CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

REFRESHER
OCTOBER – NOVEMBER, 2019
FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERS LICENSURE EXAMINATION
ON NOVEMBER 23, 24 AND 25, 2019

DR. LEONARDO C. MEDINA, JR.

 UNIT OPERATIONS
THEORY AND EQUATIONS
SCREENING
 9TH EDITION
SECTION 21
PAGES 21-56 TO 21-66
TABLES
21-11: ASTM E11 AND ISO 565/3310-1
COMPARISON CHART
21-12: APERTURE AND WIRE DIAMETERS FOR
COMMERCIAL SCREEN CLOTH
 7TH EDITION
SECTION 19
PAGES 19-18 TO 19-23
TABLES
19-5: TYPES OF SCREENING OPERATIONS
19-6: US SIEVE SERIES & TYLER EQUIVALENTS
19-7: SLOTTED OPENING FACTORS
FIGURES 19-21 & 19-22: UNIT CAPACITY & OPEN AREA
FACTOR
FORMULA: 1” = M ( A + D )
WHERE: M = MESH NUMBER, A= APERTURE, D = WIRE DIAMETER

THE ACTUAL APERTURE SIZE WILL VARY BECAUSE OF THE

DIFFERENT WIRE SIZES USED FOR DIFFERENT SCREEN GRADES.
LABORATORY SIEVES CONFORM TO ASTM STANDARD E11-01. TABLE
21-11 GIVES APERTURE SIZES VERSUS MESH SIZE FOR THIS AS WELL
AS THE ISO STANDARD.

TABLE 21-11 ASTM E11 AND ISO 565/3310-1 COMPARISON CHART

PERRY’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERS’ HANDBOOK 9TH EDITION
TABLE 21-12 APERTURE AND WIRE DIAMETERS FOR COMMERCIAL SCREEN
CLOTH PERRY’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERS’ HANDBOOK 9TH EDITION

COMMERCIAL SCREEN CLOTH IS MANUFACTURED IN THREE DIFFERENT

GRADES: MARKET GRADE, MILL GRADE AND TENSILE BOLTING CLOTH (TBC).
MARKET GRADE HAS THE THICKEST WIRE AND SMALLEST APERTURE WHILE
TBC HAS THE THINNEST WIRE AND THE LARGEST APERTURE FOR A GIVEN
MESH SIZE TABLE 21-12 SHOWS THE RESPECTIVE WIRE SIZES AND
APERTURE FOR THE THREE COMMERCIAL SCREEN CLOTH GRADES.
 SCREEN EFFECTIVENESS, E
FEED
F, x F

Screen OVERSIZE
R, x R

UNDERSIZE
(Product)
P, x P
LET X = MASS FRACTION OF THE DESIRED MATERIAL (IN THIS CASE THE
UNDERSIZE)

Px p
RECOVERY =
FxF
REJECTION = 1 – RECOVERY OF UNDESIRED MATERIAL
= P 1  x p 
1
F 1  xF 
EFFECTIVENESS = (RECOVERY) X (REJECTION),

Px p  P 1  x p  
E 1  
FxF  F 1  xF  
IN TERMS OF MASS FRACTION:
OVER-ALL MATERIAL BALANCE: F  PR
COMPONENT MATERIAL BALANCE: FxF  Px p  RxR
x P x F  x R  P  xF  xR 
RECOVERY =
x F x P  x R  
1  xP xF  xR 
F ( xP  xR )
REJECTION = 1
1  xF xP  xR 
EFFECTIVENESS = (RECOVERY) (REJECTION),

x p xF  xR   1  xP xF  xR 
E 1  
xF xP  xR   1  xF xP  xR 
EFFECTIVENESS = EFFECTIVENESS BASED X EFFECTIVENESS
ON OVERSIZE PARTICLES BASED ON
UNDERSIZE
PARTICLES

Rx R  P 1  x p  
E  
Fx F  F 1  xF 
When material put through the screen is
the desired product, “efficiency” is the ratio of the amount
of undersize obtained to the amount of undersize in the
feed.

E = (R x d )/b
where E = efficiency
R = percent of fines through the screen
d = percent finer than the designated size in screen
fines
b = percent finer than the designated size in screen
feed.
When the object is to recover an oversize
product from the screen, efficiency may be
expressed as a ratio of the amount of oversize
obtained to the amount of true oversize:

E = (O x c )/ a
where O = percent of oversize over the screen
c = percent coarser than the
designated size in screen oversize
a = percent coarser than the
designated size in screen feed.
Taggart’s Formula

E = 100 x 100 ( e – v )
e ( 100 – v )
where E = efficiency
e = percentage of undersize in the
feed
v = percentage of undersize in the
screen oversize.
CAPACITY OF SCREENS:
THE SCREEN CAPACITY INDICATES HOW MUCH MATERIAL A
SCREEN CAN HANDLE.
EXPRESSIONS OF SCREEN CAPACITY:

1. MASS OF FEED /
time area  : MT feed
24 h  ft 2

mass of feed MT feed

:
2.
time area aperture  day  ft2  mm
SIZE REDUCTION
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK
9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 21 SECTION 21 SECTION 20

PAGES 21-5 TO 21-14 PAGES 21-8 TO 21-11 PAGES 20-5 TO 20-7
PAGES 21-67 TO 21-87 PAGES 21-45 TO 21-73 PAGES 20-10 TO 20-56
COMMONLY USED METHODS FOR
SIZE REDUCTION
1. COMPRESSION
2. IMPACT
3. ATTRITION
4. CUTTING
Figure 21-60 page 21-49 ChE HB 8E
 HARDNESS OF MATERIAL

The hardness of the material as measured by the Mohs scale of (1) to (10) is a
criterion of its resistance to crushing and has significant effect on the wear and tear of the
size reduction device. Arranged in increasing scale of hardness based on the Mohs scale:
Soft Materials: (1) talc, (2) gypsum, (3) calcite
Intermediate Hardness: (4) fluorite, (5) apatite, (6) feldspar
Hard Materials: (7) quartz, (8) topaz, (9) corundum, (10) diamond
PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES
SURFACE-MEAN AND MASS-MEAN DIAMETERS BASED ON NUMBERS OF PARTICLES, NI,
RATHER THAN MASS FRACTIONS, XI, FOR EACH SIZE RANGE, VOLUME SHAPE FACTOR, FV
AND TOTAL MASS, MT.
IT IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THE EXPRESSION IS IN TERMS
OF MASS FRACTIONS OR NUMBERS OF PARTICLES, THE NUMERICAL RESULT FOR THE MEAN
DIAMETER IS THE SAME.
Surface-mean diameter:
the surface-mean diameter in terms of mass fractions is:
1
DS  n (1)
xi

i 1 D pi

mass fraction is related to number of particles by,

 
3
Ni f v D pi  p
xi  (2)
Mt
Substituting (2) into (1) gives,
1
DS  (3)
f v p n
 Ni D pi
2

M t i 1

Summing (2) over all mass fractions gives,

fv p 1
 n (4)
 Ni D pi
Mt 3

i 1

Substituting (4) into (3) gives the desired expression for surface-mean diameter:
Mass-mean diameter:
the mass-mean diameter in terms of mass fractions is:
n
DW   xi D pi (5)
i 1

