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 Lesson No. 2 in Machine Design 1 – THE DESIGN PROCESS

The procedure for designing involves the following steps:

1. Identification of need. This mean recognition of the need and formally phrasing it.
2. Defining the Problem. Identifying the input and output characteristics, dimensions the
object must occupy, and setting limitations or restrictions such as strength required,
allowable deformation or deflection, operational vibration and frequency, buckling
length, etc.
3. Synthesis. This is the stage where various design concepts and evaluation criteria are
formulated.
4. Analysis and optimization. Preparing the details and optimization of the design.
5. Evaluation. This is the final proof of a successful design and usually involves
a prototype in the laboratory. It is also the proof that the need was satisfied based on
the predetermined evaluation criteria formulated during the early stages of the design.
6. Iteration. This is repetition of the design process based on the results of the evaluation
made. Innovations for improvement of efficiency, safety and performance, material cost,
are carried out in this step. Efficient design also mean the least material used to serve the
same specific need.
7. Presentation of the design output. This is the attempt to sell the idea or solution to the
client or to the management .

C. DESIGN CATEGORIES1

1. Failure of the part would endanger human life, or the part is made in extremely large
quantities; consequently, an elaborate testing program is justified during design.

2. The part is made in large enough quantities that a moderate series of tests is feasible.

1. The part is made in such small quantities that testing is not justified at all; or the
design must be completed so rapidly that there is not enough time for testing.

2. The part has already been designed, manufactured, and tested and found to be
unsatisfactory. Analysis is required to understand why the part is unsatisfactory. Such
tests are done in the laboratory and finally in the market and may require comparison
of salability with other similar products in the market.

D. THE DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS2

The mathematical equations used in designing are derived for an idealized material, which
is assumed to have the following properties:

1. Perfect Elasticity. Load or forces acting on a body cause changes in the shape
and dimensions of a material. A perfectly elastic material is one that returns to its
original form or shape immediately upon removal of the load/s. This property also

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restricts the freedom of designers in the use equations or formulas which are
supposed to be valid only for cases where the stress is proportional to the strain.
1. Homogeneity. A homogeneous body is one that has the same properties
throughout its entire extent.
3. Isotropy. An isotropic material is one whose elastic properties are the same in all
directions.

The equations used in designing are nearly always derived on the assumption of perfect
elasticity. If the material is such that this assumption cannot be made, the mathematical
complication, in many cases, become too great for practical calculations.
It should not be forgotten that in some cases there may be considerable variations between the
actual stresses in the body and the stresses obtained from the equations for an idealized
substance. A material may exhibit a high degree of elasticity for small loads, but may retain a
permanent deformation when the loads become sufficiently great.

It is to be emphasized that a metal is not a homogeneous substance. It consist of an aggregate

of very small crystals whose strength depends upon their orientation with respect to the applied
force. When the minute crystals have a random orientation, the location in the body, or the
inclination at which a test specimen is taken has no effect on the result of the test. The
assumption therefore that the material is homogeneous and isotropic, for all practical purposes, is
fulfilled. This is the case for cast, hot-rolled, or annealed metals.

In contrast, materials that have been cold-rolled or drawn may have a preferred orientation of
crystals and may exhibit a definite grain effect with a variation in strength depending on the
direction of the applied load. The assumption in this case cannot be made that such materials are
homogeneous and isotropic. In such cases deviations between actual use conditions and
material testing conditions in terms of temperature, loading, size, surface, other uncertainties
etc., are taken cared of by applying correction factors e.g., the Marin Factors and the Factor
of Safety. .

E. DIRECT AXIAL STRESSES.

The eye bar (see figure below) which supports the load P, is said to be in tension, or internal
force of tension. The external force causes an increase in the length of the bar. A solution for the
stress can be effected by means of cutting plane A-A as shown. If the bar is cut somewhat
removed from the application of the force and perpendicular to its axis, equal and opposite
tension forces uniformly distributed, must be applied to the cut surfaces. Forces are usually
expressed in pounds and areas in square inches. In SI units, forces are expressed in newtons and
areas in square millimeters.
Since the assumption relative to homogeneity is never exactly fulfilled, the stresses on the cross
P
section will not be entirely uniform but will be subject to small local variations. does,
A
however, give the average value of the axial stress over the whole cross section of the bar.

