news

Caving

Addressing the challenges and

future of cave mining
No. 56
SRK Consulting’s
International
Newsletter

Infrastructure development at Oyu Tolgoi

There are over 50 global cave mining projects in various stages of studies and
development.
Despite the fact that the cave mining method orebody below their economic depth, and further
is more than 100 years old, it is only within the exploitation of often large low-grade resources at
past 20 years that this method has spread from depth would not support a more expensive mining
initial cave mining centres to six continents. method. In recent years, besides the economics
There are currently approximately 17 cave mining of high strip ratio, the environmental concern also
operations in 11 countries. plays an important role when comparing open pit
mass mining and caving. Cave mines can have a
The interest in cave mining is being fuelled
significantly smaller footprint than a comparable
by the depletion of near surface orebodies
open pit, since waste mined is only limited to
suitable for open pit operations, relatively high
underground infrastructure development.
production rates and low operating cost. Also, a
number of open pits have a continuation of the …continued
 Addressing the challenges and future
of cave mining (continued)

JA R E K JA K U B E C
Shaft headgear at the Resolution Copper project, Arizona, USA

Jarek has over 35

years of worldwide Cave mining principles and economics needs to be at least 100 m thick for cave
operating and mining to be economical. In the past,
Traditionally, cave mining was a method
consulting experience typical caving heights were 150-250 m.
based on the principle of undercutting rock
in the mining industry, Most of the designs which are on the
and then naturally letting it cave. However,
specialising in drawing board today have caving lifts
this mining method has been extended
underground mass in excess of 350 m. Although higher
to very strong rocks which would not
mining methods, lifts generally result in better NPV,
easily cave or would not be suitable for
diamond mining, rock they also have higher business risks of
caving due to very coarse fragmentation.
mechanics and mining geology. He has resource sterilisation, dilution, stability
To mitigate this problem, pre-conditioning
worked around the globe on more than of the drawpoints, and extraction level
techniques have been developed to
80 mining projects in 30 countries on 5 in general.
generate more fractures and reduce the
continents. Jarek worked as geotechnical fragments to a manageable size. This is By contrast, orebodies with relatively
engineer at Cassiar cave mine and later, achieved by hydraulic fracturing and, in small horizontal footprints can also
for De Beers Consolidated Mines in South some cases, in combination with confined be mined economically if they have
Africa and Botswana. With SRK, he built blasting. Although some discussion is sufficient height and metal content to
and now manages a team of mining and needed about the potential impact on in justify the capital expenditure. Good
geology experts who provide consulting situ stress that is required for cave mining, examples are Northparkes Mines in
services for the cave mining and diamond several cave mines are in operation with Australia, and the diamond mines in
industries. Jarek has published over preconditioned rock masses and several South Africa and Canada.
25 papers on geology, rock mechanics, others are being developed. The most
and mining, co-authored two mining extensive work undertaken is at Cadia East Mechanised cave mining includes
guidelines books, and participated on mine and Northparkes Mines in Australia, several variations of the method,
several international research projects. and Andina and El Teniente in Chile. including block, panel, incline and front
Jarek is founder of the Cave Mining caving. Most of the current mines and
Forum and he is a qualified person in Caving methods can be used with projects utilise either block or panel
terms of National Instrument 43-101. any type of commodity since it is the caving but after several years, Ekati
geological and geotechnical context that Diamond Mine, Canada successfully
Jarek Jakubec: [email protected] is important. There are many parameters introduced an incline cave at their
to consider but typically the orebody Koala Mine.
2
Cave mining differs significantly from On a positive note, in hindsight, most Block and panel caves are very suitable
other typically more selective underground of the challenges could have been for highly automated equipment like
mining methods in a number of areas. prevented with better upfront knowledge, remote control loaders, trucks and
Because cave mining is a bottom up correct design or draw disciplines. The crushers. A future supercave could
method that relies on first establishing a other disadvantage of cave mining is potentially have less than 50-60 people
large fixed infrastructure underground that the long lead time, it typically takes underground.
will provide a very long term production 7 to 10 years, or longer, from initial
platform, the initial capital costs are studies to production and the site may Cave mining toolbox
typically very high. underestimate the logistics and skillset The ever-increasing speed of computing
required for cave mining development and the sophistication of numerical
To offset the impact of the large
and operation. modelling codes enable many mining
capital expenditure on project value, a
consequent high rate of production and Because the cave mine has to be fully companies to model complex mining
an increased tonnage per drawpoint is developed before all design parameters problems. Better and more reliable
required. In this day and age, several are known to a high degree of confidence, instrumentation such as MPX cables,
cave operations are running at upwards the design should be robust and technical Smart Marker System (Elexon), and Cave
of 50,000 tpd and newer operations success should have priority over Tracker (Mining3) also provide excellent
are being constructed for nameplate economics, especially when greenfield data for calibration of such models.
capacities of 100,000 tpd and more. projects are considered. Although the cave However, do not count on the high
mine may not require the same level of reliability of numerical models without
Chuquicamata and New Mining Levels calibration. Reliable and accurate input
resource definition in terms of drillhole
at the El Teniente project in Chile; Oyu information for numerical models are
density as selective underground mining
Tolgoi projects, Mongolia; Grasberg caving typically available only after the cave is
method, the geotechnical and structural
complex, Indonesia; and the Resolution designed, developed and operating.
geology knowledge has to be typically
Copper project in Arizona all fall into the
higher than for other methods. Some The track record of predictive models
supercaves category. It has to be stressed
of the information needed for the final without comprehensive calibration,
that there are no examples where
feasibility design may not be possible to especially for greenfield projects, is not
tonnage over 100,000 tpd was achieved
obtain from the drill core, and underground very good and does not necessarily
on a sustained basis from single cave
characterisation exposures may be increase confidence in the design in
footprint, although El Teniente produced
necessary. comparison to other empirical tools and
higher tonnage from concurrently mining
several caves. benchmarking. Additionally, complex
Future of cave mining processes such as cave propagation,
In terms of logistics, once a cave mine is Cave mining is moving to new frontiers subsidence geometry, and material
in production, the execution is relatively with high production rates, strong rock flow in a cave mine cannot be yet
straightforward. The production footprint masses, very high caving lifts and greater reliably modelled.
remains fixed and mining consumables depth. In forefront of such projects is
typically revolve around secondary Jarek Jakubec: [email protected]
Resolution in Arizona where their shaft
breaking with campaign maintenance was sunk to 2,100 m to develop deep Published in the Australian Centre for Geomechanics,
within the production drives. It is important copper porphyry. Volume No.47, August 2018 (After article published)
that strict draw control is maintained and
the extraction level is not experiencing
excess damage requiring repairs.

