CHEMISTRY I 1

ATOMIC MASS
The atomic mass (ma) is the mass of an atom. Its unit is the unified atomic mass units (symbol:
u, or Da) where 1 unified atomic mass unit is defined as  1⁄12 of the mass of a single carbon-12
atom, at rest.[1] For atoms, the protons and neutrons of the nucleus account for almost all of the
mass, and the atomic mass measured in u has nearly the same value as the mass number.
When divided by unified atomic mass units or daltons to form a pure numeric ratio, the atomic
mass of an atom becomes a dimensionless value called the relative isotopic mass (see section
below). Thus, the atomic mass of a carbon-12 atom is 12 u or 12 daltons (Da), but the relative
isotopic mass of a carbon-12 atom is simply 12.

AVOGRADO’S NUMBER
Avogadro’s number, number of units in one mole of any substance (defined as its molecular
weight in grams), equal to 6.022140857 × 1023. The units may be electrons, atoms, ions,
or molecules, depending on the nature of the substance and the character of the reaction (if any). 

THE MOLE CONCEPT

For covalent substances, the formula represents the numbers and types of atoms composing a
single molecule of the substance; therefore, the formula mass may be correctly referred to as a
molecular mass. Consider chloroform (CHCl3), a covalent compound once used as a surgical
anesthetic and now primarily used in the production of the “anti-stick” polymer, Teflon. The
molecular formula of chloroform indicates that a single molecule contains one carbon atom, one
hydrogen atom, and three chlorine atoms. The average molecular mass of a chloroform molecule
is therefore equal to the sum of the average atomic masses of these atoms. Figure 1 outlines the
calculations used to derive the molecular mass of chloroform, which is 119.37 amu.

Figure 1. The average mass of a chloroform molecule, CHCl 3, is 119.37 amu, which is the sum
of the average atomic masses of each of its constituent atoms. The model shows the molecular
structure of chloroform.
Likewise, the molecular mass of an aspirin molecule, C9H8O4, is the sum of the atomic masses of
nine carbon atoms, eight hydrogen atoms, and four oxygen atoms, which amounts to 180.15 amu
(Figure 2).
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Figure 2. The average mass of an aspirin molecule is 180.15 amu. The model shows the
molecular structure of aspirin, C9H8O4.
Example 1

COMPUTING MOLECULAR MASS

FOR A COVALENT COMPOUND
Ibuprofen, C13H18O2, is a covalent compound and the active ingredient in several popular
nonprescription pain medications, such as Advil and Motrin. What is the molecular mass (amu)
for this compound?
Solution
Molecules of this compound are comprised of 13 carbon atoms, 18 hydrogen atoms, and 2
oxygen atoms. Following the approach described above, the average molecular mass for this
compound is therefore:

Check Your Learning

Acetaminophen, C8H9NO2, is a covalent compound and the active ingredient in several popular
nonprescription pain medications, such as Tylenol. What is the molecular mass (amu) for this
compound?
151.16 amu
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*Formula Mass for Ionic Compounds*

Ionic compounds are composed of discrete cations and anions combined in ratios to yield
electrically neutral bulk matter. The formula mass for an ionic compound is calculated in the
same way as the formula mass for covalent compounds: by summing the average atomic masses
of all the atoms in the compound’s formula. Keep in mind, however, that the formula for an ionic
compound does not represent the composition of a discrete molecule, so it may not correctly be
referred to as the “molecular mass.”
As an example, consider sodium chloride, NaCl, the chemical name for common table salt.
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound composed of sodium cations, Na+, and chloride anions,
Cl−, combined in a 1:1 ratio. The formula mass for this compound is computed as 58.44 amu
(see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Table salt, NaCl, contains an array of sodium and chloride ions combined in a 1:1
ratio. Its formula mass is 58.44 amu.
Note that the average masses of neutral sodium and chlorine atoms were used in this
computation, rather than the masses for sodium cations and chlorine anions. This approach is
perfectly acceptable when computing the formula mass of an ionic compound. Even though a
sodium cation has a slightly smaller mass than a sodium atom (since it is missing an electron),
this difference will be offset by the fact that a chloride anion is slightly more massive than a
chloride atom (due to the extra electron). Moreover, the mass of an electron is negligibly small
with respect to the mass of a typical atom. Even when calculating the mass of an isolated ion, the
missing or additional electrons can generally be ignored, since their contribution to the overall
mass is negligible, reflected only in the nonsignificant digits that will be lost when the computed
mass is properly rounded. The few exceptions to this guideline are very light ions derived from
elements with precisely known atomic masses.
Example 2
*Computing Formula Mass for an Ionic Compound*
Aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, is an ionic compound that is used in the manufacture of paper and
in various water purification processes. What is the formula mass (amu) of this compound?
Solution
The formula for this compound indicates it contains Al3+ and SO42− ions combined in a 2:3 ratio.
For purposes of computing a formula mass, it is helpful to rewrite the formula in the simpler
format, Al2S3O12. Following the approach outlined above, the formula mass for this compound is
calculated as follows:
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Check Your Learning

Calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2, is an ionic compound and a common anti-caking agent added to
food products. What is the formula mass (amu) of calcium phosphate?
310.18 amu

PERCENT COMPOSITION AND CHEMICAL

FORMULA
Percent Composition Formula
Percent composition is the term used to describe the percent by mass of each element in a
compound. It is typically found using the molar mass values for both the elements in the
compound and the compound itself.