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P
 THE A QUOTIENT ASSUMES A UNIFORM AXIAL STRESS
DISTRIBUTION AND REQUIRES THAT:

1. The bar (ideally) be straight and of a homogeneous material.

2. The line of action of the force contains the centroid of the section. This
idealization never exist especially for variable axial load applications
1
such that a fudge factor ( 0.85 ¿ is applied to fluctuating loads for use in
the variable design equations.
3. The section be taken remote from the ends and from any discontinuity
or abrupt change in cross section (Principle of St. Venant)
4. The material obeys Hooke’s Law or possesses perfect elasticity. This is
the reason that we use the proportional limit ¿ in the design for ductile
materials.
P
5. For compressive stress, A is only valid where the strain is proportional
to the stress, which means no buckling will occur, either due to
excessive length of the part or due to the great compressive load
imposed on the part.

 BENDING STRESSES
An initially straight beam with equal moments applied on both ends will behave in such a
manner as to bend as in the figure below:

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Where, M x =Moment at location x where the stress is ¿ be determined . This quantity is

to be taken from the moment diagram.
±υ = the distance from the neutral plane where the point stress is to be
determined.
Mυ
At this point the bending stress is equal to ± .
I
±c = the distance from the neutral plane to the outermost fiber of the section in inch
or millimeter unit. The maximum value of bending stress is located at the
Mc
outermost fiber of the section or σ max=± .
I

γ = the angle of curvature for the deflecting beam, in radians degree, which for
bending equations, γ is a very small angle, valid only for which degree radians
≈ tan γ ≈ sin γ . The symbol γ (gamma) is a Greek letter designated for this
purpose.

r = the radius of curvature of the deflecting beam. in inch or millimeter unit.

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 VALIDITY OF BENDING EQUATIONS

Mc Ec 1 M
(
Bending equation σ=
I
,σ = , =
r r EI )
from our previous study of the subject Strength of
Materials are valid only for use in calculating bending stresses under the following
assumptions:

1. The beam is subjected to pure bending. This mean that the shear force is
zero, and that no axial or vertical loads are present on the point of
interest.
2. The material is isotropic and homogeneous.
3. The material obeys Hooke’s law.
4. The beam is initially straight with a cross section that is constant
throughout the beam length.
5. The beam has an axis of symmetry in the plane of bending
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6. The proportions of the beam are such that it would fail by bending rather than by
crushing, wrinkling, or sidewise buckling.
7. Plane cross section of the beam remains plane before, during and after bending.
8. The angular deflection is such that Tan θ ≈ sin θ ≈ θ radians, otherwise the equation
fails to accurately assess the bending stresses on the point of concern.

Like all machine members, parts subjected to stresses are first dimensioned according to
strength requirements. When the geometry of the part has already been defined, only then can
it be checked for allowable angular deflection or deformation.

A GOOD DESIGN MUST NOT EXCEED THE ALLOWABLE DEFORMATION AND THE
ALLOWABLE STRENGTH FOR WHICH THE PART IS INTENDED.

Therefore, our procedure (in that order) in designing (in general) is:

 SHEAR STRESSES

As previously presented, Shear stress comes in two forms: Torsion stress, considered as pure
shear, and Direct Shear Stress. We will study and analyze them in detail in this section.

 TORSION STRESS.
Beams or shafts subjected to a twisting moment (or Torque) will have Torsional
stress induced in them. The resisting stress τ exhibited by a material subjected to
pure torque is evaluated by the following Formula, and is assumed to be the average.

Tc N
τ= *** in psi, ∨MPa unit.
J mm2

Where T =the applied torque or twisting moment, in kN∙ m∨¿ ∙lb unit.
c=¿ the distance measured from the neutral axis of rotation.
J = the polar Moment of Inertia of the section,
N
τ =¿the torsional stress (in psi or ¿ induced to the beam at a point located
mm2
a
distance c from the neutral axis.

This formula is specific and applies to beams in torsion with a steady Torque T.

