P1: 1

CH06-R2 Rosen-2311T MHIA017-Rosen-v5.cls May 13, 2011 10:25

6.3 Permutations and Combinations 413

EXAMPLE 14 How many bit strings of length n contain exactly r 1s?

Solution: The positions of r 1s in a bit string of length n form an r-combination of the set
{1, 2, 3, . . . , n}. Hence, there are C(n, r) bit strings of length n that contain exactly r 1s.

▲
EXAMPLE 15 Suppose that there are 9 faculty members in the mathematics department and 11 in the computer
science department. How many ways are there to select a committee to develop a discrete
mathematics course at a school if the committee is to consist of three faculty members from the
mathematics department and four from the computer science department?

Solution: By the product rule, the answer is the product of the number of 3-combinations of
a set with nine elements and the number of 4-combinations of a set with 11 elements. By
Theorem 2, the number of ways to select the committee is

9! 11!
C(9, 3) · C(11, 4) = · = 84 · 330 = 27,720.
3!6! 4!7!

▲
Exercises

1. List all the permutations of {a, b, c}. 12. How many bit strings of length 12 contain
2. How many different permutations are there of the set a) exactly three 1s?
{a, b, c, d, e, f, g}? b) at most three 1s?
3. How many permutations of {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} end with c) at least three 1s?
d) an equal number of 0s and 1s?
a?
13. A group contains n men and n women. How many ways
4. Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
are there to arrange these people in a row if the men and
a) List all the 3-permutations of S. women alternate?
b) List all the 3-combinations of S. 14. In how many ways can a set of two positive integers less
5. Find the value of each of these quantities. than 100 be chosen?
a) P (6, 3) b) P (6, 5) 15. In how many ways can a set of five letters be selected
c) P (8, 1) d) P (8, 5) from the English alphabet?
e) P (8, 8) f ) P (10, 9) 16. How many subsets with an odd number of elements does
6. Find the value of each of these quantities. a set with 10 elements have?
a) C(5, 1) b) C(5, 3) 17. How many subsets with more than two elements does a
c) C(8, 4) d) C(8, 8) set with 100 elements have?
e) C(8, 0) f ) C(12, 6) 18. A coin is flipped eight times where each flip comes up
7. Find the number of 5-permutations of a set with nine el- either heads or tails. How many possible outcomes
ements. a) are there in total?
8. In how many different orders can five runners finish a b) contain exactly three heads?
race if no ties are allowed? c) contain at least three heads?
d) contain the same number of heads and tails?
9. How many possibilities are there for the win, place, and
show (first, second, and third) positions in a horse race 19. A coin is flipped 10 times where each flip comes up either
with 12 horses if all orders of finish are possible? heads or tails. How many possible outcomes
10. There are six different candidates for governor of a state. a) are there in total?
b) contain exactly two heads?
In how many different orders can the names of the can- c) contain at most three tails?
didates be printed on a ballot? d) contain the same number of heads and tails?
11. How many bit strings of length 10 contain 20. How many bit strings of length 10 have
a) exactly four 1s? a) exactly three 0s?
b) at most four 1s? b) more 0s than 1s?
c) at least four 1s? c) at least seven 1s?
d) an equal number of 0s and 1s? d) at least three 1s?
P1: 1
CH06-R2 Rosen-2311T MHIA017-Rosen-v5.cls May 13, 2011 10:25

414 6 / Counting

21. How many permutations of the letters ABCDEFG con- 28. A professor writes 40 discrete mathematics true/false
tain questions. Of the statements in these questions, 17 are
a) the string BCD? true. If the questions can be positioned in any order, how
b) the string CFGA? many different answer keys are possible?
c) the strings BA and GF ? ∗ 29. How many 4-permutations of the positive integers not ex-
d) the strings ABC and DE? ceeding 100 contain three consecutive integers k, k + 1,
e) the strings ABC and CDE? k + 2, in the correct order
f ) the strings CBA and BED?
a) where these consecutive integers can perhaps be sep-
22. How many permutations of the letters ABCDEFGH con- arated by other integers in the permutation?
tain
b) where they are in consecutive positions in the permu-
a) the string ED?
tation?
b) the string CDE?
c) the strings BA and FGH ? 30. Seven women and nine men are on the faculty in the
d) the strings AB, DE, and GH ? mathematics department at a school.
e) the strings CAB and BED? a) How many ways are there to select a committee of
f ) the strings BCA and ABF ? five members of the department if at least one woman
23. How many ways are there for eight men and five women must be on the committee?
to stand in a line so that no two women stand next to each b) How many ways are there to select a committee of
other? [Hint: First position the men and then consider five members of the department if at least one woman
possible positions for the women.] and at least one man must be on the committee?
24. How many ways are there for 10 women and six men 31. The English alphabet contains 21 consonants and five
to stand in a line so that no two men stand next to each vowels. How many strings of six lowercase letters of the
other? [Hint: First position the women and then consider English alphabet contain
possible positions for the men.] a) exactly one vowel?
25. One hundred tickets, numbered 1, 2, 3, . . . , 100, are sold
b) exactly two vowels?
to 100 different people for a drawing. Four different prizes
are awarded, including a grand prize (a trip to Tahiti). How c) at least one vowel?
many ways are there to award the prizes if d) at least two vowels?
a) there are no restrictions? 32. How many strings of six lowercase letters from the En-
b) the person holding ticket 47 wins the grand prize? glish alphabet contain
c) the person holding ticket 47 wins one of the prizes? a) the letter a?
d) the person holding ticket 47 does not win a prize?
e) the people holding tickets 19 and 47 both win prizes? b) the letters a and b?
f ) the people holding tickets 19, 47, and 73 all win c) the letters a and b in consecutive positions with a
prizes? preceding b, with all the letters distinct?
g) the people holding tickets 19, 47, 73, and 97 all win d) the letters a and b, where a is somewhere to the left
prizes? of b in the string, with all the letters distinct?
h) none of the people holding tickets 19, 47, 73, and 97
33. Suppose that a department contains 10 men and 15
wins a prize?
i) the grand prize winner is a person holding ticket 19, women. How many ways are there to form a commit-
47, 73, or 97? tee with six members if it must have the same number of
j) the people holding tickets 19 and 47 win prizes, but men and women?
the people holding tickets 73 and 97 do not win prizes? 34. Suppose that a department contains 10 men and 15
26. Thirteen people on a softball team show up for a game. women. How many ways are there to form a commit-
a) How many ways are there to choose 10 players to take tee with six members if it must have more women than
the field? men?
b) How many ways are there to assign the 10 positions 35. How many bit strings contain exactly eight 0s and 10 1s
by selecting players from the 13 people who show up? if every 0 must be immediately followed by a 1?
c) Of the 13 people who show up, three are women. How
many ways are there to choose 10 players to take the 36. How many bit strings contain exactly five 0s and 14 1s if
field if at least one of these players must be a woman? every 0 must be immediately followed by two 1s?
27. A club has 25 members. 37. How many bit strings of length 10 contain at least three
a) How many ways are there to choose four members of 1s and at least three 0s?
the club to serve on an executive committee? 38. How many ways are there to select 12 countries in the
b) How many ways are there to choose a president, vice United Nations to serve on a council if 3 are selected
president, secretary, and treasurer of the club, where from a block of 45, 4 are selected from a block of 57, and
no person can hold more than one office? the others are selected from the remaining 69 countries?
P1: 1
CH06-R2 Rosen-2311T MHIA017-Rosen-v5.cls May 13, 2011 10:25