Percent Composition Formula Questions:

1.Find the percent composition of water.
Answer:
First, find the molar mass of water (H2O).
H = 1.01 x 2 = 2.02           H2O = 2.02 + 16.00 = 18.02
O = 16.00 x 1 = 
Now find the percent composition of each element.

               

                       
2. Find the percent composition of calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2.
Ca = 40.08 x 1 = 40.08                 Ca(NO3)2 = 40.08 + 28.02 + 96.00 = 164.10 
N = 14.01 x 2 = 28.02 
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TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION IN AQUEOUS

REACTION
An aqueous reaction is a chemical reaction that take place in water. Many important chemical
reactions take place in water and many of these are associated with life. There are three main
types of aqueous reactions and these are known as precipitation reactions, acid-base reactions
and oxidation-reduction reactions.
Water and Aqueous Solutions
Water molecules consist of two hydrogen atoms bonded to a single oxygen atom. Many
substances can dissolve in water and the result is an aqueous solution. An example of an aqueous
solution is sodium chloride (salt) dissolved in water.
Precipitation Reactions
A precipitation reaction takes place when two aqueous reactants, one solid and one liquid, react
to form an insoluble product known as a precipitate. An example is when lead nitrate is mixed
with potassium iodide as shown in the following chemical reaction:
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI => PbI2 + 2KNO3
Lead iodide is the insoluble product that is produced and hence is the precipitate.
Acid-base Reaction
An acid is a substance that contains positive hydrogen ions. In contrast, a base is a substance that
accepts hydrogen ions and produces negative hydroxyl ions in water. When an acid and base
react together, the result is a neutralization reaction. An example of a neutralization reaction is
hydrochloric acid combining with sodium hydroxide base to produce water and sodium chloride.
The chemical equation is:
HCl + NaOH => H2O + NaCl
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation is the process by which a chemical loses electrons and becomes more positive.
Reduction is the opposite process and occurs when a chemical gains electrons and becomes
more negative. An oxidation-reduction reaction, which is also known as a redox reaction, takes
place between a metal and a non-metal. An example of a redox action is when sodium, which is
officially classified as a metal, reacts with chlorine and produces sodium chloride:
2Na + Cl2 => 2NaCl
In this reaction an electron is transferred from the sodium atom to the chlorine atom. This leads
to a positively charged sodium ion and a negatively charged chlorine ion. The electrostatic
repulsion between the two elements creates an ionic bond.
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MASS RELATIONSHIP IN CHEMICAL REACTION

The reaction which you used to prepare the salt in this experiment should have proceeded to
completion.  This type of reaction is also used to prepare weakly dissociated acids.  It can be
seen from the equation that the reactants are a stong acid and the salt of a weak acid.  One
product of such a reaction is a weak acid.  We can assume that when a strong acid reacts to form
a weak acid that ions of the strong acid are removed from the solution.  Hence,  the reaction
proceeds essentially to completion.  In this reaction, the weak acid formed as a product was
carbonic acid. H2CO3. However, carbonic acid decomposes into CO2 and H2O. 
 

One of your objectives in this experiment was to compare the experimental and calculated yield
of product.  The following example is provided to assist you in making the required
calculations.  The theoretical yield is calculated as follows: 
 
NaHCO3  +  HCl  --------->  NaCl  +  H2O  +  CO2(g)

 
From the balanced equation it can be seen that 1 mole of NaHCO3 produces 1 mole of NaCl.
Assume that 2.00 grams of NaHCO3 were used. 
 
Moles of NaHCO3 =           grams         =          2.00 g          =  0.0238  moles 
                                    molecular mass         84.01 g/mole 
 
Since the NaHCO3: NaCl mole ratio is 1:1, then 0.0238 moles of NaHCO3 would form 0.0238
moles of NaCl.  The mass of this amount of NaCl would be: 
 
grams of NaCl = n  X  mm  =  0.0238 mol  X  58.44 g/mol = 1.39 grams of NaCl 
 
The theoretical yield of NaCl expected is 1.39 grams. 
 
Assume also that the student obtains 1.30 grams of NaCl. Their percentage yield would then be 
 
                       what they actually obtained    = 1.30 grams * 100%  = 93.4% 
                   what they should have obtained     1.39 grams