Substitution of (2) into (5) gives,

f v p
 N D 
n 4
DW  i pi (6)
Mt i 1

Substitution of (4) into (6) gives the desired expression for mass-mean diameter:
Arithmetic-mean diameter

 xi
n 
  2

i 1  D pi


DN  
n  
xi
 
 3
i 1  D pi




Volume-mean diameter

1
DV  1/ 3
  x
n 
  3i 
 i 1  D pi 

1. Specific Surface and Number of Particles in a Mixture

For uniform particles of mass, m, the Total Volume = m/ρp

where: ρp is the density of the particles
m pp
For a single particle: Vp  aDp 3
Number of Particles: N 
3
Total Surface Area aD p
 m p 
A  NS p  
 aD 
3
6bD p 2
 A
6m
 p Dp
 p 
1. RITTINGER’S LAW – WHICH STATES “THAT THE WORK REQUIRED
IN CRUSHING IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE NEW SURFACE
CREATED.” P Aw  Aw
 b a
T Kr
WHERE: P = THEORETICAL POWER
T = FLOW RATE OF THE FEED
Awb = SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA OF PRODUCT
Awa = SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA OF FEED
KR = RITTINGER’S NUMBER – NEW SURFACE
PRODUCED PER UNIT OF MECHANICAL
ENERGY ABSORBED BY THE MATERIAL
BEING CRUSHED.
Drop Weight Rittinger’s Number for
a Few Common Materials
 EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF NEW SURFACE
PRODUCED PER UNIT OF ENERGY FOR QUARTZ
Total Weight of Balls Sq. in. per Sq. cm. per Sq. cm. per
in Ball Mill, lb. ft-lb ft-lb kg-cm
36 5.6 36 2.6

71 10.1 65 4.6

142 12.7 82 5.9

178 14.6 94 6.8

249 12.1 78 5.6

Drop Weight Method 37.6 243 15.56

THE TOTAL ENERGY SUPPLIED TO THE CRUSHER DEPENDS UPON THE RATE OF
LOAD APPLICATION, WHICH DIFFERS WITH THE TYPE OF MACHINE AND
CONDITIONS OF OPERATION.
VALUES OF THE RITTINGER NUMBER AS DETERMINED IN THE DROP WEIGHT
CRUSHER REPRESENT MAXIMUM EFFECTIVENESS IN SIZE REDUCTION AND MAY
BE USED IN CALCULATING THE CRUSHING EFFECTIVENESS FOR ANY SUCH
OPERATION. IN THE BALL MILL WITH 178 LB. OF BALLS, THE CRUSHING
EFFECTIVENESS IS 94/243 = 0.387
THE CAPACITY OF BALL MILLS CANNOT BE ACCURATELY CALCULATED BECAUSE
OF THE EFFECTS OF VARIABLES SUCH AS THE RELATIVE GRINDING ABILITY OF
THE MATERIAL AND THE RANGE IN SIZE REDUCTION.
2. BOND’S CRUSHING LAW WHICH STATES THAT “THE
WORK REQUIRED TO FORM PARTICLES OF SIZE DP
FROM VERY LARGE FEED IS PROPORTIONAL TO
THE SQUARE ROOT OF THE SURFACE TO VOLUME
RATIO OF THE PRODUCT”.

P Sp 6
 KB  KB
T Vp Dp

WHERE: KB = CONSTANT WHICH DEPENDS ON

TYPE OF MACHINE & MATERIAL
 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS: BOND’S LAW

P  1 1  P in Hp; T in tons/min
 1.46Ei    Ei in kW - h/ton; X1 & X2 in ft
T  X2 X1 
P  1 1 
 0.3162Ei    P in kW; T in tons/hr

 X2 X1 
Ei in kW - h/ton; X1 & X2 in mm
T
 𝑃 1 1
= 0.01 𝐸𝑖 −
𝑇 𝑋2 𝑋1
P = REQUIRED POWER IN KW
T = MASS FLOW RATE OF THE SOLIDS IN KG/S
EI = WORK INDEX OF FEED ON KJ/KG
X2 AND X1 = THE PARTICLE SIZES OF THE PRODUCT
AND FEED IN METERS
3. KICKS LAW STATES THAT “ENERGY REQUIRED FOR CRUSHING IS
PROPORTIONAL TO THE LEG OF THE INITIAL AND FINAL
DIAMETERS”.

P
 Kk ln (X2/X1)
T
WHERE: X2 = SIZE REDUCTION RATIO
X1
 Table 21-8 – Average Work Indices for
Various Materials
For Jaw or Gyratory Crusher, the work index may
be estimated from:

Ei = 2.59Cs/ρs (21-76)

where: Cs = impact crushing resistance, ft-lb/in of the

thickness required to break
ρs = specific gravity
Ei = work index in kWh/ton

For examples of the variation in capacity, power and cost of grinding

relative to fineness of product, See Fig. 21-57b, Perry 8th ed.
STAGES OF SIZE REDUCTION

1. COARSE SIZE REDUCTION FOR

HARD AND SOFT MATERIALS – feeds from
2 to 9.6 in. or more
2. INTERMEDIATE SIZE REDUCTION – feeds from
1.0 to 3.0 in.
3. FINE SIZE REDUCTION – feeds from 0.25 to
0.50 in.
 Size reduction equipment is divided into crushers, grinders, ultrafine
grinders, and cutting machines. Crusher do the heavy work of breaking large
pieces of solid material into small lumps. A primary crusher lump size
ranges into 150 to 250 mm lumps. A secondary crusher reduces lumps into
particles perhaps 6mm in size.

Grinders reduce crushed feed to powder. The product from an

intermediate grinder might pass a 40-mesh screen; most of the product from
a fine grinder would pass a 200-mesh screen with a 74m m opening.
An ultrafine grinder accepts feed particles no larger than 6mm and the
product size is typically 1 to 5m m. Cutters give particles of definite size and
shape, 2 to 10mm in length.
The principal types of size-reduction machines are as
follows:
A. Crushers (coarse and fine)

• Jaw crushers

• Gyratory crushers

• Crushing rolls

B. Grinders (intermediate and fine)

• Hammer mills; impactors

• Rolling-compression mills
• Attrition mills

• Tumbling mills

C. Ultrafine grinders

• Hammer mills with internal classification

• Fluid-energy mills

• Agitated mills

D. Cutting machines

• Knife cutters; dicers; slitters

ROLL CRUSHER
THE CAPACITY OF ROLL CRUSHERS IS CALCULATED FROM THE
RIBBON THEORY, ACCORDING TO THE FORMULA

Q  D X L X S)/2.96 (21-91)

WHERE: Q  CAPACITY, CM3/MIN

D  DISTANCE BETWEEN ROLLS, CM
L  LENGTH OF ROLLS, CM
S  PERIPHERAL SPEED, CM/MIN.
THE ACTUAL CAPACITY OF THE CRUSHER DEPENDS ON ROLL DIAMETER, FEED
IRREGULARITIES, AND HARDNESS AND VARIES BETWEEN 25 AND 75 PERCENT
OF THEORETICAL CAPACITY.
BALL MILL
THE CRITERION BY WHICH THE BALL ACTION IN MILLS OF VARIOUS SIZES MAY BE COMPARED IS THE
CONCEPT OF CRITICAL SPEED. IT IS THE THEORETICAL SPEED AT WHICH THE CENTRIFUGAL FORCE ON A
BALL IN CONTACT WITH THE MILL SHELL AT
THE HEIGHT OF ITS PATH EQUALS THE FORCE ON IT DUE TO GRAVITY:

NC = 𝟒𝟐.𝟑ൗ 𝑫
(21-92)

WHERE: NC = CRITICAL SPEED, R/MIN, AND

D = DIAMETER OF THE MILL, M
= FT., FOR A BALL DIAMETER THAT IS SMALL WITH RESPECT TO THE MILL DIAMETER.