Technical challenges of cave mining

As the number of cave mining projects
increases, there are also heightened
expectations for high production rates
and caving lifts, and greater depths to be
achieved. The analysis of the cave mine
performance is far from satisfactory. In
the past two decades, at least 12 cave
footprints were put into production and
all experienced some level of unforeseen
difficulty related to ground conditions,
fragmentation, mining induced seismicity,
mudrushes, and underestimating ground
support, or simply breaking basic cave
mining rules, specifically in the area of
undercutting and draw management.

3
 Accounting for micro-defects in rock
mass rating

14 12
Number of Fragments

12 10
10 8

Is(50)(MPa)
8 6
6 4
4 2
2 0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540

Depth (m)

Plot showing micro-defect intensity, drop test results, and point load test
strength for a drillhole in a copper porphyry deposit
A N DY T H O M A S
In 2001, Laubscher’s Mining Rock Mass in rock where defects are numerous and
Andy, MEng, PEng, Rating (MRMR) classification system small, e.g. in porphyry-type rocks, it can be
is a Geological (Laubscher and Jakubec, 2001) introduced difficult to isolate sections of defect-free
Engineer with the rock block strength concept to account rock in which to obtain true intact strength.
over 13 years of for scale effects and the influence of In such cases, the scale of micro-defects
experience working closed defects on intact rock strength (IRS). relative to the size of core means that
as a professional in Almost two decades later, rock mechanics core-scale strength tests reliably account
the field of ground practitioners are still challenged by how for their influence on the rock strength.
engineering. He to appropriately incorporate defects,
has extensive The concept of the drop test was
other than open breaks, into rock mass
experience in designing, undertaking introduced and accompanied by the
classification to arrive at in-situ rock mass
and managing geomorphological, comment that when performed correctly,
rating (IRMR). A category of such defects
geotechnical and hydrogeological the drop test yields more consistent
is micro-defects, which are typically non-
investigations for projects in the mining results than the hammer blow method.
systematic with variable geometry and
and civil sectors. Andy has worked on The drop test consists of dropping uniform
continuity. These fractures can sometimes
a wide variety of projects in Australia, length sections of the same-sized core
be difficult to identify, let alone characterise,
the Americas and Asia. He completed horizontally-aligned onto a concrete floor
but they can have a significant impact on
his specialist studies at the University and tabulating the breaks on fractures and
important mining considerations, such as
of British Columbia where he focused through intact rock.
the caving process and rock fragment block
on engineering rock mechanics. size (Jakubec et al., 2007). The major appeal of the drop test as a
Andy’s recent projects include
core testing tool is its efficiency, simplicity,
designing, implementing and managing Early stages of mining projects rely
and repeatability; gravity is a constant so
geotechnical and hydrogeological almost exclusively on rock core to define
only the drop height datum for the project,
investigations and stress analyses for rock strength. Assessing the unconfined
e.g. core rack level, need be defined. For
underground mining projects. ‘intact’ strength of the rock core is mostly
rock with high micro-defect intensity,
done by empirical methods, by observing
Andy Thomas: [email protected] significant utility can be obtained from the
how rock core breaks by hammer blow,
drop test by simply counting the number
and point load and UCS testing. However,

4
 Microdefects: GSI for fragmentation
assessment?
Recently, SRK Chile was involved in It may be concluded that microdefects
a caving project in Chile and in charge should not be considered for GSI
of numerical modelling to analyse estimation, since microdefects are
pillars and overall mine stability and to already explicitly included in BCF.
define ground support. The review of
Andrea Russo: [email protected]
the basic geotechnical information was
the first task performed, pointing out
of fragments that the core breaks an underestimation of the Geological
Strength Index (GSI). The client justified
into. In a recent study, the number of ANDREA RUSSO
fragments correlated with the micro- the lower values of GSI by including
defect intensity and point load strength microdefects, as they would be acting
(Figure left). during the caving process, and argued A ndrea has 25 years
that they should be included in the of experience in
The plot shows that in the unaltered GSI estimation for fragmentation the mining industry.
Post Mineral Volcanic unit, the point assessment by the software block cave He has worked in
load test Is(50) values and number fragmentation (BCF). SRK’s position porphyry copper
of fragments were equally low. In in this particular project was that GSI deposits, acquiring
the Tonalite unit, the highly altered need only consider open joints since valuable experience in
Sericite-Chlorite-Clay domain is BCF already considered microdefects geological, structural,
characterised by zones where there to calculate the rock block strength, and geotechnical
were high numbers of drop test and including microdefects in GSI mapping for underground mining, defining
fragments, whereas testing the would have a double lowering effect. and characterising structural domains,
less altered but similar micro-defect Because of this debate, SRK verified geotechnical domains, and fragmentation
intensity in the Sericite domain the impact on fragmentation curves assessments. Andrea specialises in rock
resulted in generally fewer fragments due to including microdefects in the GSI mass geotechnical characterisation,
and far higher Is(50) values. estimation. analysing geomechanical laboratory tests,
defining the caving sequence and front
Although wetting the core helped, it GSI is not a direct input in BCF software, orientation, and defining ground support
was not always possible to see the but it is used to scale the mi Hoek & through empirical methods. He worked on
fractures in the core. It was impractical Brown parameter to mb, which is an various open-pit projects analysing slope
to inspect each broken fragment (up input parameter in BCF. To evaluate the stability in Canada and South Africa. On
to 15 fragments per test) to determine impact of microdefects included in GSI, an environmental project, Andrea gained
whether breakage was caused by SRK estimates three fragmentation experience in rock mass grouting using the
defect or intact rock or a combination curves for two geotechnical units using GIN method.
thereof. Counting the number of mb input values scaled from a GSI value
fragments proved to be a quick and of 70, 50, and 30, resulting in three Andrea Russo: [email protected]
practical method of addressing these identical fragmentation curves.
limitations and assessing how the rock
at that scale behaved mechanically.
100 120
It is important not to ‘double dip’ when
selecting intact rock strength reduction 100
80
to arrive at an IRMR. Although there
is no current guidance on relating 80
Percent passing