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For Torsion of rectangular beams, we repeat from lesson 1:

For a shaft of solid rectangular section with dimensions h and b, where

h ≥b,
T T
τ H= 2;
τ B= ;
αH hb α B h b2

and T is the applied torque. (Values of Constants α H ∧α B

for use in these equations can be obtained from the table below.
For intermediate values, interpolate between table values.)

Table values (for h≥b)

h/b 1 .00 1.2 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.0 6.00 8.00 10 ∞
αH 0.208 0.219 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.291 0.299 0.307 0.312 0.333
αB 0.208 0.235 0.269 0.291 0.309 0.336 0.355 0.378 0.392 0.402 0.414 0.421 …
β 0.141 0.166 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.291 0.299 0.307 0.312 0.333
T
( Angular deflection Constant β is used in the equation: θ= , deg . radians
0.333 βGh b 3

An approximate value of α H is
1
¿
1.8
***, approximate within 5 % for τ H .
α H 3+
h
b ( )
 Direct Shear Stress τ ds . A shear stress tends to cut a material at a plane parallel to the
direction of the applied force.

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F
τ ds = *** psi or MPa
As

 Transverse Shear Stress in Horizontal Beams loaded Vertically.

Vertical loads on a horizontal beam has the tendency to slice the beam longitudinally into
laminas. Transverse Shear stress is sometimes referred to as Longitudinal Shear Stress.
The effect of vertical loads on a beam should be investigated for Transverse shear
stresses especially for short beams.

4V
2.3.a. For a solid circular section, ( τ tr )max =
3 A

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3V
2.3.b. For a solid rectangular section, ( τ tr )max ¿
2A

V
2.3.c. For circular tubes with very thin walls, ( τ tr )max= 2
A
Where, V is the Vertical shear force at certain location,
to be taken from the shear diagram of a beam subjected to
vertical bending load.
c
V
2.3.d. For other sections,τ tr = ∫ ν dA
Ib v 1

Where ∫ ν dA represents the moment of the area of

v1
the element about the neutral axis.

Note: Transverse shear have the value of zero at the outermost fibers of the section and
maximum at the neutral plane. It is interesting to note that the maximum transverse
shear and maximum bending stresses do not occur on the same location.

Example Problem.

Compute the angle of twist of a 10-mm-diameter shaft carrying 4.10 N • m of torque if it is

250 mm long and made of steel with G = 80 GPa. Express the result in both radians and
degrees.

Solution:

Known: Torque = T = 4.10 N-m; length = L = 250 mm; Shaft diameter = D = 10 mm; G = 80
GPa and the Maximum Torsional Stress induced

Required: Compute the angle of twist in the shaft.

Analysis/Evaluation:

Torque = 4.10 N∙ m=¿ 4,100 N • mm and G = 80,000 MPa'

4
π d 4 π ( 10 )
J= = = 981.75 mm 4
32 32

TL ( 4100 ) ( 250 )
Deformation Equation: θ= = =0.01305 r a d ians *** Answer
J G ( 981.75 )( 80,000 )

Deformation in Degrees = 0.01305 radians ( 180π ) degrees

rad
=¿***Answer (Angle of

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twist)
T c ( 4100 ) (5 ) N
τ= = =20.88 ∨MPa *** Answer
J 981.75 mm2

Comment: 1. Over the length of 250 mm. the shaft twists 0.75 deg.
0.75 deg
2. Per unit length, the deformation is =¿0.003
250 mm
3. 20.88 MPa is the maximum torsional stress located at a point C from the
neutral axis (and in this case, at the outermost fibre of the shaft.

G. Static Equilibrium and Free body Diagrams.

For static equilibrium, the forces and moments acting on the system balances such that

∑ F x=0 , ∑ F y =0 , ∑ F z=0 , ∑ M x =0 , ∑ M y =0 , ∑ M z=0 ,

Employing freebody diagrams for force analyses serve the following important purposes1

 The diagram establishes the directions of reference axes, provides a place to

record the dimensions of the subsystem and the magnitudes and directions of
the known forces, and helps in assuming the directions of unknown forces.

 The diagram simplifies your thinking because it provides a place to store one
thought while proceeding to the next.

 The diagram provides a means of communicating your thoughts clearly and

unambiguously to other people.