THE NUMERATOR BECOMES 76.6 WHEN D IS EXPRESSED IN FEET. ACTUAL

MILL SPEEDS RANGE FROM 65 TO 80 PERCENT OF CRITICAL. IT MIGHT BE GENERALIZED
THAT 65 TO 70 PERCENT IS REQUIRED FOR FINE WET GRINDING IN VISCOUS SUSPENSION
AND 70 TO 75 PERCENT FOR FINE WET GRINDING IN LOW-VISCOSITY SUSPENSION AND FOR
DRY GRINDING OF LARGE PARTICLES UP TO 1-CM (1⁄2-IN) SIZE.
ANGULAR VELOCITY , Ω
𝒈
𝝎=
𝒓

R = RADIUS OF THE MILL – RADIUS OF THE PARTICLE

G = ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

PROBLEM:
A BALL MILL, 1.2 M IN DIAMETER, IS RUM AT 0.8 HZ, WHAT IS THE
OPTIMUM SPEED OF ROTATION?
CAPACITY OF BALL MILLS DEPENDS VERY LARGELY ON THE REDUCTION RATIO AS WELL AS ON THE
HARDNESS OF THE MATERIAL AND IT CANNOT BE ACCURATELY CALCULATED.
CYLINDROCONICAL (HARDINGE TYPE)BALL MILL CAPACITY
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒙 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝒇𝒕)
CAPACITY (TONS/DAY) =
𝑪𝟏
WHERE C1 VARIES FROM 6 TO 3 MOST NORMAL OPERATIONS

CYLINDRICAL BALL MILL NORMAL CAPACITY

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍 ( 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒕)

CAPACITY (TONS/DAY) =
𝑪

WHERE C USUALLY VARIES FROM ABOUT 1 TO 2

JAW OR GYRATORY CRUSHERS
CRUSHERS WITH OPENINGS OF 4 IN. TO 2 FT. CAN BE DETERMINED BY THE
TAGGART FORMULA:
T = 0.6 LS
WHERE: T = CAPACITY IN TONS/HR.
L = LENGTH OF FEED OPENING, IN.
FOR: JAW CRUSHERS, L = NORMAL TO GAPE
GYRATORY CRUSHERS, L = PERIMETER OF A CIRCLE WHOSE
DIAMETER IS THE ARITHMETIC AVERAGE OF THE DIAMETER
OF THE TWO CONES
S = GREATEST WIDTH OF DISCHARGE OPENING, IN.

POWER REQUIREMENT
ABOUT THE SAME, BUT THE GYRATORY LOAD IS SOMEWHAT MORE UNIFORM
SINCE ITS CRUSHING IS CONTINUOUS WHEREAS JAW CRUSHER WORKS
INTERMITTENTLY.
TAGGART’S RULE STATES THAT “IF THE HOURLY TONNAGE TO BE CRUSHED
DIVIDED BY THE SQUARE OF THE GAPE IN INCHES IS LESS THAN 0.115,
USE A JAW CRUSHER; OTHERWISE, A GYRATORY CRUSHER.
CRUSHING ROLLS
Theoretical capacity of rolls is the
weight of a ribbon of feed having
a width equal to the width of the
rolls, a thickness equal to the
distance between the rolls and
a length equal to peripheral
velocity of the rolls in linear units
per interval of time.
FORCE EXERTED BY CRUSHING ROLLS FOR A SPHERICAL
PARTICLE IN POSITION TO BE CRUSHED

IF THE ROLLS ARE OPERATING ON A SLAB OF

STEEL (OR A PARTICLE OF SIMILAR SHAPE)
WHERE:
An = ANGLE OF NIP (THE VALUE OF ANGLE A CORRESPONDING TO FR BEING
HORIZONTAL
Dr = DIAMETER OF THE ROLLS
Df = DIAMETER OF THE FEED PARTICLE
Dp = MAXIMUM DIMENSION OF PRODUCT ( MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN ROLLS)
Ft = TANGENTIAL FORCE ON THE PARTICLE
Fn = NORMAL FORCE ON THE PARTICLE
Fr = RESULTANT FORCE OF FT AND FN
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION IS THE RATIO OF THE FORCE TANGENT TO THE SURFACE OF
THE NORMAL TO THE SURFACE, Fc = FT/FN
PROBLEM:
IF CRUSHING ROLLS 1 M IN DIAMETER ARE SET SO THAT
THE CRUSHING SURFACES ARE 12.5 MM APART AND THE
ANGLE OF NIP IS 31°, WHAT IS THE MAXIMUM SIZE OF
PARTICLE WHICH SHOULD BE FED TO THE ROLLS?
JAW CRUSHER
FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF NORBERG SERIES
ECCENTRIC JAW CRUSHERS, SEE TABLE 21-9A,
PERRY, 8TH ED.
GYRATORY CRUSHER
FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF NORDBERG
GYRATORY CRUSHER, SEE TABLE 21-9B PERRY,
8TH ED.
SPECIFIC SURFACE OF FIVE COMMON
MINERALS
RATIO OF SPECIFIC SURFACE AS FUNCTION OF AVERAGE
PARTICLE DIAMETER
 𝐒𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜 𝐒𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞
Ƞ=
𝟔
Ƿ𝑫𝒑
Ƞ = ratio of specific surfaces
Ƿ = density of particle
Dp = Diameter of particle
MATERIALS
HANDLING
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK

9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 21 SECTION 21 SECTION 21

PAGES 21-15 TO 21-55 PAGES 21-20 TO 21-45 PAGES 21-4 TO 21-35

SCREW CONVEYORS
HORSEPOWER REQUIREMENTS OF SCREW CONVEYORS AND ALL CONVEYORS
OPERATING WITH A SCRAPING ACTION.