Percent passing

the drop test to quantitative strength 60

values for rock mass classification 60

schemes, it can be a useful tool to 40

40
measure the prevalence and influence
of micro-defects on the core-scale rock
20 20
mass. This information can help decide
whether, and how much, the intact
0 0
rock strength needs be reduced or if 0,001 0,010 0,100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1000,000 10000,000 0,001 0,010 0,100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1000,000 10000,000
the reduction is sufficiently captured in Block size (m3) Block size (m3)
the point load and UCS tests.
Figure 1: Fragmentation curves estimated for Geotechnical Units a) and b) considering a
Andy Thomas: [email protected] GSI = 70 (red dotted line), GSI = 50 (blue line) and GSI = 30 (green line)

5
 Geotechnical data collection and
approach to modelling for Cukaru Peki
Cumulative drilling totals
(R) Resource (GT) Geotechnical
Drilling phases
48,000m (R) – 2014

Early Exploration Drilling Key geological and geotechnical activities

1) Geotechnical review of database

93,000m (R) – Mar 2017
45,000m (GT)
X) Geological Modelling – Maiden Mineral Resource
Estimate (January 2014)

2) Geotechnical Logging Training & Geotechnical

163,000m (R) – Sept 2017
QAQC visits
115,000m (GT)
3) Geological Model
Exploration Drilling with iterative MRE a) Structure Model (Fault network, basal clay/
Geotechnical Data Collection updates fracture zones
b) Lithological Model
c) Alteration Model
d) Geological Model

NEIL MARSHALL 5) Preliminary Geotechnical Model

a) Rock Mass Model 4) Updated Mineral
6) Verification of Preliminary Geotechnical Resource (April 2017)
Model

Neil Marshall (MSc, PEA Study 7) Final PEA Geotechnical Model

DIC, BSc [Hons],

CEng, MIMMM) is a
Corporate Consultant A geotechnical model is the fundamental Nevsun Resources Ltd. owns 100% of the
with more than 30 basis for the design of an open-pit and Cukaru Peki Upper Zone; the Lower Zone
years’ experience underground mines. A fully understood is a joint venture with Freeport-McMoRan
in geotechnical and representative geotechnical model Exploration Corporation. The Timok project
engineering for mining. provides information on the engineering is located centrally within the Timok
While consulting, characteristics of the rock mass, defining Magmatic Complex (TMC), which has one
half of his time was spent working in how it will behave during excavation. of the highest concentrations of copper
underground and open pit mines in The model’s individual domains, each enrichment in the Tethyan Belt.
Zambia and Ghana where he held various comprised of materials exhibiting internally
The upper zone of the Cukaru Peki
technical positions. Neil specialises in similar geotechnical properties, reveal
mineralisation occurs at depths between
the geotechnical characterisation of rock the critical characteristics and risks that
400 and 800 m below ground level. The
masses, open pit slope design, underground the mine planners need to understand to
deposit does not outcrop at surface;
mining method design and evaluation, design the optimal mine.The Cukaru Peki
it is buried beneath Miocene Clastic
underground support and excavation Upper and Lower Zones are part of the
Sedimentary rocks that unconformably
design and numerical modelling. Timok copper-gold project.
overlie the Upper Cretaceous Bor’
Neil Marshall: [email protected] Conglomerate and Bor’ Marl. The Unaltered
Andesite sits below the unconformity and
the Lower Andesite below that.

The high sulphidation epithermal

mineralisation found within the Late
Andesite comprises massive and semi-
massive sulphide. Pyrite is the dominant
sulphide mineral, and the principal copper
mineral is covellite with lesser enargite,
bornite and chalcocite. Gold is associated
primarily with the copper sulphides.

The top of the mineralisation is constrained

by the unconformity and the lateral
extents are constrained by faulting.
Several alteration assemblages have
been grouped into four types with mostly
Best practice: Geotechnical logging being carried out at the rig Phyllic and Propylitic alteration at its base.

6
 Downstream effects of cave
fragmentation
S ince the 1990s, ‘mine-to-mill’ studies to be designed for fluctuations in hardness
have evaluated the impact of blast and feed size. In addition, unless mixing
fragmentation on downstream plant within the cave is well predicted and
The mineralisation is found within the throughput. This was because crushing understood, geometallurgical knowledge
Advanced Argillic with higher grades of and grinding circuits (in particular, SAG of the orebody can be destroyed.
copper and gold near the cap and then mills) are sensitive to feed size and the
While mass mining offers the potential
decreasing with depth. amount of fines generated from blasting.
to develop lower-grade underground
Significant gains in grinding circuit
SRK’s early involvement in the deposits, the downstream effects on
efficiency could be achieved by controlling
exploration drilling was key to setting plant performance need to be carefully
and optimising blast fragmentation.
up the geotechnical data collection. considered. Due to the potential for
A flow chart sets out the approach The advent of mass mining methods waste infiltration, pre-concentration or
to geotechnical data collection like block caving has introduced the waste rejection opportunities ahead
and modelling for the preliminary term ‘cave-to-mill’, which considers the of grinding should also be included in
economic assessment study. variability and uncertainty in fragmentation any project study that considers mass
coming from each drawpoint. In the mining methods.
A logical approach was used to figure below, fragmentation estimates
develop the geotechnical model taking Adrian Dance: [email protected]
were made for each block in a potential
into consideration the geological, caving zone underneath an existing
alteration, and structural conditions for open pit. To simulate the effect on SAG
the deposit. There is good correlation mill performance, these fragmentation ADRIAN DANCE
between the geological framework and curves were passed through a primary
geotechnical parameters. crusher model. As shown in the figure,
The visual assessment and data the variation in mill feed (80% passing Adrian is a Principal
size, in mm) is evident as the cave Metallurgist with over
modelling indicated that the spatial
propagates upward and the secondary 25 years of industrial
variability in the geotechnical parameters
fragmentation generates more fines and a and consulting
correlated well with the geology,
smaller topsize. experience. He has
alteration, and structure. A statistical
established himself
analysis of the geotechnical parameters Between the cave and the mill, there as an authority in
assessed each domain’s representation may be limited potential for controlling the optimisation of
of the geotechnical conditions. fragmentation, ore blending, and/or crushing/grinding
A thorough assessment of the rock stockpiling, and the plant front-end needs circuits and in adding value to operations
mass was based on the geology, through process improvements. Adrian is
structure, and alteration models. The an advocate of grade engineering through
geotechnical data was spatially and pre-concentration methods including
OPEN PIT coarse beneficiation to address poor mill
statistically analysed relative to these
models to understand how the geology feed quality.
and structure affected the rock mass
Adrian Dance: [email protected]
engineering properties. The structure
and alteration were controlling the
variability in rock mass characteristics
and the models were used to generate
the geotechnical model.