 Careful and complete construction of the diagram clarifies fuzzy thinking by

bringing out various points that are not always apparent in the statement or in
the geometry of the total problem. Thus, the diagram aids in understanding all
facets of the problem.
 The diagram helps in the planning of a logical attack on the problem and in
setting up the mathematical relations.

 The diagram aids in recording progress in the solution and in illustrating the
methods used.

 The diagram allows others to follow your reasoning, showing all forces.

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GEAR REDUCER IN ISOMETRIC DRAWING

FREEBODY DIAGRAM : SHEAR AND BENDING FORCES INBEAMS

H. SUPERPOSITION OF STRESSES.

Stresses and deformations are produced in a body by the forces that are exerted upon it. It is but
natural that THE RESULTANT EFFECT AT ANY CHOSEN POINT IS THE SUM OF THE
EFFECTS OF THE VARIOUS LOADS. In general, experiments have shown that this is so.
The idea that the resultant effect is the sum of the separate effects is known as the Principle of
Superposition.

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*Example Problem 1. Superposition of Stresses

(a) Calculate the distribution of stresover a cross section of the offset link
(b) find the maximum stress on t straight portion of the link and its location.
(c) Find also the location of the new neutral plane. The main body of the
link is straight and is ¾’’ thick.

*Solution:
 Known : An offset link eccentrically loaded with 3,600 lbs force as
in figure.
 Required:
a) Find the maximum Resultant stress and its location, and
b) Determine the new location of the systems neutral plane.
 Analyses:
There will be direct tension because of the load; and a bending stress
as a result of the eccentricity of the load.
- For direct tension, 𝞂 = +P/ A
- For Bending : 𝞂 =± Mc/I
- Tensile Area A = (3/4)(2) = 1.50 sq. in.
- Bending Moment M = (1 + 1/8)(3,600) = 4,050 in.lb.
- Moment of Inertia For rectangular sections,
3 3
I = bh =
(3 /4)2
=¿ 0.50 ¿ 4
12 12

 Evaluation/Pertinent Sketches:

P 3600
- Direct Tension Stress σ = A = 1.50 =+2,400 psi

M c 4,050 ( 1 )
- Bending Stress σ =± I = ¿ ¿ ± 8,100 psi .
0.50 ¿

- Stress analysis needs the principle of Superposition in this case.

We can add stresses having the same sense of direction.

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At left side of the section:

σ L =−8,100+2,400=−5,700 ps i (compression)

At right side of the section:

σ R = 8,100 + 2,400
= +10,500 psi, (tension) ** maximum resultant bending stress located at the right
of the section, outermost fiber of the part. (answer for a)

For the loading, the neutral plane have shifted to a new location:

By similar triangles:

5,700 10,500
= ;
x 2−x
x=0.704 '' ,which means that under the given load, the neutral plane have shifted
0.296 inch to the left of the center of gravity of the section.***(answer for b).

 Comments: For bending of beams, the principle of superposition may also be used
to evaluate resultant deformation, that is, adding of deflection effects of individual

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loads at any point on the beam. In this case, the outermost fiber of the material
located at rightmost side of section AA is most vulnerable to failure.

For cases similar to this loading, either a trapezoidal section or a T-section are ordinarily used to
avoid overstressing at the critical portion of the section:

 FORMAL PRESENTATION OF DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Example of Functions, Design Requirements, and Evaluation Criteria

Consider that you are the designer of a speed reducer that is part of the power transmission
for a small tractor. The tractor's engine operates at a fairly high speed, while the drive for
the wheels must rotate more slowly and transmit a higher torque than is available at the output
of the engine.
To begin the design process, let us list the functions of the speed reducer. What is it
supposed to do? Some answers to this question are as follows:

 FUNCTIONS

1. To receive power from the tractor's engine through a rotating shaft.

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2. To transmit the power through machine elements that reduce the rotational speed
to a desired value.
3. To deliver the power at the lower speed to an output shaft that ultimately drives the
wheels of the tractor.

Now the design requirements should be stated. The following list is hypothetical,
but if you were on the design team for the tractor, you would be able to identify such
requirements
from your own experience and ingenuity and/or by consultation with fellow
designers, marketing staff, manufacturing engineers, service personnel, suppliers, and
customers.
The product realization process calls for personnel from all of these functions to be
involved from the earliest stages of design.