6.4 Binomial Coefficients and Identities 415

39. How many license plates consisting of three letters fol- medals, and the runner or runners who finish with exactly
lowed by three digits contain no letter or digit twice? two runners ahead receive bronze medals.)
A circular r-permutation of n people is a seating of r of ∗ 46. This procedure is used to break ties in games in the cham-
these n people around a circular table, where seatings are con- pionship round of the World Cup soccer tournament. Each
sidered to be the same if they can be obtained from each other team selects five players in a prescribed order. Each of
by rotating the table. these players takes a penalty kick, with a player from the
40. Find the number of circular 3-permutations of 5 people. first team followed by a player from the second team and
41. Find a formula for the number of circular r-permutations so on, following the order of players specified. If the score
of n people. is still tied at the end of the 10 penalty kicks, this proce-
dure is repeated. If the score is still tied after 20 penalty
42. Find a formula for the number of ways to seat r of n people kicks, a sudden-death shootout occurs, with the first team
around a circular table, where seatings are considered the scoring an unanswered goal victorious.
same if every person has the same two neighbors without
regard to which side these neighbors are sitting on. a) How many different scoring scenarios are possible if
the game is settled in the first round of 10 penalty
43. How many ways are there for a horse race with three kicks, where the round ends once it is impossible for
horses to finish if ties are possible? [Note: Two or three a team to equal the number of goals scored by the
horses may tie.] other team?
∗ 44. How many ways are there for a horse race with four horses b) How many different scoring scenarios for the first
to finish if ties are possible? [Note: Any number of the and second groups of penalty kicks are possible if
four horses may tie.) the game is settled in the second round of 10 penalty
∗ 45. There are six runners in the 100-yard dash. How many kicks?
ways are there for three medals to be awarded if ties c) How many scoring scenarios are possible for the full
are possible? (The runner or runners who finish with the set of penalty kicks if the game is settled with no more
fastest time receive gold medals, the runner or runners than 10 total additional kicks after the two rounds of
who finish with exactly one runner ahead receive silver five kicks for each team?

6.4 Binomial Coefficients and Identities

As we remarked inSection 6.3, the number of r-combinations from a set with n elements is
often denoted by nr . This number is also called a binomial coefficient because these numbers
occur as coefficients in the expansion of powers of binomial expressions such as (a + b)n . We
will discuss the binomial theorem, which gives a power of a binomial expression as a sum of
terms involving binomial coefficients. We will prove this theorem using a combinatorial proof.
We will also show how combinatorial proofs can be used to establish some of the many different
identities that express relationships among binomial coefficients.

The Binomial Theorem

The binomial theorem gives the coefficients of the expansion of powers of binomial expressions.
A binomial expression is simply the sum of two terms, such as x + y. (The terms can be products
of constants and variables, but that does not concern us here.)
Example 1 illustrates how the coefficients in a typical expansion can be found and prepares
us for the statement of the binomial theorem.
EXAMPLE 1 The expansion of (x + y)3 can be found using combinatorial reasoning instead of multiplying
the three terms out. When (x + y)3 = (x + y)(x + y)(x + y) is expanded, all products of a
term in the first sum, a term in the second sum, and a term in the third sum are added. Terms of
the form x 3 , x 2 y, xy 2 , and y 3 arise. To obtain a term of the form x 3 , an x must be chosen in
each of the sums, and this can be done in only one way. Thus, the x 3 term in the product has
a coefficient of 1. To obtain a term of the form x 2 y, an x must be chosen in two of the three
sums (and consequently a y in the other sum).   Hence, the number of such terms is the number
of 2-combinations of three objects, namely, 23 . Similarly, the number of terms of the form xy 2
is the number of ways to pick one of the three sums to obtain an x (and consequently take a y