The data in each geotechnical CAVE

domain was used for generating
parameter inputs to the cave mining
study. The real value added to mine
planning came from knowing how
the combined individual-models
created a geotechnical model that was
representative of the actual conditions. SAG Feed F80 in mm
120 270 430
Author: Karl Llewelyn 200 350 CAVE FOOTPRINT
Contact: Neil Marshall:
[email protected]
7
 Geotechnical model development for
caving design
SRK performed a comprehensive In addition, detailed statistical summaries
redevelopment of the geotechnical of the characteristic rock-mass properties
model for an existing large panel caving and their variability were provided for each
operation with the aim of assisting domain for use in any geomechanical or
cave planning and design in five future numerical analyses. Supplementary in situ
cave blocks. Initially, separate models stress interpretations using core disking
were created for the individual blocks to and drillhole breakout data were generally
allow for smaller, more focused models; in agreement with past measurements
however, a large all-encompassing model and interpretations.
was subsequently created.
Key insights and uses for the modelling
T he Chuquicamata underground
mine in the Atacama Desert
The models incorporated more than identified together with the client were
in northern Chile is one of the
50 geotechnical domains based on as follows:
largest planned mining projects
major rock types and faults. They were
• The interaction of faults is important in the world to use block caving
constructed through review of the existing
– each cave footprint requires the with macro-blocks option to mine
geotechnical drilling (485 drillholes totalling
presence of one or many major faults copper ore. CODELCO is currently
~250,000 m of core) and underground
to assist caving. Stress concentration finishing the detailed engineering
mapping database as well as incorporating
in weaker rock mass within the fault stage and constructing the main
additional data from recent targeted drilling
intersections in the extraction and infrastructure for the project. The
investigations. Careful characterisation and
undercut levels pose an elevated underground mine is expected to
recalculation of key rock mass parameters
possibility of instability. Sequencing begin operations in 2020, with a
ensured the final model inputs were
the undercut through this region would seven-year ramp-up period and a
appropriate, consistent, and thorough.
be required to manage the possible nominal production of 140,000
The products comprised detailed outcomes associated with undercut tonnes per day.
Datamine block models of maximum angle and initiation point. Closed
The rock mechanics Drawbells
25 m and minimum 5 m individual blocks • The parameters controlling brittle team of SRK
sizes, providing data for lithology type, behaviour of the rock mass (strain Chile has provided
intact rock strength, rock block strength bursting of faces or local seismic technical support to the
(as developed for the in situ rock mass responses during undercutting and Chuquicamata underground
rating calculation, weathering, fracture cave establishment) include high project for the last eight years,
frequency per m, and fracture spacing. strength rock and low joint number or including the prefeasibility, value,
RQD; joint number rating; and calculated fracture frequency. feasibility, liaison, and detailed
RMR, IRMR and Q’ classification values.
• The presence of locally, very weak engineering stages.
infill (decreasing rockmass strength) One important aspect was to
has controlled drive scale deformation. independently manage each
The deformation is managed with macro-block in the geomechanical
mine sequencing and ground support assessment to estimate magnitude
systems, and should abate once the and extension of the abutment
undercut and cave have provided a stresses and tensile zones on
suitable stress shadow. the macro-block pillars during the
• The seismic response to mining different construction phases in
has recorded larger magnitude and macro-block preparation and during
more events in the south of the mine the ore column extraction involved in
compared to the north, appearing the macro-block operation. This phase
to be a consequence of rock mass depended on complex tridimensional
conditions and structural control. This has geometry and the interaction of
constrained the location of the planned different cavities; so, a tridimensional
infrastructure to reduce the potential analysis was required to consider the
for future damage. Preconditioning to mining sequence (Figure right).
reduce the occurrence of large damaging
As part of this study, empirical
seismic events will become a necessity.
methods, confinement-convergence
Predicted cave propagation relative to RMR Ian de Bruyn: [email protected] analytical models, and 2D and 3D
model (warm colours indicate poor rock)

8
 IAN DE BRUYN
Geomechanical design for the world’s
Ian has 21 years
largest underground mine of experience
in geotechnical
engineering over
a wide range of
mining and civil
engineering projects.
He specialises
in geotechnical
studies for open-pit mining operations,
geotechnical characterisation, and
modelling for underground excavations
and open pit/underground mining
interaction. He has worked on projects
involving complex and challenging
rockmass conditions where structure
and groundwater play an important
role in stability. His projects have
Drawbells involved site investigation, rockmass
Opening characterisation, stability analysis, design
and risk assessment at all levels, from
conceptual through feasibility studies and
working design. Ian is team leader of the
geotechnical group in Perth, Australia.