Horsepower 
Coefficien t Capacity, lb./min Length, ft 
ft  lbf
33,000
hp min
WHERE: COEFFICIENTS = 4.0 (ASHES)
= 2.5 (COAL)
= 1.3 (GRAIN)
 FLIGHT CONVEYOR
BDSb
T
6000
T = CAPACITY TONS/Hr
B = WIDTH OF FLIGHT, in.
D = DEPTH OF FLIGHT, in.
S = SPEED OF CONVEYOR, fpm
B = BULB DENSITY OF MATERIAL BEING HANDLED, lb/ft3
 a T L   b W L S   10 L
HP 
1000
WHERE: HP = TOTAL HORSEPOWER OF CONVEYOR SHAFT
T = MATERIAL HANDLED, TONS/Hr
L = LENGTH OF CONVEYOR FROM CENTER TO CENTER OF SPROCKET, FT.
W = TOTAL WEIGHT OF CHAIN AND FLIGHTS PER FOOT OF DISTANCE
BETWEEN CENTERS (BOTH RUNS), LB. USUALLY EQUAL TO ¼ T max.
S = SPEED, FPM
a = CONSTANT FOR MATERIAL
b = CONSTANT FOR CONVEYOR
BELT CONVEYOR
F L  Lo T  0.03WS   TZ
Hp 
990
HP = HORSEPOWER REQUIRED
F = FRICTION FACTOR, 0.05 FOR PLAIN BEARINGS; 0.03 FOR ANTI FRICTION
BEARING DEPENDING UPON THE INSTALLATION MAINTENANCE
L = LENGTH OF CONVEYOR BETWEEN TERMINAL PULLEYS, FT.
LO = 100 FOR PLAIN BEARING; 150 FOR ANTI FRICTION BEARING
S = SPEED OF BELT, FPM.
T = MATERIAL HANDLED, TONS/HR.
Z = INCREASE IN ELEVATION OF MATERIAL, FT.
W = MASS OF MOVING PARTS, INCLUDING BELT AND IDLERS PER FOOT OF DISTANCE
BETWEEN CENTER OF TERMINAL PULLEYS (BOTH/RUNS), LB.
 BUCKET ELEVATOR

HP = 2CH/1000
where
C IS ELEVATOR CAPACITY, IN TONS/H
H IS ELEVATOR HEIGHT, IN FT.
NOTE: THE ELEVATOR LENGTH IS USUALLY INCREASED BY
ABOUT 5 FT (1.5 M) MORE THAN THE VERTICAL LIFT.
APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF CONVEYORS

FLIGHT CONVEYORS:
4” X 10” TO 6” X 18”
USE W = 0.5 Lb/IN OF WIDTH PER RUNNING FOOT
8” X 18” TO 10” X 24”
USE W = 1.0 Lb/IN OF WIDTH PER RUNNING FOOT
BELT CONVEYORS:
USE W = 1.0 Lb/IN OF WIDTH PER RUNNING FOOT
 LEACHING (SOLID-
LIQUID EXTRACTION)
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
HANDBOOK
9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 18 SECTION 18 SECTION 18

PAGES 18-55 TO 18-61 PAGES 18-59 TO 18-66 PAGES 18-55 TO 18-59

CONTINUOUS COUNTER-CURRENT WASHING SYSTEM
USING THICKENERS
 SELECTION OR DESIGN OF A LEACHING
PROCESS

1. PROCESS AND OPERATING CONDITIONS

2. TEMPERATURE
3. CHOICE OF SOLVENT
4. TERMINAL STREAM COMPOSITIONS AND QUANTITIES
5. LEACHING CYCLE AND CONTACT METHOD
6. TYPE OF REACTOR
7. EXTRACTOR-SIZING CALCULATIONS
RIGHT TRIANGLE DIAGRAM
MODIFIED PONCHON SAVARIT
DIAGRAM
Constant Underflow
x1  y 2
log
xN  yN  1
N 1 
x1  x N
log
y 2  yN  1
 ASSUMPTIONS
- SOLID B IS INSOLUBLE IN SOLVENT
- NO SOLID B IN OVERFLOW
- STEADY STATE OPERATION
- SOLID B IN FEED = SOLID B IN ANY UNDERFLOW
THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE ADHERING SOLUTION IS THE SAME AS THAT OF
THE STRONG SOLUTION LEAVING A PARTICULAR STAGE.

X1=Y1
X2=Y2
XN=YN
1. CONSTANT SOLVENT RETENTION

IF solvent RATIO IS CONSTANT, CONCENTRATIONS ARE EXPRESSED IN

solid
mass solute
mass solvent

RETENTION = MASS SOLVENT RETAINED/MASS SOLID B

L1’ = L2’ = L3’ =……= LN’ = L’
V2’ = V3’ = V4’ =…..= VN+1’ = V’

Y2 = L’/V’ ( X1 – XN ) + YN+1
2. CONSTANT SOLUTION RETENTION

solution
IF RATIO IS CONSTANT, CONCENTRATIONS ARE EXPRESSED IN
solid
mass solute
mass solution

RETENTION = MASS SOLUTION RETAINED/MASS SOLID B

L1 = L2 = L3 =……= LN = L
V2 = V3 = V4 =…..= VN+1 = V

Y2 = L/V ( X1 – XN ) + YN+1
SOLVENT EXTRACTION
(LIQUID-LIQUID
EXTRACTION)
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK
9TH EDITION 8 TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 15 SECTION 15 SECTION 15

PAGES 15-6 TO 15-21 PAGES 15-6 TO 15-21 PAGES 15-4 TO 15-47
PAGES 15-53 TO 15-83 PAGES 15-58 TO 15-92
TABLE 15-5 SELECTED LIST OF
TERNARY SYSTEMS

TABLE 15-1 SELECTED PARTITION RATIO DATA

 COUNTER-CURRENT FLOW, N EQUILIBRIUM
STAGE LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION CASCADE
K = DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT

concentration of solute in raffinate phase

k
concentration of solute in extract phase
K = PARTITION RATIO

mass fraction solute in extract phase

k
mass fraction of solute in raffinate phase
A = FEED SOLVENT, B = SOLUTE, S = EXTRACTION SOLVENT
FEED SOLVENT, A AND EXTRACTION SOLVENT, S ARE IMMISCIBLE WITH
EACH OTHER
PARTITION RATIO K IS COMMONLY DEFINED FOR A GIVEN SOLUTE AS
THE SOLUTE CONCENTRATION IN THE EXTRACT PHASE DIVIDED BY
THAT IN THE RAFFINATE PHASE AFTER EQUILIBRIUM IS ATTAINED IN A
SINGLE STAGE OF CONTACTING. A VARIETY OF CONCENTRATION
UNITS ARE USED, SO IT IS IMPORTANT TO DETERMINE HOW PARTITION
RATIOS HAVE BEEN DEFINED IN THE LITERATURE FOR A GIVEN
APPLICATION. THE TERM PARTITION RATIO IS PREFERRED, BUT IT ALSO
IS REFERRED TO AS THE DISTRIBUTION CONSTANT, DISTRIBUTION
COEFFICIENT, OR THE K VALUE. IT IS A MEASURE OF THE
THERMODYNAMIC POTENTIAL OF A SOLVENT FOR EXTRACTING A
GIVEN SOLUTE AND CAN BE A STRONG FUNCTION OF COMPOSITION
AND TEMPERATURE.
EXTRACTION FACTOR E IS A PROCESS VARIABLE THAT CHARACTERIZES THE CAPACITY
OF THE EXTRACT PHASE TO CARRY SOLUTE RELATIVE TO THE FEED PHASE. ITS VALUE
LARGELY DETERMINES THE NUMBER OF THEORETICAL STAGES REQUIRED TO
TRANSFER SOLUTE FROM THE FEED TO THE EXTRACT. THE EXTRACTION FACTOR IS
ANALOGOUS TO THE STRIPPING FACTOR IN DISTILLATION AND IS THE RATIO OF THE
SLOPE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM LINE TO THE SLOPE OF THE OPERATING LINE IN A
MCCABE-THIELE TYPE OF STAGE-WISE GRAPHICAL CALCULATION.
 DESIRABLE SOLVENT PROPERTIES
(PAGES 15-11 TO 15-12 )

