v) Suicide
4) i) True
ii) False
iii) True
iv) True
v) False 63