Ian de Bruyn: [email protected]

“Half”
Drawbells E ST E B A N H O R M A Z A B A L

E steban is a Civil
Mining Engineer
Tridimensional numerical model for the Macro-block option; red-excavations, yellow- with a Master in
broken material, white-constructions (before excavations), green-West Fault zone (In situ
Geophysics, and
rock mass has been purposely hidden) (i.e. Hormazabal et al., 2010).
specialises in applied
hydrogeology. He has
23 years of experience
continuum and discontinuum models pillar stability, and the stability and in geotechnical
were developed and applied to evaluate support design of crusher chambers, engineering,
the influence of the stresses and transfer caverns and several large rock mechanics, and geotechnical
existing geological features (e.g. the excavations. Tasks developed range instrumentation, leading important open-
presence of two major shear zones, the from data collection and interpretation pit and underground mining projects in
West Fault, and different lithological of geotechnical data to the design of Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru,
units) on the mechanical response of underground excavations including Russia, and Uruguay. In addition, Esteban
the excavation. more than 50 complex 3D continuum is an expert in analysis and geomechanical
and discontinuum numerical models. To design of underground mining and surface
SRK Chile has worked on a wide range
date, the work SRK carried out for the excavations using 2D and 3D numerical
of topics in the project, including
Chuquicamata underground project is modelling, stability analysis, and slope
the geomechanical design at the
summarised in more than 45 technical design in open pits and waste dumps.
undercutting level, extraction level and
reports and 110 construction drawings.
haulage level, the macro-sequence Esteban Hormazabal:
definition, rib pillar and macro-block Esteban Hormazabal: [email protected] [email protected]

9
 Mass mining diamonds

DAN LAGACÉ

D an has ten years

experience working
in underground M ass mining including block caving, mining took place in Canada. Today,
and open pit mines, incline caving, front caving, sub-level out of some 40 diamond mines mining
across multiple caving and sub-level retreat are the kimberlite, approximately half are
commodities principal mining methods for primary underground and another 20 have
(diamonds, base diamond deposits worldwide. Diamonds underground plans or they are exploring
metals, coking have only been mined on an industrial its potential.
coal and potash). scale within the past 150 years, mainly
SRK has been involved in most of the
He focuses on project evaluation as open pit mines. Underground mining
underground diamond mining projects
and mining studies from scoping to of those deposits was first implemented
around the world. In Canada, the Ekati
feasibility, mine design, scheduling, within the second half of the 20th
Diamond Mine was the first diamond
and cost estimating. Prior to joining century in South Africa. A relatively large
mine to be developed near Lac de
SRK, Dan worked at several mine sites number of underground mining methods
Gras in Canada’s Northwest Territories.
across Canada gaining experience were tested, implemented, and evolved
Koala North Pipe has been developed
in mine engineering and project over the past 50 years, mainly in South
and mined as an open-benching,
management roles. Most recently, African mines. In the mid-1990s, Alrosa,
mechanised, and trackless operation to
he led underground and open pit a Russian group of diamond mining
test the underground mining method
mining projects from early stage to companies, started developing the first
and to provide access to the lower parts
execution with Dominion Diamond underground diamond mine in Russia,
of the Panda and Koala pipes which were
Ekati Corporation. With Dominion, Dan Internationalnaya. Since then, Alrosa
developed and mined underground once
managed the Sable Pit project from continued to implement underground
the open pit operations were completed.
preliminary economic assessment to mining on several of their mines,
Koala North, North America’s first
project execution, and the Fox Deep including Aikhal, Mir and Udachny. China
underground diamond mine, formally
project from preliminary economic also experimented with underground
opened in 2002. Since then, Panda
assessment to prefeasibility. mining at Nhangma 701 Diamond Mine
and Koala Pipes were mined by three
at the end of the 1990s, but the largest
Dan Lagacé: [email protected] principal underground mining methods:
development of diamond underground

10
 Guidelines on Caving Mining
Methods: The Underlying Concepts

I n 2000, International Caving Study

(ICS) published a practical manual on
block caving by Dr. Dennis Laubscher.
This first comprehensive block caving
publication was co-authored by several
industry experts, including Dr. Alan
Guest and Jarek Jakubec of SRK
Consulting (Canada) Inc. Unfortunately,
the distribution of this publication was
not widely available. Meanwhile the
demand for practical guidelines on cave
mining was increasing as new projects
developed. Mass Mining Technology
(MMT) recommended that Dr.
Laubscher, Dr. Guest and Jarek Jakubec
undertake this task. In 2017, the design
book ‘Guidelines on Caving Mining
Methods’ was published as a practical
tool for cave mining by The University
of Queensland.
Dr. Dennis H. Laubsher receiving the SAIMM, Brigadier
Stokes Memorial platinum medal Award in 2007

sub-level retreat, sub-level caving and

Incline Caving.

Diavik Diamond Mine started open

pit production in 2003. By 2005,
underground development had
commenced with plans to mine the
A154 and A418 pipes using backfill
methods. As geotechnical knowledge
was gained, the mining methods
were re-evaluated. The sub-level
retreat method was chosen for the
A154S and A418 pipes, and blasthole
open stoping with cemented rockfill
was chosen for the A154N pipe. In
2012, the open pits reached their
ultimate depths and Diavik Diamond
Mine became a fully underground
operation. In 2018, open pit mining
of A21 kimberlite was successfully
commissioned, complementing
underground mining at Diavik.

Jarek Jakubec: [email protected]