1. LOADING CAPACITY 11. SAFETY AND HEALTH

2. PARTITION RATIO 12. INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE (NOT INCLUDED IN 9TH EDITION)
3. SOLUTE SELECTIVITY 13. ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
4. MUTUAL SOLUBILITY 14. MULTIPLE USES
5. STABILITY 15. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
6. DENSITY DIFFERENCE 16. AVAILABILITY AND COST
7. VISCOSITY
8. INTERFACIAL TENSION
9. RECOVERABILITY
10. FREEZING POINT
 DESIGN DIAGRAMS. (DILUENT AND SOLVENT
PARTIALLY MISCIBLE)
TRIANGULAR COORDINATES. (“EQUILATERAL” TRIANGLE DIAGRAM)

extract branch

plait point

raffinate branch
B A
Type I
 S

extract

raffinate

B A
Type II
 S

xs
s vs y (extract)
ny s
A plait point
S
A B S
s vs x (raffinate)

B A
x A or y A
S Type I
s B
B A S X Bor YB 
B  A S
 S

xs
or extract

ys
af f in ate
r

B A
x A or y A
Type II
JANECKE OR PONCHON DIAGRAM. (WEIGHT
RATIO “SOLVENT-FREE” BASIS)

extract branch

s'
plait point

raffinate
X, Y
Type I
A B
s'  X or Y 
A B B A
 s' vs Y
extract

s'
s' vs X

raffinate
X, Y
Type II
CONSTRUCTION OF EQUILIBRIUM STAGES ON JANECKE
DIAGRAM
CO-CURRENT CONTACT WITH IMMISCIBLE SOLVENTS
FOR N STAGES (EQUAL AMOUNT OF SOLVENT FED PER
STAGE)
𝑨 𝒏
Xn = XF
𝑨+𝑺𝒎

A = MASS OF SOLVENT IN FEED

S = MASS OF FRESH SOLVENT
N = NUMBER OF STAGES
M = DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT
X = MASS RATIO OF SOLUTE / SOLVENT
SEDIMENTATION
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
HANDBOOK
9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 6 SECTION 6 SECTION 6

PAGES 6-46 TO 6-50 PAGES 6-51 TO 6-56 PAGES 6-50 TO 6-54

SECTION 18 SECTION 18 SECTION 18

PAGES 18-62 TO 18-76 PAGES 18-66 TO 18-82 PAGES 18-59 TO 18-73
  F  Ma :
NEWTON’S LAW:

m du
FE  FB  FD 
g c dt
WHERE: EXTERNAL FORCE,
mae
FE 
BUOYANT FORCE, gc
ma e
FB 
DRAG FORCE,
 p gc
C D u Ap
2
FD 
2gc
SUBSTITUTING AND RE-ARRANGING

du      C u 2
Ap
 ae  
p D
dt  p  2 m
IF EXTERNAL FORCE IS DUE TO GRAVITY
 

ae  g
IF EXTERNAL FORCE IS DUE TO CENTRIFUGAL ACTION

ae  r 2
TERMINAL VELOCITY FOR FREE SETTLING

WHEN THE VELOCITY OF THE PARTICLE ATTAINS THE MAXIMUM (OR TERMINAL)
VELOCITY,

   
1
DU/DT = 0, THUS  2g  p   m  2  2r  p   m 
ut      
 Ap  p  CD   Ap  p  CD 
FOR SPHERICAL PARTICLES:
1
m   Dp  p
3
AND 6
1
Ap   D p
2
4
  4 g D p  p     D p  p   
1 1
2 2

ut       
 3 C D   3 C D 
D p ut 
N Rep 


b1
CD  n
N Rep
SPHERICITY, Φ
surface area of sphere of
same volume as particle

surface area of particle

Volume of particle  Volume of sphere

Ds3
Volume of particle 
6
Ds 2

surface area of particle
SHAPE FACTORS (SPHERICITY) OF
SOME MATERIALS
Material Shape Factor (Sphericity) , ᶲs
Spheres 1.0

Cubes 0.81

Cylinders 0.87
Dp = h (length)
Berl Saddles 0.3

Raschig Rings 0.3

Coal Dust, Pulverized 0.73

Sand, average 0.75

Crushed Glass 0.65

SHAPE FACTORS (SPHERICITY) OF
SOME MATERIALS
Material Shape Factor (Sphericity) , ᶲs
Cylinder, h (length) = 5d 0.7
h (length) = 10d 0.58
Discs, h = d/3 0.76
h = d/6 0.6
h = d/10 0.47
Beach sand As high as 0.86

River sand As low as 0.53

Triturated solids 0.5 – 0.7

Granulated Particles 0.7 – 0.8

Wheat 0.85
Crushed glass 0.65
RANGE of NRep b1
Motion
n
Stoke’s <2 24 1
Law
Intermediate 2 to 500 18.5 0.6
Law

Newton’s > 500 0.44 0

Law
 g D  p     rD  p   
STOKE’S LAW RANGE:
2 2 2

ut  
p p

18 18
  
INTERMEDIATE LAW RANGE:
0.71 1.14 0.71
0.153g D
ut 
p p

NEWTON’S LAW RANGE  

0.29 0.43

gDp( p   )
ut  1.75

TO DETERMINE THE RANGE OF MOTION IF NREP IS NOT KNOWN,

 g  p   
1
3

K  Dp  
  2

IF K < 3.3, STOKE’S LAW APPLIES
3.3 < K < 44, INTERMEDIATE LAW; AND
K > 44, NEWTON’S LAW.
HINDERED SETTLING: STOKES LAW
2 
g D       2
p p 
u 
t 18
1

1.82( 1   )
10
  liquid
Dm
NRE 
m
TERMINAL VELOCITY FOR HINDERED SETTLING

For Stokes Law

PROBLEM:
A MIXTURE OF QUARTZ AND GALENA OF A SIZE RANGE FROM 0.015
MM TO 0.065 MM IS TO BE SEPARATED INTO TWO PURE FRACTIONS
USING A HINDERED SETTLING PROCESS. WHAT IS THE MINIMUM
APPARENT DENSITY OF THE FLUID THAT WILL GIVE THIS
SEPARATION? THE DENSITY OF GALENA IS 7500 KG/M3 AND THE
DENSITY OF QUARTZ IS 2650 KG/M3.
NON-SPHERICAL PARTICLE