 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

1. The reducer must transmit 15.0hp.

2. The input is from a two-cylinder gasoline engine with a rotational speed of
2000 rpm.
3. The output delivers the power at a rotational speed in the range of 290 to 295 rpm.
4. A mechanical efficiency of greater than 957f is desirable.
5. The minimum output torque capacity of the reducer should be 3050 pound-inches
(lb- in).
6. The reducer output is connected to the drive shaft for the wheels of a farm tractor.
Moderate shock will be encountered.
7. The input and output shafts must be in-line.
8. The reducer is to be fastened to a rigid steel frame of the tractor.
9. Small size is desirable. The reducer must fit in a space no larger than 20 in X 20 in,
with a maximum height of 24 in.
10. The tractor is expected to operate 8 hours (h) per day, 5 days per week, with a design
life of 10 years.
11. The reducer must be protected from the weather and must be capable of operating
anywhere in the United States at temperatures ranging from 0 to 130°F.
12. Flexible couplings will be used on the input and output shafts to prohibit axial and
bending loads from being transmitted to the reducer.
13. The production quantity is 10 000 units per year.
14. A moderate cost is critical to successful marketing.
15. All government and industry safety standards must be met.

Careful preparation of function statements and design requirements will ensure that
the design effort is focused on the desired results. Much time and money can be wasted on
designs that, although technically sound, do not meet design requirements. Design requirements
should include everything that is needed, but at the same time they should offer ample
opportunity for innovation.

Evaluation criteria should be developed by all members of a product development

Team to ensure that the interests of all concerned parties are considered. Often weights are

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assigned to the criteria to reflect their relative importance.

Safety must always be the paramount criterion. Different design concepts may have
varying levels of inherent safety in addition to meeting stated safety requirements as noted
in the design requirements list. Designers and engineers are legally liable if a person is injured
because of a design error. You must consider any reasonably foreseeable uses of the
device and ensure safety of those operating it or those who may be close by.
Achieving a high overall performance should also be a high priority. Certain design
concepts may have desirable features not present on others.
The remaining criteria should reflect the special needs of a particular project. The following
list gives examples of possible evaluation criteria for the small tractor.

 EVALUATION CRITERIA

1. Safety (the relative inherent safety over and above stated requirements)
2. Performance (the degree to which the design concept exceeds requirements)
3. Ease of manufacture
4. Ease of service or replacement of components
5. Ease of operation
6. Low initial cost
7. Low operating and maintenance costs
8. Small size and low weight
9. Low noise and vibration; smooth operation
10. U.se of readily available materials and purchased components
11. Prudent use of both uniquely designed parts and commercially available components
12. Appearance that is attractive and appropriate to the application

 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

 Direct Tension and Compression

1. A tensile member in a machine structure is subjected to a

steady load of 4.50 kN. It has a length of 750 mm and is made
from a steel tube having an outside diameter of 18 mm and an
inside diameter of 12 mm. Compute the tensile stress in the
tube and the axial deformation.
2. Compute the stress in a round bar having a diameter of 10.0
mm and subjected to a direct tensile force of 3500 N.
3. Compute the stress in a rectangular bar having cross-sectional
dimensions of 10.0 mm by 30.0 mm when a direct tensile force

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of 20.0 kN is applied.
3. A link in a packaging machine mechanism has a square cross
section 0.40 in on a side. It is subjected to a tensile force of 860
lb. Compute the stress in the link.
4. Compute the stress in the middle portion of rod AC in Figure if the
vertical force on the boom is 2500 lb. The rod is rectangular, 1.50
in by 3.50 in.

9. a. Compute the forces in the two angled rods for an applied force. F =
1500 Ib, if the angle θ is 45°.
b. If the rods from Problem 9 are circular, determine their required
diameter if the load is static and the allowable stress is 18 000

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 Direct Shear Stress

1. Compute the shear stress in the key if the shaft transmits a

torque of 1600 N • m. The shaft diameter is 60 mm. The key is
square with b = 12 mm, and it has a length of 45 mm.

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Prepared by: RBMAGAY

ME DEPT. Head

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