Dan Lagacé: [email protected] Jarek Jakubec and Dr. Alan Guest

11
 Open pit to underground transition
S RK carried out a scoping study on an SRK conducted a series of mining
existing open pit operation (12 Mtpa) method evaluations to identify what the
that is soon to be reaching a depth most suitable mining method options
where the mine will need to transition would be to maximise recovery, while
to a large-scale underground mining also maintaining production continuity
method. The goal was to provide as the mine transitions from surface to
production continuity at a rate that will underground. This resulted in a sub level
still be suitable to maximise use of the open stoping (with backfill) mine design
existing surface processing facilities. for the peripheral halo ore zone and two
The ore body dips below the bottom of side-by-side block caves for the more
the planned open pit and is still open massive ore area. Given the geometry
at depth. Around the periphery of the of the ore body, an inclined cave could
main ore body is a halo of disseminated become more of a real option, but
lens-shaped types of mineralisation. additional resource drilling is required
and a firmer definition of the final open-
Due to this mineralisation, the ore
pit bottom.
halo requires smaller scale or selective
mining methods, while the main A critical aspect that is often
orebody lends itself to mass mining underestimated is the transition time
where block caving or inclined caving frame, particularly when additional ore
are viable options. body knowledge (including resource,
geotechnical, hydrogeology, metallurgy
and rock temperature) is still required to
support detailed designs and approvals
SIMON HANRAHAN for a major underground mining complex.
It is not uncommon for these transitions
Simon is a Mining to take more than 10 years to complete
the required sequences of work from
Engineer with over
orebody knowledge sourcing to feasibility
30 years of global
experience as a team
studies, construction, development, and M any ore deposits extend vertically, a
production ramp up. If the transition fact which is not always known at the
member and project
timeframe is underestimated, shortcuts start of mining. If initial mining is by
leader across the
could be required to achieve production opencast methods and ore reserves
whole resources
continuity. However, there is significant are proven to greater depths, the pits
value chain – option,
risk that if these plans are not realistic, are often planned to go deeper than
pre-feasibility and
the successful operation of a cave mine originally envisaged. In such cases,
feasibility studies, project development,
for the longer term can be comprised. surface plants and critical underground
and mine operations. He has significant
experience in major projects involving The results of the scoping study provided facilities -- conveyor tunnels, access
the development of block-cave mines the client with a solid understanding ramps, ore passes, hoisting, and
and operating open-pit mines above of a conceptual transition plan that is ventilation shafts -- are often located
caving zones. Simon has carried now being used to optimise production much closer to the pit rim and the ore
out project management, project continuity while making plans to continue body than desirable. This raises the
evaluations, and technical reviews for life beyond an existing open pit operation. question of stability, which may be
gold, base metal, platinum, industrial A key outcome of the study was that critical for operating the mine longer
mineral, diamond, coal, and iron ore the client now has a vastly improved term. Key considerations to evaluate
projects. He has demonstrated ability to understanding of what a transition will are: open pit stability, shaft stability,
work within and lead multi-disciplinary, require, and plans are now progressing dilution, mud rushes and air blasts, and
multi-cultural teams across all for a further open pit pushback to mining method selection.
resource types. create adequate time to transition to an Planning Considerations: The
underground mine. efficient transition from open pit
Simon Hanrahan: [email protected]
Simon Hanrahan: [email protected] mining to an underground operation
requires extensive planning. For a
large mining operation, planning could
last as long as 20 years. The main
factors and activities that need to be
taken into account in the planning

12
 Planning considerations for transition
from open pit to underground
PETER TERBRUGGE

P eter is a Principal
Engineering Geologist
and has over 39 years
of experience in
engineering geology,
rock slope stability,
site investigations,
and tunnelling. His
expertise includes
open-pit slope design for large copper
mines, diamond mines, gold mines
and iron ore mines. Also feasibility
studies, designing remedial measures
to maintain access in critical-area,
civil engineering projects, rock mass
classification studies, and field mapping,
mine surveying, and tunnel support.

Peter Terbrugge: [email protected]

cycle are as follows: • Planning and implementing transition
from surface to underground mining
• Definition of the ore body
can take 20 years. Planning must • The presence of an abandoned pit
• Rock mass characterisation therefore commence at an early stage. above can lead to greater risks of
• Definition of the boundary conditions • Surface and underground infrastructure dilution and mud rushes.
• Investigation of suitable mining is often at risk as pits deepen beyond • The choice of underground mining
methods planned depths. method affects the surface; and
• Transition from open pit to stability requirements may dictate
• Underground infrastructure
underground mining often risks mud the choice of mining method.
• Surface infrastructure rushes (if mud forming minerals are Peter Terbrugge: [email protected]
• Ongoing open pit factors of influence present), and from sumps and surface
dams. Air blasts can result from
• Underground mining and layout
underground collapses or mud rushes.
considerations
• Underground and surface effects of A schedule for an open pit to underground study
the underground mining ACTIVITY Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 Y10 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 Y15 Y16 Y17 Y18

• Surface and groundwater effects Exploration

Conceptual design
• Risks
Stage 1: Prefeasibility
• Project timing Board review
Stage 2: Feasibility
Conclusions: Aspects of particular
Board review
significance include the following:
Stage 2A
• An economically designed pit will Stage 2B Feasibility Study
have slopes close to their stability Stage 2C
limits, with little scope for extending Stage 3: Final design
the open pit to greater depths. Stage 4: Implementation

13
 Rapid cave design and production
scheduling
For early stage caving projects, there commodity prices, metallurgical
is usually a high degree of uncertainty recoveries, discount rate and to a lesser
in the input parameters that impact the extent operating costs. It is found that
mine design and strategy. When dealing mixing and footprint development costs
with such uncertainty, it is better to have little impact on the placement of
quickly generate multiple designs and the footprint or the overall mine strategy.
schedules that cover the likely range of key Design details such as drawpoint layout,
parameters rather than evaluating only a undercutting and infrastructure are not Cave Mining – Optionality in Operation
few or even a single case based on precise critical for this process and costs can be
but inaccurate parameter assumptions. estimated based on area, perimeter, and
Option
depth of each footprint.
SRK has worked on many early stage
projects and has developed processes Each design or schedule can then be
and tools for rapidly generating an array of fed into our rapid economic evaluation Ultimate Size of Mine Plan
conceptual cave designs and schedules model to see how it responds over a
for use in our rapid economic evaluation range of conditions. Designs can be
Mining and Milling Rates
and strategic planning process. evaluated using different assumptions on
costs, prices, material handling systems,
For block caving projects, the rapid
productions rates, and more. Instead Cut-off policy
generation of designs and schedules is
of generating a single mine plan for an
done using GEOVIA’s Footprint Finder>
assumed set of conditions, this process
It is part of the PCBC caving simulation Stockpiling
enables the identification of robust
package, and complements a suite of
strategies that perform well across a
proprietary software tools and templates
range of conditions. Ore Type Selection
used to automate and manage the
process and collate the data. For sublevel SRK’s strategic planning process has
cave projects, we use a similar mix of been used multiple times to assist Stop-start Mining
proprietary software and processes along our clients not only in assessing the
with GEOVIA’s PCSLC application. Using economic viability of a caving project, but
these tools, we can generate a suite of to select strategies for further study that
designs and schedules, each built to a balance risks with potential reward. The C ave mining, and in particular
specific scenario defined by a unique ability to rapidly generate designs and block-cave mining, stands at
combination of parameter values. production schedules is a key component one end of the spectrum of
of this process. mining method-related risks. It
Key parameters that most influence
is not so much that the risks are
the cave design in terms of footprint Scott Loewen: [email protected]
greater, but rather that the ability
boundary and elevation are the assumed
of management to respond to
variations in expected conditions is
much less than with other mining
methods. Compounding this in the
case of extraction-level stability
risk is that small issues can quickly
become large issues as the cave
operations are slowed and the
geotechnical stresses build.