K
CD 
NRE 2
3
4 gDp  ( p   )
K
3 2
DRAG COEFFICIENT AS A FUNCTION OF REYNOLDS
NUMBER
 BATCH SEDIMENTATION
FOR FREE SETTLING: Zo  Zc
c 
ut

  K Z  Z  
FOR HINDERED SETTLING: dZ
d
INTEGRATING:
 Z dZ
 c
 Kd  
Zc Z  Z
1 Z  Z
  c  ln
K Zc  Z
DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM THICKENER AREA
1. KYNCH METHOD
V VS. CL

2. TALMADGE AND FITCH METHOD

Z VS. Ɵ
V FCF  1 1 
   
A A  C L Cu 

FCF  1 1 
A   
ut  C L CU 
CENTRIFUGATION
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK

9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 18 SECTION 18 SECTION 18

PAGES 18-93 TO 18-114 PAGES 18-114 TO 18-151 PAGES 18-106 TO 18-133

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

ACCELERATION DUE TO CENTRIFUGAL a e  r 2

FORCE, 2
mv
WHERE: R = RADIUS, Fc  mae  mr 2

,
 = ANGULAR VELOCITY, RAD/S r
,

Fc mr v r  2N 
2 2 2

    
Fg mg rg g  60 
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 60 60
2N
WHERE: V = LINEAR VELOCITY  N 
60 2 2r
 STRESS IN THE WALLS
CENTRIFUGAL PRESSURE
EXERTED BY THE SOLIDS ON
THE WALL OF A CENTRIFUGE
BASKET S = MAXIMUM SAFE STRESS
X = WALL THICKNESS
PC = 𝟎. 𝟓𝝆𝝎 𝟐
𝒓𝟐𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐𝟏 ΡM = DENSITY OF CENTRIFUGE MATERIAL
R2 = BASKET RADIUS
R1 = RADIUS OF INNER SURFACE OF DENSITY OF PHOSPHOR BRONZE =
SOLIDS 8900 KG/M3
Ω = ANGULAR VELOCITY MAXIMUM SAFE STRESS FOR PHOSPHOR
BRONZE = 55 MN/M2
Ρ = DENSITY OF SOLIDS
PROBLEM:
A CENTRIFUGE WITH A PHOSPHOR BRONZE BASKET, 380 MM
IN DIAMETER, IS TO BE RUN AT 67 HZ WITH A 75 MM LAYER
OF LIQUID OF DENSITY 1200 KG/M3 IN THE BASKET. WHAT
THICKNESS OF WALLS ARE REQUIRED IN THE BASKET? THE
DENSITY OF PHOSPHOR BRONZE IS 8900 KG/M3 AND THE
MAXIMUM SAFE STRESS FOR PHOSPHOR BRONZE IS 87.6
MN/M2.
CENTRIFUGAL SEDIMENTATION

 r  p   
2 2
Dp
ut 
18 

 r  p   
2 2
Dp dr
ut  
18 dt
  
b  p    D
2 2  r2  r2 
qc 
pc
 2 1

18  ln 2r2 
 r1  r2 

WHERE: q c= THE CAPACITY OR THE FLOW RATE OF SLURRY SUCH THAT

PARTICLES LARGER THAN THE CUT SIZE D pc CAN BE
SEPARATED
CENTRIFUGAL FILTRATION

q
  2

r22
r12

 mc Rm 
2 
  

 AL Aa A2 
Where: Aa  ri  r2  b
AL  2b r2  ri  / ln r2 / ri 
A2  2 r2 b
CRYSTALLIZATION
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
HANDBOOK
9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION
TABLE 2-20 SOLUBILITIES OF TABLE 2-122 SOLUBILITIES OF TABLE 2-120 SOLUBILITIES OF
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS INORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN INORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN
WATER AT VARIOUS IN WATER AT VARIOUS WATER AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
TABLES 2-224 & 2-225
TABLES 2-98 & 2-99 TABLES 2-182 & 2-183
HEATS OF SOLUTION
HEATS OF SOLUTION HEATS OF SOLUTION
TABLES 2-31 TO 2-117
TABLES 2-31 TO 2-65 TABLES 2-33 TO 2-122
DENSITIES OF AQUEOUS DENSITIES OF AQUEOUS DENSITIES OF AQUEOUS
INORGANIC SOLUTIONS AT INORGANIC & ORGANIC INORGANIC & ORGANIC
1 ATM. SOLUTIONS AT 1 ATM. SOLUTIONS AT 1 ATM.
SECTION 18 SECTION18 SECTION 18
PAGES 18-32 TO 18-55 PAGES 18-39 TO 18-58 PAGES 18-35 TO 18-55
ENTHALPY CONCENTRATION DIAGRAM FOR THE MgSO4 H20
SYSTEM
ENTHALPY –CONCENTRATION DIAGRAM FOR THE NA2SO4 – H2O SYSTEM AT 1 ATM.
TOTAL PRESSURE. BASES: H = 0 FOR WATER AT 32°F AND THE TRIPLE POINT PRESSURE, H =0 FOR
NA2SO4 SOLID AT 32°F AND AT 1 ATM.
ENTHALPY –CONCENTRATION DIAGRAM FOR THE CA2CL2 – H2O SYSTEM
PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLIZATION
Vapor

Evaporator
Dilute Solution
Vapor, V

Feed
F, x F
Magma
Crystallizer

Mother Liquor,
Centrifuge L, x L
or Filter

Crystals
C, xc ,Tc
 MATERIAL BALANCE:

OVER-ALL MATERIAL BALANCE: F  C  L V

SOLUTE BALANCE: FxF  Cx c  Lx L
SOLVENT BALANCE: F 1  xF   C 1  xc   L1  xL  +V

WHERE:
XL IS THE SOLUBILITY OF THE SOLUTE AT TL
XC IS THE MW OF SOLUTE/MW OF HYDRATED CRYSTAL
FOR THE SOLUBILITY OF SOME SOLIDS,
SEE FIGURE 18-53 (9E) FIG. 18-63 (8E)
FIG. 18-64 (8E)
ENTHALPY BALANCE
If Enthalpy-Concentration data are available:

FhF  VHV  LhL  Chc  q

HEAT BALANCE :

If the specific heats, heat of solution and heat of

crystallization are available

q  VL  FcF TF  Tc   CH c

For the area of the crystallizer

q  UAT  t ln
CRYSTALLIZATION BY SEEDING
FOR A SINGLE SIZED CRYSTAL
3
 D 
WP  1   WS
 DS 
FOR AN ENTIRE RANGE OF PARTICLE SIZES:

3
 D 
1   dWS
WS
WP   o
 DS 

which is solved by trial and error.