A conventional open-pit mine makes

few irreversible decisions in the
planning phase. The size of the
mining fleet, the mining rate, the
cut-off policy, and the stockpiling
Cu (%) Extraction Rate (%) strategy can (and should) all be
>0.0 >=2.5 50 dynamically adjusted in response to
>=0.5 >=3.0 70 economic and technical parameters
>=1.0 >=5.0 85
to maximise cashflows and profits.
>=1.5 >=7.5 100
>=2.0 >=10.0 200

14
 Cave mining risks - not necessarily
S C O T T LO E W E N
greater, but definitely different
Scott is an
underground Mining
Engineer with 15
years’ industry
Selective Block Cave experience. He has
Open Pit Mine performed a variety of
Underground Mine Underground Mine
roles including mine
planning, ventilation,
Continuous Option Step-wise Option Limited Options
and surveying,
while working at several underground
Few Constraints Significant Constraints Significant Constraints operations. Scott’s most recent
experience before joining SRK was
working with mining software companies
Dynamic (truck-by-truck) Dynamic (stope-by-stope) Shut-off Only in the support and development of their
products. He specialises in the design,
Strategic Surge Surge planning, and scheduling of block cave
and sublevel caving projects ranging
from scoping to feasibility-level studies.
Easy Possible Impossible Scott is an advanced user of multiple
mine design packages, developer of
custom software, and an expert user of
Easy Possible Hard
PCBC and PCSLC.

Scott Loewen: [email protected]

The pit-slope angles, dewatering effectively set by infrastructure and

strategy and support strategy can all be layout. Cut-off grades have been 80% NEIL WINKELMANN
adjusted as experience is gained and defined by the footprint configuration
the geotechnical context and behavior is and a dynamic policy. Responding to N eil has over 30
better understood throughout the mine economic drivers isn’t possible. years of experience
life. The size and type of the processing in the minerals
Although sublevel caves (and other
facility (and its location) are really industry. He has held
level-based variants) have a bit more
the only ‘fixed’ decisions at the time senior management
flexibility, the implication of this is that
construction commences. positions in
there is great value in investing in a
Contrast this to a block cave. Many comprehensive strategic evaluation operations, technical
major and effectively permanent process for cave mines generally, services, and
decisions must be made before any quantitatively considering risk through business analysis.
operating experience at all is obtained. sensitivity and scenario analysis, At SRK, Neil focusses on economic
The orebody must effectively be and assessing the degree to which evaluation of mineral industry operations
delineated on five of the six sides design decisions stand up to inevitable and projects. He has expertise in
before production starts. Only the shut- variation. Getting it right up-front is economic modelling, specifically in the
off policy remains available to optimise essential. This is where the value is creation of flexible models for scenario-
economics. The geotechnical context really created in cave mines. In contrast, based risk characterisation and strategic
must be perfectly characterised, and the value in an open pit mine is created project evaluation and optimisation. Neil
designs developed to ensure stability primarily through dynamic optimisation specialises in semi-stochastic analysis
of the extraction-level under the as- over the mine operations period, rather such as expected-value analysis, and
yet untested loading environment. than at the initial design phase. full Monte Carlo simulations.
No significant redesign on the fly Neil Winkelmann: [email protected]
Neil Winkelmann: [email protected]
is possible. Production rates are

15
 Mudrush dynamics in underground
mining

Examples of very stiff red clays from Northparkes Mine and a typical low-viscosity mudpush (Photos courtesy of Rio Tinto and De Beers)

Mudrush, mudflow, or mudpush are process, and through production an inrush of 450,000 m3 of muck into
the most common terms describing activities, provide disturbances as the workings. The muck originated from
uncontrolled ingress of assorted well as a discharge point. Block caving tailings dams, which were located on
mixture of water and solids. Mudrush operations are also susceptible to subsiding ground above the workings.
is the underground equivalent of external mudrush flows because the The water, impounded in the depressed
surface debris flow. It can have broken muckpile connects the surface crater of the tailings that had subsided,
different origins but produce the same with the underground excavations. was seen as a major contributor to
results: injury, loss of life, damage the inrush.
Although mudrushes are more
to property, excess dilution, and
common in caves than in other mines, Over the past two decades, the mining
production delays, or -- in extreme
any mining activity that enables the industry developed a comprehensive
cases – mine closure. Mudrush
accumulation of fine particles and water risk assessment including risk rating
dynamics in underground mining are
is susceptible to mudrushes. Cases exist and safe operating procedures.
especially complex due to confinement
of injuries and fatalities from sudden Although mudrushes are difficult to
and stress within the muckpile.
ore pass discharges, the collapse and predict and impossible to prevent, if
Block caving and sublevel caving subsequent flow of unconsolidated or taken seriously, the impact on operation
operations are inherently susceptible poorly consolidated backfill, and the can be minimised with proper cave
to internal mudrushes because they failure of tailings and slimes dams. In management and draw control.
have the potential to accumulate water, September 1970, 89 miners were killed
A mudrush seldom occurs as the result
generate fines through comminution at the Mufulira mine in Zambia due to
of a single cause or fault; therefore,

16
 A number of caving mines operate • Inspection of old workings for
safely with high rainfall and mud- presence of water and/or mud
forming potential using tele-remote • Sealing off all possible access points
equipment and strict mudrush risk to the cave other than operating
mitigation procedures, such as: drawpoints
• Interception of water flow into the • Strict draw control procedures
cave (surface and underground)
• Comprehensive monitoring program
• Pre-strip of mud-forming overburden and reliable water balance
waste from the subsidence zone
Jarek Jakubec: [email protected]
• Tailing ponds and other sources of
water and/or mud located away from
the expected subsidence zone

Figure illustrates the mudrush risk assessment process

Sources of fines Source of water

(material properties of ore, (surface and underground;
waste, and overburden) quantities and distribution)

Mud-forming potential
any risk analysis has to take into
(mud occurence in muckpile)
account all contributing factors and
combinations thereof. A system Cave geometry
failure usually results when a
combination of failures occurs
Draw control and dynamics
in such a way that the disturbing Mudflow potential
forces exceed the capacity of the (trigger, discharge, and deposition)
system to resist those forces.

Before assessing any risks to

a mine, however, the following
questions need to be answered: Mudrush risk analysis
(likelihood and consequences)
• Is there potential to generate
fines?
Controls
• Is there potential to accumulate (monitoring and preventative measures)
water?
Mudrush consequences
• Is there potential to form mud?
(safety and economic)
• What disturbance can mobilise
and discharge the wet muck?