FLOW IN FLUIDIZED
BEDS
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK

9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 17 SECTION 17 SECTION 17

PAGES 17-2 TO 17-21 PAGES 17-2 TO 17-20 PAGES 17-2 TO 17-17

TYPES OF FLUIDIZATION IN BEDS
1. PARTICULATE FLUIDIZATION
-AS THE VELOCITY IS INCREASED THE BED CONTINUES TO EXPAND AND REMAINS
HOMOGENEOUS FOR A TIME. THE PARTICLES MOVE FARTHER APART AND THEIR
MOTION BECOMES MORE RAPID. THE AVERAGE BED DENSITY AT A GIVEN
VELOCITY IS THE SAME IN ALL REGIONS OF THE BED. LIQUIDS OFTEN GIVE
PARTICULATE FLUIDIZATION
2. BUBBLING FLUIDIZATION
-THE GAS PASSES THROUGH THE BED AS VOIDS OR BUBBLES WHICH CONTAIN FEW
PARTICLES, AND ONLY A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF THE GAS PASSES IN THE SPACES
BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL PARTICLES. THE EXPANSION OF THE BED IS SMALL AS
VELOCITY IS INCREASED.
MINIMUM VELOCITY AND POROSITY FOR PARTICULATE FLUIDIZATION
VOID FRACTION, ƐMF, AT MINIMUM FLUIDIZATION CONDITIONS

Types of Particle Size, Dp (mm)

Particles
0.06 0.10 0.20 0.40
Void Fraction, Ɛmf
Sharp Sand (Øs = 0.67) 0.60 0.58 0.53 0.49

Round Sand (Øs = 0.86) 0.53 0.48 0.43 (0.42)

Anthracite Coal (Øs = 0.63) 0.61 0.60 0.56 0.52
Absorption Carbon 0.71 0.69
Fisher Tropsch Catalyst (Øs = 0.58) 0.58 0.56 (0.54)
PRESSURE DROP AND MINIMUM FLUIDIZING VELOCITY
 When NRe,mf < 20 (small particles), the first term can be dropped and
when NRe,mf > 1000 (large particles), the second term drops out

Holds for a Reynolds-number range of 0.001 to 4000

FLOTATION
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK

7TH EDITION

SECTION 19

PAGES 19-56 TO 19-65

 Basic Steps in a Flotation System
PARTICLES ATTACHED TO THE AIR BUBBLES ARE IN MOST APPLICATIONS REMOVED FROM THE
PROCESS VESSEL AS FROTH.

Froth overflow
concentrate

Feed Tailings
Conditioning Separation
underflow

Reagents Reagents Air

THE UNIT OPERATION OF FLOTATION IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS FROTH FLOTATION. THE FROTH
OVERFLOW STREAM IS CALLED A CONCENTRATE IN THE MINERALS INDUSTRY, AND THE SLURRY
UNDERFLOW IS TERMED TAILINGS.
 FLOTATION REAGENT WATER

CONCENTRATE, C

FEED, F XC
FLOTATION
XF

TAILINGS, T

XT

F=C+T DRY
XFF =XCC + XTT BASIS
 Flotation Reagents
THREE TYPES OF CHEMICAL REAGENTS ARE USED
DURING THE FROTH FLOTATION PROCESS:
1. COLLECTORS
2. FROTHERS
3. MODIFIERS
3.1. ACTIVATORS
3.2. PH REGULATORS
3.3. DEPRESSANTS
3.4. DISPERSANTS AND FLOCCULANTS
1. COLLECTORS OR PROMOTERS – ALTER THE SURFACE OF THE
MINERAL IN ORDER THAT IT WILL BECOME AIR-AVID (TO CAUSE IT
TO ADHERE TO AIR BUBBLES)
2. FROTHERS – ADDED TO STRENGTHEN TEMPORARILY
COVERING FILM OF THE AIR BUBBLES. IT SERVES TO STABILIZE
THE FROTH AND HOLDS THE MINERALS UNTIL THE FROTH CAN BE
SCRAPED OFF INTO THE CONCENTRATE LAUNDER.
3. MODIFIERS
3.1. ACTIVATORS - THESE ARE USED TO MAKE A MINERAL
SURFACE AMENABLE TO COLLECTOR COATING.
3.2. PH REGULATORS - REGULATORS SUCH AS LIME, CAUSTIC
SODA, SODA ASH, AND SULFURIC ACID ARE USED TO
CONTROL OR ADJUST PH, A VERY CRITICAL FACTOR
IN MANY FLOTATION SEPARATIONS.
3.3. DEPRESSANTS - ASSIST IN SELECTIVITY (SHARPNESS
OF SEPARATION) OR STOP UNWANTED MINERALS
FROM FLOATING.

3.4. DISPERSANTS AND FLOCCULANTS - THESE ARE

IMPORTANT FOR THE CONTROL OF SLIMES THAT
SOMETIMES INTERFERE WITH THE SELECTIVITY AND
INCREASE REAGENT CONSUMPTION.
TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF A FLOTATION UNIT
Feed

Conditioner
FLOTATION CELL
Rougher cells
Rougher tailings
Cleaner cells

Final concentrate
scavenger Scavenger
concentrate

Final tailings
ANALYSIS:
BY MATERIAL BALANCE ON EACH UNIT

DATA:
1. DENSITY OF MINERALS
2. L/S, WATER TO SOLID RATIO
3. COMPOSITION OF FEED, CONCENTRATE AND TAILINGS
4. REAGENTS
5. CONTACT TIME
6. TYPE OF FLOTATION CELLS
ADSORPTION
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK

9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 16 SECTION 16
SECTION 16

PAGES 16-4 TO 16-54 PAGES 16-4 TO 16-69

PAGES 16-4 TO 16-64
THREE COMMONLY USED EXPRESSIONS
TO DESCRIBE VAPOR ADSORPTION
EQUILIBRIA
1. FREUNDLICH ISOTHERMS
2. LANGMUIR
3. BRUNAUER-EMMETT-TELLER (BET)
THE FREUNDLICH ISOTHERM RELATES THE CONCENTRATION OF THE
ADSORBATE IN THE SOLUTION AND THE ADSORBATE ON THE ADSORBENT
AT EQUILIBRIUM AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE.
 ADSORPTION OPERATIONS (ONE COMPONENT
ADSORPTION)
1. SINGLE STAGE OPERATION
2. TWO STAGE CO-CURRENT PROCESS
 COUNTERCURRENT OPERATION

x1 x2 x3 xn
Stage Stage Stage xN+1 L
V I II N yn
yo y1 y2 yn1

L y  y
 0 n

V x  x
1 n+1
FOR THE 2 STAGE COUNTERCURRENT PROCESS:

L
x1 x2 x3

Stage 1 Stage 2

V y y1 y2
o

L y0  y 2 y1  y2
 
V x1  x3 x2  x3
MEMBRANE SEPARATION
PROCESSES
 PERRY’S CHEMICAL
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK

9TH EDITION 8TH EDITION 7TH EDITION

SECTION 20 SECTION 20 SECTION 22

PAGES 20-43 TO 20-77 PAGES 20-36 TO 20-71 PAGES 22-37 TO 22-69

CLASSIFICATION OF MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESSES

1. GAS DIFFUSION IN POROUS MEMBRANES

2. GAS PERMEATION IN A MEMBRANE
3. LIQUID PERMEATION OR DIALYSIS
4. REVERSE OSMOSIS
5. ULTRA-FILTRATION MEMBRANE PROCESSES
6. GEL PERMEATION CHROMATOGRAPHY
A. Separation of Gases
1. Porous Membranes
Knudsen Diffusion in Cylindrical Pores
32 RT λ d (diameter of pore)
Mean free path of a gas,  
P 2M PA1 PA2
If λ << d, Fickian Diffusion
If λ > d, Knudsen Diffusion

By the Kinetic Theory of Gases, the Knudsen Diffusivity is given by

1/ 2
 T 
DKA  97.0r 
M  
 A 
where: DKA is in m2/s and mean pore radius, r in meters.