17
 The importance of post-drilling
assessment
C A R L KOT T M E I E R

C arl, BASc, MBA,

is a professional
engineer with 30
years of experience
in open-pit and
underground mining
environments in
Canada and the
United States.
His operational experience includes
mine design and construction, mine
contracting, mine operations, blast
design and optimisation, technical
reviews and audits, mine permitting,
project management, due diligence
studies, cost estimation, and
financial modelling. Carl’s commodity
experience includes projects involving
coal, nickel, copper, molybdenum,
lead, zinc, gold, and silver.
I n sublevel caving operations, it is make any required adjustments before
Carl Kottmeier: [email protected] imperative that the production blastholes the explosives charging process begins.
be drilled accurately so that there is no Blastholes that have deviated excessively
risk of unblasted ore remaining between will have a considerably different
I O U R I I A KOV L E V adjacent drawpoints. Post-drilling burden than was planned and therefore
assessment is the process of mitigating the explosives loading -- and in some
Iouri’s expertise this risk by verifying that blastholes have instances the delay timing -- will have to
is in engineering been drilled accurately with the correct be adjusted.
activities related to length and orientation, following the
Without corrective action, blasthole
mine development blast design.
deviation can result in unblasted ore and/
and production,
Although the process can be time or poorly blasted ore remaining between
compliance with
consuming, post-drilling assessment is adjacent drawpoints. Additionally,
quality standards,
an important process that is worth the blastholes that have been inaccurately
safety objectives,
time and the costs involved and blasting. drilled may have excessive burdens that
schedules and costs.
Engineers should frequently assess how can lead to poor fragmentation, create
In addition to extensive underground
the blastholes have been drilled (length, excessive vibration, and in extreme cases
coal production experience, Iouri’s
orientation, and the spatial relationship lead to blasthole rifling. Blastholes that
engineering consulting experience
between adjacent blastholes) and have been drilled with insufficient burden
includes due diligence reviews,
compare this information to the blast can generate excessive overbreak in the
operational assistance, technical studies
plan. In particular, special attention should brow and pillars, cause blasthole cut-offs,
(scoping, pre- feasibility and feasibility)
be given to any blastholes that extend and desensitise the explosives in adjacent
and detailed engineering for mining
towards, and overlap with, blastholes from blastholes.
properties in Canada, USA, Mexico,
adjacent drawpoints.
South America, Africa, Europe and Asia. Further, post-drilling assessments can help
Post-drilling assessment provides drillers determine what may need to be
Iouri Iakovlev: [email protected]
important feedback on blasthole drilling done to reduce drilling error.
deviation; it allows a blasting engineer to
Areas of focus may include the following:

18
 Automation in a cave mining
environment
In general, automation is most Continued operation during shift and
effectively applied to repetitive tasks, blasting breaks In an automated mine,
such as production loading and the operator is located on the surface,
trucking. The significant presence of and can keep the machines working
these highly repetitive tasks in a cave during firing time. Hot seat changes
mining environment make automation happen steps from the mine parking lot
particularly attractive. and keep the machines working during
shift change.
The increasing automation of mining
equipment is the natural evolution of Data collection The automation
basic tele-remote operation. The primary infrastructure can also be used to capture
benefit of tele-remote mining is in the operating data such as the ore source
safety and comfort for the equipment and destination. This is particularly useful
operator, having been removed from as draw point management is a critical
the seat. Historically, a tele-remote driver of an efficient production plan and
operator would be located at the mine effective control of the caving.
site, near the machine being operated.
Implementing an automated system is
However, recent improvements in
most effective when it is considered
communications bandwidth allow
before the mine is built, allowing a
operators to be located wherever there
suitable design and the right equipment
is a good internet connection.
to be specified. Automation can also be
A remaining challenge for automation implemented in an existing operating
technology in the production process is mine but some compromise is typically
automated bucket loading. Muck piles required. Pushback from personnel may
are not homogenous; subtle variations in be encountered making automation both
rock size, compaction, and brow position more difficult and perhaps ultimately less
mean that the optimum technique for effective.
• Improving survey controls filling the bucket will differ with every
It is valuable to consider automation at
cycle. Although bucket filling algorithms
• Improving the orientation accuracy the PFS/FS level so mine infrastructure
are improving, in most applications, the
of each drill setup can be designed to accommodate
highest productivity (and lowest cost
• Reducing the number of drill setups automation. The layout of the extraction
per tonne) is currently thought to be
per ring level and design of ore-handling system
achieved when the operator intervenes
is critical with the overall strategy
• Properly fixing the drill in place with to load the bucket.
for effective and efficient isolation of
drill stingers and support jacks
There is little actual saving in labour automated zones an important factor.
• Using drill-string centralisers and costs as a result of automation allowing
stabilisers The technology for autonomous
one person to operate several machines.
underground production is available
For these reasons, post-drilling The reality is that the automated mine
and appropriate for consideration. The
assessment was used with great will require the same labour, more-or-
opportunities and risk for autonomous
success at the Cassiar Asbestos Mine, less, albeit with different skills, and
haulage system are largely associated
a sublevel block caving operation in deployed in areas of technical support
with the efficacy of its implementation
northern British Columbia that operated rather than in operations.
rather than with the technology itself.
until 1992. Approximately 50% of the The true advantages provided by
blastholes in each ring were surveyed Successful implementation of
automation are more subtle.
as part of the post-drilling assessment. automation requires effective planning
Corrective action was taken prior to Consistent, careful operation An and organisation. The distraction of the
charging the ring blastholes to ensure automated machine will be operated far day-to-day can impact this process at
the success of the blasting process. more carefully than a human operator. operating mines. Enthusiastic leadership
Corrective actions sometimes included It will operate within the designed and effective change management
redrilling the blastholes, using stronger parameters -- it won’t hit the wall or ride are essential. It has been said that the
explosives as a toe load, and adjusting the brakes or change into reverse while journey to automation can be just as
blasthole delay timing. moving forwards. rewarding as the automation itself.

Carl Kottmeier: [email protected] Iouri Iakovlev: [email protected]

19
 SRK project countries SRK offices

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