The Knudsen Number, N Kn 
2r
D KA1
The Effective Diffusivity, DeA  
D KA
 4
where: ε = porosity and τ = tortuosity
 c A   p A / RT 
The diffusion flux of a component, J A  DeA    DeA  
 L   L 
JA
For a binary system composed of gas A and B, y A 
J A  JB
1. Polymer Membranes (Solid Membranes) – based on solution-diffusion
mechanism
At equilibrium, Henry’s Law may be applied, c A  p A S A  p A / H A
cs c1is c2is
H  
p A p A1i p A2i
where: S = solubility, m3(STP)-atm-m3 solid, H = kg-mole/m3-atm

a. Diffusion through the membrane

 dc A   c A1i  c A2i  D A S A  p A1i  p A2i 
J A  DA    DA  
 dL   L  L
where: DASA = PmA, the permeability coefficient in barrers.
1 barrer ≈ 10-10 cm3(STP)∙cm/cm2∙s∙cm Hg
since the thickness of the membrane L is usually not known, it is customary
to use PmA = permeability of A in std ft3/ft2-hr-atm or L(STP)/m2-hr-atm.
See Table for some values of Pm of gases in selected membranes in
cm3(STP)∙cm/s∙cm2∙cm Hg × 1010
Temp,
Material o H2 CH4 CO2 O2 N2
C
Silicone rubber 25 550 800 2700 500 250
Natural rubber 25 49 30 131 24 8.1
Ethyl cellulose 25 49.2 7.47 47.5 11.2 3.29
Teflon FEP 30 1.4 2.5
Polystyrene 30 56.0 2.72 23.3 7.47 2.55
Source: Table 13.3-1Geankoplis

Let α = membrane selectivity (ideal separation factor),

Pm A D A S A
 
Pm B DB S B
a. Diffusion through Resistances in Series
Flux Equation gives,
J A  c1  p A1  p A1i   A A  p A1i  p A2i   c 2  p A2i  p A2 
k D S k
RT L RT
Eliminating the interfacial concentrations, with kc1/RT = kG1, kc2/RT = kG2.
p A1  p A2
JA  L
1 L 1
 
k G1 PAm k G 2
PA1
Neglecting gas-film resistances, PA1i permeate
J A  mA  p A1  p A2 
P Cl
iS
L
PASi
JA
CZiS P
A2
Feed
1. Gas Separation Models
a. Complete Mixing Model
Permeate out
qp
Yp
Low Press. ∞ P1YP
Membrane
Feed in thickness = t
qf1 xf High Press. ∞ Ph1 Xo Reject out
Xo

O.M.B: q f  qo  q p , [cm3(STP)/s]
qp
Let  f  , cut or fraction of feed permeated
qf

For binary mixture of A and B:

q A q p y p  PmA 
Am
 
Am  L 

 Ph xo  Pl y p 
A similar equation for B is obtained, where the ratio of these two equations
gives
yp  [ xo  ( Pl / Ph ) y p ]

1 y p (1  xo )  ( Pl / Ph )(1  y p )

combining these equations, the membrane area, Am is determined as

q f y p
Am 
( PmA / L)( Ph x o  Pl y p )

Symbols used: qf = flow rate of feed, cm3/s, qo = outlet reject flow rate, cm3/s, qp
= outlet permeate flow rate, cm3/s, xf = mole fraction of A in the feed, xo = mole fr
of A in reject side, yp = mole fr of A in permeate side, Pl = total pressure in the
permeate side (low pressure), Ph = total pressure in reject side (high pressure), Pm
= permeability, L = thickness of membrane, α = ideal separation factor.

a. Cross-flow Model
For cross-flow model, two material balance differential equations are
obtained around a differential membrane area, dAm:
P
For A:  ydq  mA [ Ph x  Pl y ]dAm
L
P
For B:  (1  y )dq  mB [ Ph (1  x)  Pl (1  y )]dAm
L
y  [ x  ( Pl / Ph ) y]
dividing the two equations gives: 
1  y (1  x)  ( Pl / Ph )(1  y)
The three equations are solved simultaneously across the membrane area.

b. Countercurrent Flow Model – refer to Geankoplis for the analysis.

A. Separation of Liquids
1. Dialysis
D AB
J A  k c1 (c1  c1i )  c1is  c2is   k c 2 (c2i  c2 )
L
here c1is  K ' c1i and c2is  K ' c2i
where K’ is the distribution coefficient
Substituting and eliminating interfacial concentrations,
c1  c2
JA 
1 1 1
 
k c1 PM k c 2
D AB K '
where: PM  called the permeability in the solid, m/s
L
2. Reverse Osmosis – diffusion type model.
n
Van’t Hoff Equation:   RT
Vm
For the diffusion of solvent:
P
J w  w (P   )  Qw (P   )
Lw
Pw D c V
where: Qw   w w w called the solvent permeability constant
Lw RTLw
where: Pw = solvent membrane permeability, Dw = diffusivity of solvent
membrane, Vw = molar volume of solvent, ΔP = hydrostatic pressure
difference (P1 – P2), Δπ = osmotic pressure of feed solution –
osmotic pressure of product solution.

For the diffusion of solute:

N s  s s C1  C 2   As C1  C 2 
D K Ds K s N wC2
As  Ns 
Lm Lm C w2
cm
where: Ds = diffusibility of solute in membrane, Ks =  , distribution
c
coefficient
As = solute permeability constant, c w2  constant of solvent in stream 2
 Let Solute Rejection as R
c  c2 c BP    Pw
R 1  1 2 R where B 
c1 c1 1  BP    D s K s C w2
Concentration Polarization in Reverse Osmosis Diffusion Method

Let concentration polarization,  be defined as

salt concentrat e at membrane surface
 
salt concentrat ion in bulk feed , C1
   1   2
N s  As C1  C 2 

usually  is from 1.2 to 2.0

1. Ultrafiltration
Flux Equation
N w  Aw P   
in ultrafiltration, ∆𝜋 ≃ 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙

∴ 𝑁𝑤 = 𝐴𝑤 (∆𝑃) ∆𝑃 is from 5 to 100 psi

for reverse osmosis, 400 < ∆𝑃 < 2000 𝑝𝑠𝑖

2. Pervaporation
Pervaporation of one specie,
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑜 𝑒 𝐵𝐶
where: DO = diffusivity at infinite dilution
𝐷𝑂 𝛽 𝐶
𝑁= (𝑒 1 − 𝑒 𝛽 𝐶2 )
𝛽𝑧